Final_Report_Dr_PM_Radhamany.pdf - Kerala State ...

Inventory and Evaluation of Spread Ecology of the Inventory and Evaluation of Spread Ecology of the Inventory and Evaluation of Spread Ecology of the Inventory and Evaluation of Spread Ecology of the

Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin, KeralaRiverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin, KeralaRiverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin, KeralaRiverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin, Kerala

Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. P.M. RadhamanyP.M. RadhamanyP.M. RadhamanyP.M. Radhamany

Professor

Department of Botany

University of Kerala, Karyavattom

Thiruvananthapuram

Inventory and Evaluation of Spread Ecology of the Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin, Inventory and Evaluation of Spread Ecology of the Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin, Inventory and Evaluation of Spread Ecology of the Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin, Inventory and Evaluation of Spread Ecology of the Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin,

KeralaKeralaKeralaKerala

2019201920192019

File No. A8/3371/2018/KSBB Thiruvananthapuram Dated 01.12.2018File No. A8/3371/2018/KSBB Thiruvananthapuram Dated 01.12.2018File No. A8/3371/2018/KSBB Thiruvananthapuram Dated 01.12.2018File No. A8/3371/2018/KSBB Thiruvananthapuram Dated 01.12.2018

Team of Experts with Relevant BackgroundTeam of Experts with Relevant BackgroundTeam of Experts with Relevant BackgroundTeam of Experts with Relevant Background

Dr. P.M. Radhamany Dr. P.M. Radhamany Dr. P.M. Radhamany Dr. P.M. Radhamany is currently working as Professor at the Department of Botany of University

of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram. She has more than 30 years of research experience in the field of

plant taxonomy, phytochemistry and pharmacology, and teaching experience in the post graduate

and M.Phil leavel. Dr. Radhamany has handled many research projects from state and central

sectors. She has also guided six Ph.D and other eight doctoral students are aiming Ph.D under her

mentorship. More than 40 resaerch publications, few book chapters, numerous conference papers

are the other credentials of Dr. Radhamany. Besides that, she acts as the member in boards and

panels of numerous academic and socio-cultural organizations.

Dr. Jose Mathew Dr. Jose Mathew Dr. Jose Mathew Dr. Jose Mathew is Assisatant Professor, Department of Botany, Sanatana Dharma College,

Alappuzha and consultant in CNERM, Kochi. He is the recipient of IDEA WILD grant and

SERB N-PDF. He introduced 31 new taxa to plant science and made few rediscoveries and new

distributional records of plants from Kerala part of Western Ghats. He wrote two scientific books,

30 research articles in scientific journals, 50 articles in popular magazines and presented 20 papers

in national and international conferences.

Technical AssistanceTechnical AssistanceTechnical AssistanceTechnical Assistance

Dr. Valsala Devi (Herbarium Curetor (Retd.), KUBH, University of Kerala)

Dr. T.J. Roby

Mrs. Remya Krishnan

Mr. Sam Alex

Miss. Arundhathi

ContentsContentsContentsContents Page No.Page No.Page No.Page No.

1.1.1.1. IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction 1111

1.1. Riparian zones 1

1.2. Significance of riparian zones 1

1.3. Achankovil River 2

1.4. Need and significance of the study 5

1.5. Objectives of the study 7

2222.... RRRReview of earlier workseview of earlier workseview of earlier workseview of earlier works 20202020

2.1. Flora 20

2.2. Endemic plants 21

2.3. Medicinal and economically important plants 22

2.4. Invasive plants 23

3333. . . . Methodology Methodology Methodology Methodology 25252525

3.1. Categorization of the River Bed 25

3.2. Methods employed for investigation of flora 25

3.3. Assessment of Conservation status 26

3.4. Surveying and mapping 26

3.5. Vegetation studies 27

3.6. Assessment of the flood impact 28

4.4.4.4. Results and DiscussionResults and DiscussionResults and DiscussionResults and Discussion 22229999

4.1. Species composition 29

4.1.1. Floristic analysis 29

4.1.1.1. Angiosperms 29

4.1.1.2. Non flowering plants 32

4.2. Rare and endemic species 56

4.3. Weed invasion in the study area 74

4.4. Effect of flood in biodiversity 88

4.5. Recommendations 92

ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences 94

Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

1

1.1.1.1. INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

Riparian EcosystemRiparian EcosystemRiparian EcosystemRiparian Ecosystem

The word riparian is related to living in, or located on the bank of natural water coarse usually a

river, sometime a lake or tide water. A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between the

land and the river. Plant communities along the river margins are called riparian vegetation. In a

tropical riparian ecosystem, the species composition is an assemblage of evergreen, deciduous,

shola and riverine components.

1.1. Riparian Zones1.1. Riparian Zones1.1. Riparian Zones1.1. Riparian Zones

1. CMZ: Chanel Migration Zone (Flowing Zone). True hydrophytes can be seen here. Free

floating, rooted free floating, submerged floating, rooted submerged and rooted emergent

hydrophytes can be seen here. Woody debris and living vegetation provides shelter,

feeding and spawning habitats for birds, fishes and invertebrates.

2. Core zone: Transition zone in between the water and land ecosystem. The vegetation can

have both mesophytic and hydrophytic adaptations. Herbs and grasses are the dominant

vegetation. Vegetation of this zone provides organic matter to the stream. This filter stream

reduces the water temperature.

3. Inner zone: Herbs, shurbs and trees were found here and their roots act as a binding

system for the soil and by doing so reduces bank collapse and erosion.

4. Outer zone: Flood plain. This stream side plants play a vital role for river health. Here

plants perform a filtering function and prevent sediments and nutrients from entering the

stream. Vegetation and leaf litter slow overland water runoff, thus helping to prevent

erosion.

1.2. Significance of Riparian Zones1.2. Significance of Riparian Zones1.2. Significance of Riparian Zones1.2. Significance of Riparian Zones

Diversity and distribution of riparian plants influence the morphology and hydrological characters

of the rivers and its aquatic functions by way off:

• Acting as vegetative filter strips to filter the non-point source pollution.

• Prevents soil erosion

• Promote sediment deposition

• Stabilize the stream banks

• Manage floods


2

• Maintaining water quality parameters

• Provides habitats for wildlife and aquatic life form

Studies on riverine ecosystem deserve special significance to explore much more hidden

potential with multidisplenary relevance on sustainable development comprising climatology,

agricultural and fishery management, aquatic bio resources, watershed and energy management,

pesticide runoff, eutrophication and population ecology.

1.3. Achankovil River1.3. Achankovil River1.3. Achankovil River1.3. Achankovil River

The Achankovil River drains the southern part of the Achankovil Forest Division. The Kallar

River on the other hand drains the northern part of the tract finally joins the Achankovil River at

Mukkada. The converged and swelled up Achankovil River continues its westward flow through

the territory of Konni forests.

The Kallar River The Kallar River The Kallar River The Kallar River is the main tributary of Achankovil River This name is derived from the

rocky character of its bed. It effectively drains the Kallar valley, through a net work of rills and

rivulets. Numerous streamlets and rills flowing down from the western slope of the main ridge

between Aruvithalamottai and Uranimottai, join together to form the Mangala Aar. During its

westward course, many more brooks such as Vazhaperiyar, Manjapparathodu, Kooramalathodu

and Naadukanithodu converge and the watercourse swells up and Kallar River begins to emerge.

The Kanayar River that originates from the northern ridges flows in a southerly direction and

converges with Kallar River at Kanayarmoozhi. The Chittar River originating from the ridges near

Kadamankunnu, drains the northwestern part of the valley, flows in a southerly direction, and

converges with Kallar River at Pulikayam. Thenparathodu, Arambathodu and Muthuvanthodu that

drain the northwestern part of the tract also join this River at the western boundary, making it a

perennial watercourse of this tract. At Mukkada, on the western boundary, this River merges with

Achankovil River.

Achankovil Achankovil Achankovil Achankovil RiverRiverRiverRiver: : : : Its total length is 138 kms. Having an extend of 1340.400 sq.kms, the water

shed area of this River spreads over 50 villages in Kollam, Pathanamthitta, and Alappuzha

Districts. Its average annual sediment load is 77130 ton. The River emanates by the convergences

of several streamlets flowing down from the slopes of Pasukkidaimettu, a ridge near Kottavasal

(Elevation 700 m above MSL) on the western slope of the main ghats. During its westward course


3

many more brooks from the northern side (Kumbavuruttythodu, Kalluruttythodu,

Aruvikkarathodu, Kumbalamparathodu, Karadipparathodu) as well as the southern side of the

valley (Pallikondan Aar, Muthalathodu, Chittarthodu etc) join the River. At Mukkada, it joins with

Kallar River and continues its journey in the westwards to join finally with Pamba River at

Veeyapuram. The river thereafter flows northward and falls into Vembanad lake.

1.3.1. 1.3.1. 1.3.1. 1.3.1. TopographyTopographyTopographyTopography of the basin: of the basin: of the basin: of the basin: Like all the river basins in Kerala, the Achankovil basins also can

be divided into three natural zones based on elevation, consisting of low land or sea-board,

midland and high land. The coast for a short distance along the borders of lakes is flat, retreating

from it the surface roughens up into slopes which gradually combine and swell into mountains on

the east. The low land area along sea coast is generally swampy and liable to be flooded during

monsoon inundation. The plains/midlands succeed low land in gentle ascents and valleys

interspersed with isolated low hills. The high land on the eastern portion is broken by long spurs,

dense forests, extensive ravines and tangled jungles. Towering above all their slopes are Western

Ghats that form eastern boundary of the basins.

1.3.2. 1.3.2. 1.3.2. 1.3.2. GeologyGeologyGeologyGeology of the basin: of the basin: of the basin: of the basin: As per the Geological Survey of India publication No. 30 the most

prominent rock formation at the Achankovil site is of Archaean age Charnockites. The major rock

types of this tract are Magmatitic Gneissic, Charnockite and Khondalite of Archaean complex.

Quartz, Garnet, Hornblende, Feldspars and Black Mica are also found as constituents in these

formations. These rocks have suffered intensive deformation like faulting and folding during the

different phases of orogeny, most probably due to tectonic disturbances. The general foliation

trend shows NW ‐ SE direction, with steep dip towards SW. The heavy rainfall and high

temperature, causing alternate cycles of wetting and drying phenomena favour the process of

laterization. The major soil types met with in this tract are Red loamy soil, Laterite soil, Alluvial

soil, Sandy loam and Clayey soil.

1.3.3. Climate of the ripariane zone: 1.3.3. Climate of the ripariane zone: 1.3.3. Climate of the ripariane zone: 1.3.3. Climate of the ripariane zone: Generally, the climate in this area is moderately hot and

humid. The low‐lying area enjoys a healthy and fairly moderate climate, with not much appreciable

variation in either seasonal or diurnal temperatures. However, the interior areas experience a little

more climatic variations. The three distinct seasons noted in this tract are cold, hot and wet

seasons. The hottest season is noted during February to May and the coldest from December to


4

January. In the upland area the temperature declines towards elevated regions. Variations in the

radiant energy of the sun with respect to seasons, cloudiness, altitudes, latitudes and diurnal

changes were also noted. The temperature varies from 20° C to 36° C in the lower stretches and

17°C to 30 °C at higher altitudes. Mist is common on the higher slopes during November to

January.

1.3.4. Rainfall in the catchment area of the upper zone : 1.3.4. Rainfall in the catchment area of the upper zone : 1.3.4. Rainfall in the catchment area of the upper zone : 1.3.4. Rainfall in the catchment area of the upper zone : Achankovil forests region get heavy rain

showers from both south‐west monsoon (June to mid‐August) and north-east monsoon

(mid‐September to mid‐November). Bulk of the precipitation is from the south‐west monsoon.

The average rainfall received during the last ten years is 2800.10 mm and the average number of

rainy days in a year is 131. Maximum rainfall is observed in June, July, and October and lowest

during December, January and February months. The tract also receives pre‐monsoon showers,

preceded by thunderstorms, during April‐May.

1.3.5. Wind in the upper zone: 1.3.5. Wind in the upper zone: 1.3.5. Wind in the upper zone: 1.3.5. Wind in the upper zone: There are two prevailing winds blow on in this tract, following the

monsoons. From March‐April onwards, the tract experiences a light wind which will gradually

develop into south‐west monsoon round about the beginning of June. Westerly winds that blow

during the south‐west monsoon are mild and harmless. But, the easterly winds in months of

January and February are much violent and strong. They cause much havoc and damage to the

forest crops growing on the hilltops. The desiccating effect of these winds cause much damage to

the forests and may act as the driving force to spread the accidental forest fires.

1.3.6. Humidity in the upper zone:1.3.6. Humidity in the upper zone:1.3.6. Humidity in the upper zone:1.3.6. Humidity in the upper zone: The profound rainfall and bright sunshine cause a humid and

warm climate. Humidity varies from 65 to 98 % in different localities in accordance with time and

season. The highest relative humidity is noticed during the months of June, July, and August

(south‐west monsoon) and the lowest in February, when precipitation is kept minimum. General

relative humidity is lower in the afternoon and highest during the early morning hours, when the

atmospheric temperature will be the minimum.

1.3.7. Temperature: 1.3.7. Temperature: 1.3.7. Temperature: 1.3.7. Temperature: There is no observatory located with in the catchments of diversion points.

However, there is an IMD observatory at Alleppey in the vicinity of these basins. The mean daily


5

temperature observed at Alleppey various from 26.1o

C to 29.1o

C. During April, which can be

taken as representative of summer months, the mean daily minimum temperature is about 25.5o

C

and mean daily maximum temperature is about 32.7o

C. During July, which can be taken as

representative of monsoon months, the mean daily minimum temperature is 23.3o

C, while the

mean daily maximum temperature is 28.8o

C. During October, which can be taken as

representative of post monsoon months, the mean daily minimum temperature is 23.8o

C and the

mean daily maximum temperature is 29.7o

C.

1.4. Need and 1.4. Need and 1.4. Need and 1.4. Need and Significance of the studySignificance of the studySignificance of the studySignificance of the study

Most of the low lying areas in Achankovil River beds experienced severe floods especially

Venmony, Panthalam, Cheruthana, Payippad, Chambakkulam and Veeyapuram. The basic cause

of flood is the incidence of heavy monsoonal rainfall and the resultant large concentration of run-

off, which exceeds river systems. Besides that, the heavy floods, landslides, soil erosion, depletion

of slit and sand etc also affected the biodiversity, especially the riverine area. Elevation of water

level, eutrophication, deforestation, stream narrowing, loss of stream ecosystem services, invasion

of weeds are some of the factors that may lead to near extinction of a good number of endemic

plants species. In this context, assessment of the effect of flood on flora of the fragile areas is the

need of the hour. The impact of plant diversity on environmental and climatic dimensions are

adequately represented by way of floristic and vegetation analysis and of the influence of

anthropogenic activities, which address the needs and opportunities for eco-restoration and

conservation of the plants and animal species, especially of the RET category with special

reference to the biodiversity. In order to achieve the above mentioned objective and also to

formulate suitable proposal for conservation of plant resources of the concerned study area, there

is an urgent need to document precise information regarding the floristic composition, ecological

status and spread biology of the plant species of riverine area.

Some other significant factors about the study area

• Achankovil River is one of the major tributary to the Vembanad Lake, which is the largest

wetland (Ramsor site) in India.


6

• Kuttanad (Rice bowl of Kerala) is the complement of the rivers viz., Pamba, Achankovil

and Manimala Rivers.

• The mangroves in the Vemband Lake are the brooding site of numerous indigenous/

endemic fishes, crustaceans and several animals.

• Achankovil forest division (Achankovil River originate here), situated inside the

Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve is one of the centres in the Western Ghats with a high

percentage of endemism (Nayar, 1997).

• It is one of the Heritage Sites in Western Ghats identified by UNESCO (Clara, 2012).

• Achankovil Shear Zone (AKSZ) is considered as a continuum of Mozambique belt (Pan

African origin) that extends from Madagascar to Sri Lanka (Rajesh et al., 1998). It is

expected that floristic analysis of the study area would provide valuable evidences to

validate the Indo- Sri Lankan botanical linkage hypothesis (Bossuyt et al., 2004)

• The River link project (RLP) proposed by National Water Development Authority

(NWDA): Pamba- Achankovil- Vypaar, passes through the study area of Achankovil forest

division. Three huge concrete dams, power generating units and a concrete tunnel across

the Western Ghats to Tamil Nadu are proposed in this project.

• High rate of rarity and endemism of the riparian vegetation along the River Achankovil and

its tributaries.

• Achankovil forest is listed under ecologically fringed land (EFL) in Kasthurirangan and

Madav Gadgil committee reports.

• Recent discovery of new genera and species from Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve area

shows the importance of intensive floristic exploration (botanization) of the study area.

• The evergreen catchment areas at the upper stretches of Achankovil River feed numerous

irrigation projects. It also provides water coolent for NTPC, Kayamkulam.

• Numerous famous temples resides the shore of Achankovil. Myths and History of these

lands merged with the River Achankovil. The river segment near is very famous for the

boat race in connection with Onam Celebrations of Kerala.

• Flood and landslides happened in 2018, caused much havoc in biodiversity to these

islands.

• Fast invasion of weeds to this precious area have been also noticed.


7

• Indigenous people of in and around the bounds of Vembanad Lake are dependent to the

lake via., their belief, culture, myth and livelihood. Any disturbance to this unique

ecosystem may lead to the extinction of the rich diversity of endemic species and the

indigenous people.

Considering the above mentioned significant aspects of the study area, it is expected that the

present floristic enumeration would bring out the importance of conservation priorities to be

implemented to safeguard this highly fragile ecological region. It is also expected that the data

generated would provide a guide line for future conservation studies.

1.5. Objectives of the study1.5. Objectives of the study1.5. Objectives of the study1.5. Objectives of the study

The major objectives of the present study are:

• To prepare a database on riparian flora of the Achankovil River basin after the flood and

assessment of the impact of flood and landslides on ripriane flora.

• To assess the status of endemic, medicinal, economic and RET plants in the Achankovil River

basin.

• To assess the invasion of weed plants in the riparian zones

• To suggest riparian buffer system management strategy for the conservation of Achankovil

river basin.


8


9

PLATE 2: Map showing the Rivers of south Kerala. Achankovil Forests and River marked in the map.


10


11

PLATE 4: Map of Achankovil River. 3 zones of the study area marked


12


13


14

PLATE 7: a.Thooval Mala, b. Kottavasal (Achankovil River originate here


15

PLATE 8: a.Kaippattoor, b. Thumpamon, c. Venmony, d. Konathumoola, e.Kandiyoor, Thazhoorkadavu


16

PLATE 9: a. Paayippad, b. Veeyapuram, c & d. Shargarakkavu, e. Mesthirikkana, f. Sanchyakkadavu


17

Plate 10: Field study images


18

PLATE 11: Field study images


19

PLATE 12: Field study images

[Type text] Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

20

2.2.2.2. REVIEW OF EARLIER WORKSREVIEW OF EARLIER WORKSREVIEW OF EARLIER WORKSREVIEW OF EARLIER WORKS

A brief review of literature with special reference to earlier works on flora, medicinal &

economic importance, rarity & endemism and studies on invasive plants are presented below

under appropriate heads.

2.1. Flora2.1. Flora2.1. Flora2.1. Flora

The European countries particularly Spain, UK, and Portugal showed keen interest in the

plant wealth of India, especially from southern part of Western Ghats. Coloquis dos Simples (a

checklist of medicinal plants of India) written by Garcia de Orta (1565) is considered as the first

published Botanical work on the plants of Western Ghats. Realizing the importance of spices and

medicinal plants of Malabar region, Hendrich Adrian Van Rheede (1636-1691), the then Dutch

admiral of Malabar, took special interest to collect and document the plant wealth of Malabar area.

He took strenuous effort to document the indigenous uses of plants with the help of local

traditional vaidyans viz., Itti Achuthen, Appu Bhat, Ranga Bhat and Vinayaka Panditt. Detailed

descriptions of 781 plants species with sketches, habit, habitat, medicinal and other uses were

published in 12 volumes during 1678-1693.

Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis published in six volumes during the period 1838-1853,

Illustrations of Indian Botany published in the year 1840 and the work in collaboration with

Walker-Arnott (1834) viz., Prodromus Florae Peninsulae Indiae Orientalis are some important

classical works on the flora of Peninsular India by Wight (1838-1853, 1840, 1834). The classical

works of Beddome (1868-74, 1869-74) on angiosperm flora of India are: ‘Icons Plantarum Indiae

Orientalis’ published during the period 1868-1874 and ‘The Flora Sylvatica for Southern India’

during the period 1869- 1874. The work of Roxburgh (1820, 1824), Flora Indica was a landmark

towards the compilation of the flora of India. The seven volume work, ‘The Flora of British India’

by Hooker (1872-1897) dealt with the flora of erstwhile British India. It is followed by ‘The Flora

of the Presidency of Bombay’ by Cooke (1901-1908) and ‘The Flora of the Presidency of Madras’

by Gamble (1915-1936). The work of Gamble (1915-1936) is considered as the best among the

regional floras. Meanwhile, the first comprehensive work on 582 indigenous trees of Travancore

entitled The Forest Trees of Travancore, was published by Bourdillon (1908). Subsequent floristic

works were done by Rao (1914), Lushington (1915), Fischer (1921) and Fyson(1932). The works


21

of Burkil (1965) entitled ‘The Chapters on the History of Botany in India’ and that of Joseph

(1977) on ‘Floristic studies in India-with special reference to Southern Circle of Botanical Survey

of India’ are the compilation of the contributions of various botanists. Many studies were

undertaken on the regional floras by the initiative of Botanical Survey of India primarily with the

objective of preparing a complete and comprehensive flora of India. The Flora of Tamil Nadu,

India. Vol. I-III (Nair & Henry, 1983; Henry et al., 1987, 1989) was published as part of

aforementioned project. Subsequent works on regional floras of Kerala either completed or being

completed are: Floristic studies of Idukki District (Vivekananthan, 1981); The Flora of Calicut

(Manilal & Sivarajan, 1982); Flora of Quilon District (Mohanan, 1984); Studies on the Flora of

Kasaragod Division, Cannanore District (Ansari, 1985); Flora of Palghat (Subramanian et al.,

1987); Flora of Silent Valley (Manilal, 1988); Flora of Cannanore (Ramachandran & Nair, 1988);

Flora of Kottayam District (Antony, 1989); Flora of Malappuram District excluding Nilambur

Forests (Babu, 1990); Flora of Palghat (Vajrevelu, l990); Observations on the Aquatic Angiosperms

of Malabar (Joseph, 1991); Flora of Pathanamthitta District (Anil Kumar, 1993); Flora of

Thiruvananthapuram (Mohanan & Henry, 1994); Flora of Thenmala Forest Division

(Subramaniyan, 1995); Flowering Plants of Thrissur Forests (Sasidharan & Sivarajan, 1996); Flora

of Nilambur (Sivarajan & Mathew, 1996); Shenduruny Wildlife Sanctuary (Sasidharan, 1997);

Epiphytic Flora in the Tropical Ecosystem of Western Ghats (Muktesh, 1998); Periyar Tiger

Reserve (Sasidharan, 1998); Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary (Sasidharan, 1999); Floristic Studies in

Vellarimala (Pradeep, 2000); Studies on Flowering Plants Diversity of Alappuzha District, Kerala

(Sunil &Sivadasan, 2000), The flora of protected areas such as Agasthyamala (Mohanan &

Sivadasan, 2002); Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (Sasidharan, 2002); Flowering Plants of

Kerala (Sasidharan, 2004); Floristic Study of Wayanad District with special emphasis on

conservation of rare and threatened Flowering Plants (Narayanan, 2009); Riverine flora of Pamba

River Basin (George, 2013) and Flowering plants of Kerala (Sasidharan, 2013).

2.2. Endemic 2.2. Endemic 2.2. Endemic 2.2. Endemic PlantsPlantsPlantsPlants

Endemic taxa are essentially restricted to a specified geographical area. Tropical forests

show a igh degree of species richness and endemism (Orians & Groom, 2005). Endemic plant

species in India has been estimated as 33% with ca. 140 endemic genera but no endemic families

(Sheeba & Narasimhan, 2013.). Out of 150 important botanical sites identified for conservation


22

action by the World Conservation Monitoring Center (WCMC), five locations are in India

including the Western Ghats (IUCN, 1987). The high percentage of endemism in the Western

Ghats resembles oceanic islands (Subramanyam & Nayar, 1974). The species richness in the

Western Ghats is due to varied latitudinal and altitudinal gradients with varied rainfall and

temperature. These geographical peculiarities also favour a high degree of endemism. As Nayar

(1996) rightly point out endemic species in peninsular region are paleoendemics that are found in

hills of Peninsular India. Rarity is also considered as another natural phenomenon that arises by

physical, chemical, biological and anthropogenic intrusions. Many studies were done by earlier

researchers to assess the rare and endemic angiosperms (Cooke, 1901 – 1908; Chatterjee, 1939,

Chatterjee, 1940; Wherry, 1944; Henry et al., 1978; Rao, 1972, 1979; Jain & Sastry, 1980, 1982,

1984; Nayar, 1980, 1982; Bhaskar, 1981; Abraham & Mehrotra, 1982; Ahmedullah & Nayar,

1987; Nayar & Sastry, 1987, 1988, 1990; Vajravelu, 1987, 1988; Binojkumar & Balakrishnan,

1991; Ramesh et al., 1991; Bhattacharyya & Kumar, 1992; Sarkar, 1995; Nayar, 1996; Ramesh &

Pascal, 1997; Ahmedullah, 2000; Gopalan & Henry, 2000; Sasidharan, 2004; Joshi & Janarthanam,

2004; Nayar et al., 2006; Krishnan & Davidar, 2007; Mitra & Mukherjee, 2007; Ramachandran et

al., 2010. In a resent investigation, Sasidharan (2013) documented 5091 taxa of flowering plants

from Kerala of which 1709 are listed under endemic category and 493 under rare and endangered

category. Narayanan (2009) had enumerated 2034 plants from Wayanad District. Among them

596 plants are endemics (29 %) and 138 are facing various threats.

2.32.32.32.3. Medicinal and economically important plants

In AD 77, Dioscorides documented 600 useful plants of Mediterranean in his classical

work ‘De Materia Medica’ (Choudhary et al., 2008). In the 18th century, Carolus Linnaeus, the

Swedish biologist, who invented the modern system of botanical classification, travelled to

Saamiland to study the Saami people. He lived with the people as a member of their tribe, wearing

their clothes, sharing their food, and studying the plants they used. In the 19th century, British

explorer and ethnobotanist Richard Spruce spent 17 years in the Amazon and Andes regions of

South America. He discovered hundreds of new plant species and conducted important research

on plants used as hallucinogens for religious purposes by Amazonian tribes. Spruce also collected

specimens of the cinchona tree that were later used to establish quinine plantations in Southeast

Asia. Richard Evans Schultes was an authority on useful plants viz., coca, palms and orchids.


23

Since 1930 Schultes has conducted research among native American tribes in North, Central, and

South America. His studies of the mushroom used by the Mazatec peoples of southern Mexico

led to the development of the heart drug Visken (Schultes, 1976). As Sinha (1996) point out, there

are many records of ethnobotanical uses of plants from Indian subcontinent such as for worship,

medicine, food, fuel and for agriculture as mentioned in ancient Indian literature/religious texts

viz., Rigveda, Atharvaveda, Upanishads, Mahabharata, Puranas, Charakasamhitha (100 AD),

Sushruthasamhitha (100-800 AD) and Dwanwanthari Nighanthu (1200 AD). Catalogue of Indian

Medicinal Plants and Drugs (Fleming, 1810); Indigenous Drugs of India (Chopra, 1933); Indian

Materia Medica (Nadkarni, 1955); Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants (Nayar et al., 1956);

Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany (Jain, 1981); Bibliography of Ethnobotany (Jain, 1984); A

Manual of Ethnobotany (Jain, 1987); Ethnobotany in South Asia (Maheswari, 1996); Contribution

to Indian Ethnobotany (Jain, 1997); Ethno-Medico-Botany of the Southern Western Ghats of

India (Henry et al., 1996); Indian Folk Medicines and other Plant-Based Products (Singh, 2007)

have laid milestones in Indian Ethnobotany.

Ethnobotanical studies on the indiagenous tribes with special reference to southern

Western Ghats were reported by Ramachandran & Nair (1981); Pushpangadan & Atal (1984);

Binu et al. (1992, 2011); Sivarajan & Balachandran (1994); Radhakrishnan et al. (1996); Sajeev &

Sasidharan (1997); Jery & John (1999); Nayar et al. (1999); Balakrishnan et al. (2003);

Nadankunjidam (2003); Ayyanar & Ignacimuthu (2005, 2013); Muraleedharan & Sasidharan

(2005); Ramachandran & Vijayan (2006); Johncy & Francis, 2007a, 2007b; Ramachandran (2007);

Yesodharan & Sujana (2007); Rasingam & Rehel (2009); Rajith & Ramachandran (2010); Binu

(2010); Amuthavalluvan, 2011; Narayanan et al. (2011); Sasi et al. (2011); Ajesh et al. (2012a,

2012b); Diana (2013); Varghese et al. (2013); David (2014); Xavior et al. (2014).

2.4. 2.4. 2.4. 2.4. Invasive PlantsInvasive PlantsInvasive PlantsInvasive Plants

It is only in the last three or four decades that the focus of conservation in India has

broadened to include not only species, but unique habitats and ecosystems. Invasive plant species

in Indian protected areas have received relatively little attention. Only few studies were undertaken

on the protected areas in India for which published information on invasive alien plants is

available. Of which, most of the studies were concentrated only on Lantana camera, Chromolaena

odorata and Prosopis juliflora. Studies in Kalakad Mundanturai Tiger Reserve (Chandrasekaran &


24

Swamy , 2010); Protected forests of Anamalais (Joshi et al., 2009); Greater Nicobar Biosphere

Reserve (Babu & Leighton, 2004); North-eastern India (Gogoi, 2001); Achanakmar- Amarkantak

Biosphere Reserve (Sahu & Singh, 2008; Shukla et al., 2009); Mudumalai National Park (Mahajan

& Azeez, 2001; Ramaswami & Sukumar 2011); Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Tiger Reserve

(Murali & Setty, 2001; Sundaram & Hiremath, 2012; Bandipur National Park (Puyravaud et al.,

1995; Prasad,2009; 2010; 2012); Melghat Tiger Reserve (Sawarkar,1984); Tadoba-Andhari Tiger

Reserve (Giradkar & Yeragi, 2008); Kumbalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary (Waite et al., 2009);

Ranthambore National Park (Dayal, 2007); Corbett Tiger Reserve (Babu et al., 2009; Love et al.,

2009); Rajaji National Park (Rishi, 2009; Kimothi & Dasari, 2010; Kimothi et al., 2010); Valley of

Flowers National Park (Saberwal et al., 2000; Kala & Shrivastava, 2004); Mukurti National Park

(Zarri et al.,2006; Srinivasan et al.,2007; Srinivasan, 2011); Kaziranga National Park (Vattakkavan

et al., 2005; Lahkar et al., 2011); Orang National Park (Lahkar et al., 2011); Pabitora Wildlife

Sanctuary (Lahkar et al., 2011); Manas National Park (Lahkar et al., 2011); Jaldapara Wildlife

Sanctuary (Lahkar et al.,2011); Garumara Wildlife Sanctuary (Lahkar et al.,2011); Gulf of Mannar

Marine Biosphere Reserve (Bagla, 2008; Chandrasekaran et al., 2008; Namboothri & Shankar

2010) were published and are considered as the relevant studies on the invasive plants species in

India. Besides that, a comprehensive list of invasive species in India has been prepared by Reddy

(2008). The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt.of India has also collected information on

invasive species in India (www.apfisn.net). Sankaran & Suresh (2013) have given comprehensive

information on invasive plants in the forests of Asia - Pacific.

In Kerala, only few studies on invasive plants in protected areas were carried out (Abraham

& Abraham, 2005; Sajeev et al., 2012; Sankaran et al., 2001; Sankaran and Srinivasan, 2001 and

Chandrashekara, 1999). In addition to that, Handbook on Invasive plants of Kerala (Sankaran et

al., 2012) has been prepared.

Many studies on plant invasion have been undertaken by earlier researchers. However, a

perusal of these literatures revealed that no in-depth studies on inventory and evaluation of spread

ecology of the weeds in riparian zones in south Kerala. It is expected that the present investigation

will provide additional information for conservation measures to be employed to protect the

indigenous biodiversity.


25

3.3.3.3. METHDOLOGYMETHDOLOGYMETHDOLOGYMETHDOLOGY

3.1. Categorization of the River Bed3.1. Categorization of the River Bed3.1. Categorization of the River Bed3.1. Categorization of the River Bed

The whole river bed categorized into three zones based on the elevation viz., Upper zone,

Middle zone and Lower zone. Before the comprehensive study, a pre survey conducted in these

zones.

Zone (Upper zoner: 150 - 1300 msl): Kallar, Kanyar, Kumbharuvatty, Manalar, Mukkada & Forest

nursery

Zone 2 (Middle Zone: 60-150 msl)-Thumpaman, Konathumoola, Sharngakkaavu, Venmony,

Kallimel, Kandiyoor, Sanchayakkadavu & Mesthirikkaana

Zone 3 (Lower zone 10 – 60 msl): Paayippad, Cheruthana, Veeyapuram, ValiyaPerumpuzha,

Vaazhakoottam Kadavu & Naalukettum Kavala. A presurvey was conducted by the expert team to

familiarize the location as well as to make a general assessment of the occurrence of the flowering

plants so as to work out a field survey schedule.

Training to Research AssociatesTraining to Research AssociatesTraining to Research AssociatesTraining to Research Associates

The Research fellows were selected for the study possessed sufficient background for plant species

identification, survey and collection of data. They were however given two week of intensive

training for the identification of plant species and their mapping.

3.2. 3.2. 3.2. 3.2. Methods employed for investigation of flora Methods employed for investigation of flora Methods employed for investigation of flora Methods employed for investigation of flora

Collection trips of duration 1- 3 days were conducted at regular intervals during 2018-2019

to different zone of Achankovil River beds. The specimens were collected in polythene bags to

prevent desiccation. The field data with respect to habit, habitat, phenology, colour and

morphology, of the collected specimens were noted in the field book. Phenological details were

noted during subsequent visits. Photographs were taken using Canon EOS 500D, Coolpix S 210

and Canon Power Shot SX 260 HS. Two specimens of each species were collected from different

locations to study the range of variations. Field data including height, colour and nature of bark,

colour of latex/exudates, presence of buttress, odour and colour of vegetative and floral parts were

recorded in the field book. Separate collections were made for both male and females. The


26

collected specimens were preserved using 70% methylated alcohol/ 5% solution of formaldehyde

by wet method (Fosberg & Sachet, 1965). The herbarium specimens were prepared as per the

standard specifications (Fosberg & Sachet, 1965; Bridson & Forman, 1991). The collected

specimens were brought to lab, critically analyzed using WILD M3Z Leica Stereo 19 microscope

and described. The specimens were provisionally identified by using pertinent literatures and

cross-compared with authentic herbarium specimens of the Kerala Forest Research Institute

(KFRI), Calicut University (CALI), Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanical Garden (TBGT) and

CMS College, Kottayam. Selected specimens were compared with protologues. Type specimens

were also consulted in few required cases.

3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3. Assessment of Conservation statusAssessment of Conservation statusAssessment of Conservation statusAssessment of Conservation status

Rarity: Rarity: Rarity: Rarity: Conservation status (extinct, critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, and threatened)

of the collected specimens has been evaluated using as per IUCN norms (IUCN, 2003, 2006,

2014) and pertinent literatures (Nayar 1980a, 1980b, 1982, Nair & Sastry, 1987, 1988, 1990;

Sasidharan, 2013).

Endemics: Endemics: Endemics: Endemics: Endemism and species richness are provided since these data have much significance

in global prioritization for conservation efforts. A checklist of endemic plants and animals from the

study area was prepared based on the earlier works (Rao, 1972; Ramachandran et al., 2010, Nair

1980a, 1980b; Sasidharan, 2013; and online repositories). The Status analysis of each specimen

was done by cross comparison with the authentic herbarium specimens/pertinent literatures.

Relevant information on distribution aspects (Asiatic, Indian, South Indian, Peninsular Indian,

Western Ghats and southern Western Ghats) of endemic species were gathered from pertinent

literature.

3.4.3.4.3.4.3.4. Surveying and mappingSurveying and mappingSurveying and mappingSurveying and mapping

Detailed survey was conducted by going around the sites in boats and by entering the sites

wherever possible. Actual counts of the plants species were also made using standard methods

stated below.

Location maps provided by water shed management used for the study. The plants could be

mapped using latitude-longitude data collected using Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers.


27

But there was severe limitation as dense swamp was limiting GPS usage. For each boundary, few

reference points were also collected and checked to ensure accuracy.

3.5.3.5.3.5.3.5. Vegetation studiesVegetation studiesVegetation studiesVegetation studies

Spread ecology of vegetation conducted based on quadrate analayis. Qudrates of 20 x 20 m size

which including different zones of the riparian beds viz, Chanel Migration Zone (Flowing Zone),

Core zone, Inner zone, Outer zone. This quadrate analayis used to assess the vicinity of the true

riparian plants and the invasion of weeds. 10 quadtares from each zone were subjected for this

investigation.

The data collected from the quadartes were summarized through database and spreadsheet

programs. Summary table were further processed to get pictograms, IVI tables, biodiversity

indices, density, frequency, abundance, IVI (Importance Value Index) were calculated by using

formulae:-

Density measures:

i) Density (No. of individuals/ha)[D] = Number of Individuals encountered I x 10000

Total area sampled in m2

ii) Relative Density (RDi) = Number of individuals belonging to species I x 100

Total number of individuals

iii) Percentage Frequency (Fi) = Number of plots in which Species i was present x 100

Total number of plots sampled

iv) Relative Frequency (RFi) = Fi

Fi

v) Relative Basal Area (RBAi) = BP

BAi

Where BAi = Sum of basal area of the trees belonging to species i

BP = Sum of basal areas of all the trees in a plot

Basal area of a tree = π r2 ; r = gbh/2 π

vi) Importance Value Index (IVI)


28

It is used to express dominance and ecological success of any species.

IVI = Relative Density (RDi) +Relative Frequency (RFi) +Relative Basal Area (RBAi)

3.6. Assessment of the flood impact3.6. Assessment of the flood impact3.6. Assessment of the flood impact3.6. Assessment of the flood impact

Soil analysisSoil analysisSoil analysisSoil analysis: Changes in the soil analyzed by PH assessment. 10 samples from each zone were

collected and assessed through general protocol.

Semi structured interviewSemi structured interviewSemi structured interviewSemi structured interview: Effect of flood in the islands were assessed by a series of interview.

During the field trips, interviews were conducted with old men, fishermen and women in the

riparian bounds of the Achankovil using a semi structured interview schedule (Annex.1). The

information collected from them was cross checked with prior data inscripted.

Cross checking of secoCross checking of secoCross checking of secoCross checking of secondary datandary datandary datandary data: An earnest attempt made by cross compared the collected data

with secondary data such as Mohanan (1984), AnilKumar (1993),Sunil & Sivadasan (2009), and

Mathew (2015).

Biodiversity lossBiodiversity lossBiodiversity lossBiodiversity loss: A close observation conducted on the bounds of Achankovil for the assessment

of the biodiversity loss. soil erosion, landsliding, loss of plants in flood, invasion of weeds etc.

examined in detail.

The floristic and phytosociological studies conducted in three

were subjected to systematic treatment and reasoning. The results emerged from the analysis are

described here.

4.1.4.1.4.1.4.1. Species Species Species Species composition composition composition composition

A detailed survey was conducted to enumerate the species composition and also to identify

the general status of the plants of

year 2018 -2019 are presented here.

families, endemism, threatened plants etc are given in separate sections.

4.1.1.4.1.1.4.1.1.4.1.1. Floristic analysis Floristic analysis Floristic analysis Floristic analysis

Floristic elements of the islands were collected and identified by taxonomical methods.

Plants in the Achankovil River bounds

pteridophytes and gymnosperms.

enumerated from the study area.

4.1.1.1. A4.1.1.1. A4.1.1.1. A4.1.1.1. Angiospermsngiospermsngiospermsngiosperms

The floristic analysis resulted in the documentation of

549 genera of 130 families. As revealed from the habit wise analysis of the collected specimens,

majority of the species fall under herbs (5

(11%).

FIG.1FIG.1FIG.1FIG.1 :::: Habit wise categorization of angiosperms in the islands of Alappuzha

17%

16%

11%


4.4.4.4. RESULTS & DISCUSSIONRESULTS & DISCUSSIONRESULTS & DISCUSSIONRESULTS & DISCUSSION

ogical studies conducted in three zones of Achankovil River Basin


survey was conducted to enumerate the species composition and also to identify

plants of riparian zones. The results obtained from the survey during the

are presented here. A comprehensive checklist with due emphasis on dominant

families, endemism, threatened plants etc are given in separate sections.


ankovil River bounds were categorized and examined as flowering plants,

pteridophytes and gymnosperms. 614 Angiosperms, 20 Pteridophytes and 2 Gymnosperm

Categorization of floristic elements presented below.

The floristic analysis resulted in the documentation of 614 flowering plants belonging to

families. As revealed from the habit wise analysis of the collected specimens,

majority of the species fall under herbs (56%) followed by trees (17%), shrubs (16

Habit wise categorization of angiosperms in the islands of Alappuzha

56%

11%

Herbs

Shrubs

Trees

Climbers


29

Achankovil River Basin


survey was conducted to enumerate the species composition and also to identify

The results obtained from the survey during the

A comprehensive checklist with due emphasis on dominant


were categorized and examined as flowering plants,

Gymnosperms were

Categorization of floristic elements presented below.

flowering plants belonging to

families. As revealed from the habit wise analysis of the collected specimens,

7%), shrubs (16 %) and climbers

Habit wise categorization of angiosperms in the islands of Alappuzha

Climbers

As revealed from the study, Upper Zone including the Achankovil Forest Division

coming under 276 genera. In the same manner,

Lower Zone, its number is reduced to

FFFFIGIGIGIG....2222.... Bar diagram shows the wealth of angiosperms in

Zones

FIG. 3. Dominant families shown in the Diagram

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Upper Zone

Species 319

Genus 276

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Fabace

ae

Poacea

e

Euphor

biacea

Series1 38 30


Upper Zone including the Achankovil Forest Division

genera. In the same manner, Middle Zone holds 345 species of 29

, its number is reduced to 305 species under 276 genera.

Bar diagram shows the wealth of angiosperms in each zones of the Achankovil River

. Dominant families shown in the Diagram

Upper Zone Middle Zone Lower Zone

319 345 305

276 298 276

Euphor

biacea

e

Acanth

aceae

Astera

ceae

Rubiac

eae

Morac

eae

Convol

vulace

ae

Orchid

aceae

30 30 23 21 17 17 16


30

Upper Zone including the Achankovil Forest Division has 319 species

species of 298 genera. In

each zones of the Achankovil River

Scroph

ulariac

eae

Cypera

ceae

14 14


31

Fabaceae, with 38 taxa is the largest family followed by Poaceae, Euphorbiaceae and

Acanthaceae (30 taxa from each family). Asteraceae bags third position with 23 representations.

Rubiaceae with 21 taxa is coming next largest family. Moraceae and Convoluvalaceae have 17

Euphorbiaceae representation. While Orchidaceae family has 16 elements, Cypreaceae and

Scrophulariaceae shares 14 members. These 11 familes contributes 236 elements and which

contributes 38% of the entire flora of the riparian zones.

Endemism and RarityEndemism and RarityEndemism and RarityEndemism and Rarity

As revealed from the study, 104 elements in the Achankovil Riparian Zones are endemic

to Peninsular India. Of which 20 taxa are facing various threats. Besides that, 125 Asiatic elements

are also present here. 36 species among them are Indo-Sri Lankan elements.

Non indigenous taxa of the study area Non indigenous taxa of the study area Non indigenous taxa of the study area Non indigenous taxa of the study area

Out of 614 plants identified from the study area, 389 plant taxa are non indigenous

including naturalized plants, alien/invasive plants, transformers and weeds. The flora of India as a

whole has been enriched by the intrusive elements from other parts of Asia, Europe, tropical

Africa, tropical America and Australia (Mani, 1974). The non indigenous taxa of these zones

exhibit a trend of affinity of Pantropical elements (96 spp.) > Tropical elements (74 spp.) >

Paleotropic elements (56 spp.) > African elements ( 48 spp.) > American elements (42 spp.) >

Australasia (27 spp.) > Orientals/Asia (21 spp.) > Cosmopolitan (19 spp.) > European (6 spp.).

Most of the African- American species located in the study area are fast spreading weeds.

Commelina benghalensis, Centotheca lappacea, Synedrella nodiflora and Spermacoce articularis

are examples of African elements. Alternanthera brasiliana, Centrosema molle and

Eleutheranthera ruderalis are American elements. Lantana camara, Mikania cordata, Mimosa

diplotricha and Chromolaena odorata are fast spreading aggressive weeds observed in the study

area.

Medicinal PlantsMedicinal PlantsMedicinal PlantsMedicinal Plants

Medicinal and economically important plants in the river beds also enumerated. 107

plants of these areas are coming under this category (Table 1). Highly medicinals such as Piper

longum, Embelia tsjeriam-cottam,

Salacia fruticosa etc. are the examples.

Fig.4. Phytogeographic affinities of the flora of

4.1.1.2. Non flowering plants4.1.1.2. Non flowering plants4.1.1.2. Non flowering plants4.1.1.2. Non flowering plants

20 Pteridophytes coming under 1

area. 12 Pteridophytes were enumerated from upper zone. 14 pteridophytes were enlisted from

middle zone and 13 from lower zones too. All of these elements are pantropical an

components. And in the case of Gymnosperm, Gentum

area.

12%

9%

8%

7%

4%

3%


cottam, Cyclea peltata, Sida acuta, Asparagus racemosus,

etc. are the examples.

. Phytogeographic affinities of the flora of Achankovil Riparian zones

Pteridophytes coming under 18 genera of 10 families were enumerated from the study

12 Pteridophytes were enumerated from upper zone. 14 pteridophytes were enlisted from

middle zone and 13 from lower zones too. All of these elements are pantropical an

And in the case of Gymnosperm, Gentum and Cycas are enlisted from the study

37%

16%

3%

1%


32

Asparagus racemosus,

families were enumerated from the study

12 Pteridophytes were enumerated from upper zone. 14 pteridophytes were enlisted from

middle zone and 13 from lower zones too. All of these elements are pantropical and tropical

and Cycas are enlisted from the study

Indigenous

Pantropicals

Tropicals

Paleotropics

African

American

Australasia

Orientals/Asia

Cosmopolitan

European

33

Table 1. Table 1. Table 1. Table 1. PLANTSPLANTSPLANTSPLANTS A.A.A.A. FLOWERING PLANTSFLOWERING PLANTSFLOWERING PLANTSFLOWERING PLANTS

Sl. No Scientific Name Family Upper Zone Middle Zone Lower Zone Status Medici-nals

1

Andrographis atropurpurea (Dennst.) Alston

Acanthaceae

√ √ E

2 Andrographis echioides (L.) Nees √ √ 3 Asystasia dalzelliana Sant. √ √ √

4

Asystasia gangetica (L.) Anders. ssp. gangetica Hook. f.

√ √ √

5 Barleria courtallica Nees √ E 6 Dicliptera cuneata Nees √ 7 Dicliptera paniculata (Forssk.) I. Darbysh. √ √

8 Dipteracanthus prostrates (Poir.) Nees √ √ E

9 Eranthemum capense L. √ √

10 Hygrophila ringens (L.) Steud √ √ √

11

Hygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida

√ √

12 Hygrophila triflora (Roxb.) Fosb. & Sachet √

13 Justicia betonica L.var. betonica Hook. f. √ √

14 Justicia japonica Thunb. √ √ √ 15 Justicia procumbens L. √

16

Lepidagathis incurva Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don var. incurva Manilal & Sivar.

√ √

17 Nelsonia canescens (Lam.) Spreng. √ √

18 Phaulopsis imbricata (Forssk.) Sweet. √ √ √

19

Pseuderanthemum malabaricum (Clarke) Gamble

√

20 Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz √ √

21 Ruellia tuberosa L. √ √

22 Rungia apiculata Bedd. √ √

23 Rungia parviflora (Retz.) Nees √

34

24 Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees √ √ √

25 Rungia repens (L.) Nees √ 26 Strobilanthes barbatus Nees √ E 27 Strobilanthes ciliatus Nees √ √ E

28 Strobilanthes lawsoni Gamble √ E

29 Strobilanthes luridus Wight √ E 30 Thunbergia mysorensis (Wight) Anders. √ 31 Trianthema portulacastrum L. Aizoaceae √ √

32

Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wang. ssp. hexapetalum (Lam.) Wang.

Alangiaceae √

33 Limnocharis flava (L.) Buch. Alismataceae √

34 Achyranthes aspera L.var. aspera Hook. f. Amaranthaceae

√ √ √ √ 35 Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. √ √ √ √ 36 Allmania nodiflora (L.) R. Br. ex Wight √ 37 Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) Voss √ √

38 Alternanthera brasiliana (L. ) Kuntze √

39 Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Grisb. √ √ 40 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC. √ √ √ 41 Amaranthus spinosus L. √ √ 42 Amaranthus viridis L. √ √ 43 Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume √ √ √ √ 44 Hymenocallis littoralis (Jacq.) Salisb. Amaryllidaceae √ √ 45 Scadoxus multiflorus (Martyn) Raf. √ √ 46 Anacardium occidentale L. Anacardiaceae √ √ 47 Buchanania lanceolata Wight √ √ VU

48 Holigarna arnottiana Hook.f. √ √ √ E

49 Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr √ √ √ √ 50 Mangifera indica L. √ 51 Nothopegia aureo-fulva Bedd. ex Hook. f. √ E & CR 52 Semecarpus auriculata Bedd. √

53 Spondias pinnata (L. f.) Kurz √ √

54 Annona glabra L. Annonaceae √

35

55 Meiogyne pannosa (Dalz.) Sinclair √ E 56 Meiogyne ramarowii (Dunn) Gandhi √ √ E 57 Phaeanthus malabaricus Bedd. √ E

58 Polyalthia longifolia (Sonner.) Thw. √

59

Uvaria narum (Dunal) Wall. ex Hook.f. & Thoms

√ √

60 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Apiaceae √ √ √ √ 61 Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. Apocynaceae √ √ √ 62 Anodendron paniculatum (Roxb.) A. DC. √ 63 Cerbera odollam Gaertn. √ √ 64 Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) Alston √

65

Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don

√ √

66 Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) W.T.Aiton √ √

67

Parsonsia indoora (Lour.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida

√

68 Rauvolfia hookeri Sriniv. & Chithra √ E & EN √

69 Strophanthus wightianus Wall. ex Wight √ E

70 Tabernaemontana alternifolia L. √ √ √ E √

71

Aponogeton natans (L.) Engl. & Krause Aponogetona-ceae

√

72 Amorphophallus nicolsonianus Sivad. Araceae √ E 73 Anaphyllum wightii Schott √ E √ 74 Ariopsis peltata Nimmo √ 75 Arisaema leschenaultii Blume √ E

76 Caladium bicolor (Ait. ex Dryand.) Vent. √

77 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott √ √ 78 Lagenandra ovata (L.) Thw. √ √

79 Pistia stratiotes L. √ √

80

Pothos crassipedunculatus Sivad. & N. Mohanan

√

81 Pothos scandens L √ √ √ √

36

82 Remusatia vivipara (Roxb.) Schott √

83

Schefflera wallichiana (Wight & Arn.) Harms

Araliaceae √

84 Areca catechu L Arecaceae √ √ √

85 Arenga wightii Griff. √ E & VU √

86 Borassus flabellifer L. (Introduced) √

87 Calamus thwaitesii Becc. √

88 Caryota urens L. √

89 Cocos nucifera L. √ √ √ 90 Aristolochia krisagathra Sivar. & Pradeep

Aristalochiaceae

√ E √

91

Aristolochia indica L. √

√

92 Thottea siliquosa (Lam.) Ding Hou √ √ 93 Asclepias curassavica L.

Asclepiadaceae √

94 Ceropegia elegans Wall. √ E

95 Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. √ √ √

96 Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R.Br. ex Sm. √ 97

98

Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merr. var. indica Manilal & Sivar

√ √ √ √

99

Tylophora tetrapetala var.tetrapetala Sasidh. & Sivar.

√

100 Wattakaka volubilis (L. f.) Stapf √ √ 101 Ageratum conyzoides L.

Asteraceae

√

102

Blumea lanceolaria (Roxb.) Druce var. spectabilis (DC.) Randeria

√

103 Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Robins. √ √ √ √

104

Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S.Moore

√

105 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. √ √ √ 106 Elephantopus scaber L. √ √ √ √ 107 Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. ex DC. √ √ √ √ 108 Epaltes divaricata (L.) Cass. √

37

109 Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. √ √ √ 110 Mikania micrantha Kunth √ √ √ 111 Phyllocephalum scabridum (DC.) Kirkman √ √

112 Sphaeranthus africanus L. √ √ √

113 Sphaeranthus indicus L. √ √ √ 114 Spilanthes ciliata HBK √ 115 Spilanthes radicans Jacq. √ 116 Struchium sparganophorum (L.) O. Ktze √ √ √ 117 Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. √ 118 Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray √

119 Tridax procumbens (L.) L. √ √ √

120 Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. √ √ √ √ 121 Vernonia elliptica DC. √ √ 122 Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. √ √ √ 123 Wedelia trilobata (L.) A. S. Hitchc. √

124 Xanthium indicum Koenig √

125 Impatiens cordata Wight Balsaminaceae

√ E

126

Impatiens diversifolia B.Heyne ex Wight & Arn.

√ √ E

127

Impatiens herbicola Hook. f. √ E & VU

128 Begonia cordifolia (Wight) Thw. Begoniaceae √ VU 129 Begonia malabarica Lam. √ 130 Oroxylum indicum (L.) Benth. ex Kurz Bignoniaceae √ √ 131 Pajanelia longifolia (Willd.) K. Schum. √ √ 132 Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. Bombacaceae √ 133 Cullenia exarillata Robyns √

134 Coldenia procumbens L. Boraginaceae √ √ √

135 Cordia cylindristachya Roem. & Schult. √ 136 Heliotropium indicum L √ √ 137 Brassica nigra (L.) Koch. Brassicaceae √ 138 Rorippa indica (L.) Hiern √ 139 Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Bromeliaceae √ √

38

140 Burmannia coelestis D.Don Burmanniaceae √ √

141 Cabomba caroliniana Gray Cabombaceae √ √ 142 Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn. Campanulaceae √ 143 Capparis rheedei DC.

Capparaceae

√ E & VU 144 Cleome burmannii Wight & Arn. √ 145 Cleome monophylla L. √ √ 146 Cleome viscosa L. √ √ 147 Crataeva magna (Lour.) DC. √ √

148 Gynandropsis gynandra (L.) Briq. √

149

Polycarpon prostratum (Forssk.) Asch. & Sehweinf.

Caryophyllaceae

√ √

150 Euonymus dichotomus Heyne ex Roxb. Celastraceae

√ E

151 Lophopetalum wightianum Arn. √ √

152 Calophyllum inophyllum L. Clusiaceae √ √

153

Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) Robs. var. gummi-gutta Mohanan

√ √ √

154 Calycopteris floribunda Lam. Combretaceae √ √ 155 Quisqualis indica L. √ √ 156 Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. √ √

157 Terminalia catappa L. √ √ √

158 Belosynapsis vivipara (Dalz.) C.E.C. Fisch. Commelinaceae

√ E

159 Commelina benghalensis L. √ √ √

160 Commelina diffusa Burm. f. √ 161 Cyanotis axillaris (L.) D.Don ex Sweet √ √ √ √ 162 Dictyospermum montanum Wight √ E

163 Floscopa scandens Lour √

164

Murdannia crocea (Griff.) Faden ssp.ochracea (Dalz.) Faden

√

165 Murdannia pauciflora (Wight) Brueck. √ 166 Murdannia vaginata (L.) Brueck √ 167 Connarus monocarpus L. Connaraceae √ √ 168 Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Merr. √ √

39

169 Aniseia martinicensis (Jacq.) Choisy Convolvulaceae √ √ 170 Cuscuta chinensis Lam. √ √ 171 Erycibe paniculata Roxb. √ √ 172 Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L. √ √ √ 173 Hewittia malabarica (L.) Suresh √ √ 174 Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. √ √ 175 Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet √ √

176

Ipomoea carnea Jack. ssp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) Austin

√ √

177 Ipomoea hederifolia L. √ √

178

Ipomoea marginata (Desr.) Manitz, f. marginata Babu

√

179

Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R. Br. ssp.pes-caprae Gamble

√

180 Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker-Gawl. √ √ 181 Ipomoea pes-tigridis L. √ 182 Merremia hederacea (Burm. f.) Hall. f. √ √ 183 Merremia umbellata (L.) Hall. f. √ √ 184 Merremia vitifolia (Burm. f.) Hall. f. √ √ √ 185 Xenostegia tridentata (L.) Austin & Staples √ 186 Costus speciosus (Koenig) J.E. Smith Costaceae √ √ √ 187 Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Kurz Crassulaceae √ √ √ 188 Coccinia grandis (L.) Voight

Cucurbitaceae √ √ √

189 Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) Jeffrey √ 190 Luffa cylindrica (L.) Roem. √ √ √ 191 Mukia maderaspatana (L.) Roem. √ √ 192 Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi √ 193 Trichosanthes nervifolia L. √ √ √ 194 Bulbostylis barbata ssp. barbata Gamble Cyperaceae √ √ 195 Carex filicina Nees √

196 Cyperus compactus Retz. √

197 Cyperus cyperinus (Retz.) Sur. √ √ √ 198 Cyperus digitatus Roxb. √

40

199 Cyperus javanicus Houtt. √ √ 200 Cyperus tenuispica Steud. √ √

201

Fimbristylis aestivalis Vahl ssp.aestivalis Hook. f.

√ √

202 Fimbristylis microcarya Muller √ 203 Fuirena ciliaris (L.) Roxb. √ √

204

Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. var. brevifolia; Hook. f.

√ √ √

205

Kyllinga nemoralis (J. R & G. Forst.) Dandy ex Hutch. & Dalz.

√ √

206 Pycreus puncticulatus (Vahl) Nees √ √ 207 Schoenoplectiella articulata (L.) Lye √ 208 Tetrameles nudiflora R. Br. Dasticaceae √ √ 209 Acrotrema arnottianum Wight

Dilleniaceae √

210 Tetracera akara (Burm. f.) Merr. √ √

211 Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscoreaceae

√ √ 212 Dioscorea hispida Dennst. √ √ 213 Dipterocarpus indicus Bedd.

Dipterocarpa Ceae

√ E & VU √ 214 Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabb. √ E & VU

215 Hopea parviflora Bedd. √ E & VU

216 Vateria indica L. √ √ E √ 217 Dracaena terniflora Roxb. Dracaenaceae √

218 Sansevieria roxburghiana Schult. & Schult. f. √

219 Drosera indica L. Droseraceae √

220 Diospyros bourdillonii Brandis Ebenaceae √ E

221 Diospyros peregrina (Gaertn.) Gurke √

222

Elaeocarpus serratus L. var.serratus Hook. f.

Elaeocarpaceae √ √ √

223 Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. √ 224 Muntingia calabura L √ √ 225 Eriocaulon heterolepis Steud. Eriocaulaceae √ E 226 Eriocaulon sexangulare L. √

41

227 Erythropalum scandens Blume Erythropalaceae √

228 Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae √ √

229 Acalypha malabarica Muell.-Arg. √ 230 Agrostistachys indica Dalz. √ E 231 Antidesma acidum Retz. √

232 Aporosa cardiosperma (Gaertn.) Merr. √ √

233 Baccaurea courtallensis (Wight) Muell.-Arg. √ E 234 Bischofia javanica Blume √

235 Breynia retusa (Dennst.) Alston √ √

236 Briedelia stipularis (L.) Blume √

237 Croton bonplandianus Baill. √ 238 Croton hirtus L'Herit. √ 239 Croton tiglium L. √

240

Dimorphocalyx glabellus Thw. var. lawianus (Muell.-Arg.) Chakrab. & Balakr.

√ E

241

Drypetes sepiaria (Wight & Arn.) Pax & Hoffm.

√

242 Euphorbia heterophylla L. √ √ √ 243 Euphorbia hirta L. √ √ √ 244 Euphorbia rosea Retz. √ √ √ 245 Euphorbia thymifolia L. √ √ 246 Excoecaria agallocha L. √

247

Glochidion hohenackeri (Muell.-Arg.) Bedd. var. johnstonei (Hook. f.) Chakrab. & Gangop.

√ E & VU

248 Glochidion zeylanicum (Gaertn.) A. √

249 Homonoia riparia Lour. √

250 Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg √ √ √

251 Micrococca mercurialis (L.) Benth. √ √ 252 Microstachys chamaelea (L.) Muell.-Arg √ √ √ 253 Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn. √ √ √ 254 Phyllanthus urinaria L. √ √

42

255 Ricinus communis L. √ √ √ √ 256 Tragia involucrata L. √ √

257 Trewia nudiflora L. √

258 Bauhinia phoenicea Wight & Arn., Fabaceae –Sub Family: Caesalpiniaceae

√ E 259 Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. √ 260 Caesalpinia mimosoides Lam. √ 261 Cassia fistula L. √ 262 Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) Greene √ 263 Humboldtia vahliana Wight √ E & EN

264 Senna alata (L.) Roxb. √ √

265 Senna occidentalis (L.) Link √ √ 266 Senna tora (L.) Roxb. √ √ √ 267 Tamarindus indica L. √ √ 268 Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. Fabaceae:

Subfamily: Mimosaceae

√ √ 269 Adenanthera pavonina L. √ 270 Entada rheedei Spreng. √ 271 Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit √ √

272 Mimosa diplotricha C. Wight ex Sanvalle √ √ √

273 Mimosa pudica L. √ √ √ 274 Racosperma auriculiforme (Benth. ) Pedley √ √ 275 Racosperma mangium (Willd.) Pedley √ 276 Aeschynomene aspera L. √ √ 277 Abrus precatorius L.

Fabaceae: Sub. Family : Papilionaceae

√ √ √ 278

279

Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. var. vaginalis Hook. f.

√ √ √

280 Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. √ 281 Canavalia cathartica Thouars √ √ 282 Centrosema molle Benth. √ √ √ 283 Crotalaria verrucosa L. √ 284 Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth. √ √ √ 285 Derris trifoliata Lour. √ √ 286 Desmodium biarticulatum (L.) F.v. Muell. √ √

43

287 Geissaspis cristata Wight & Arn. √ √ 288 Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. √ √ 289 Indigofera longiracemosa Boiv. ex Baill. √

290

Kunstleria keralensis C.N. Mohanan & N.C. Nair

√ E

291 Mucuna gigantea (Willd.) DC. √ 292 Mucuna monosperma DC. ex Wight √ E

293 Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.) Alston √ √

294 Tephrosia maxima (L.) Pers. √ √ 295 Vigna adenantha (Meyer) Marechal √ 296 Casearia ovata (Lam.) Willd. Flacourtiaceae √ E

297

Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.-Ham.) Oken

√ √ √ E √

298 Flagellaria indica L Flagellariaceae √

299

Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R. Br. ex Roem. & Schult.

Gentianaceae √

300 Exacum atropurpureum Bedd. √ E & VU

301 Aeschynanthus perrottetii A.DC. Gesneriaceae √ E 302 Didymocarpus humboldtiana Gard. √

303

Epithema carnosum (G. Don) Benth. var. hispida Clarke

√ E & VU

304 Rhynchoglossum notonianum (Wall.) Burtt √

305

Peliosanthes teta Andr. ssp. humilis (Andr.) Jessop

Haemodoracdeae

√

306 Hippocratea arnottiana Wight Hippocrataceae √

307 Salacia fruticosa Wall. √ E √

308 Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle Hydrocharitaceae

√ √ 309 Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers. √ 310 Vallisneria natans (Lour.) Hara √

311

Hydrolea zeylanica (L.) Vahl Hydrophyllaceae

√

312 Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae √ √ √

44

313 Molineria trichocarpa (Wight) Balakr. √ 314 Gomphandra tetrandra (Wall.) Sleumer Icacinaceae √

315

Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Graham) Mabb.

√

316 Sarcostigma kleinii Wight & Arn. √ √ √ 317 Anisochilus carnosus (L. f.) Wall. ex Benth.

Lamiaceae √

318 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze √ √

319 Hyptis capitata Jacq. √ √ √ 320 Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. √ √ √ 321 Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link √ √ √

322 Ocimum americanum L. √

323

Platostoma hispidum (L.) Paton

√

324 Pogostemon pubescens Benth. √ √ 325 Pogostemon purpurascens Dalz. √ 326 Actinodaphne malabarica Balakr. Lauraceae √ E & VU

327

Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm.f.) J.Presl

√ √ √ E √

328 Litsea bourdillonii Gamble √ E & EN

329

Litsea coriacea (Heyne ex Meisner) Hook. f.

√ E

330 Neolitsea scrobiculata (Meisner) Gamble √ E

331 Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm. √ √

332 Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng. Lecythidaceae √ √ 333 Couroupita guianensis Aublet √ 334 Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Leeaceae √ √ √ √ 335 Lemna perpusillaTorrey Lemnaceae √ 336 Wolffia globosa (Roxb.) Hartog & Plas √

337 Utricularia aurea Lour. Lentibulariaceae

√

338 Utricularia striatula Smith √ 339 Asparagus racemosus Willd. Liliaceae √ √ √ √ 340 Gloriosa superba L. √ √ √ 341 Hugonia mystax L. Linaceae √

45

342 Lobelia alsinoides Lam Lobeliaceae √ √ 343 Lobelia heyneana Schult. 344 Lobelia zeylanica L. √ 345 Fagraea ceilanica Thunb. Loganiaceae √ √ 346 Strychnos minor Dennst. √ √ 347 Strychnos nux-vomica L. √ √ √ 348 Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh. Loranthaceae √ √

349 Helicanthes elastica (Desr.) Danser √ √

350 Scurrula parasitica L. √ E

351

Ammannia baccifera L. ssp.baccifera Koehne

Lythraceae √

352 Cuphea hyssopifolia Kunth √

353

Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight √

E

354

Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers.

√

355 Lawsonia inermis L.

356 Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne √

357 Rotala macrandra Koehne √ E 358 Hibiscus lobatus (Murr.) O. Ktze. Malvaceae √

359 Hibiscus hispidissimus Griff √ √

360

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.var. rosa-sinensis Hook. f.

√ √

361

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. var. schizopetalus Dyer

√

362 Hibiscus sabdariffa L. √ √ 363 Hibiscus surattensis L. √ √ √ 364 Sida acuta Burm. f. √ √ √ 365 Sida alnifolia L. √ √ √ 366 Sida cordifolia L. √ √ √

46

367 Sida rhomboidea Roxb. ex Fleming √ √ √ E 368 Talipariti tiliaceum (L.) Fryxell √ √ √ 369 Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. & Gibs. √ √ √ 370 Urena lobata L. √ √

371

Indianthus virgatus (Roxb.) Suksathan & Borchs.

Marantaceae √

372 Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don Melastomataceae

√ 373 Medinilla beddomei Clarke √ E 374 Melastoma malabathricum L. √ √ √

375

Memecylon heyneanum Benth. ex Wight & Arn.

√ E

376

Memecylon randerianum SM & MR Almeida

√ E

377

Memecylon umbellatum Burm.f.

√ √

378

Sonerila grandiflora R. Br. ex Wight & Arn. √ E & VU

379

Sonerila rheedei Wight & Arn. √ E

380 Sonerila versicolor Wight √ E 381 Aglaia elaeagnoidea (A. Juss.) Benth.

Meliaceae √

382 Aglaia simplicifolia (Bedd.) Harms √ E & VU 383 Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker √ 384 Azadirachta indica A.Juss. √ √ 385 Munronia pinnata (Wall.) Harms √ E 386 Naregamia alata Wight & Arn. √ √

387 Swietenia macrophylla King √ √

388 Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn. Menispermaceae

√ √ √

389

Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thomson

√ √ √

390

Tiliacora acuminata (Poir.) Miers ex Hook.f. & Thoms.

√ √ √

391 Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers. √ √

47

392 Nymphoides hydrophylla (Lour.) O. Ktze. Menyanthaceae √ √ 393 Nymphoides indica (L.) O.Ktze. √ √ 394 Glinus oppositifolius (L.) Aug.DC. Molluginaceae √ √ 395 Mollugo pentaphylla L √ 396 Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Moraceae √ √ √ 397 Artocarpus hirsutus Lam √ √ E

398

Artocarpus incisus (Thunb.) L.f.

√

399 Broussonetia papyrifera Vent. √ 400 Dorstenia indica Wall. ex Wight √ 401 Ficus arnottiana (Miq.) Miq. √ E

402

Ficus drupacea Thunb. var.pubescens (Roth) Corner

√ √

403 Ficus heterophylla L.f. √ √ √ 404 Ficus hispida L. f. √ √ √

405

Ficus laevis Blume var. macrocarpa (Miq.) Corner

√ E

406 Ficus pumila L. √

407 Ficus racemosa L. √ √ √ 408 Ficus religiosa L. √ √ √

409

Ficus tinctoria G. Forst.ssp.parasitica (Koen. ex Willd.) Corner

√

410 Streblus asper Lour. √ 411 Streblus taxoides (Heyne ex Roth) Kurz √

412 Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Moringaceae √ √

413 Musa x paradisiaca L. Musaceae √ √

414

Gymnacranthera farquhariana (Hook.f. & Thoms.) Warb.

Myristicaceae

√

415

Knema attenuata (Hook. f. & Thoms.) Warb.

√ E

√

416 Ardisia littoralis Andr. Myrsinaceae √ 417 Embelia ribes Burm. f. √ √ 418 Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. & Schult.) √ √

48

DC. 419 Eugenia mooniana Wight Myrtaceae √

420 Psidium guajava L. √ √

421 Syzygium aqueum (Burm.f.) Alston √ 422 Syzygium caryophyllatum (L.) Alston √ 423 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels √ √ 424 Syzygium malaccense (L) Merr. & Perry √ 425 Syzygium munronii (Wight) Chandrab. √ E 426 Syzygium zeylanicum (L.) DC. √ √ 427 Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae √ √ √ √ 428 Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. Nymphaceae √ 429 Nymphaea pubescens Willd. √ 430 Nymphaea rubra Roxb. ex Salisb. √ 431 Gomphia serrata (Gaertn.) Kanis Ochnaceae √ √

432

Chionanthus mala-elengi (Dennst.) P. S. Green ssp. linocieroides (Wight) P. S. Green

Oleaceae √ E

433 Jasminum angustifolium (L.) Willd. √ 434 Jasminum coarctatum Roxb. √ 435 Jasminum flexile Vahl √ 436 Myxopyrum smilacifolium (Wall.) Blume √ √ 437 Olea dioica Roxb √ √ E 438 Ludwigia adscendens (L.) Hara Onagraceae √ 439 Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G. Don) Exell √ √ 440 Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven √ √ 441 Cansjera rheedei Gmel. Opiliaceae √

442

Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatt. & McCann

Orchidaceae √ √

443 Aerides ringens (Lindl.) C.E.C. Fisch. √ 444 Bulbophyllum tremulum Wight √ E

445 Calanthe sylvatica (Thouars) Lindl. √

446 Conchidium braccatum (Lindl.) Brieger √ E 447 Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. √

49

448

Dendrobium kallarense J. Mathew et. Yohannan

√ E

449 Goodyera procera (Ker.-Gawl.) Hook. √

450 Habenaria longicorniculata Graham √ E 451 Habenaria longicornu Lindl. √ E 452 Liparis viridiflora (Blume) Lindl. √ 453 Luisia macrantha Blatt. & McCann √ E 454 Seidenfia rheedei (Sw.) Szlach. √ 455 Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames √ 456 Vanda testacea (Lindl.) Rchb.f. √

457 Zeuxine longilabris (Lindl.) Trimen √ √ √

458

Christisonia tubulosa (Wight) Benth. ex Hook. f.

Orobanchaceae √ E

459 Biophytum reinwardtii (Zucc.) Klotzsch Oxalidaceae √ √ √ √

460 Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. √ √ 461 Oxalis corniculata L. √ √ √ 462 Pandanus odorifer (Forssk.) Kuntze Pandanaceae √ 463 Passiflora foetida L. var.foetida Gamble Passifloraceae √ 464 Sesamum radiatum Schum. Pedaliaceae √ √ 465 Cryptolepis buchananii Roem. & Schult. Periplocaceae √

466 Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. ex Schult. √ √ √ √

467 Rivina humilis L. Phytalocaceae √ √ 468 Lepianthes umbellata (L.) Rafin. Piperaceae

√

469 Peperomia blanda (Jacq.) Kunth √ E 470 Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth √ √ √ 471 Piper longum L. √ √ 472 Piper nigrum L. √ √ 473 Piper velayudhani E.S.S.Kumar √ 474 Piper schmidtii Hook.f. √ E 475 Xanthophyllum arnottianum Wight Polygalaceae √ √ √ E 476 Acroceras munroanum (Balansa) Henrard Poaceae √ √ E 477 Arundo donax L. √ √ √

50

478 Axonopus compressus (Sw.) P. Beauv. √ √

479 Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss √ √ √ 480 Bambusa striata Lodd. ex Lindl. √ √ 481 Centotheca lappacea (L.) Desv. √ √ 482 Cenchrus echinatus L. √ 483 Chloris barbata Sw. √ √ 484 Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin. √ √

485 Chrysopogon hackelii (Hook.f.) C.E.C. Fisch. √ E

486 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. √ √ √ 487 Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. √ √ 488 Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler √ √ 489 Digitaria radicosa (Pers.) Miq. √ √

490

Diplachne fusca (L.) P.Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult.

√ √

491 Echinochloa frumentacea Link √ √ 492 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. √ √ 493 Ischaemum barbatum Retz. √ √ 494 Ischaemum muticum L. √ √ 495 Ischaemum timorense Kunth √ 496 Oplismenus burmannii (Retz.) P. Beauv. √ √ 497 Oplismenus composites (L.) P. Beauv. √ 498 Panicum notatum Retz. √ 499 Pennisetum pedicellatumTrin. √ 500 Perotis indica (L.) O. Ktze. √ 501 Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. √ √ 502 Pseudoraphis spinescens (R. Br.) Vickery √ 503 Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. √ √ 504 Saccharum spontaneum L. √ √ 505 Sacciolepis interrupta (Willd.) Stapf √ 506 Persicaria barbata (L.) Hara Polygonaceae √ √ 507 Persicaria glabra (Willd.) Gomez, √ √ 508 Persicaria pulchra (Blume) Sojak √ √ 509 Persicaria strigosa (R. Br.) Nakai √

51

510

Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms.

Pontederiaceae

√

511 Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl √ 512 Portulaca oleracea L. Portulaceae √ √ √

513

Talinum portulacifolium (Forssk.) Aschers & Schweinf

√ √

514

Potamogeton octandrus Poir. Potamogetonaceae

√

515 Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC Ranunculaceae √ √ √ 516 Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. Rhamnaceae √ √ 517 Ziziphus rugosa Lam. √ √ 518 Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. Rhizophoraceae √ √

519

Canthium coromandelicum (Burm. f.) Alston

Rubiaceae √ √

520 Canthium rheedei DC. √ √ E

521

Chassalia curviflora var. ophioxyloides (Wall.) Deb & B.Krishna

√ √

522 Dentella repens (L.) J. R. & G. Forst. √ √ 523 Ixora coccinea L. √ √ √

524 Ixora javanica (Blume) DC. √

525 Ixora lanceolaria Colebr. √ E 526 Ixora malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb. √ E 527 Mitracarpus hirtus (L.) DC. √ 528 Morinda citrifolia L. √ √ √ 529 Morinda umbellata L. √ 530 Morinda reticulata Gamble √ E & EN

531 Mussaenda frondosa L. √ √ E

532

Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G. Don) Ridsd.

√ √ E & VU

533 Oldenlandia auricularia (L.) K. Schum. √ √ 534 Oldenlandia corymbosa L. √ √ 535 Oldenlandia trinervia Retz. √

52

536 Pavetta indica L. √

537

Psilanthus travancorensis (Wight & Arn.) Leroy

√ √ √

538 Spermacoce hispida L. √ √ 539 Spermacoce ocymoides Burm.f. √ 540 Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq. Rutaceae

√ √

541 Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa √ √

542

Atalantia racemosa Wight var. bourdillonii K.N. Nair & M.P. Nayar

√ E

543 Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC. √ √ √

544

Melicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) T.G. Hartley

√

545 Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. √ √

546

Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson

√ √

547 Scleropyrum pentandrum (Dennst.) Mabb. Santalaceae √ E 548 Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Sapindaceae √ √ √ 549 Otonephelium stipulaceum (Bedd.) Radlk. √ E 550 Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Merr. √ 551 Chrysophyllum cainito L. Sapotaceae √ 552 Isonandra lanceolata Wight √ √

553 Madhuca neriifolia (Moon) H. J. Lam √

554 Adenosma indianum (Lour.) Merr. Scrophulariaceae

√ 555 Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell √ √ √ 556 Limnophila aquatica (Roxb.) Alston √ 557 Limnophila aromatica (Lam.) Merr. √ √ √ 558 Limnophila repens (Benth.) Benth. √ 559 Lindernia anagallis (Burm. f.) Pennell √

560 Lindernia antipoda (L.) Alston √ √

561 Lindernia caespitosa (Blume) Panigrahi √

562 Lindernia hyssopioides (L.) Haines √ √

563 Lindernia rotundifolia (L.) Mukerjee √ √ 564 Mecardonia procumbens (Mill.) Small √

53

565 Scoparia dulcis L. √ √ √ √ 566 Torenia bicolor Dalz. √ E 567 Torenia hirsuta Willd. √ √ E 568 Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston Simaroubaceae √ 569 Quassia indica (Gaertn.) Nooteb. √ √ √ √ 570 Smilax zeylanica L. Smilacaceae √ 571 Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae √ √ 572 Datura stramonium L. √ 573 Physalis angulata L. √ √ √ 574 Solanum americanum Mill. √ 575 Solanum capsicoides All. √ 576 Solanum torvum Sw. √ 577 Helicteres isora L. Sterculiaceae √ √ √ 578 Melochia corchorifolia L. √ √ 579 Sterculia foetida L. √ √ 580 Sterculia guttata Roxb. ex G.Don √ 581 Sterculia villosa Roxb. √ 582 Waltheria indica L. √ √

583

Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) Moore ssp. laurina (Retz.) Nooteb.

Symplocaceae √ √

584 Corchorus aestuans L. Tiliaceae √ 585 Grewia nervosa (Lour.) Panigrahi √ √ 586 Grewia tiliifolia Vahl 587 Triumfetta annua L. √ 588 Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq √ √ √ 589 Trema orientalis (L.) Blume Ulmaceae √ √ 590 Laportea interrupta (L.) Chew Urticaceae √ √

591

Pilea microphylla (L.) Liebm.

√ √ √

592 Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. √ √ √ 593 Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. Verbenaceae √ √ √ 594 Clerodendrum infortunatum L. √ √ 595 Lantana camara L. √ √ √

54

596 Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene √ √ 597 Premna serratifolia L. √ √ √ 598 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl √ √ 599 Tectona grandis L. f √ 600 Vitex pinnata L. √ √ 601 Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F.Muell. Violaceae √ √ 602 Ampelocissus indica (L.) Planch Vitaceae √ √ 603 Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. √ 604 Cayratia pedata (Lam.) A. Juss. ex Gagnep. √ 605 Cissus latifolia Lam √ √ 606 Cissus trilobata Lam. √

607

Xyris pauciflora Willd. Xyridaceae √

608 Alpinia malaccensis (Burm. f.) Rosc. Zingiberaceae √

609 Amomum muricatum Bedd. √ E 610 Curcuma aeruginosa Roxb. √ 611 Curcuma ecalcarata Sivar. & Indu √ E √

612 Globba sessiliflora Sim. √

613 Zingiber nimmonii Dalz. √ E

614 Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm. √ √ √

TOTAL 614 Species; 549 Genus F: 130 S: 319 ( G: 276)

S: 345 (G:298)

S: 305 (G: 276)

S:104 S : 107

B. PTERIDOPHYTES B. PTERIDOPHYTES B. PTERIDOPHYTES B. PTERIDOPHYTES Sl. No Scientific Name Family Upper Zone Middle Zone Lower Zone Status

1. Adiantum capillus-veneris L Adiantacdeae √ √ √

2. A diantum concinnum Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd

√

3. Adiantum philippense L. √ √

4. Asplenium crinicaule Hance Aspleniaceae √ 5. Asplenium tenerum G. Forst.

√

55

6. Blechnum occidentale L.

Blechnaceae √

7. Stenochlaena palustris (Burm.f.) Bedd. √ √ 8. Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook.

Cyatheaceae √

9. Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw. Lygodiaceae √

10. Marsilea minuta L. Marsileaceae √ √

11. Osmunda hugeliana C.Presl

Osmundaceae √

12. Leptochilus decurrens Blume Polypodiaceae √ √ √ 13. Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J. Sm. √ √ 14. Microsorum pteropus Blume √ √ √

15. Pyrrosia piloselloides (L.) M.G. Price √ √ √ 16. Acrostichum aureum L. Pteridaceae √ √ √ 17. Parahemionitis cordata (Roxb. ex. Hook &

Grev.) Fraser – Jenkins √ √ √

18. Vittaria elongata Sw. √ √ √ 19. Azolla pinnata R. Br. Salviniaceae √ 20. Salvinia molesta D.Mitch √ √

TOTALTOTALTOTALTOTAL S: 20 (G: 18)S: 20 (G: 18)S: 20 (G: 18)S: 20 (G: 18)

F: F: F: F: 10101010 S: 12 (G: 11)

S: 14 (G: 12)

S: 13 (G: 12)

S: 1

C. GYMNOSPERMC. GYMNOSPERMC. GYMNOSPERMC. GYMNOSPERM

Sl. No Scientific Name Family Upper Zone Middle Zone Lower Zone Status 1 Cycas circinalis L. Cycadaceae √ EN 2 Gnetum edule (Willd.) Blume Gnetaceae √ E

TOTALTOTALTOTALTOTAL S: 2 (G: 2)

F: F: F: F: 2222 S :1 (G : 1)

S :1 (G : 1)

S:2

Rare and Endemic species

56

4.2.4.2.4.2.4.2. Rare and Endemic SpeciesRare and Endemic SpeciesRare and Endemic SpeciesRare and Endemic Species

Checkilist of rare and endemic species are

enlisted here.

4444....2222.1. .1. .1. .1. Rare and Endemic Rare and Endemic Rare and Endemic Rare and Endemic floweflowefloweflowerrrring ing ing ing plantsplantsplantsplants

Family: AcanthaceaeFamily: AcanthaceaeFamily: AcanthaceaeFamily: Acanthaceae

1.1.1.1. Andrographis atropurpurea Andrographis atropurpurea Andrographis atropurpurea Andrographis atropurpurea (Dennst.)

Alston

Habit : Herb

Habitat : Openings in

evergreen and semi-

evergreen forests

Distribution : Western Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : July – September

2.2.2.2. Barleria courtallica Barleria courtallica Barleria courtallica Barleria courtallica Nees

Habit : Shrub

Habitat : Evergreen and semi-

evergreen forests


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : January – May

3.3.3.3. Dipteracanthus prostratusDipteracanthus prostratusDipteracanthus prostratusDipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.) Nees

Habit : Shrub

Habitat : Degraded forest

areas, also in the

plains


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : February –

November

4.4.4.4. Strobilanthes barbatusStrobilanthes barbatusStrobilanthes barbatusStrobilanthes barbatus Nees Habit

: Shrub

Habitat : Evergreen forests


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : September-

December

5.5.5.5. Strobilanthes ciliatusStrobilanthes ciliatusStrobilanthes ciliatusStrobilanthes ciliatus Nees

Habit : Shrub


evergreen forests

Distribution : Southern Western

Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : October-December

6.6.6.6. Strobilanthes lawsoniStrobilanthes lawsoniStrobilanthes lawsoniStrobilanthes lawsoni Gamble

Habit : Shrub



Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : October-Decdember

7.7.7.7. StrobilanthesStrobilanthesStrobilanthesStrobilanthes luridusluridusluridusluridus Wight

Habit : Shrub

Habitat : Evergreen and shoal

forests


Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : October-April

Family: AnacardiaceaeFamily: AnacardiaceaeFamily: AnacardiaceaeFamily: Anacardiaceae

1. Buchanania lanceolataBuchanania lanceolataBuchanania lanceolataBuchanania lanceolata Wight

Habit : Tree

Habitat : Semi-evergreen and

evergreen forests, also

in the plains

Distribution : South India and

Myanmar

Status : Vulnerable

Fl. & Fr. : November- March

2. Holigarna arnottiana Holigarna arnottiana Holigarna arnottiana Holigarna arnottiana Hook. F

Habit : Tree

Habitat : Semi-evergreen and


in the plains


Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : December- July

3. Nothopegia aureoNothopegia aureoNothopegia aureoNothopegia aureo----fulvafulvafulvafulva Bedd. ex

Hook. f.

Habit : Tree




57

Ghats

Status : Endemic & Critically

Endangered

Fl. & Fr. : December- July

Family: Family: Family: Family: AnonaceaeAnonaceaeAnonaceaeAnonaceae

1. Meiogyne pannosaMeiogyne pannosaMeiogyne pannosaMeiogyne pannosa (Dalzell) J. Sinclair

Habit : Tree



Status : Endemic

Fl. &Fr : Throughout the year

2. Meiogyne Meiogyne Meiogyne Meiogyne ramarowiiramarowiiramarowiiramarowii (Dunn) Gandhi

Habit : Shrub



Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : January- August

3. Phaeanthus malabaricusPhaeanthus malabaricusPhaeanthus malabaricusPhaeanthus malabaricus Bedd.

Habit : Shrub.



Ghats (Kerala)

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : Throughout the year

Family : Family : Family : Family : ApocynaceaeApocynaceaeApocynaceaeApocynaceae

1. Rauvolfia hookeriRauvolfia hookeriRauvolfia hookeriRauvolfia hookeri Sriniv. & Chithra

Habit : Shrub


evergreen forests


Ghats

Status : Endemic &

Endangered

Fl. & Fr. :January- June

2. Strophanthus wightianusStrophanthus wightianusStrophanthus wightianusStrophanthus wightianus Wall. ex

Wight

Habit : Climber


evergreen forests and

sacred groves


Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : September- January

3. Tabernaemontana alternifoliaTabernaemontana alternifoliaTabernaemontana alternifoliaTabernaemontana alternifolia L.

Habit : Tree

Habitat : Moist deciduous

forests, also in sacred

groves


Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : April- October

Family : Family : Family : Family : AraceaAraceaAraceaAraceaeeee

1. Amorphophallus nicolsonianus Amorphophallus nicolsonianus Amorphophallus nicolsonianus Amorphophallus nicolsonianus Sivad.

Habit : Herb



Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : May - September

2. Anaphyllum wightiiAnaphyllum wightiiAnaphyllum wightiiAnaphyllum wightii Schott

Habit : Herb


evergreen forests


Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : January - February

3. Arisaema leschenaultiiArisaema leschenaultiiArisaema leschenaultiiArisaema leschenaultii Blume

Habit :Herb

Habitat :Margins of evergreen

forests, sholas and

grasslands

Distriution :Southern Western

Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr . : July - September

Family :Family :Family :Family :ArecaceaeArecaceaeArecaceaeArecaceae

1.1.1.1. Arenga wightiiArenga wightiiArenga wightiiArenga wightii Griff.

Habit : Tree

Habitat :Evergreen forests


58

Distribution :Western Ghats

Status : Endemic &

Vulnerable

Fl. & Fr. :July - September

Family : Family : Family : Family : AristalochiaceaeAristalochiaceaeAristalochiaceaeAristalochiaceae

1.1.1.1. Aristolochia krisagathraAristolochia krisagathraAristolochia krisagathraAristolochia krisagathra Sivar. &

Pradeep

Habit :Climber

Habitat :Evergreen and semi-

evergreen forests

Distribution :Southern Western

Ghats (Kerala)

Status :Endemic


Family : Family : Family : Family : AsclepiadaceaeAsclepiadaceaeAsclepiadaceaeAsclepiadaceae

1. Ceropegia elegansCeropegia elegansCeropegia elegansCeropegia elegans Wall.

Habit : Climber

Habitat : Deciduous forests

Distribution : Peninsular India

Status :Endemic

Fl. & Fr. :March- April

Family : Family : Family : Family : BalsaminaceaeBalsaminaceaeBalsaminaceaeBalsaminaceae

1.1.1.1. Impatiens cordataImpatiens cordataImpatiens cordataImpatiens cordata Wight

Habit :Herb

Habitat : Near water courses

in evergreen forests


Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : December- March

December

2.2.2.2. Impatiens diversifoliaImpatiens diversifoliaImpatiens diversifoliaImpatiens diversifolia B.Heyne ex

Wight & Arn.

Habit : Herb

Habitat : Damp, moist areas


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : June- November Family : Family : Family : Family :

BombacaceaeBombacaceaeBombacaceaeBombacaceae

1.1.1.1. Cullenia exarillata Cullenia exarillata Cullenia exarillata Cullenia exarillata Robyns

Habit :Tree



Ghats

3.3.3.3. Impatiens herbicola Impatiens herbicola Impatiens herbicola Impatiens herbicola Hook. f.

Habit :Herb

Habitat :Grasslands


Ghats

Status : Endemic &

Vulnerable

Fl. & Fr. : November- January

Family : Family : Family : Family : BegoniaceaeBegoniaceaeBegoniaceaeBegoniaceae

1.1.1.1. Begonia cordifoliaBegonia cordifoliaBegonia cordifoliaBegonia cordifolia (Wight) Thw.

Habit : Herb



Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : July- August

Status : Vulnerable

Fl. & Fr. : January- November

Family :Family :Family :Family :CapparaceaeCapparaceaeCapparaceaeCapparaceae

1. Capparis rheedei Capparis rheedei Capparis rheedei Capparis rheedei DC.

Habit : Shrub



Status : Endemic &

Vulnerable

Fl. & Fr. : September - March

Family :Family :Family :Family :CelastraceaeCelastraceaeCelastraceaeCelastraceae

1. Euonymus dichotomusEuonymus dichotomusEuonymus dichotomusEuonymus dichotomus Heyne ex

Roxb.

Habit : Shrub



Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : September - March

Family : Family : Family : Family : CommelinaceaeCommelinaceaeCommelinaceaeCommelinaceae

1.1.1.1. Belosynapsis viviparaBelosynapsis viviparaBelosynapsis viviparaBelosynapsis vivipara (Dalz.) C.E.C.

Fisch

Habit : Herb


59



Status : Endemic &

Vulnerable

Fl. & Fr. : August - December

2.2.2.2. Dictyospermum montanumDictyospermum montanumDictyospermum montanumDictyospermum montanum Wight

Habit :Herb


evergreen forests

Distribution :Peninsular India

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : July- October

Family : Family : Family : Family : DipterocarpaceaeDipterocarpaceaeDipterocarpaceaeDipterocarpaceae

1. Dipterocarpus indicusDipterocarpus indicusDipterocarpus indicusDipterocarpus indicus Bedd.

Habit :Tree


evergreen

forests


Ghats

Status : Endemic &

Vulnerable

Fl. & Fr. : January- June

2. Hopea ponga Hopea ponga Hopea ponga Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabb.

Habit :Tree


evergreen

forests, along in the

plains in sacred groves


Ghats

Status : Endemic &

Vulnerable

Fl. & Fr. :March- June

3. Hopea parvifloraHopea parvifloraHopea parvifloraHopea parviflora Bedd.

Habit :Tree


evergreen

forests, along in the

plains in sacred groves


Ghats

Status : Endemic &

Vulnerable

Fl. & Fr. :January- June

4. Vateria indicaVateria indicaVateria indicaVateria indica L.

Habit :Tree



in the plains


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. :March- August

Family : Family : Family : Family : EbenaceaeEbenaceaeEbenaceaeEbenaceae

1. Diospyros bourdilloniiDiospyros bourdilloniiDiospyros bourdilloniiDiospyros bourdillonii Brandis

Habit :Tree



Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : March- December

Family : Family : Family : Family : EriocaulaceaeEriocaulaceaeEriocaulaceaeEriocaulaceae

1. Eriocaulon heterolepis Eriocaulon heterolepis Eriocaulon heterolepis Eriocaulon heterolepis Steud.

Habit : Herb

Habitat : Marshy grasslands


Ghats

Status : Endemic


Family : Family : Family : Family : EuphorbiaceaeEuphorbiaceaeEuphorbiaceaeEuphorbiaceae

1.1.1.1. Agrostistachys indicaAgrostistachys indicaAgrostistachys indicaAgrostistachys indica Dalzell

Habit : Shrub

Habitat : Evergreen and shola

forests

Distribution : Central and

Peninsular India

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : February- March

2.2.2.2. Baccaurea courtallensisBaccaurea courtallensisBaccaurea courtallensisBaccaurea courtallensis (Wight)

Muell.-Arg.

Habit : Tree



60

evergreen forests


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : January- June

3.3.3.3. Dimorphocalyx glabellus Dimorphocalyx glabellus Dimorphocalyx glabellus Dimorphocalyx glabellus Thw.Thw.Thw.Thw. var.

lawianuslawianuslawianuslawianus (Muell.-Arg.) Chakrab. &

Balakr.

Habit : Tree



Status : Endemic &

Vulnerable

Fl. & Fr. : December-

September

4.4.4.4. Glochidion hohenackeriGlochidion hohenackeriGlochidion hohenackeriGlochidion hohenackeri (Muell.-

Arg.) Bedd. var. johnstoneijohnstoneijohnstoneijohnstonei (Hook.

f.) Chakrab. & Gangop.

Habit : Tree

Habitat :Semi-evergreen and

evergreen forests


Ghats

Status :Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : April- November

evergreen forests


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : October- March

Family : Family : Family : Family : Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae

Sub Family : Sub Family : Sub Family : Sub Family : CaesalpiniaceaeCaesalpiniaceaeCaesalpiniaceaeCaesalpiniaceae

1. Bauhinia phoeniceaBauhinia phoeniceaBauhinia phoeniceaBauhinia phoenicea Wight & Arn.

Habit :Climber


evergreen forests


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : December- April

2. Humboldtia vahlianaHumboldtia vahlianaHumboldtia vahlianaHumboldtia vahliana Wight

Habit : Shrub



Ghats

Status : Endemic & `

Endangered

Fl. & Fr. : October- March

Sub Family : Sub Family : Sub Family : Sub Family : PapilionaceaePapilionaceaePapilionaceaePapilionaceae

1.1.1.1. KunstleriaKunstleriaKunstleriaKunstleria keralensiskeralensiskeralensiskeralensis C.N.Mohanan

& N.C.Nair

Habit :Climber

Habitat : Evergreen and

semi- evergreen

forests, also in

sacred groves


Ghats (Kerala

Status : Vulnerable

Fl. & Fr. : April- June

2.2.2.2. Mucuna monospermaMucuna monospermaMucuna monospermaMucuna monosperma DC. ex Wight

Habit :Climber

Habitat : Moist deciduous and

semi-evergreen forests,

also in the plains


Status : Endemic


December

Family: Family: Family: Family: FlacourtiaceaeFlacourtiaceaeFlacourtiaceaeFlacourtiaceae

1. Casearia ovataCasearia ovataCasearia ovataCasearia ovata (Lam.) Willd.

Habit : Tree


semi-evergreen

forests

Distribution : India

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : April- June

2. Hydnocarpus pentandraHydnocarpus pentandraHydnocarpus pentandraHydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.-Ham.)

Oken

Habit : Tree

Habitat : Semi-evergreen

and moist

deciduous forests,

also in the plains



61

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : December- May

Family: Family: Family: Family: GentianaceaeGentianaceaeGentianaceaeGentianaceae

1.1.1.1. Exacum Exacum Exacum Exacum atropurpureumatropurpureumatropurpureumatropurpureum Bedd.

Habit : Herb

Habitat : Grasslands and

scrub jungles in

laterite hillocks


Status : Endemic &

Vulnerable

Fl. & Fr. : November-

January

Family: Family: Family: Family: GesneriaceaeGesneriaceaeGesneriaceaeGesneriaceae

1.1.1.1. Aeschynanthus perrottetiiAeschynanthus perrottetiiAeschynanthus perrottetiiAeschynanthus perrottetii A.DC.

Habit : Shrub

Habitat :Evergreen and

shola forests


Status : Endemic


2.2.2.2. Epithema carnosumEpithema carnosumEpithema carnosumEpithema carnosum (G. Don) Benth.

var. hispidahispidahispidahispida Clarke

Habit : Herb

Habitat : On wet rocks in

grasslands


Status : Endemic &

Vulnerable

Fl. & Fr. : May- October

Family: Family: Family: Family: HippocrataceaeHippocrataceaeHippocrataceaeHippocrataceae

1.1.1.1. SalaciaSalaciaSalaciaSalacia fruticosafruticosafruticosafruticosa Wall.Wall.Wall.Wall.

Habit : Climber


semi-evergreen

forests, also in the

sacred

groves and plains


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : February- May

Family: Family: Family: Family: LauraceaeLauraceaeLauraceaeLauraceae

1. Actinodaphne bourdilloniiActinodaphne bourdilloniiActinodaphne bourdilloniiActinodaphne bourdillonii Gamble

Habit : Tree

Habitat : Shola and

evergreen forests


Ghats

Status : Endemic &

Vulnerable

Fl. & Fr. : April- March

2. CinnamomumCinnamomumCinnamomumCinnamomum malabatrummalabatrummalabatrummalabatrum (Burm.f.)

J.Presl

Habit : Tree


semi-evergreen


plains


Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. :March- April

3. Litsea bourdilloniiLitsea bourdilloniiLitsea bourdilloniiLitsea bourdillonii Gamble

Habit :Tree



Ghats

Status : Endemic &

Vulnerable


4. Litsea coriaceaLitsea coriaceaLitsea coriaceaLitsea coriacea (Heyne ex Meisner)

Hook. f.

Habit : Tree


forests and sacred

groves


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : December- January

5. Neolitsea Neolitsea Neolitsea Neolitsea scrobiculatascrobiculatascrobiculatascrobiculata (Meisner)

Gamble

Habit : Tree


shola forests



62

Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. :January- May

Family: Family: Family: Family: LoranthaceaeLoranthaceaeLoranthaceaeLoranthaceae

1. Scurrula parasiticaScurrula parasiticaScurrula parasiticaScurrula parasitica L.

Habit : Epiphytic herb


moist deciduous


plains


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : December - March

Family: Family: Family: Family: LythraceaeLythraceaeLythraceaeLythraceae

1.1.1.1. Lagerstroemia microcarpaLagerstroemia microcarpaLagerstroemia microcarpaLagerstroemia microcarpa Wight

Habit : Tree



plains


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : June - February

2.2.2.2. Rotala macrandraRotala macrandraRotala macrandraRotala macrandra Koehne

Habit : Herb

Habitat : Marshy areas and

ponds


Ghats

Status : Endemic


December

Family: Family: Family: Family: MalvaceaeMalvaceaeMalvaceaeMalvaceae

1. Sida rhomboideaSida rhomboideaSida rhomboideaSida rhomboidea Roxb. ex Fleming

Habit : Shrub

Habitat : Wastelands


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : July- September

Family: Family: Family: Family: MelastomataceaeMelastomataceaeMelastomataceaeMelastomataceae

1.1.1.1. MedinillaMedinillaMedinillaMedinilla beddomeibeddomeibeddomeibeddomei C.B.Clarke

Habit : Shrub

Habitat : Moist deciduous,

semi-evergreen and

evergreen forests


Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : May- June

2.2.2.2. Memecylon Memecylon Memecylon Memecylon heyneanumheyneanumheyneanumheyneanum Benth. ex

Wight & Arn.

Habit : Shrub



Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. :March- June

3.3.3.3. Memecylon randerianumMemecylon randerianumMemecylon randerianumMemecylon randerianum SM & MR

Almeida

Habit : Shrub


semi-evergreen

forests, and also in

sacred groves


Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. :February- May

4.4.4.4. SonerilaSonerilaSonerilaSonerila grandifloragrandifloragrandifloragrandiflora R. Br. ex Wight

& Arn.

Habit : Herb



Ghats

Status : Endemic &

Vulnnerable

Fl. & Fr. : November-

December

5.5.5.5. SonerilaSonerilaSonerilaSonerila rheedeirheedeirheedeirheedei WallWallWallWall

Habit : Herb


semi-evergreen

forests



63

Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : July- August

6.6.6.6. Sonerila versicolorSonerila versicolorSonerila versicolorSonerila versicolor Wight

Habit :Herb



Ghats

Status : Endemic &

Vulnerable

Fl. & Fr. :August- November

Family: Family: Family: Family: MeliaceaeMeliaceaeMeliaceaeMeliaceae

1.1.1.1. Aglaia simplicifoliaAglaia simplicifoliaAglaia simplicifoliaAglaia simplicifolia (Bedd.) Harms

Habit : Shrub


Distribution : Indo-Malesia

Status : Vulnerable

Fl. & Fr. : November- June

2.2.2.2. Munronia pinnataMunronia pinnataMunronia pinnataMunronia pinnata (Wall.) Harms

Habit :Herb



Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. :August- November

Family: Family: Family: Family: MoraceaeMoraceaeMoraceaeMoraceae

1.1.1.1. Artocarpus hirsutusArtocarpus hirsutusArtocarpus hirsutusArtocarpus hirsutus Lam

Habit : Tree


and moist

deciduous forests,

also in the plains


Ghats

Status : Endemic


2.2.2.2. Ficus arnottianaFicus arnottianaFicus arnottianaFicus arnottiana (Miq.) Miq.

Habit : Tree


shola forests


Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : August- April

3.3.3.3. Ficus laevis Ficus laevis Ficus laevis Ficus laevis Blume var. var. var. var. macrocarpamacrocarpamacrocarpamacrocarpa

(Miq.) Corner

Habit : Climber


shola forests


Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : August- April

Family: Family: Family: Family: MyristicaceaeMyristicaceaeMyristicaceaeMyristicaceae

1.1.1.1. Knema Knema Knema Knema attenuata attenuata attenuata attenuata (Hook. f. & Thoms.)

War

Habit : Tree


semi-evergreen

forests


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : December- June

Family: Family: Family: Family: MyrtaceaeMyrtaceaeMyrtaceaeMyrtaceae

1.1.1.1. SyzygiumSyzygiumSyzygiumSyzygium munroniimunroniimunroniimunronii (Wight)

N.P.Balakr.

Habit : Shrub



Status : Endemic


Family: Family: Family: Family: OleaceaeOleaceaeOleaceaeOleaceae

1. Chionanthus malaChionanthus malaChionanthus malaChionanthus mala----elengielengielengielengi (Dennst.) P.

S. Green ssp. ssp. ssp. ssp. linocieroideslinocieroideslinocieroideslinocieroides (Wight) P.

Habit : Tree

Habitat : Semi-evergreen,

evergreen and shola

forests


Ghats

Status : Endemic &

Endangered

Fl. & Fr. : January- May


64

2. Olea dioicaOlea dioicaOlea dioicaOlea dioica Roxb

Habit : Tree


moist deciduous


plains

Distribution :India

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : November- April

Family: Family: Family: Family: OrchidaceaeOrchidaceaeOrchidaceaeOrchidaceae

1.1.1.1. Bulbophyllum tremulumBulbophyllum tremulumBulbophyllum tremulumBulbophyllum tremulum Wight

Habit : Herb


evergreen forests


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : June- September

2.2.2.2. Conchidium braccatumConchidium braccatumConchidium braccatumConchidium braccatum (Lindl.)

Brieger

Habit : Herb



Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. :September-

December

3.3.3.3. Dendrobium kallarenseDendrobium kallarenseDendrobium kallarenseDendrobium kallarense J. Mathew et.

Yohannan

Habit : Herb



Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. :July- August

4.4.4.4. Habenaria longicorniculataHabenaria longicorniculataHabenaria longicorniculataHabenaria longicorniculata J.Graham

Habit : Herb

Habitat :Grasslands and

moist deciduous

forests


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. :July- August

5.5.5.5. Habenaria longicornuHabenaria longicornuHabenaria longicornuHabenaria longicornu Lindl.

Habit : Herb

Habitat :Grasslands and

moist deciduous

forests


Status : Endemic


October

6.6.6.6. Habenaria perrottetianaHabenaria perrottetianaHabenaria perrottetianaHabenaria perrottetianaA. Rich

Habit : Herb

Habitat :Grasslands

Distribution :South India

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. :September-

October

7.7.7.7. Luisia macranthaLuisia macranthaLuisia macranthaLuisia macrantha Blatt. & McCann

Habit : Herb



Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. :April- January

Family: Family: Family: Family: OrobanchaceaeOrobanchaceaeOrobanchaceaeOrobanchaceae

1.1.1.1. Christisonia tubulosaChristisonia tubulosaChristisonia tubulosaChristisonia tubulosa (Wight) Benth.

ex Hook. f

Habit : Herb


shola forests


Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. :: July- August

Family: Family: Family: Family: PiperaceaePiperaceaePiperaceaePiperaceae

1. Peperomia blandaPeperomia blandaPeperomia blandaPeperomia blanda (Jacq.) Kunth

Habit : Herb

Habitat : Moist deciduous,

semi-evergreen and

evergreen forests


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : July- December

2. Piper schmidtiiPiper schmidtiiPiper schmidtiiPiper schmidtii Hook.f.

Habit : Climber


65


and evergreen

forests


Ghats

Status : Endemic


Family: Family: Family: Family: PolygalaceaePolygalaceaePolygalaceaePolygalaceae

1. Xanthophyllum Xanthophyllum Xanthophyllum Xanthophyllum arnottianumarnottianumarnottianumarnottianum Wight

Habit : Tree


semi-evergreen

forests, also sacred

groves in the plains


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : Throughout the

year

Family: Family: Family: Family: PoaceaePoaceaePoaceaePoaceae

1.1.1.1. ChrysopogonChrysopogonChrysopogonChrysopogon hackeliihackeliihackeliihackelii (Hook.f.)

C.E.C.Fisch.

Habit : Herb

Habitat : Grasslands


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : October- January

Family: Family: Family: Family: RubiaceaeRubiaceaeRubiaceaeRubiaceae

1. Canthium rheedeiCanthium rheedeiCanthium rheedeiCanthium rheedei DC.

Habit : shrub

Habitat : Rocky areas in

semi-evergreen and

moist deciduous

forests,

also in sacred

groves


Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : March- August

1.1.1.1. Hedyotis leschenaultianaHedyotis leschenaultianaHedyotis leschenaultianaHedyotis leschenaultiana DC. var. var. var. var.

leschenaultianaleschenaultianaleschenaultianaleschenaultiana Deb & Dutta

Habit : Shrub


shola forests


Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : November- March

2.2.2.2. Ixora lanceolariaIxora lanceolariaIxora lanceolariaIxora lanceolaria Colebr.

Habit : Shrub


`forests and sacred

groves


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : January- May

3.3.3.3. Ixora malabaricaIxora malabaricaIxora malabaricaIxora malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb

Habit : Shrub


and moist

deciduous forests

and sacred groves


Ghats

Status : Endemic &

Vulnerable

Fl. & Fr. :October- March

4.4.4.4. Morinda reticulataMorinda reticulataMorinda reticulataMorinda reticulata Gamble

Habit : Climber


forests


Status : Endemic &

Endangered

Fl. & Fr. : April- May

5.5.5.5. Mussaenda frondosaMussaenda frondosaMussaenda frondosaMussaenda frondosa L.

Habit : Shrub


and semi-

evergreen forests,

also in the plains


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : September- March


66

6.6.6.6. Ochreinauclea missionisOchreinauclea missionisOchreinauclea missionisOchreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G.

Don) Ridsd.

Habit : Tree

Habitat : Riverine forests


Status : Endemic &

Vulnerable

Fl. & Fr. : August- January

Family: Family: Family: Family: RutaceaeRutaceaeRutaceaeRutaceae

1. Atalantia racemosaAtalantia racemosaAtalantia racemosaAtalantia racemosa Wight var.

bourdilloniibourdilloniibourdilloniibourdillonii K.N. Nair & M.P. Nayar

Habit : Shrub


semi-evergreen

forests


Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : January- April

Family: Family: Family: Family: SaSaSaSantalaceaentalaceaentalaceaentalaceae

1.1.1.1. Scleropyrum pentandrumScleropyrum pentandrumScleropyrum pentandrumScleropyrum pentandrum (Dennst.)

Mabb.

Habit : Tree


semi-evergreen

forests


Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : February- July

Family: SapindaceaeFamily: SapindaceaeFamily: SapindaceaeFamily: Sapindaceae

1.1.1.1. Otonephelium stipulaceum Otonephelium stipulaceum Otonephelium stipulaceum Otonephelium stipulaceum (Bedd.)

Radlk.

Habit : Tree


semi-evergreen

forests


Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : February- July

Family: Family: Family: Family: SapotaceaeSapotaceaeSapotaceaeSapotaceae

1. PalaquiumPalaquiumPalaquiumPalaquium ellipticumellipticumellipticumellipticum (Dalzell) Baill.

Habit : Tree



Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : February-

July

Family: Family: Family: Family: ScrophulariaceaeScrophulariaceaeScrophulariaceaeScrophulariaceae

1. Torenia bicolorTorenia bicolorTorenia bicolorTorenia bicolor Dalz.

Habit : Herb

Habitat : Marshy areas


Status : Endemic


2. Torenia Torenia Torenia Torenia hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta Willd

Habit : Herb

Habitat : Marshy areas


Ghats

Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : February-March

Family: Family: Family: Family: ZingiberaceaeZingiberaceaeZingiberaceaeZingiberaceae

1. Amomum muricatumAmomum muricatumAmomum muricatumAmomum muricatum Bedd.

Habit : Herb



Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : March- May

2. Curcuma ecalcarataCurcuma ecalcarataCurcuma ecalcarataCurcuma ecalcarata Sivar. & Indu

Habit : Herb

Habitat : Grasslands


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. : April -October

3. ZingiberZingiberZingiberZingiber nimmoniinimmoniinimmoniinimmonii (J.Graham)

Dalzell

Habit : Herb




67

plains


Status : Endemic

Fl. & Fr. :July- October

4.2.2.4.2.2.4.2.2.4.2.2.GymnospermGymnospermGymnospermGymnospermssss

Family :CycadaceaeFamily :CycadaceaeFamily :CycadaceaeFamily :Cycadaceae

1. CycasCycasCycasCycas circinaliscircinaliscircinaliscircinalis L.

Habitat :Wastelands and moist

deciduous forests

Distribution : Southern India

Status : Endangered

Family :GnetaceaeFamily :GnetaceaeFamily :GnetaceaeFamily :Gnetaceae

1. GnetumGnetumGnetumGnetum eduleeduleeduleedule (Willd.)Blume


evergreen forests, also in sacred groves

in the plains


Status : Endemic


68

PLATE 13: a. Homonoia riparia Lour., b. Begonia malabarica Lam., c. Aerides ringens (Lindl.)

C.E.C. Fisch., d. Habenaria longicorniculata Graham, e. Aristolochia krisagathra Sivar. & Pradeep,

f. Humboldtia vahliana Wight


69

PLATE 14: a. Habenaria longicornu Lindl., b. Goodyera procera (Ker.-Gawl.) Hook., c.

Helicteres isora L., d. Ficus laevis Blume var. macrocarpa (Miq.) Corner, e. Hemidesmus indicus

(L.) R. Br., f. Impatiens cordata Wight


70

PLATE 15: a. Meiogyne ramarowii (Dunn) Gandhi, b. Zingiber nimmonii Dalz., c.

Molineria trichocarpa (Wight) Balakr., d. Mucuna monosperma DC. ex Wight, e.

Munronia pinnata (Wall.) Harms, f. Chionanthus mala-elengi (Dennst.) P. S.

Green ssp. linocieroides (Wight) P. S. Green


71

PLATE 16: a. Lophopetalum wightianum Arn., b. Luisia macrantha Blatt. & McCann, c.

Christisonia tubulosa (Wight) Benth. ex Hook. f., d. Strobilanthes luridus Wight, e. Hygrophila

schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida, f. Meiogyne pannosa (Dalz.) Sinclair


72

PLATE 17: a. Memecylon heyneanum Benth. ex Wight & Arn., b. Lagerstroemia microcarpa

Wight, c. Parahemionitis cordata (Roxb. ex. Hook & Grev.) Fraser – Jenkins, d. Barleria

courtallica Nees, e. Conchidium braccatum (Lindl.) Brieger, f. Crataeva magna (Lour.) DC.


73

PLATE 18: a. Tetracera akara (Burm. f.) Merr.., b. Amorphophallus nicolsonianus Sivad., c.

Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch., d. Diospyros bourdillonii Brandis, e. Gnetum edule

(Willd.) Blume, f. Anaphyllum wightii Schott


74

4.3. Weed invasion in the study area4.3. Weed invasion in the study area4.3. Weed invasion in the study area4.3. Weed invasion in the study area

A survey was conducted to enumerate the species composition and also to identify the

general status of the weed invasion in the riverbeds of Achankovil. The results obtained from the

survey during the year 2018-2019 are presented here.

4.3.1.4.3.1.4.3.1.4.3.1. Invasive Invasive Invasive Invasive weedsweedsweedsweeds

Seven noxious weeds were spotted in the riverine bounds viz., Chromolaena odorata,

Lantana camara, Camonea vitifolia, Sphagneticola trilobata, Mikania scandens, Mimosa diplotricha

and Ipomoea carnea Jack. ssp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) Austin.

4.3.1.1.4.3.1.1.4.3.1.1.4.3.1.1. Chromolaena odorata Chromolaena odorata Chromolaena odorata Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob. (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob. (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob. (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob.

Synm.Synm.Synm.Synm. Chromolaena barranquillensis ; Chromolaena odorata f. odorata ; Chromolaena odorata f.

squarrosa ; Chrysocoma maculata; Chrysocoma volubilis ; Chrysocoma volubilis ; Eupatorium

affine; Eupatorium atriplicifolium ; Eupatorium barranquillense; Eupatorium brachiatum ;

Eupatorium conyzoides ; Eupatorium conyzoides var. incanum ; Eupatorium conyzoides var.

phyllocephalum ; Eupatorium conyzoides var. scaberulum ; Eupatorium conyzoides var.

tambillense ; Eupatorium dichotomum; Eupatorium divergens ; Eupatorium floribundum ;

Eupatorium graciliflorum; Eupatorium klattii; Eupatorium odoratum; Eupatorium odoratum var.

brachiatum ; Eupatorium odoratum var. cubense; Eupatorium odoratum var. mallotophyllum;

Eupatorium odoratum var. pauciflorum; Eupatorium sabeanum ; Eupatorium stigmatosum ; Osmia

atriplicifolia ; Osmia conyzoides ; Osmia divergens; Osmia floribunda ; Osmia graciliflora; Osmia

odorata .

Common NameCommon NameCommon NameCommon Name: Siam weed, Christmas bush, devil weed, camphor grass, common floss flower,

communist green and triffid. Communist pacha (Malayalam)

Family: Family: Family: Family: AsteraceaeAsteraceaeAsteraceaeAsteraceae

Distribution: Distribution: Distribution: Distribution: Chromolaena odorata is native to the Caribbean and Latin America. It has

been introduced to tropical Asia, west Africa, and parts of Australia. Kerala: Kerala: Kerala: Kerala: All Kerala

Description: Description: Description: Description: HHHHerbs, dense tangled bushes to 1.5-3.0 m in height. The older stems are brown and

woody near the base; tips and young shoots are green and succulent. The root system is fibrous and

does not penetrate beyond 20-30cm in most soils. stems terete, pubescent; leaves opposite, flaccid-

membranous, velvety-pubescent, deltoid-ovate, acute, 3-nerved, very coarsely toothed, each margin

with 1-5 teeth, or entire in youngest leaves; base obtuse or subtruncate but shortly decurrent; petiole

slender, 1-1.5cm long; blade mostly 5-12cm long, 3-6cm wide, capitula in sub-corymbose axillary

and terminal clusters; peduncles 1-3cm long, bracteate; bracts slender, 10-12mm long; involucre of

about 4-5 series of bracts, pale with green nerves, acute, the lowest ones about 2mm long, upper


75

ones 8-9mm long, all acute, distally ciliate, flat, appressed except the extreme divergent tip; florets

all alike (disc-florets), pale purple to dull off-white, the styles extending about 4mm beyond the

apex of the involucre, spreading radiately; receptacle very narrow; florets about 20-30 or a few

more, 10-12mm long; ovarian portion 4mm long; corolla slender trumpet form; pappus of dull

white hairs 5mm long; achenes glabrous. The seeds of Siam weed are small (3-5mm long, ~1mm

wide, and weigh about 2.5mg seed-1. ImpactImpactImpactImpactssss:::: Chromolaena odorata can be considered as a very

serious weed in all types of plants species in the humid areas of the Palaeotropics. C. odorata is a

typical pioneer species of secondary forest succession with a strong heliophilic character and

vigorous vegetative development. lnitially C. odorata spreads by seed, but after establishment it may

also reproduce vegetatively from lateral branches; regrowth occurs after slashing and burning. It

flowers at the end of the rainy season and after flowering the leaves fall and the stems die back. The

ripe seeds are wind dispersed, although adherence to the fur of animals, clothes and machinery,

and the contamination of planting material are also important mechanisms for seed dispersal over

large distances. C. odorata may easily invade open spaces. In heavily disturbed environments, it

competes effectively with other plants and crops, and may become the dominant species.

4.3.1.2.4.3.1.2.4.3.1.2.4.3.1.2. Lantana camara Lantana camara Lantana camara Lantana camara L.

Synm.Synm.Synm.Synm. : Camara vulgaris; Lantana camara f. albiflora ; Lantana camara f. caffertyi; Lantana camara

f. camara ; Lantana camara f. nana ; Lantana camara f. rubelloflavescens ; Lantana camara var.

camara; Lantana camara var. nana ; Lantana coccinea ; Lantana coccinea ; Lantana

glandulodissima ;Lantana glandulosissima f. aculeatissima ; Lantana glandulosissima f. parvifolia ;

Lantana glandulosissima var. grandis ; Lantana mexicana ; Lantana polyacantha ; Lantana scabrida ;

Lantana spinosa ; Lantana spinosa ; Lantana tiliaefolia; Lantana tiliaefolia var. glandulosa ; Lantana

tiliaefolia var. scabra ; Lantana urticifolia subsp. urticifolia.

Common Name: Common Name: Common Name: Common Name: Big-sage , wild-sage, red-sage, white-sage and tickberry. Kongini, Aripoo

(Mal.)

Family: Family: Family: Family: VerbenaceaeVerbenaceaeVerbenaceaeVerbenaceae

Distribution: Distribution: Distribution: Distribution: Native of Central and South America; it has been introduced and now it has a

cosmopolitan range. Kerala: Kerala: Kerala: Kerala: All Kerala

Description: Description: Description: Description: Deciduous shrub, to 2 m (6 ft) ormore, with stems square, covered with bristly hairs

when green, often armed as well with scattered small prickles. Leaves opposite, simple, with

petioles to 2 cm (0.8 in) long; blades oval, rough hairy, to 15 cm (6 in) long and 6 cm (2.4 in) wide,

with margins blunt-toothed and blade bases broad, squared off (truncate); leaves strongly aromatic.

Flowers small, multicolored, in stalked, dense, flat-topped clusters to 4 cm (1.5 in) across; corolla a

narrow tube with 4 short spreading lobes; flowers in a single cluster may be white to pink or


76

lavender, yellow to orange or red, changing color over time. Fruit a round, fleshy, 2-seeded drupe,

about 5 mm (0.2 in) wide, green turning purple then blue-black.

Impacts: Impacts: Impacts: Impacts: Its infestations alter the structural and floral composition of native communities. As the

density of Lantana camara in forest increases, allelopathic interactions increase and hence there is

decline in species richness. Due to its prolific nature of flowering and dispersal, the species tends

to alter the structure of the terrestrial ecosystem by gregarious presence. The species forms dense

thickets and tends to eliminate the native species. L. camara become the understorey species in

disturbed native forest thus dominating the flora, causing disruption in succession and loss in

biodiversity. L. camara often causes a reduction in yield or impedes harvesting in plantations. Also,

species has potential to contaminate the gene pool of the rare plant species. Allelopathy

characteristics of species enable it to survive secondary succession and become monospecific

thickets. Fire regimes are altered immensely by the presence of the Lantana camara in natural

systems. The species burns readily in hot and dry conditions. Its occurrence on forest margins are

seen as major threat to community, as a result of increased in roads of fire into the land.

4.3.1.3.4.3.1.3.4.3.1.3.4.3.1.3. Camonea vitifolia Camonea vitifolia Camonea vitifolia Camonea vitifolia (Burm.f.) A.R.Simões & Staples

Synm.Synm.Synm.Synm. : Convolvulus angularis; Convolvulus vitifolius ; Ipomoea vitifolia ; Ipomoea vitifolia var.

angularis ; Merremia vitifolia; Tirtalia vitifolia.

Local Name : Local Name : Local Name : Local Name : Grape-leaf Wood Rose

Family: Family: Family: Family: ConvolvulaceaeConvolvulaceaeConvolvulaceaeConvolvulaceae

Distribution: Distribution: Distribution: Distribution: E. Asia - China, India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos,

Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines. Kerala: Kerala: Kerala: Kerala: All Kerala .

Description: TDescription: TDescription: TDescription: Twinning or prostrate herb. The stems are purplish when old, and grow to 4 m long.

Leaf blade is circular in outline, 5-18 by 5-16 cm, cordate at the base, palmately 5-7-lobed. Flower-

buds narrow-ovoid, acute. Flower tube is funnel shaped -6 cm long, glabrous, bright yellow, paler

towards the base. Pedicel 1–1.6 cm, thicker distally. Sepals oblong or ovate-oblong, 1.4–1.8 cm,

enlarged in fruit, ± leathery, ± shiny, pitted adaxially, pellucid glandular, apex obtuse or ± acute;

outer 2 hirsute abaxially; inner ones glabrous. Corolla yellow, paler in tube, funnelform, 2.5–5.5

cm, glabrous outside; limb ± 5-angled. Stamens ca. 1.1 cm; anthers spirally twisted. Ovary glabrous.

Capsule straw colored, ± globose, ca. 1.2 cm, papery. Seeds black-brown, trigonous-ovoid, ca. 7

mm, gla-brous.

Impacts: Impacts: Impacts: Impacts: Found all over the open forests, thickets, and hedges, in teak-forests, along edges of

secondary forests, on river-banks and waysides. Camonea vitifolia become the understorey species

in disturbed native forest thus dominating the flora, causing disruption in succession and loss in

indigenous phytodiversity.


77

4.3.1.4.4.3.1.4.4.3.1.4.4.3.1.4. Sphagneticola trilobata Sphagneticola trilobata Sphagneticola trilobata Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski(L.) Pruski(L.) Pruski(L.) Pruski Synm.Synm.Synm.Synm. : Acmella brasiliensis ; A. spilanthoides ; Aster strigosus ; Buphthalmum heterophyllum; B.

procumbens ; B. repens ; B. strigosum ; Polymnia carnosa (Rich.) Poir.; P. carnosa var. carnosa ; P.

crenata ; Seruneum paludosum ; S. trilobatum ; Silphium trilobatum ; Sphagneticola ulei ;

Stemmodontia carnosa ; S. trilobata ; Thelechitonia trilobata ; Verbesina carnosa ; V. carnosa var.

aspera ; V. carnosa var. carnosa; Verbesina carnosa var. triloba ; V. tridentata ; Wedelia brasiliensis

; W. brasiliensis var. brasiliensis; W. carnosa ; W. carnosa ; W. carnosa var. carnosa; W. carnosa

var. glabella ; W. carnosa var. triloba ; W. carnosa var. triloba ; W. crenata ; W. paludicola; W.

paludosa ; W. paludosa var. paludosa; W. paludosa var. vialis ; W. pedunculata; W. pedunculata ;

W. tannensis ; W. triloba ; W. trilobata; W. trilobata ; W. trilobata var. hirtella ; W. trilobata var.

pilosissima; Wollastonia trilobata

Local Name:Local Name:Local Name:Local Name: Bay Biscayne creeping-oxeye,Singapore daisy, creeping-oxeye, trailing

daisy, and wedelia.

Family :Family :Family :Family : Asteraceae

DistributionDistributionDistributionDistribution: Native of Tropical America, but now grows throughout the Neotropics. Kerala: All

over.

DescriptionDescriptionDescriptionDescription: Perennial herbs, prostrate, diffuse, rooting at nodes; stems glabrous or pubescent.

Leaves 3-10 x 3-7 cm, elliptic-obovate, usually with 3 angular lobes with toothed margins, acute at

apex, basally cuneate, glabrous to sparingly pubescent; petiole short, upto 5 mm. Heads radiate, 2-

2.5 cm across, solitary on ebracteate 4-15 cm long peduncles. Involucre green; bracts lanceolate, 1-

1.5 cm long, ciliate; inner narrower. Ray florets 5-8; corolla bright yellow, 1.5-2.0 x 0.5-0.7 cm, 3-4

denticulate; tube short. Ovary trigonous; stigma bilobed. Pappus connate into a spathiform,

fimbriate cup at the apex, devoid of awns. Disc florets many; corolla yellow; tube 5-8 mm long, 5-

lobed; lobes deltoid, densely pubescent within. Anthers black, syngenecious. Style branches

flattened and marginally pubescent. Achenes blackish, warty, 4-6 mm long, crowned by the

persistent pappus cup.

ImpactsImpactsImpactsImpacts: Sphagneticola is one of the most significant dominant invasive plant species. The

presence of invasive plant species such as S. trilobata in the terrestrial ecosystem poses a major

threat to the biodiversity of a given community and ecosystem functions. S. trilobata was found to

prevent regeneration of co-occurring species and damage riverbanks and wastelands. This could

have been attributed to the allelopathic effect of S. trilobata leachates and residues that caused

substantial reduction in germination and growth rate of native plants. One of the reasons S.

trilobata is more aggressive and dominant in the invaded region is because of the lack of natural

enemies which are capable of controlling its population growth.


78

4.3.1.5.4.3.1.5.4.3.1.5.4.3.1.5. Mikania scandensMikania scandensMikania scandensMikania scandens Willd.Willd.Willd.Willd.

Synm.Synm.Synm.Synm. : Eupatorium orinocense var. batataefolium ; E. scandens; Mikania angulosa ; M.

batataefolia ; M. menisperma ; M. menispermea ; M. mikanoides ; M. pubescens; M. scandens var.

pubescens ; M. scandens var. scandens; Willoughbya scandens ; W. scandens var. normalis ; W.

scandens var. pubescens

Local Name: Local Name: Local Name: Local Name: Mikenia, Bittervine, Chinese Creeper, Climbing Hempweed. Vayara ( Mal.)

Family: Family: Family: Family: Asteraceae

Distribution:Distribution:Distribution:Distribution: Native to the eastern and central United States and it is spread all over pantropical.

KeralaKeralaKeralaKerala: All Kerala .

DescriptionDescriptionDescriptionDescription: Climbers, stem glandular-hispid. Leaves simple, opposite, 5-8 x 4-6 cm, ovate, apex

acute, base cordate, crenate, glabrate; petiole 2-4 cm long. Heads 5 mm long, in axillary panicles;

bracts biseriate, outer 2 smaller, inner 3-5, 4 x 1.5 mm, ovate, obtuse. Flowers 3-5, similar, bisexual;

corolla 3 mm long, tubular, lobes 5, glandular, white; anthers linear. Achenes 2 mm long, 5-ribbed,

black, glabrous; pappus 4 mm long, many, hispid.

ImpactsImpactsImpactsImpacts: Its rapid spread is a threat to natural environments, where it kills or reduces growth of

preferred species, severely impacting on biodiversity and production. Large numbers of wind-

dispersed seeds and ability to propagate vegetatively from stem fragments facilitate rapid invasion.

Management of M. micrantha is difficult.

4.3.1.6.4.3.1.6.4.3.1.6.4.3.1.6. Mimosa diplotricha Mimosa diplotricha Mimosa diplotricha Mimosa diplotricha C. WrightC. WrightC. WrightC. Wright

Synm. Synm. Synm. Synm. :::: Mimosa invisa; Morongia pilosa; Schrankia brachycarpa; Schrankia pilosa

Local Name:Local Name:Local Name:Local Name: Giant sensitive plant

Family: Family: Family: Family: Fabaceae, Mimosaceae

Distribution: Distribution: Distribution: Distribution: Native to t Native of Tropical America; a weed in India. Kerala: All Kerala

Description: Description: Description: Description: Rambling shrubs, stem pubescent, prickles short, in 4-rows. Leaves to 10 cm long;

pinnae opposite, to 5 cm long; leaflets to 35 pairs, to 5 x 1 mm, oblong, truncate at base, glabrous;

rachis prickled. Head to 1.5 cm across, in terminal racemes, peduncled. Flowers many, 3 mm long,

pink; stamens 10, filaments 6 mm long. Pods 2-5 cm long, bristly, black when mature.

Impacts:Impacts:Impacts:Impacts: It has the ability to climb over and smother other plants and can shade out light-

demanding species, preventing the natural regeneration of other plants, and it constitutes a wildland

fire hazard when dry. Due to its prolific nature of flowering and dispersal, the species tends to alter

the structure of the terrestrial ecosystem by gregarious presence. The species forms dense thickets

and tends to eliminate the native species. There are no potential enemies and the seeds spread

through winds are another threat to the indigenous flora.


79

4.3.1. 7.4.3.1. 7.4.3.1. 7.4.3.1. 7. Ipomoea carneaIpomoea carneaIpomoea carneaIpomoea carnea Jack. ssp. ssp. ssp. ssp. fistulosafistulosafistulosafistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) Austin

Synm. Synm. Synm. Synm. : Ipomoea fistulosa Mart. ex Choisy; Ipomoea crassicaulis (Benth.) Robins.; Batatas crassicaulis

Benth

Local Name: Local Name: Local Name: Local Name: Neyveli katta (Mal.); Bush Morning Glory ,Shrub Ipomoea

Family: Family: Family: Family: Convolvulaceae

Distribution:Distribution:Distribution:Distribution: Native of America; now Pantropical

Description:Description:Description:Description: Erect to subscandent shrubs; stems fistulose at maturity, tomentose. Leaves ovate-

lanceate, 4-14 by 2.5-9 cm, base cordate, apex gradually acuminate, lateral veins 8-10 pairs,

prominent. Cymes many-flowered, axillary or subterminal; peduncle c. 10 cm long; calyx lobes

subequal; corolla pale pink, c. 9 cm long. Capsule ovoid. Seeds pubescent.

Impacts: Impacts: Impacts: Impacts: Due to its prolific nature of flowering and dispersal, the species tends to alter the structure

of the terrestrial ecosystem by gregarious presence. The species forms dense thickets and tends to

eliminate the native species. There are no potential enemies and the seeds spread through winds

are another threat to the indigenous flora.

4.3.2.4.3.2.4.3.2.4.3.2. Aquatic and Aquatic and Aquatic and Aquatic and ssssemi aquatic emi aquatic emi aquatic emi aquatic wwwweeeeeeeedsdsdsds

Some aggressive aquatic weeds viz., Colocasia esculenta, Cabomba caroliniana, Eichhornia

crassipes and Pistia stratiotes were also shows invasive nature in islands. Native biota was highly

affected by them. Sometimes, water transport highly affected by the high abundance of Cabomba

and Eichornia in the water course. It is also affecting the inland fishing too.

4.3.3.4.3.3.4.3.3.4.3.3. Likely invasive species (L.IAS)Likely invasive species (L.IAS)Likely invasive species (L.IAS)Likely invasive species (L.IAS)

These plants are non-native, having biological potential for rapid or widespread dispersal

and naturalized in the islands. These plants also have invasion history in other protected areas.

However, there is no major invasion in the study area noticed. Plants species such as Xanthium

indicum, Urena lobata, Hygrophila ringens, Microstachys chamaelea, Stachytarpheta jamaicensis,

Persicaria glabra, Ludwigia peruviana, L. hyssopifolia, Cleome viscosa, Tridax procumbens,

Achyranthes aspera, Ipomoea hederifolia, Mimosa pudica, Aerva lanata and Evolvulus alsinoides

are the invasive species with potential to be a noxious weed, identified from the islands.

4.3.4.4.3.4.4.3.4.4.3.4. Spread Spread Spread Spread eeeecology and cology and cology and cology and pppphytosociology of the hytosociology of the hytosociology of the hytosociology of the nnnnoxious weeds in the study areaoxious weeds in the study areaoxious weeds in the study areaoxious weeds in the study area

The data collected for the present study were analyzed to throw light on the answers to the

specific questions raised in the study. As based on the criterion we have used, 11 invasive alien

plants species were enumerated. An earnest attempt is made to study the spread ecology of these

weeds of the entire region. The details emerged from the study are presented below.


80

TableTableTableTable 4444: Spread ecology of Invasive weeds in : Spread ecology of Invasive weeds in : Spread ecology of Invasive weeds in : Spread ecology of Invasive weeds in Upper ZoneUpper ZoneUpper ZoneUpper Zone

Quadrate No CO LC CV ST MS MD

1 1 5 3 7 7

2 1 20 4

3 9 2

4 5 5 6 11

5 3

6 3 11

7 4

8 4

9 25

10 8 4

11 2 5

12 2 3 1

13

14 7 2 3

15 3 15

16 6

17 2 7 11

18 7 2

19 6 1 20 1

20 4 3 16

Total 45 40 35 105 27 25 277

Abundance 3.52 3.42 3.01 9.16 2.63 2.61

Standard Deviation 2.82 2.36 2.5 6.32 1.36 1.62

Density 1.3 0.86 1.3 8 0.61 1.6

Relative Density 1.73 0.9 1.08 4.33 0.7 1.19

Frequency 30 21 33 25 21 17

Relative Frequency 1.7 3. 21 3.35 3.01 2.03 1.79

Relative Dominance 0.31 0.30 0.17 0.71 0.21 0.19

RIVI 3.74 4.41 4.6 3.37 2.94 3.17

TableTableTableTable 5555: Spread ecology of Invasive weeds in : Spread ecology of Invasive weeds in : Spread ecology of Invasive weeds in : Spread ecology of Invasive weeds in Middle ZoneMiddle ZoneMiddle ZoneMiddle Zone

Quadrate No CO LC CV ST MS MD IC CE

1 3

2 3 11 8

3 2 4 5 2 6 25

4 7 6 2 14 6 22

5 8 3 18 2 10

6 9 14 14


81

7 10 18 14 4

8 16 4 5

9 20 9 10 21 5 27

10 10 4 16

11 7 11 6 9

12 14 4 9

13 21 14 16 3

14 14 8 2 9 18

15 21 15 9 4

16 21 9 7

17 3 16 15

18 14 25 2 4

19 13 1 18 7 15

20 21 9 3 2 3 11

Total 156 135 91 126 71 68 98 85 856

Abundance 14.2 12.17 9.11 11.45 6.45 11.33 8.9 7.71

Standard Deviation 9.86 8.27 6.86 7.12 5.04 6.59 6.06 5.14

Density 8.95 7.05 4.4 6.42 3.55 3.4 4.9 4.12

Relative Density 3.28 3.95 3.08 4.42 2.49 1.83 2.44 2.12

Frequency 65 70 60 55 54 30 55 60

Relative Frequency 3.51 2.86 4.16 3.81 3.76 1.25 2.81 1.65

Relative Dominance 0.942 0.74 0.46 0.66 0.37 0.0003 0.51 0.06

RIVI 7.732 6.55 7.7 8.89 6.62 2.50 5.76 3.43

Table Table Table Table 6666: : : : Spread ecology of Invasive weeds species in Spread ecology of Invasive weeds species in Spread ecology of Invasive weeds species in Spread ecology of Invasive weeds species in Lower ZoneLower ZoneLower ZoneLower Zone

Quadrate No CO LC CV ST MS MD IC CE CC EC PS

1 5 5 80 500

2 10 15 300

3 10 135 235

4 8 9 25

5 15 4 17 26 58

6 6 9 96

7 15 152

8 11 8 75 700

9 6 300

10 4 24 6 24 250

11 11 23 80 210

12 8 10 20 25 120 72 60

13 96

14 11 60 600

15 10 7 9 125 85

16 15 14

17 8

18 8 5

19

20 7 2

Total 59 103

Abundance 5.6 9.1

Standard Deviation 3.1 4.6

Density 9.1 5.1

Relative Density 1.2 2.3 2.63

Frequency 8.1 3.6

Relative Frequency 1.2 1.3 2.01

Relative Dominance 0.031 0.5 0.032

RIVI 2.431 4.16 4.96

FIG.FIG.FIG.FIG.7777:::: RIVI of the noxious weeds in the study area

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

CO LC CV ST

CO LC

Upper Zone 3.74 4.41

Middle Zone 7.732 6.55

Lower Zone 2.431 4.16 4.96


21 85

10 110

20 6 51 71

20 13 9 200

10 18 10 90 100

92 33 99 167 254 522 1137

7.2 3.26 8.53 10.26 11.6 16.65 21.6

3.6 1.23 2.59 3.25 4.56 94.3 265.2

4.6 1.65 4.28 11.52 6.35 11.25 16.25

2.63 1.02 2.53 4.16 2.96 2.15 4.15

4.5 5.02 5.75 2.3 5.85 3.58 5.26

2.01 1.14 1.59 2.03 2.65 1.53 1.15

032 0. 04 0.02 0.08 1.23 0.59 1.26

4.96 2.20 4.16 6.26 6.75 3.16 6.16

RIVI of the noxious weeds in the study area

MSMD IC

CECC

EC

CV ST MS MD IC CE CC

4.6 3.37 2.94 3.17

7.7 8.89 6.62 2.5 5.76 3.43

4.96 2.2 4.16 6.26 6.75 3.16 6.16


82

25

25

85

15

1542 1830 5838

22.6 26.3

302 256

15.2 19.1

3.15 2.32

3.25 2.15

2.56 1.96

0.26 1.26

5.15 4.26

PS

EC PS

5.15 4.26


83

4.3.4.1.4.3.4.1.4.3.4.1.4.3.4.1. Spread ecology of Spread ecology of Spread ecology of Spread ecology of weedsweedsweedsweeds

Chromolaena odorata is widely acknowledged as a major economic and ecological burden

to many tropical and subtropical regions of the world including India. In three zones of the study

area, this noxious weed is spreading at an alarming rate. The research revealed the decrease of

species diversity in the invaded habitats. As denoted by Ambika and Jayachandran (1980), C.

odorata produces a variety of allelochemicals, including flavonoids, terpenoids, and alkaloids to

suppress the crops. Lowland Vayals are also prone to the invasion. When compared to other

habitats, salt invaded area is less infested.

Lantana camara L. a notorious global invader, has spread rapidly in many of the 60 regions

of the world and is listed among the world's one hundred worst invasive species (Lowe et al., 2000).

Morphological and ecological characteristics that have contributed to its successful spread in

Tropical countries. These include prolific flowering and production of fleshy fruit throughout the

year features that are particularly important as frugivorous birds are important dispersal vectors.

Endozoochory (i.e. the dispersal of seeds after passage through the vertebrate gut) has been shown

to increase seed germination rates and vigor (Jordaan et al., 2011).In three zones of the Achankovil

Rivers, L. camera is naturalized. However, modest invasion noticed there.

Camonea vitifolia was not an aggressive weed until the last two decades. But, these plants

acclimatized in Indian forest especially the Western Ghats and proliferate at an alarming rate. C.

vitifolia grows particularly well on forest margins and rapidly colonises forest gaps created by dead

trees and tree falls. It can even cause death of shrubs and small trees. Roots emerges out from each

node of the plant and will spread over the thickets and gaps. The research revealed that, C. vitifolia

is a destructive weed even in swamps. The lowland Vayals also provide habitat for them. Urgent

preventive measures should be adopted to conserve the local flora.

Sphagneticola trilobata was able to adapt to different environments. The mean phenotypic

plasticity index of S. trilobata was higher than that of other invasive plant species. As revealed from

the study S. trilobata spread all over the habitat except sacred groves. It denoted that, this species is

highly adapted for these habitats and may spread over shades also. It having a greater biomass and

higher rates of transpiration compared to the indigenous vegetation it also reduces water run-off in

water catchments.

The spread of Mikania scandens suppresses indigenous vegetation through physical

smothering and allelopathy. M. Scandens forms a higher plant biomass than the indigenous

vegetation on swampecosystems. Another noteworthy result observed in the study that, M.

scandens is slowly invaded into the mangrove forest also. Mikania scandens threatens the habitats

of animal taxa too.


84

Mimosa diplotricha is a fast-growing, sprawling annual although behaves as a short-lived

perennial shrubby leguminous vine. This plant forms dense, tangled clumps up to 2 m high. It

produces enormous seeds and these seeds remain dormant for up to several years. There are no

potential enemies to Mimosa diplotricha and their seeds spread through winds and easily grow

everywhere.

Ipomoea carnea ssp. fistulosa is a pantropical weed, was able to adapt to different

environments. In different habitat of the islands it spreads its distribution at an alarming rate. When

compared to other zones, no such invasion of Ipomoea carnea in uppeerzone. However, urgent

preventive measures should be adopted to conserve the local flora.

Aquatic weeds are highly infested in lower zone. Of which Cabomba and Eichornia are

denoted as notorious weeds. Its bulky vicinity in the water course makes nuisance. Water transport,

inland fishing, local flora and fauna are highly affected by their growth. Urgent preventive measures

should be employed at the earliest.


85

PLATE 19: a. Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Robins., b. Lantana camara L., c. Mikania

micrantha Kunth, d. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv., e. Asclepias curassavica L., f. Ageratum

conyzoides L.


86

PLATE 20: a. Cabomba caroliniana Gray, b. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) Voss, c. Colocasia

esculenta (L.) Schott, d. Ipomoea carnea Jack. ssp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) Austin, e. Alternanthera

brasiliana ( L. ) Kuntze, f. Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl


87

PLATE 21: a. Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl., b. Urena lobata L., c. Xenostegia tridentata

(L.) Austin & Staples, d. Mimosa diplotricha C. Wight ex Sanvalle, e. Xanthium indicum Koenig,

f. Ricinus communis L.


88

4.4.4.4.4444. Effect of flood in biodiversity. Effect of flood in biodiversity. Effect of flood in biodiversity. Effect of flood in biodiversity

Flood in 2018 made much havoc in Kerala. The impact of flood in river bounds of

Achankovil is subjected to investigation. Results revealed from the study are enlisted here.

• Invasion of weedsInvasion of weedsInvasion of weedsInvasion of weeds

Seven noxious weeds were spotted in the study area viz., Chromolaena odorata, Lantana

camara, Camonea vitifolia, Sphagneticola trilobata, Mikania scandens, Mimosa diplotricha

and Ipomoea carnea Jack. ssp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) Austin. Besides that, 4 aggressive

aquatic weeds viz., Colocasia esculenta, Cabomba caroliniana, Eichhornia crassipes and

Pistia stratiotes numerous likely invasive species are growing at an alarming rate. Few more

Likely Invasive Weeds shows its fast spreading capacity throughout the bounds of the river.

• Invasion of aquatic organismsInvasion of aquatic organismsInvasion of aquatic organismsInvasion of aquatic organisms

The invasive fishes like African Catfish, Redbelly, Cattla etc. makes the serious problem in

the indigenous biodiversity.

• Declining of fish populationDeclining of fish populationDeclining of fish populationDeclining of fish population

As revealed from the long term investigation and questionnaire survey, the population of

indigenous fishes likes Etroplus, Kayal Prawns, Valves, Gastropods etc. facing a serious

declination.

• Loss of vegetationLoss of vegetationLoss of vegetationLoss of vegetation

Flood caused the destruction of plants even the mangrove vegetation. Numerous plants

fallen down. Besides that, plant diseases such as yellowing and various insect diseases were

also noticed. Stretches of Humboldtia vahliana and Crataeva magna were washed out in the

heavy flood.

• River channelizationRiver channelizationRiver channelizationRiver channelization

Because of heavy landslides, sand & soil deposition and tree fallen in the flood, river

channelization and dechananelization takeplace. It causes loss in the biodiversity and

minerals.


89

• Plastic accumulationPlastic accumulationPlastic accumulationPlastic accumulation

Kilograms of plastics and bottles were accumulated in the bounds of Achankovil River.

Heavy deposition occurred in Panthalalam, Sharngadharakkavu and Veeyapuram regions.

It will affect this biodiversity rich area. Besides the plastics, large deposition of glass bottles

noticed in the agriculture field of Kuttanadu. Broken glass piece causes injury to farmers

and laborers.

• Diseases and infectionsDiseases and infectionsDiseases and infectionsDiseases and infections

Numerous diseases noticed throughout the field such as Mahali, Yellowing, leaf

curling & leaf buring in paddy, blast in crops and damping off in tubercrops. Invasion of

numerous insects and moths are also observed.

• Lost seedsLost seedsLost seedsLost seeds

Seeds of agricultural crops and stocks are destroyed. Seed stocks of pisum, rice,

tapioca, yams, banana and seasonal crops are lost. It will be affect for the upcoming

farming seasons.

• Water contamination and acidificationWater contamination and acidificationWater contamination and acidificationWater contamination and acidification

Water bodies and wells are covered with oily layers in lowland zones and vayals.

Besides that, the pH of water changed to acidic forms. This change will affect in living

components of the ecosystem.


90

PLATE 22: a-f. Biodiversity and ecological loss after flood


91

PLATE 23: a-f. Biodiversity and ecological loss after flood


92

4.4.4.4.5555. Recommendations. Recommendations. Recommendations. Recommendations

4.4.4.4.5555.1. .1. .1. .1. EcosyestemEcosyestemEcosyestemEcosyestem restorationrestorationrestorationrestoration

Riparian vegetation plays a significant role in controlling erosion and improving water

quality of the area. Riparian vegetation are known to provide shelter, act as nursery grounds and

are also habitats for economically important fishes, prawns, crabs and molluscs. Flood 2018 caused

much destruction in bounds of the Achankovil River. Riparian zones restoration is the need of the

hour. Aspects to be paid attention to

1. Identification of appropriate sites for restoration (soil stability, flooding regime, elevation,

extent of pollution)

2. Selection of species/species assemblages suitable for the soil and hydrological conditions of the

site

3. Quality of the planting material

4. Adoption of an appropriate planting technique

5. After-care practices

6. Mechanisms to obtain local community participation and support for restoration

4.4.4.4.5555.2. .2. .2. .2. Methods to control of Invasive Alien SpeciesMethods to control of Invasive Alien SpeciesMethods to control of Invasive Alien SpeciesMethods to control of Invasive Alien Species

The following methods are proposed to control and prevent the invasion and the

expansion of the weed plants.

4.5.2.1.4.5.2.1.4.5.2.1.4.5.2.1. Prevention of spreadPrevention of spreadPrevention of spreadPrevention of spread

For preventive measures which have already established in some areas and immediate

eradication is difficult, efforts should be focused on preventing their spread by:

1) Restricting the movement of soil and plant parts from infested areas to un-infested areas and

2) Removing the weeds manually or mechanically (cutting or pulling) before flowering and fruiting

and burning them at the site.

3) Integrated weed management

4). Introduction of eco-friendly pathogens or insects which is harmful to these weeds

5). Application of biological herbicide

5). Application of herbicide


93

4.5.2.2.4.5.2.2.4.5.2.2.4.5.2.2. Habitat restorationHabitat restorationHabitat restorationHabitat restoration

Manual/mechanical control may be difficult, costly and unsustainable for exotic weeds

which have established in large areas. In such cases, systematic restoration strategies should be

taken up. To achieve this, remove the weeds manually or mechanically (pulling along with

roots/tubers) in small areas at a time and subsequently plant the area with fast growing native

species. Assisted regeneration may also be attempted in such areas.

4.5.2.3.4.5.2.3.4.5.2.3.4.5.2.3. Silviculture PracticesSilviculture PracticesSilviculture PracticesSilviculture Practices

Introduction of saplings in open areas of the swamps and ensure facilities for its growth. It

will help to reduce the radius of the open areas and such a way we can prevent the expansion of

weeds.

4.5.3.4.5.3.4.5.3.4.5.3. PlasPlasPlasPlastic removaltic removaltic removaltic removal

Accumulated plastic in the islands should be collected and recycled. For the same, self help

groups, NGO s etc. can be participate.

4.5.4.4.5.4.4.5.4.4.5.4. Application of limestone in agriculture field will get positive result in soil problems.

4.5.5.4.5.5.4.5.5.4.5.5. Monitoring and conservation of endemic and endangered plants in the riparian bounds of

Achankovil with the help of BMCs, and NGOs.


94

REFERNCESREFERNCESREFERNCESREFERNCES

Abraham, M. & C.T. Abraham (2005). Biology Of Mile - A Minute Weed (Mikania

Micrantha H. B.K.), An Alien Invasive Weed in Kerala. Indian Journal of Weed

Science 37373737(1/2):153-154.

Abraham, Z. & B. N. Mehrotra (1982). Some Observations of Endemic Species and

Rare Plants of The Montane Flora of The Nilgiris, South India. J. Econ. Tax.

Bot. 3: 863-867.

Ahmedullah, M. (2000). Endemism In The Indian Flora. In: Singh, N. P., D. K. Singh,

P. K. Hajra & B. D. Sharma (Ed.), Flora of India, Introductory Volume 1. Part 2.

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. 246 – 265.

Ahmedullah, M. & M. P. Nayar (1987). Endemic Plants of the Indian Region. I.

Peninsular India. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. 262 P.

Ambika, S.R. & Jayachandra (1980). Suppression of Plantation Crops by Eupatorium

Weed. Curr. Sci. 49494949:874-875.

Anilkumar, N. (1994). Flora of Pathanamthitta District. PhD Thesis. University Of

Calicut, Malappuram.

Ansari, R. (1985). Studies on The Vascular Flora of Kasaragod Division, Cannanore

District, Kerala State. PhD Thesis. University Of Madras.

Antony, V. T. (1989). Systematic Studies on The Flora of Kottayam District, Kerala.

Ph.D Thesis. Bharathiyar University, Coimbatore.

Babu, A. (1990). Flora Of Malappuram District (Excluding Nilambur Forest Division)

Parts - I & Ii. PhD Thesis. University of Calicut.

Babu, S. & D.P. Leighton (2004). The Shompen of Greater Nicobar Island (India) –

Between“Development” and Disappearance. Policy Matter 13131313:198–211.

Babu, S., Love, A. & C.R. Babu (2009). Ecological Restoration Of Lantana-Invaded

Landscapes In Corbett Tiger Reserve, India. Ecol Restor. 27272727:468–478.

Bagla, P. (2008). Seaweed Invader Elicits Angst In India. Science 320320320320:1271–1271.

Bhaskar, V. (1981). The Genus Impatiens L. in South India: Endemism & Affinities. Ind

For. 368-375.


95

Bhattacharyya, U. C. & K. D. Kumar (1992). Endemic Species of the Family

Begoniaceae of India. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 16(3): 565-269.

Binojkumar, M. S. & N. P. Balakrishnan (1991). Endemic, Rare, and Endangered

Euphorbiaceae of Western Ghats India. Plants. In: The Proceedings of the

Symposium on Rare, Endangered and Endemic Plants of the Western Ghats.

Thiruvananthapuram.

Bourdillon, T. F. (1908). The Forest Trees of Travancore. Govt. Press, Trivandrum.

Bridson, D. M. & L. Forman (1991). The Herbarium Handbook. Royal Botanic

Gardens, Kew.

Burkill, I. H. (1965). Chapters on the History of Botany In India. Govt. India Press,

Delhi.

Champion,H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968). Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India.

Manager of Publications, Govt. of India, New Delhi. 404 P.

Chandrasekaran, S. & P.S. Swamy (2010). Growth Patterns of Chromolaena odorata in

Varied Ecosystemsat Kodayar in the Western Ghats, India. Acta Oecol. 36363636:383–

392.

Chandrasekaran, S., Nagendran, N.A. & D. Pandiaraja (2008). Bioinvasion of

Kappaphycus Alvarezzi on Corals in the Gulf of Mannar, India. Curr Sci.

94949494:1167–1172.

Chandrashekara, U.M. (2001). Lantana camara in Chinnar Wildlife Sactuary, Kerala,

India. In: Sankaran, K.V., Murphy, S.T. & Evans, H.C. (Eds) Alien Weeds in

Moist Tropical Zones: Banes and Benefits. Kfri/Cabi Bioscience, Kerala/Ascot.

56–63 pp.

Chandrasekaran, S. & P.S. Swamy (2010). Growth patterns of Chromolaena odorata

in varied ecosystemsat Kodayar in the Western Ghats, India. Acta Oecol.

36:383–392.

Chatterjee, D. (1940). Studies on the Endemic Flora of India And Burma. J. Asiat. Soc.

Bengal 5: 19-67.

Chatterjee, S. (1939). Studies on the Endemic Flora of India and Burma. J. Asiat Soc.

Bengal (N.S.) Science. 5: 19-67.


96

Clara Lewis, T. N. N. Jul 3, 2012, 04.02 am Ist (2012-07-03). 39 Sites in Western Ghats

get World Heritage Status. The Times of India. Retrieved 2014-02-20.

Clout, M.N. & P.A. Williams (2009). Invasive Species Management: A Handbook of

Principles and Techniques. Oxford University Press, New York. 309 p.

Cooke, T. (1901 – 1908). The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, Vol. 1-3. Taylor &

Francis, London.

Curtis, J.T. (1959). The Vegetation of Wisconsin an Ordination of Plant Communities.

University Wisconsin Press, Madison. Wisconsin.

Dayal, V. (2007). Social Diversity and Ecological Complexity: How An Invasive Tree

Could Affect Diverse Agents in the Land of the Tiger. Environ Dev Econ. 12121212:1–

19.

Dukes, J.S. & H.A. Mooney (2004). Disruption of Ecosystem Processes in Western

North America by Invasive Species. Rev Chil Hist Nat. 77777777: 411–437.

Fischer, C. E. C. (1921). A Survey of the Flora of the Anamalai Hills in the Coimbatore

District, Madras Presidency. Rec. Bot. Sur. India. 9 : 1-218.

Fosberg, F. R. & M. M. Sachet (1965). Manual For Tropical Herbaria (Reg. Veg. 39).

Iapt, Utrecht.

Fsi ( 2011). Atlas Forest Type of India. Forest Survey of India, Dehradun.

Fyson, P. F. (1932). The Flora of The South Indian Hill Stations. Vol. 1 & 2. Govt.

Press, Madras.

Gadgil, M. & V.M. Meher-Homji (1990). Ecological Diversity In : Daniel, J.C. & J.S.

Serrao (Ed.), Conservation in Developing Countries: Problems And Prospects.

Proceedings of the Centenary Seminar of the Bombay Natural History Society.

P.175-198. Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press,

Bombay.

Gamble, J.S. (1915 – 1936). The Flora Of The Presidency of Madras. Adlard & Son Ltd,

London.

Garcia, De Orta (1565). Coloquinos Dos Simples. Goa.

George, K. V. (2013). Riverine Flora of Pamba River Basin. Dept. of Botany, CMS

College, Kottayam.


97

Giradkar, P.G. & S.G. Yeragi (2008). Flora of Tadoba National Park. Ind For. 134134134134:263–

269.

Gogoi, A.K. (2001). Status of Mikania Micrantha Infestation in Northeastern India:

Management Options and Future Research Thrust. In: Sankaran, K.V., Murphy,

S.T. & Evans, H.C. (Eds) Alien Weeds in Moist Tropical Zones: Banes and

Benefits. KFRI/CABI Bioscience, Kerala/Ascot, 77–79 Pp.

Gopalan, R. & A. N. Henry (2000). Endemic Plants of India. Camp for the Strict

Endemics of Agasthiyamalai Hills, SW Ghats. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh,

Dehra Dun.

Grice, A.C. (2004). Weeds and the Monitoring of Biodiversity in Australian Rangelands.

Austral Ecology 29292929: 51-58.

Henry, A. N., Kumari, G. R. & G. Chitra (1987 & 1989). Flora of Tamil Nadu, India.

Series 1 : Analysis, Vol. 2 & 3. Bot. Sur. Of India, Coimbatore.

Henry, A.N, K. Vivekananthan & N. C. Nair (1978). Rare And Threatened Flowering

Plants of South India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 75 : 684 – 697.

Hooker, J. D. (1872 – 1897). The Flora of British India. 7 Vols. L. Reeve & Co.,

London.

IUCN (1987). The Iucn Red List of Threatened Species. Iucn, Gland.

IUCN (2003). 2003 Iucn Red List of Threatened Species. http://www.iucnredlist.org.




Jain, S. K. & A. R. K. Sastry (1980). Threatened Plants of India— A State-of-the-Art

Report. Bsi, Calcuttta.

Jain, S. K. & A. R. K. Sastry (1984). The Indian Plant Red Data Book. Botanical Survey

of India, Calcutta. 779 P.

Jain, S.K. & A. R. K. Sastry (1982). Threatened Plants and Habitats — A Review of Work

in India. P1. Conserv. Bull. Posscef. 2: 1-9.


98

Jordaan, L.A., Johnson, S.D. & C.T. Downs (2011). The Role of Avian Frugivores in

Germination of Seeds of Fleshy-Fruited Invasive Alien Plants. Biological

Invasions 13 13 13 13 : 1917-1930.

Joseph, J. (1977). Floristic Studies in India-With Special Reference to Southern Circle of

Botanical Survey of India. Bull. Bot. Surv. India. 19: 109-111.

Joseph, K. T. (1991). Observation in the Aquatic Angiosperms of Malabar (North

Kerala). PhD Thesis. Calicut University, Calicut.

Joshi, A.A., Mudappa, D. & T.R. Shankar Raman (2009). Brewing Trouble: Coffee

Invasion in Relation to Edges and Forest Structure in Tropical Rainforest

Fragments of the Western Ghats, India. Biol Invasions 11111111:2387–2400.

Joshi, V. C. & M. K. Janarthanam (2004). The Diversity, Life-Form Type, Habitat

Preference And Phenology of the Endemics in the Goa Region of the Western

Ghats, India. J. Biogeogr. 31:1227 – 1237.

Kala, C.P. & R.J. Shrivastava (2004). Successional Changes in Himalayan Alpine

Vegetation: Two Decades After Removal of Livestock Grazing. Weed Technol.

18181818:1210–1212.

Keane, R.M. & M.J. Crawley (2002). Exotic Plant Invasions and the Enemy Release

Hypothesis. Trends Ecol. Evol. 17171717: 164 -170.

Kimothi, M.M., Anitha, D. & H.B. Vasistha (2010). Remote Sensing to Map the Invasive

Weed, Lantana Camara in Forests. Trop Ecol. 51515151:67–74.

Kimothi, M.M. & A. Dasari (2010). Methodology to Map the Spread of An Invasive

Plant (Lantana Camara L.) in Forest Ecosystems Using Indian Remote Sensing

Satellite Data. Int J Remote Sens. 31313131:3273–3289.

Krishnan, R. M. & P. Davidar (2007). The Shrubs of the Western Ghats (South India):

Floristics And Status. J. Biogeogr. 23: 783 – 789.

Kulmatiski, A., Beard, K.H. & J.M. Stark (2006). Soil History as a Primary Control on

Plant Invasion in Abandoned Agricultural Fields. J. Appl. Ecol. 43434343: 868–876.

Lahkar, B.P., Talukdar, B.K. &, P. Sarma (2011). Invasive Species in Grassland Habitat:

An Ecological Threat to the Greater One-Horned Rhino (Rhinoceros Unicornis).

Pachyderm 49494949:33–39.


99

Love, A., Babu, S. & C.R. Babu ( 2009). Management of Lantana, An Invasive Alien

Weed in Forest Ecosystems of India. Curr Sci. 97979797:1421–1429.

Lowe, S., Browne, M., Boudjelas,S. & M. De Poorter (2000). 100 of The World's Worst

Invasive Alien Species - A Selection From The Global Invasive Species Database.

The Invasive Species Specialist Group (Issg) A Specialist Group of The Species

Survival Commission (Ssc) of the World Conservation Union (IUCN).

Lushington, A. W. (1915). Vernacular List of Trees, Shrubs and Woody Climbers of

The Madras Presidency. Govt. Press, Madras.

Mack, R.N., Simberloff. D., Lonsdale, W.M., Evans. H., Clout. M. & F.A. Bazzazz

(2000). Biotic Invasions: Causes, Epidemiology, Global Consequences, And

Control. Ecological Applications 10101010: 689–710.

Mahajan, M. & P.A. Azeez (2001). Distribution of Selected Exotic Weeds in Nilgiri

Biosphere Reserve. In: Sankaran, K.V., Murphy, S.T. & Evans, H.C. (Eds) Alien

Weeds in Moist Tropical Zones: Banes and Benefits. KFRI, India & CABI

Bioscience, Uk, 46–55 pp.

Malhothra, K. S. (2000). Past, Present and Future Prospects of Spice Crops in India in

Premsing Arya (Ed.), Spice Crops of India: 8-14. Kalyani Publishers, Delhi.

Mani, M. S. (1974). Ecology and Biogeography in India. Dr. W. Junk B.V. Publishers,

The Hague, Netherlands. 793 p.

Manilal, K. S. & V. V. Sivarajan (1982). Flora of Calicut. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal

Singh, Dehra Dun. 387 p.

Manilal, K. S. (1988). Flora of Silent Valley : Tropical Rain Forest of India. Calicut

University, Calicut. 398 p.

Mathew, J. (2015). Floristic and Ethnobotanical studies of Achankovil forest, Western

Ghats, Kerala. Ph.D thesis, Submitted to Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala

715 pp.

Michael, A.J. (1998).Determination of Stress from Slip Data: Faults and Folds. Journal of

Geophysical Research 89898989(11): 517- 526.

Mitchell, C.E. & A.G. Power (2003). Release of Invasive Plants From Fungal And Viral

Pathogens. Nature 421421421421: 625 - 627.


100

Mitra, S. & S. K. Mukherjee (2007). Reassessment and Diversity of Endemic

Angiospermic Genera Of India. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 31: 163 – 176.

Mohanan, C. N. (1984). Studies on the Flora of Quilon District, Kerala. PhD Thesis.

Madras University, Madras.

Mohanan, C.N. (1999). Mangroves. In. Thampi, K.B., Nayar, N.M. &C.S. Kumar (eds.),

The natural Resources of Kerala. WWF India, Thiruvananthapuram. 149-158

pp.

Mohanan, M. & A. N. Henry (1994). Flora of Thiruvananthapuram. Botanical Survey of

India, Calcutta. 392 p.

Mohanan, N. & M. Sivadasan (2002). Flora of Agasthyamala. Bishen Singh Mahendra

Pal Singh, Dehra Dun. 889 p.

Muktesh, Kumar (1998). Studies on Epiphytic Flora in the Tropical Ecosystem of

Western Ghats With Special Reference to Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Kerala

Forest Research Institute, Peechi.

Murali, K.S. & R.S. Setty (2001). Effect of Weeds Lantana Camara And Chromolaena

Odorata Growth on the Species Diversity, Regeneration And Stem Density of

Tree and Shrub Layer in Brt Sanctuary. Curr Sci. 80808080:675–678.

Myers, N. (1988). Threatened Biotas: “Hot Spots” In Tropical Forests. The

Environmentalist. 8: 187-208.

Myers, N. (2003). Biodiversity Hotspots Revisited. Bioscience 53 53 53 53 : 916-917.

Nair, M. P. (1996). Hot Spots Of Endemic Plants of India, Nepal And Bhuttan. Tropical

Botanical Garden and Research Institute, Trivandrum. 252 P.

Nair, N. C. & A. N. Henry (1983). Flora of Tamil Nadu, India. Series 1 : Analysis. Vol.

1. Bot. Sur. of India, Coimbatore.

Namboothri, N. & Shankar, K. (2010). Corals or Coke: Between The Devil And The

Deep Blue Sea. Curr Conserv. 4444:18–20.

Narayanan, M. K. R. (2009). Floristic Study of Wayanad District With Special Emphasis

on Conservation of Rare and Threatened Flowering Plants. PhD Thesis. Calicut

University, Calicut.


101

Naskar, K. & R. Mandal (2000). Ecology and Biodiversity of Indian Mangroves. Daya

Publishing House, New Delhi. 783 p.

Nayar, M. P. & A. R. K. Sastry (1987). Red Data Book of Indian Plants. Vol. 1. BSI.

Nayar, M. P. & A. R. K. Sastry (1987-1990). Red Data Book of Indian Plants, Vo. 1-3.

Bot. Survey of India, Calcutta.

Nayar, M. P. & A. R. K. Sastry (1988). Red Data Book of Indian Plants. Vol. 2. BSI.

Nayar, M. P. & A. R. K. Sastry (1990). Red Data Book Of Indian Plants. Vol. 3. BSI.

Nayar, M. P. (1980a). Endemic Flora of Peninsular India And Its Significance. Bull Bot.

Surv. India. 22 : 12-23.

Nayar, M. P. (1980b). Endemism And Patterns of Distribution Of Endemic Genera

(Angiosperms) In India. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 1: 99-110.

Nayar, M. P. (1982). Endemic Flora of Peninsular India and its Significance. Bull. Bot.

Surv. India. 19 (1-4): 145-155.

Nayar, M. P. (1996). . . . Hot Spots Of Endemic Plants of India, Nepal and Bhutan.

Tropical Botanical Garden And Research Institute, Thiruvananthapuram.

Nayar, T. S., A. Rasiya Beegam, N. Mohanan & G. Rajkumar (2006). Flowering Plants

Of Kerala- A Handbook. TBGRI, Thiruvananthapuram. 1069 p.

Nayar, T.S., A. Rasiya Beegam & M. Sibi (2014). Flowering Plants of the Western Ghats,

India (2 Volumes). Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden And Research

Institute, Palode, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. 1700 p.

Niu, H.-B., Liu, W.-X., Wan, F.-H. & B. Liu (2007). An Invasive Aster (Ageratina

Adenophora) Invades and Dominates Forest Understories in China: Altered Soil

Microbial Communities Facilitate The Invader and Inhibit Natives. Plant Soil

294294294294: 73–85.

Orians, G.H. & M. J. Groom (2005). Global Biodiversity: Patterns and Processes. In:

Groom, M. J., G. K. Meffe & R. C. Carroll (Ed.), Principles of Conservation

Biology. Sinauer Associates, Inc. Publ., Massachusetts. 27 – 60.

Pradeep, A. K. (2000). Floristic Studies on Vellarimala on the Western Ghats of Kerala.

Department of Botany, University of Calicut, Calicut.


102

Prasad Ae (2012) Landscape-Scale Relationships Between the Exotic Invasive Shrub

Lantana Camara and Native Plants in a Tropical Deciduous Forest in Southern

India. J Trop Ecol. 28:55–64.

Prasad, A.E. (2009).Tree Community Change in a Tropical Dry Forest: The Role of

Roads and Exotic Plant Invasion. Environ Conserv. 36363636:201–207.

Prasad, A.E. (2010). Effects of an Exotic Plant Invasion on Native Understory Plants In

A Tropical Dry Forest. Conserv Biol. 24242424:747–757.

Puyravaud, J.P., Shridhar, D. & A. Gaulier (1995). Impact Of Fire on A Dry Deciduous

Forest in the Bandipur National Park, Southern India – Preliminary Assessment

And Implications For Management. Curr Sci. 68686868:745–751.

Ramachandran, V. S. & V. J. Nair (1988). Flora Of Cannanore. Bot. Sur. of India.

Calcutta. 599 P.

Ramachandran, V. S., A. Honey John & R. Rasi (2010). Rare, Endemic and Threatened

Flowering Plants of Nilgiris and its Conservation. Proceedings Of The XX

Annual Conference of IAAT. Coimbatore. Tamil Nadu. 194 P.

Ramaswami, G. & R. Sukumar (2011). Woody Plant Seedling Distribution Under

Invasive Lantana Camara Thickets in a Dry-Forest Plot In Mudumalai, Southern

India. J Trop Ecol. 27272727:365–373.

Ramesh, B. R & J. P. Pascal (1997). Atlas of Endemics of the Western Ghats (India).

French Institute, Pondichery. 403 P.

Ramesh, B. R. & J. P. Pascal (1991). Distribution of Endemic Arborescent Evergreen

Species in the Western Ghats. In: Karunakaran, C. K. (Ed.), The Proceedings Of

The Symposium on Rare, Endangered and Endemic Plants of The Western

Ghats. Kerala Forest Department, Trivandrum. Pp. 20-29.

Rao, C. K. (1972). Angiosperm Genera Endemic to the Indian Floristic Region and Its

Neighboring Areas. I. Indian Forester 98: 560 – 566.

Rao, C. K. (1979). Angiosperm Genera Endemic to the Indian Floristic Region and its

Neighboring Areas Ii. Addition, Deletion And Correction. Indian Forester 105:

335 – 341.

Rao, M.R. (1914). Flowering Plants of Travancore. Govt. Press, Trivandrum. 200 P.


103

Reddy, C.S. (2008). Catalogue of Invasive Alien Flora of India. Life Sci J. 5:84–89.

Rheede, H. A. V. (1678-1703). Hortus Indicus Malabaricus, 12 Vol. Amsterdam.

Rishi, V. (2009). Wildlife Habitat Enrichment for Mitigating Human-Elephant Conflict

By Biological Displacement Of Lantana. Ind For. 135: 135: 135: 135: 439–448.

Roxburg, William (1820 & 1824). Flora Indica. Mission Press, Serampore.

Saberwal, V., Rangarajan, M. & A. Kothari (2000). People, Parks And Wildlife: Towards

Coexistence. Orient Longman, New Delhi.

Sahu, P.K. & J.S. Singh (2008). Structural Attributes of Lantana-Invaded Forest Plots in

Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve, Central India. Curr Sci. 94949494:494–

500.

Sajeev, T.V., Sankaran,K.V. & T.A. Suresh (2012). Are Alien Invasive Plants A Threat

to Forests of Kerala? . KFRI Occasional Papers 1., KFRI, Peechi. 28 p.

Sankaran, K.V. & T.A. Suresh (2013). Invasive Alien Plants in the Forests of Asia And

The Pacific. Food And Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Bankok.

211 p.

Sankaran, K.V. & M.A. Srinivasan (2001). Status of Mikania Infestation in the Western

Ghats. In: Sankaran, K.V., Murphy, S.T., Evans, H.C. (Eds) Alien Weeds in

Moist Tropical Zones: Banes and Benefits. Kfri/Cabi Bioscience, Kerala/Ascot.

67–76 pp.

Sankaran, K.V., Suresh, T.A. & T.V. Sajeev (2012). Handbook on Invasive Plants of

Kerala. Kerala State Biodiversity Board, Thiruvanathapuram. 98 p.

Sarkar, A. K. (1995). Endemic Genera Of Angiosperms and Their Species in India. In:

Gupta, S.K. (Ed.), Higher Plants of Indian Subcontinent. Vol. 1. (Indian J.

Forest. Addit. Ser. Iv). Dehra Dun. pp. 235 – 257.

Sasidharan, N. & V. V. Sivarajan (1996). Flowering Plants of Thrissur Forests. Scientific

Publishers, Jodphur. 579 p.

Sasidharan, N. (1997). Studies on the Flora of Shenduruny Wildlife Sanctuary With

Emphasis on Endemic Species. Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi.

Sasidharan, N. (1999). Study on the Flora of Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary. Kerala Forest

Research Institute, Peechi.


104

Sasidharan, N. (2002). Floristic Studies in Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary. Kerala

Forest Research Institute, Peechi.

Sasidharan, N. (2004). Biodiversity Documentation of Kerala. Part 6. Flowering Plants.

Kerala Forest Research Institute, Thrissur. 702 p.

Sasidharan, N. (2013). Flowering Plants of Kerala (Cd) 2.0 . Kerala Forest Research

Institute, Thrissur.

Sawarkar, V.B. (1984). Lantana Camara In Wildlife Habitats with Special Reference to

The Melghat Tiger Reserve. Cheetal 26262626:24–38.

Saxena. (1991). Biological Invasions In The Indian Subcontinent: Review of Invasion by

Plants. In: Ramakrishnan, P.S. (Ed,). Ecology Of Biological Invasion in the

Tropics. International Scientific Publication New Delhi. 21-34.

Sheeba J. I. & D. Narasimhan (2011). Endemic Genera of Angiosperms in India: A

Review. Rheedea 21. 87- 105.

Shukla, A.N., Singh, K.P. & J.S. Singh (2009). Invasive Alien Species of Achanakmar-

Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve, Central India. Proc Natl Acad Sci Ind Sect B-

Biol Sci. 79797979:384–392.

Sivarajan, V.V. & P. Mathew (1996). Flora of Nilambur: Western Ghats, Kerala.

Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun. 900 P.

Srinivasan, M.P. (2011). The Ecology of Disturbance And Global Change in the

Montane Grasslands of the Nilgiris, South India. University of Kentucky

Doctoral Dissertations, Lexington, 213 P.

Srinivasan, M.P., Shenoy, K. & S.K. Gleason (2007). Population Structure of Scotch

Broom (Cytisus Scoparius) And Its Invasion Impacts on the Resident Plant

Community in the Grasslands of Nilgiris, India. Curr Sci. 93:1108–1113.

Subramanian, K.N., N. Venkatasubramanian, & Nallarswamy (1987). Flora of Palghat,

Bsmps, Dehra Dun.

Subramaniyan K. N. (1995). Flora of Thenmala Division. International Book

Distributors, Dehra Dun. 516 p.


105

Subramanyam, K. & M. P. Nayar (1974). Vegetation and Phytogeography of the Western

Ghats. In: Mani, M.S. (Ed.), Ecology and Biogeography of India. Dr. W. Junk

Publishers, Hague. 23: 178 – 196.

Sundaram, B. & A.J. Hiremath (2012). Lantana Camara Invasion in a Heterogeneous

Landscape: Patterns of Spread and Correlation With Changes in Native

Vegetation. Biol Invasion 14141414:1127–1141.

Sunil, C.N. & M. Sivadasan (2009). Flora of Alappuzha District, Kerala, India. Bishen

Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun. 949 P.

Vajravelu, E. (1987). Studies on The Endemic Species of Palghat District, Kerala. J.

Econ. Tax. Bot. 9(1): 101-112.

Vajravelu, E. (1988). Collection of Rare and Little Known Plants From Southern States.

J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 12(1): 55-70.

Vajravelu, E. (1990). Flora Of Palghat District. Bot. Sur. of India, Calcutta. 646 p.

Vattakkavan, J., Vasu, N.K. & S. Varma (2005). Silent Stranglers. Eradication Of Mimosa

In Kaziranga National Park, Assam. Wildlife Trust of India, New Delhi.

Vivekananthan, K. (1981). Floristic Studies in Idukki District, Kerala. Bull. Bot. Sum.

India. 23: 1-4.

Waite, T.A., Corey, S.J. & L.G. Campbell (2009). Satellite Sleuthing: Does Remotely

Sensed Landcover Change Signal Ecological Degradation In A Protected Area?.

Divers Distrib. 15151515:299–309.

Wherry, E. T. (1944). A Classification of Endemic Plants. Ecology 25: 247-248.

Wight, R. & Walker-Arnott (1834). Prodomus Florae Peninsulae Indiae Orientalis.

London.

Wight, R. (1838-1853). Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis, 6 Vol. Madras.

Wight, R. (1840). Illustrations of Indian Botany. Glasgow, London.

Yurkonis, K.A., Meiners, S.J. & B.E. Wachholder (2005). Invasion Impacts Diversity

Through Altered Community Dynamics. Journal of Ecology 93939393: 1053-1061.


106

Zarri, A.A., Rahmani, A.A. & M.J. Behan (2006). Habitat Modification by Scotch

Broom Cytisus Scoparius Invasion of the Grasslands of Upper Nilgiris In India. J

Bombay Nat Hist Soc. 103103103103:356–365.

Final_Report_Dr_PM_Radhamany.pdf - Kerala State ...

Documents

Transcript of Final_Report_Dr_PM_Radhamany.pdf - Kerala State ...