THE WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION (WMO) is a specialized agency of the Un ited Nations

WMO was created:

- to faci litate international co-operation in the establishment of networks of stations and centres to

provide meteorological and hydrological services and observations,

- to promote the establishment and maintenance of systems for the rapid exchange of meteoro­

logical and related information,

- to promote standard izat ion of meteorological and related observations and ensure the uniform

publication of observations and statistics,

- to further the application of meteorology to aviation, shipping, water problems, agricu lture and

other human act ivities,

- to promote activities in operational hydrology and to further close co-operation between

Meteorological and Hydrological Services,

- to encourage resea rch and training in meteorology and , as appropriate, in related fields.

The World Meteorological Congress

is the supreme body of the Organization. It brings together the delegates of all Members once every

four years to determine general policies for the fulfilment of the purposes of the Organization.

The Exewtil'e Council

is composed of 36 directors of national Meteorological or Hydrometeorological Services serving in an

individual capacity ; it meets at least once a year to superv ise the programmes approved by Congress.

Six Regional Associations

are each composed of Members whose task is to co-ordinate meteorological and related activities within

their respective regions.

Eight Technical Commissions

composed of experts designated by Members, are responsible for studying meteorological and hydro­

logical operational systems, app licat ions and research.

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

President: R. L. KI NTANA R (Philippines) First Vice-Presidelll : Ju. A. IZRAEL (USSR)

Second Vice-President: Zou JtNGME NG (China) Third Vice-President: J. P. BRUCE (Canada)

Regional Association presidents

Africa (1): W. DEGEFU (Ethiopia)

Asia (11 ): U THU TA (Burma) (acting)

South America (Ill): C. A. GREZZI (Uruguay)

North and Centra l America (IV) : S. AG UILAR ANGUIANO (Mexico)

South-West Pacific (V): Ho TONG YUEN (Malaysia)

Europe (VI): A. W. KABAKIBO (Syrian Arab Republic)

Elected members

S. P. ADHIKARY (Nepal) L.-K. AHIALEGBEDZI (Togo) S. ALAIMO (Argen tina) M. A. BADRAN (Egypt) A. BENSA RI (Morocco) C. E. BERRIDGE (British Caribbean Territories) S. K. DAs (India) J. DELMAR COR REA (Peru) J. OJIGBENOU (Ivory Coast) P. GONZALEZ-HABA GONZALEZ (Spa in ) J. GONZALEZ MONTOTO (Cuba) R. E. HALLGREN (USA) E. J. JATILA (Fin land)

J. P. N. LABROUSSE (France) E. LI NGELBACH (Fed. Rep. of Germany) G. MANKEDI (Congo) J. K. MURITHI (Kenya) A. NANtA (Italy) C. PADILHA (Brazi l) V. RICHTER (Czechoslovakia) R. M. ROMAIH (Saudi Arabia) M. SECK (Senegal) V. A. SI MANGO (Zambia) S. SUYEHIRO (Japan) J. W. ZILLMAN (Australia) (One seat vaca111)

TECHNICAL COMMISSION PRESIDENTS

Aeronautical Meteorology: J. KAsTELEIN Agricultural Meteorology: N. GERBIER Atmospheric Sciences: F. MESINGER Basic Systems : J. R. NEILON Climatology: J. L. RASMUSSEN

Hydrology: R. H. CLARK Instruments and Methods of Observation:

S. HUOVILA Marine Meteorology: K. P. VASILIEV

The Secretariat of the Organization is located at 4 1 Avenue Giuseppe-Mona, Geneva, Switzerland

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W 0 R L 0 METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATI ON SECRETARY -GENERAL : G. 0. P. OBASI

DEPUTY SECRETARY-GENERAL: R. LIST

2 In this issue

JANUARY 1984 VOL. 33 NO. 1

3 A message from the new Secretary-General

5 The Bulletin interviews: Or P. D. McTaggart-Cowan

18 Meteorology in Canada

24 Regional Meteorolog ica l Training Centres : The Carib-bean Meteorological Institute

29 Meteorology and food production

34 Monsoons

39 Very-short-range forecasting : Systems and research -Workshop at Boulder (USA). August 1983

41 The maintenance of the quasi-stationary components of the flow in the atmosphere and in atmospheric models - IAMAPJWMO symposium. Paris. Augustj September 1983

45 World Weather Watch

47 World Climate Programme

49 Research and development

55 Applications of meteorology

58 Hydrology and water resources

61 Education and training

63 Technical co-operation

71 News and notes

77 Calendar of coming events

78 Obituaries

80 News from the Secretariat

82 Reviews

86 Members of the World Meteorolog ical Organization

87 Selected list of WMO publications

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The Director-General of FAO recently reported that 870 million people in the world today are undernourished or threatened by famine. One in four children in developing countries suffer the insidious effects of malnutrition. On the occasion of the third World Food Day (17 October 1983), the Prime Minister of Sweden, His Excellency Olof Palme, made a strong appeal to the world community, especially the richer nations, to act with one accord to rectify this intolerable situation. It is clear that the real solution lies in fairly radical political and economic rethinking, but meteorology and hydrology can nevertheless make a significant contribution, and it is WMO's role to see that these sciences are applied in the most effective way. Undoubtedly such considerations as these led the Executive Council ·to declare the theme for World Meteorological Day in 1984 to be 'Meteorology aids food production'. To mark this occasion, we publish on page 29 a short interview with the well-known agrometeorologist Dr P. M. A. Bourke, who points to some of the ways meteorology can help arable farmers and stockbreeders.

Agriculture in the tropics is specially dependent upon a regular seasonal weather cycle, as manifested by the catastrophic consequences of the prolonged drought in much of the African continent and the abnormally strong El Niiio in 1982/83. Thus WMO is doing all it can to foster research into why these anomalies occur, in the hope that eventually it will be possible to foresee them, and set in motion a pre-planned train of measures to palliate their effects. The monsoon is one of these critical low-latitude phenomena, and on page 34 we reproduce a summarized version of the IMO Lecture by Professor P. K. Das, who is recognized as a world authority in this domain.

As it happens, the personality interviewed in this issue (page 5) was himself a meteorologist who took up agriculture after retirement. Dr P. D. McTaggart­Cowan, a Canadian of Scottish descent, had a brilliant career as meteorologist, rising to become Director of the then Canadian Meteorological Branch at the early age of 47. Four years later he resigned from that post in favour of a challenging academic one, that of president of a brand new university. Subse­quently he turned his talents towards environmental protection. On page 18 will be found a separate article on meteorology in Canada compiled thanks to the kind collaboration of senior staff members of the Atmospheric Environment Service.

The Regional Meteorological Training Centre featured in the contribution starting on page 24 is the Caribbean Meteorological Institute in Barbados.

Last but not least, we are very pleased to publish on the opposite page a message from the incoming Secretary-General of WMO as he takes office. Readers will certainly wish to join in wishing Dr Obasi health, strength, fortitude and success as he shoulders his new and heavy responsibilities.

Cover picture: Terraced rice fields in the Himalayan foothills of NepaL (Photo: J. L. Lambert}

MESSAGE FROM THE NEVV SECRETARY-GENERAL

Dr G. 0. P. Obasi , Secretary-General of WMO ( Phvw : W.\10j Kem )

Ihe WMO Bulletin serves as a primary medium to inform a wide readership about the programmes and activities of the World Meteorological Organization. At the start of my tenure as Secretmy-General it is therefore fitting that I address myself to readers in this issue which also marks the commencement of a new financial period for the Organ­ization.

Tl1e last issue of the Bulletin included a summmy of the more important decisions of Ninth Congress as regards the Organization's scientific and technical activities. These are to be continued under the following major programmes: World Weather Watch ; World Climate Programme; Research and development; Hydrology and water resources; Appli­cations of meteorology; Education and training: Regional activities. An important f eature in all these programmes is the transfer of knowledge and proven methodologies, with the object of assisting developing countries to strengthen their capabilities and to benefit from the constant advances in science and technology.

Congress reaj}irmed that the World Weather Watch is the basic programme of WMO and therefore accorded highest priority to its implementation. An updated WWW Plan was adopted for the next four-year period in which provision is made for technical and cost-effectiveness studies, with an optimum and fully integrated WWW as the ultimate goal.

A highly significant innovation is the introduction of long-term planning in WMO's scientific and technical programmes in order to provide overall policy and strategy guidance to the Executive Council and other organs of the Organization. But it will also help Members in the planning and development of their own Meteorological and Hydro­logical Services. Ihe First WMO Long-term Plan adopted by Congress covers the period 1984 to 1993, and it will be updated eve1y four years.

Through the many years that I have been associated with WMO in various capacities and in different ways, I have come to learn and better appreciate the important role it plays in the co-ordination and promotion of international activities within its sphere of competence. Ihis is not only in connection with the development and practice of meteorology and operational hydrology, but in certain other related geophysical fields as well. Indeed, the pwposes of the Organization as stated in its Convention emphasize co­operation, promotion and collaboration in several facets of activities which are beyond the scope of a single nation, but which are essential for the practice and advancement of meteorology and operational hydrology at the national and global levels.

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We are also becoming increasingly aware of WMO 's significant role in new areas of interest such as those which relate to the enhancement of the quality of life and to some components of the climatic system. It is not unrealistic to look into the future and visualize WMO 's involvement in still more new fields of concern to Members, both individually and collectively. Here is a domain where the Long-term Plan will undoubtedly make an important contribution.

It is in everybody's interest to see WMO successfully and efficiently playing its proper role on the world 's stage. Let there be no mistake, it is not at all an easy part to pe1jorm well. However, the difficulties ahead may be regarded as challenges that we can turn to opportunities, and we must exploit to the full each and eve1y opportunity for the good of the Organization. Where opportunities seem to be lacking, ways must be found to create them. We shall all need a strong collective resolve to fulfil our ambitious role. WMO can only be what its M embers make if. TI1e rising challenges of the future can and should be met. And they will be met if we continue to be steadfast in our resolve and generous in our eo-operation.

TI7e steady progression of the World Weath er Watch to its present level and the success of the field phase of the GARP Global Weather Experiment and its regional exper­iments are testimony to the real significance and fruitfulness of international co-operation. Many other programmes which have been or are being carried out under the aegis of WMO also bear witness to the substantial gains which accrue from such collaboration.

It is in this spirit that I call upon those reached by the WMO Bulletin to renew and fortify their resolve and commitment to co-operate. Let us all consciously recommit ourselves so that we can jointly carry out the tasks assigned by Congress in the realization of the fulfilment of the pwposes of the Organization.

For my part, I only wish humbly to affirm my undertaking to collaborate fully with all concerned in the fulfilment of the objectives of WMO, and to offer evety thing I am capable of in cany ing out its mandate. With your unflinching co-operation, I feel confident of the success of our Organization in its future tasks. Finally, I should like to take this opportunity to wish all readers a ve1y happy and peaceful New Year.

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~~

(G. 0. P. Obasi) Secretary-General of WMO

THE BULLETIN INTERVIEWS: Or P. D. McTaggart-Cowan

With an area of almost ten million square kilometres, Canada is slightly lmger than its well-to-do neighbour, th e United States of America. But this vast territ01y supports a population barely one-tenth that of the USA, and in fa ct 85 per cent of the 23.5 million Canadians live within 300 km of the frontier. Rather more than one-third of the people are of British origin, slightly less than one-third are of French origin, and most of the remainder have come from other European countries. Th e two official languages are English and French.

Ontario is the second largest of the Canadian provinces, being swpassed only by Quebec (the North- West Territories are larger than either, but not yet a province). However, with its area of more than a million square kilometres, it is only exceeded among the states of the USA by Alaska. Little more than two centuries ago, some 40 000 North American Indians had this region to themselves, but now Ontario supports a

Or a nd Mrs McTaggart-Cowan at Si m on Frazer University in 1967

population of almost nine million and there is still room for many more. Once away from the littoral of Lakes Erie and Ontario and the St. Lawrence Seaway, one is soon aware of the untamed wide open spaces which f or many is the quintessence of Canada.

Nestling among green f orests and freshwater lakes some 200 km north of the city of Toronto is Bracebridge (population about 8000), a town with an old-world charm but up­to-date amenities. It stands at the junction of the northern and southern branches of the Muskoka River, named after a f ormer Indian chief Musqua Ukee, whose tribe inhabited this area. A few kilometres from the centre of Bracebridge, on the bank of the northern branch of the Muskoka River, stands a beautiful house with a well-01ganized farm and 80 hectares of land. 171e name on the mail-box reads 'McTaggart-Cowan '.

Although born in Scotland, Patrick Duncan McTaggart-Cowan has spent virtually the whole of his life in Canada, his parents having emigrated and taken up residence in the west coast city of Vancouver in 1913. He graduated from the University of British Columbia with an honours degree in mathematics and physics in 1933, and the following year won a Rhodes Scholarship which permitted him to attend Oxford Un iversity

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(England) where he specialized in quantum mechanics, at the same time distinguishing himself at rowing and badminton. He obtained a second B.A. degree (in natural science) in 1936.

That was the time when passenger-canying transatlantic aircraft flights were on the threshold of becoming reality. McTaggart-Cowan accepted the offer of a post by the Canadian Meteorological Service which would entail organizing meteorological facilities on the island of Newfoundland, this being the first landfall on the western side of the Atlantic. Meteorologists who would be involved in the initial trial flights across the ocean gathered at Croydon (then London's principal aitport) where they developed, as best they could, expertise and standard procedures. It was here that McTaggart-Cowan made the acquaintance of a certain Arthur Davies who was subsequently to serve as WMO's Secretmy-General for almost a quarter of a centwy.

During the Second World War, Newfoundland became a crucial staging post for militmy aircraft being ferried from North America to Europe as well as for the transport of Allied VI Ps. Another ailjield capable of accepting transatlantic flights was later constructed at Goose Bay on the coast of Labrador, and McTaggart-Cowan was brought back to Montreal to be chief meteorological officer in the newly-constituted Royal Air Force Feny Command. With the experience he had gained, he was ideally placed to participate in drawing up procedures for post-war transatlantic civil aviation operations, andfm: a while he served as Secretmy for Air Navigation in the Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization.

In 1946 he returned to the Canadian Meteorological Service in Toronto where he was made Assistant Director and chief of the forecasting division. The infrastructure had now to be readapted to meet peacetime exigencies, and one of the great needs was to recruit new staff to replace air force meteorologists who had left militmy service for other walks of civilian life. He became Director of the Meteorological Service in 1959, and two years later his Alma Mater, the University of British Columbia , awarded him the first of his seven honormy doctorates. Whilst he was Director, Dr McTaggart-Cowan frequently and f orcefully affirmed that much more needed to be done to provide university education possibilities for budding scientists and engineers. Tlws he was not disposed to turn down the challenge when he was invited to be the founding-president of a new university being established in his old home town of Vancouver. He left the Meteorological Service and served as president of the Simon Fraser University from /963 to 1968. T71en he returned east on being appointed executive director of the Science Council of Canada, an independent body of eminent people which advises the Government on scientific problems.

An emergency arose in 1970. Dr McTaggart-Cowan was called in to direct cleaning-up operations after an oil-tanker had been wrecked in the rich fishing grounds along the coast of Nova Scotia. This turned out to be a mammoth exercise which took three years, but much was learnt which has subsequently proved invaluable in dealing with similar catastrophes. He then returned to the Science Council for a couple of years, but in 1975 decided to retire so that he could turn his hand to farming the land he had purchased more than 20 years earlier. He is now vice-president of the Bracebridge Agricultural Society and so has already earned the respect of the agricultural community for his remarkable ability.

Among the awards he has received are: Member of the Order of the British Empire (in 1944 for his services with the RAF Feny Command); from the American Metem·o­logical Society the C. F. Brooks Award {1965), the Cleveland Abbe Award (1976) and honormy life membership (1978); and from his home counliy the Patterson Medal (1965), the Centennial Medal (1967) and Officer of the Order of Canada (1979).

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This interview took place at Dr McTaggart-Cowan's home on 21 Jun e 1983. It was a ve1y busy period on the farm, and the Editor is particularly grateful to him for having spared the time to answer the questions.

H. T. - Dr McTaggart-Cowan, to start with perhaps you would say something about your family background and your education.

P. D. MeT-C. - My parents were both Scottish, and in fact I was born in Edinburgh in 1912, but they emigrated to Canada the following year before I was old enough to be consulted-not that I regret their decision in any way. My father had obtained a degree in botany, and this was the field in which his real interest lay. However, it had been traditional for members of his family to enter the world of high finance, and he had dutifully conformed. Some time after we had settled in North Vancouver on the Pacific coast of Canada, he finally decided he had had enough of economics and started up what he called the International Test Gardens. He brought in rare plants from all over the world, acclimatized them to British Columbia and then sold them as plants or cut flowers. I had my schooling in North Vancouver and went on to the University of British Columbia where I studied mathematics and physics. I obtained a double honours B.A. degree in 1933 and tried for a Rhodes Scholarship but did not make it. Therefore I stayed on for another year during which I instructed in the physics department and worked towards my master's degree.

H. T - You succeeded in winning a Rhodes Scholarship in 1934 which gave you entry to Oxford University in England. What was your main field of study?

P. D. MeT-C. - I specialized in quantum physics, and it was an exciting time because three of the leading figures were in England then . Erwin Schrodinger from Austria and Heinz London from Germany were both at Oxford, and P. A. M. Dirac was at Cambridge. Schrodinger was my official tutor, but since London spoke very little English and had to lecture, I gave him lessons in English and in exchange he too coached me in quantum mechanics. I thoroughly enjoyed my two years at O xford. I rowed for my college (Corpus Christi) and we did quite well. I captained the University badminton team and a lso played some competitive tennis. In 1936 I obtained a B.A. with honours in natural science. Then I had to look around for a job.

H. T - Was that difficult in those days?

P. D. MeT-C. - The world had not yet emerged from the Depression and it was not easy. In the end I found I had two offers to choose between: one was from Dr J. S. Plaskett to work at the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory in Victoria (British Columbia), and the other was from the Canadian Meteorological Service to organize meteorological services in Newfoundland for forthcoming transatlantic trials by fl ying boats.

H. T - Had you received any training in meteorology at that time?

P. D. MeT-C. - None at all, but then neither had I had any formal trammg in astronomy. Well, I decided on the meteorological post because it seemed more attractive than holing myself up in the observatory for the rest of my life. The British Government was anxious to strengthen the links between Commonwealth countries, and for that reason was disposed to support a transatlantic air service if this were proved feasible. Accordingly it set up a group of meteorologists to help plan the flights;

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to advise on the best sites for departure and arrival, the best routes, what facilities would be required, and so on. Graduates entering the Service were given training courses which focused on the synoptic meteorology of the North Atlantic. Since the group was located at what was then London 's principal civil airport, it became known as the Croydon school. Dr John Patterscin, Director of the Canadian Meteorological Service, arranged for me to go to the Croydon school.

H. T - Who was the leader of the group?

P. D. MeT-C. - It was Mr S. P. Peters. He told me what books I should read in my spare time in order to pick up some meteorology. There was Brunt's famous Physical and Dynamical Meteorology of course, and also papers were appearing from the Bergen school in Norway. One of the younger members of the group was D. A Davies. Arthur had volunteered to do several crossings aboard a slow small cargo-boat, the Manchester Port, which plied regularly between Manchester and eastern Canada, so that he could make an intensive series of observations and try to get a feeling for the weather over the North Atlantic throughout a year. In spite of being seasick all the time he completed six crossings during which he had to work virtually 24 hours a day; it says a lot for his strength of character that he saw it through. Each time the ship docked in England he would come down with his recordings and make a report to Mr Peters. By the time I returned to the headquarters of the Canadian Meteorological Service in December 1936 I had acquired a smattering of meteorology and knew where to find the knowledge I still needed. At any rate I am sure I knew more about Atlantic meteorology than anyone else in Canada then did. It was decided that Peters would go to Foynes in Ireland (not far from the present Shannon Airport) which was where the westbound flights would start the long oceanic leg, and I would be at Botwood in Newfoundland, the point of arrival at the other side of the Atlantic.

H. T - The object of these trial flights was to establish whether a passenger-carrying air service across the North Atlantic could be undertaken with an adequate safety margin?

P. D. MeT-C. - Basically that was it, yes. Little or nothing was known at the time about the conditions and how the aircraft then available would stand up to them. The British Imperial Airways had already started services to Africa and even to Australia, but there the stages were shorter and the weather generally better. The famous Short C-class flying boat had recently been introduced and it proved to be an excellent aircraft. Pan-American Airways had the Sikorsky S-42 flying boat. The experimental fligh ts were a joint arrangement between Canada, the United Kingdom and USA In Canada there were already a few coastguard stations, lighthouses and the like which made weather observations and telegraphed them to the Meteorological Service headquarters in Toronto to help in the preparation of marine forecasts; for the trials this network was to be increased and a forecast service provided in Newfoundland.

H. T - For which you were responsible. Were you entirely on your own?

P. D. MeT -C. - I first went to Newfoundland in March 1937, and to help me get started the Deputy Director of the Service, Or Andrew Thomson, came with me for two or three weeks. In addition, an expert on instruments was sent from headquarters to see to the equipping of observing stations. I had to recruit technicians in Newfoundland and train them in observing and chart-plotting, and was generally responsible for getting the system going. Newfoundland was not then part of Canada and the country was in severe economic difficulties; most of the population eked out a

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meagre li vi ng from fishing, and lived in isolated outposts. I was able to recruit some excellent high-school graduates who learnt fast and did not object to being worked seven days a week.

H. T - When did the flights take place?

P. D. MeT-C. - In the middle of the summer of 1937. The C-class aircraft flew fai rly low for reasons of fuel economy, but the Sikorsky clippers flew higher and on occasions must have approached the jet-stream level (although at that time we were ignorant of its existence). One clipper on a westbound flight, dead-reckoning because in cloud all the way, made landfall way down the Labrador coast, two hours' flying time from Botwood. I could not believe that the wind had carried him so far off course

Short 'C' -class flying boat (right) on arriva l back at Southampton (England) on 17 July 1937 after the successful two-way crossing of the North Atlantic. (Photo: BBC Hulwn PiCiure Uhnu y )

The large French-built fl yi ng boat Vi/le de Saim-Pierre refuelling at Botwood

and put it down to a magnetic disturbance, such as were known to occur in the Greenland region, having falsified his compass bearings. Everyone accepted that explanation which was, of course, wrong. Later on in the war years with higher-flying aircraft we learned that these strong upper winds do exist.

H. T - Apart from the coastal stations, what weather reports did you have?

P. D. MeT-C. - There were occasional daytime reports from ships, and in particular two ships employed to carry newsprint for the Daily Mail from Botwood to England, whose skippers had become very interested in the trials and undertook to make and transmit observations 24 hours a day on request. So the flights were arranged when one, or preferably both, of these ships was at sea. We did pilot balloon ascents from Botwood and there was a seaplane which made a dai ly flight to record temperature, pressure and humidity aloft. That was all we had. I remember that the first British flight westbound had excellent weather conditions, and when the second was scheduled we thought it would too because there was a vast high pressure area in mid-Atlantic, so the forecast was for clear skies. Because night-time ship observations were not available,

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we could not know that at night this area was covered by a vast sheet of low stratus. The flying boat cruised at only 150-300 m altitude and the captain could not know that the top was only at about 600 m. So he flew in cloud all the way, and, fortunately, his dead-reckoning on the basis of our forecast winds gave him a landfall at Cape Race, the south-eastern tip of Newfoundland. Because our cloud forecast had been wrong he had thought that the winds and pressure were wrong too, so he certainly had something to say when he came into the met. office on his arrival. Actually these debriefing sessions were immensely helpful to us, and by the time the first season 's experimental flights were completed-without any casualties- we had learned a lot more about meteorology. The flights were discontinued during the winter, but there were more trials in 1938 when, in fact, a few passengers were carried. By then, however, it was clear that the intention was to use land planes rather than flying boats, and an airfield was being constructed at Gander, about 70 km away from Botwood. We moved the meteorological centre there in December 1938 on a day with exceptionally heavy snowfall.

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Borwood (Newfoundland), November 1937 - Dr McTaggart-Cowan (centre) with Mr J. R. H. Noble (left) and Mr H. H. Bindon

H. T - So that was the end of the flying boat crossings?

P. D. MeT-C. - No, because there were few suitable land aircraft available yet. Two other meteorologists had joined me in Newfoundland, one of whom was Reg Noble, later Director of the Meteorological Service from 1963 to 1977, and I left them to look after things at Gander and went to Botwood when a flying boat was expected. Gander airport was built close to the large lake of the same name, and a number of flying boats started using the lake instead of the arm of the sea at Botwood. The Germans made several successful Atlantic crossings, as did the French who had two enormous Latecoere machines with an incredible range. I remember one departed from New York for Botwood, but when overhead he received instructions from the operations headquarters in Marseilles not to land but to proceed to the Azores; when overhead Lagens the order was once again not to land but to fly directly to Marseilles. The total distance must have been more than 7000 km. In 1939 Pan American started using the Boeing 314 which was very successful. I have good reason to remember the last flight of the 1939 season because it caused me to be several days late for my own wedding. It was a Pan American flight bound for New York at the end of September; the captain knew I had to leave Newfoundland and offered to take me as a supernumary crew member, but the conditions were rather bad and there was a fair chance he would have to return because of icing. I felt my responsibility was to be on the ground in case that

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happened. As it turned out all was well , but I was left to take the train across Newfoundland, a boat across to the mainland, then a long train journey to Toronto and finally an aircraft across to Vancouver.

H. T - This brings us up to the outbreak of the Second World War and your involvement in the Royal Air Force Ferry Command. How did it start?

P. D. MeT-C. - When the war broke out, the previously planned civilian flights ceased, but there were more and more people who had to be conveyed between North America and Europe for high level conferences, and so the flying boat crossings continued in the summer Gf 1940. Then during the following winter the British Secretary of State for War, Lord Beaverbrook, decreed that as far as possible the aircraft being manufactured in North America for the war effort should be flown across the Atlantic to leave more space for other supplies in cargo vessels. They would also be safer, since the German U-boats were then having considerable success in decimating the Allies' convoys of merchant ships. I think the first aircraft ferried in this way were the Lockheed Hudson bombers which were not very large and had to be crammed with fuel tanks to permit them to make the crossing. 'Taffy' Powell was made chief operations officer at Gander ; he had been captain of that early flying boat crossing which had had the misleading cloud forecast so we already knew each other well. We agreed we could only let a group of aircraft take off for Europe when we were satisfied that they could cope with the cloud and icing conditions en route and that the situation was such that a drift off course due to unknown cross-wind components at one stage of the flight was likely to be compensated by a drift in the other direction at a later stage. They had to fly in groups because of the shortage of navigators, most planes only had a pilot, co-pilot and radio operator. The ability of these pilots was nothing short of remarkable.

H. T - I suppose wartime secrecy deprived you of a lot of your weather reports from shipping. Could you overcome this deficiency?

P. D. MeT -C. - The British Government attached enormous importance to the North Atlantic air routes and realized that a couple of ships would have to be stationed in mid-ocean to make meteorological observations. Two very slow cargo boats were earmarked for this purpose, and Mr S. Proud and Mr S. L. Portass from the British Meteorological Office volunteered to sail as meteorologists. I had already met Proud at the Croydon school. The ships were based at St. Johns in Newfoundland, and we had regular radio contact with them. One day when they were both at sea the two ships vanished without trace; presumably they had been sunk by a U-boat which had in turn been destroyed, because a search of the records after the war revealed no report which could shed any light as to their fate. About a week later an admiral of the United States Navy was on his way to an important meeting in Europe ; the weather was adverse and we had grounded his flight at Gander. Since the admiral's aircraft could not leave without our clearance he became more and more irate and tried to persuade me to let him go. I explained the situation as I saw it, and he was sympathetic to my difficulty of being without any observations at all. I think he was held up for about a week at Gander. The delay resolved him to put the case for heavily armed coastguard cutters being stationed in the North Atlantic to maRe weather observations and transmit them regularly ; and that is just what happened. No U-boat dared enter within range of their sonar detection equipment. At first there were three of these cutters but the number increased steadily until there were 21 by the end of the war in Europe. Only one was lost when it capsized during a storm in the Denmark Strait because of excessive super­structure icing. And that was really how the ocean weather ship network started.

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H. T - When was it that you became part of the RAF Ferry Command?

P. D. MeT-C. - By 1942 it was obvious that another airfield would have to be built down the coast of Labrador so that shorter-range aircraft could be ferried to Europe via Greenland and Iceland, and the site chosen was Goose Bay. In winter, long-range aircraft like the Consolidated PBY or Catalina were flown via Bermuda to Scotland. With these developments the principal control centre could no longer remain at Gander, and was brought back to Montreal. At about the same time the whole operation became the RAF Ferry Command.

H. T - What consequences did this have on your work?

P. D. MeT-C. - One thing was that I started a training course for pilots on Atlantic meteorology. We still had quite a lot of very experienced pilots who had been on the job from the beginning, but there were an increasing number of younger ones with barely I 00 hours' flying time. The courses proved to be a very useful exercise because it made the aircrews aware of our acute need for their collaboration in discussing the conditions they had encountered en route. Later a co-ordinating group between RAF Ferry Command and the United States Air Transport Command was set up, mainly to avoid congestion at the transit airfields, and I was designated to serve on it as the RAF's meteorological officer. We developed joint control instructions which later were to form the basis of the ICAO technical regulations.

H. T - So you were an obvious choice when it came to drafting the regulations when the Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization came into being.

P. D. MeT-C. - As chief meteorological officer I had been involved, with 'Taffy' Powell as chief operations officer, in recommending weather condition and ceiling limits that should be' placed on the various new and modified types of aircraft, so I was quite familiar with aeronautical engineering requirements. In 1944-before the war was over-a conference was held in Chicago to plan for an orderly transition from mil itary to civil aviation operations. For a whole month I was cloistered up with my American counterpart, Robert Craig, in the huge Stevens' Hotel where the conference was held, effectively translating Ferry Command criteria and procedures into a form suitable for use in civil aviation. It was this conference which decided to set up the Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization until such time as a properly constituted international body could be created. The war was coming to an end, Ferry Command had become merely 45 Group of RAF Transport Command and its activities were diminishing, so in 1945 I was seconded by the Canadian Government to serve as Secretary for Air Navigation in the PICAO in Montreal. I stayed on through the Congress which formally established ICAO, but declined the offer to continue as a regular international civil servant in a corresponding post, and returned to the Meteorological Service in 1946. I was appointed Assistant Director and given charge of the forecasting division.

H. T. - This was before the introduction of the numerical weather prediction. What were your primary tasks?

P. D. MeT-C. - To prepare new and up-to-date manuals of observations, forecast services and communications ; in fact the whole of the operational side. Our worst problem in the early years was the shortage of trained staff. There was such an explosive growth in the demand for meteorological forecasts and advice that our original assessment of manpower requirements was far too low. Incidentally, we were

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not the only ones to make such a mistake. It seems that wartime service had brought lots of people into contact with meteorology and shown them the potential value of weather forecasts in their varied pursuits. So we were doing everything we could to recruit more staff. Similarly, we decided too soon that our network of observing stations could be reduced, later having to look around for ways of reopening stations and establishing new ones. It was largely the staff shortage which led us to be the first country in the world to establish an extensive facsimile network for distributing centrally-analysed weather charts. In the international sphere, we had to get together to turn certain ad hoc wartime arrangements into permanent peacetime institutions. The enhanced status meteorology now had was reflected in the creation of WMO, a govern­mental body, as successor to the IMO. This period was very exciting, and the people concerned rose to the occasion splendidly. I am convinced the WMO was the most effective among the specialized agencies of the United Nations, accomplishing more at considerably less expense.

H. T - In 1957 you became Associate Director, and two years later Director of the Canadian Meteorological Service. Had the problem of shortage of staff been resolved by then?

P. D. MeT-C. - Far from it. You see, our pre-war university infrastructure in Canada was totally inadequate to meet the influx of would-be scientists and engineers demob­ilized from military service or having entered the country among the large numbers of immigrants. I felt very strongly that much more money should be put into the universities. As a matter of fact at that time the Meteorological Service was not short of money, just trained personnel, but I was not going to compromise by lowering the professional quality of people employed because that just builds in trouble for the future. So on several occasions I was quite outspoken in public about the failure of the authorities to give more support to higher education. Perhaps it was that which led the professor of physics at the University of British Columbia (for whom I had worked during the year I had been instructor there) to call me up and ask whether I would be interested in being the founding-president of a new university near Vancouver which he had been charged with creating. Well, much as I loved meteorology, here was a challenge I could not resist.

H. T - This was then the Simon Fraser University, named after the man who explored the course of the Fraser River in the early nineteenth century. When did you open the doors to students, and how many were there?

P. D. MeT-C. - After a short period during which I was constantly shuttling between Toronto and Vancouver, my wife and I finally moved west at the end of 1963, leaving our two children to continue their studies at the University of Toronto. The contractors were working flat out on the construction of the buildings, and a librarian was appointed to start getting a library together even though there were not yet any shelves to put the books on. My next chief concern as president was to recruit members of the faculty. We agreed that it was essential to have first class people as heads of departments because they, even more than deans and vice-presidents, set the tone of the university. As luck would have it that winter was exceptionally snowy; normally there is not enough snow in British Columbia to justify sophisticated snow-clearance equipment, but Simon Fraser University is built on the top of Burnaby Mountain and gets more snow than the surrounding lower areas. Thus we introduced the first high­speed snowplough to the province-building work had to continue throughout the winter because of our rushed schedule. So my knowledge of meteorology as well as my experience of snow clearance in Newfoundland and Montreal came in very handy.

13

Well, coming back to your question, we opened in September 1965, eighteen months

after construction of the University had started, and 2600 students were registered

straight away.

H. T - I suppose you included a department of meteorology in the faculty?

P. D. MeT -C. - There were already schools of meteorology at three Canadian

universities-Alberta, McGill and Toronto-so reluctantly I had to concede that a

fourth was not imperative. However, I did give lectures on meteorology and hydro­

meteorology to biology students who are usually far too ignorant about the envir­

onment in which animals and plants have to survive.

H. T - You left the Simon Fraser University in 1968 when still only in your middle

fifties. Did you feel that now the university had been born and was obviously thriving, your

post as president was no longer challenging enough?

P. D. MeT-C. - No. I had not intended leaving quite so soon, but as things turned

out I had a difference of opinion with the chancellor about how to deal with student

unrest arising from current political events. He was for strong-arm tactics; I felt it

could be sorted out through dialogue. The board of governors did not back me up, so I

had to leave. The man they appointed in my place was a labour economist who

brought his professional skill to the problem, and I must say he did an excellent job by

discussing the issues just as I would have done. That meant that the chancellor was

discredited and he in turn became a casualty of the affair. Anyway, the university has

continued to flourish and today has about 14 000 students enrolled. There was never

any ill feeling between the board and myself, and in fact I was invited back in 1972 to

receive an honorary LL D.

H. T - Your next post was executive director of the Science Council of Canada. What

did that entail?

P. D. MeT-C. - The Science Council was set up to study how science was being

practised and applied in Canada and to recommend to the Government where better

advantage could be taken of available scientific and technological know-how.

Although funded from public money, it is politically independent. The executive

director is the senior full-time executive. Although reactions of democratic

governments tend to be slow, I firmly believe that history will show that the Council

played a useful role and permitted Canadian industry to improve its competitiveness. I

deliberately kept my full-time staff to a minimum, preferring to obtain special experts

on secondment from the university or industrial sectors as necessary.

H. T - Early in 1970 you were called in to direct the cleaning up of an oil spill. This was

not part of the normal duties of an executive director of the Science Council I suppose?

P. D. MeT -C. - No, it certainly was not. This oil tanker Arrow, sailing under a flag of

convenience, had hit a rock in Chedabucto Bay on the coast of Nova Scotia, spilling

three million gallons (13-14 million litres) of its cargo. Any maritime disaster is a

federal and not a provincial matter, and Chedabucto Bay was an extremely rich fishing

ground. Thus the Minister for Transport was coming under great pressure because all

efforts so far at cleaning up the oil had proved ineffectual. However, the first I knew

about the incident was when the Minister telephoned saying he wanted me to go

immediately to Chedabucto Bay to take charge of operations, adding that he had

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already got the assent of the chairman of the Science Council. I insisted on having two responsible people with me: someone from the military services because I should need their help, and a chemist who knew something about heavy fuel-oils. That was agreed to. He also assured me that I would be responsible only to him in the way I went about the job. The research librarian for the Science Council did a superb job in getting me 95 per cent of the world's useful knowledge on oil spills documented and in a briefcase to take when I left within 24 hours of having received the Minister's phone call. I remember telling my wife as I departed that the whole job would be completed within two or three weeks' time, a thoroughly inaccurate prediction.

Or McTaggart-Cowan boards a helicopter during the Chedabukto Bay operation in 1970 to visit the various groups fighting the catastrophic oil spill

H. T - Was it crude oil that the tanker was transporting?

P. D. MeT-C. - No, it was what is known as 'Bunker-C', and its specific gravity was 0.98. When the vessel went on the rock it had broken in two, and before I had arrived they had tried to tow it off, with the result that the bows stayed on the rock and the stern sank-they said they could not find it. There was another three million gallons, so far still intact, in that stern portion. It was fairly easy to calculate where it should be, and I got a diving team from the Canadian Navy to go down to search. They found it, fortunately still upright, in about 35 m of water. Very quickly I had scores of experts working on various problems ; everyone realized that we had an emergency on our hands and did not stop to ask about who was going to pay. I gave as much publicity as possible to our plight in the hope that people would telephone me with some good ideas on how to tackle the many problems facing us. I also had to try to inform all the local inhabitants about the situation-there were over 300 km of coastline covered with oil; children and domestic animals were coming home covered with the oil from the beaches and boats. Parents and owners were ignorant of, and concerned about, its effects. A French Canadian professor rang up to say that ordinary peat-moss was excellent for mopping up the oil, and was not itself an ecological hazard. Then a former tanker captain rang up from New York saying he had an idea about how to get the oil out of the sunken stern section. I got them both to come and direct operations. There was not enough accommodation for everybody on shore, so we had to have a government ship come simply to provide bunks. The United States Navy loaned us a

15

large salvage vessel for as long as we needed it. It was a particularly unpleasant job for

the divers working in sea which was freezing, and having the leaking oil to contend

with too. By the end of August we had got most of the oil out of the hulk and could sell

it back to the petroleum company. We had to go back next year to clean up residual oil

which had come up during the winter storms and fouled beaches and also repump the

stern section of the vessel. In all, it was three years before we could say that the job was

done.

H. T - You must have developed many useful techniques for application in subsequent

oil spills.

P. D. MeT-C. - Well, we wrote a report of five volumes which contained plenty of

recommendations. Unfortunately not many have been acted upon. What was done was

to put a tax on each barrel of oil entering the country until a sizeable pollution-fighting

fund had been created. We did learn a lot about cleaning up the polluted sea and

beaches, but if you have seen the effects of an oil-spill, you will certainly agree that the

most important thing is to prevent them happening in the first place. It is my opinion

that international marine regulations still need a lot of tightening up.

H. T - You returned to your work with the Science Council until you retired in 1975. I

understand you had long been looking forward to taking up farming.

P. D. MeT-C. - You will remember me saying that my father had done rather the

same thing. I worked quite a lot for him in his horticultural business during the school

vacations and enjoyed it. From that time I decided I wou ld go back to the land when I

retired. In the early 1950s we were living in Toronto, our children were 12 and I 0 years

old, and I wanted to have a place out in the country where we could go and live

simply-without electricity and all the modern conveniences-so that they could do

things with their hands and muscles and gain confidence in their own physical abilities.

By a stroke of luck we heard about a farm which had been left derelict for ten years,

the farmer having died and his descendants not being interested, and found it was just

what we wanted. We bought the plot and pulled down the old barn, and during his

summer vacation the next year my son put up a new one which is still standing. Well,

we all came to love this spot, and were never in any doubt that we wou ld come to live

here permanently after 1 retired. We built this house in place of the old farmhouse, and

all in all it is very comfortable. We have panels for passive solar heating and burn

wood from our own forest. Altogether we have 80 hectares of land ; about one third is

arable and the rest is mixed woodland.

H. T. - You class yourself as a non-viable farmer. That means you do not make a living

out of it?

P. D. MeT. -C. - That is correct. If I had no other source of income life would be

difficult. I should have to invest in sophisticated machinery and that was never my real

intention. Nevertheless, we are accepted by the community as doing the job seriously,

and I have been elected vice-president of the Bracebridge Agricultural Society. My

principal cash crop is honey ; the bees produce half a ton a year of excellent honey

which is in great demand, and we also grow fruit and vegetables.

H. T - Have you broken all the links with your professional past?

P. D. MeT.-C. - Not entirely. When I retired the National Research Council asked

me to stay on one of its associate committees, the one which deals with scientific

16

criteria for environmental quality. Committee members themselves are unpaid so as to be entirely independent, but we have a small group of highly competent scientists and support staff. We prepare reports setting out environmental quality criteria for substances of our own choosing-quantitative cause and effect is our main emphasis. Take mercury in the aquatic environment, for instance-we would analyse how it gets there, how it moves around, what damage it causes 'and how you can prevent it getting there. It is a satisfying committee to work for, and I believe it has had a substantial impact on tightening up regulations relating to the protection of the environment. I have just agreed to stay on the committee for a further three years. Another activity of mine off the farm is as member of the board of directors of the Canadian subsidiary of a large transnational publishing firm. I am also on the selection committee for the annual Royal Bank Award which is akin to the Nobel Prize but on a national scale.

H. T - I shall not ask you to enumerate your many awards, but perhaps you would say which of them gave you the greatest satisfaction?

P. D. MeT-C. - Perhaps because it is still fairly recent, it was being made an Officer of the Order of Canada in 1979. This is a really high honour for a Canadian civilian. I also cherish being a Member of the Order of the British Empire, a distinction conferred on me in 1944 by the Government of the United Kingdom in recognition of my services in RAF Ferry Command. My awards from the American Meteorological Society were a great pleasure because it is always gratifying to be acclaimed by your peers.

H. T - What are the most memorable events of your professional life?

P. D. MeT-C. - That is difficult to say. One must be the landing at Botwood of Captain Wilcox and his C-class flying boat after the first crossing from Foynes, and the news that the Sikorsky clipper piloted by Captain Gray flying in the other direction had also arrived safely. Another thing I will never forget is when hurricane Hazel battered Toronto and district in October 1954. It was a once-a-century event, and the forecaster got it dead right, but the public did not believe it. The sad result was that about 80 people were drowned. Then there was the opening of Simon Fraser University, and the horror of seeing for the first time the Chedabucto Bay oil spill.

H. T - Finally, Dr McTaggart-Cowan, have you any advice to offer a young person thinking of taking up meteorology as a career?

P. D. MeT-C. - It would have to be this: Get as much formal training as you can. When I started there was very little written on the subject, and the papers coming out of the Bergen school were new to all meteorologists- young and old-so that I was one of the last self-taught meteorologists. Nowadays it is really necessary to get a good degree, preferably at the doctorate level. I do not believe it matters which particular field the thesis deals with because the student will anyway acquire a facility with the basic tools, and from there on it is just a case of keeping up with progress, because meteorology is not standing still. I am confident it is a profession with a future; there is an unending challenge, fascination and change.

H. T - On that optimistic note it only remains for me to thank you most warmly for having spared so much time to answer my questions and to wish you many more active years on this admirable farm.

17

METEOROLOGY IN CANADA

During June 1983 the Editor of the WMO Bulletin visited the headquarters of the

Atmospheric Environment Service in Toronto and interviewed a few senior members of the

staff Mr M. K. Thomas spoke about the histmy of the Canadian Meteorological Service,

Mr J. A. W. McCulloch gave some details of the activities of the Central Services Direc­

torate, research activities were described by Dr W. L. Godson, and Mr J. P. Bruce, the

Director of the Service and Permanent Representative of Canada with WMO, outlined the

AES priorities. Finally he learnt about some interesting work done by Mr D. Murdoch

presenting meteorological and climato/ogica/ evidence in judicial proceedings. The Editor

is most grateful to all these people for their willing collaboration.

History

The earliest notes on weather events date back to 1534 when explorers, missionaries and traders recorded their impressions of Canada's climate in their diaries and reports. Regular scientific series of observations were taken in Montreal during the 1740s and 1750s by Dr J. F. Gauthier, and subsequently published by the French Royal Academy of Sciences. Another early series was recorded at Churchill on the west coast of Hudson Bay in 1768 and 1769 by two British scientists, J . Dymond and W. Wales. In response to requests by the European scientific community, the British Government established four overseas observatories for magnetic data, one of which was located at Toronto and started up in the winter of 1839/40. For the first decade complete terrestrial magnetism and weather observations were taken every two hours. In 1853 General Edward Sabine delivered to the Royal Society in London a scientific paper based on the first temperature data from Toronto Observatory. In the same year, the Legislative Council of the (then) Province of Canada gave control of the Observatory to the University of Toronto. J. B. Cherriman, professor in mathematics and philosophy, was made provisional director until in 1855 G. T. Kingston was appointed Professor of Meteorology and became director of the Observatory. At that time there were perhaps a dozen or so private observing stations in Upper Canada, Lower Canada and the Atlantic colonies, but the central collection of data only started in June 1863. On I May 1871, the Governor-General approved a proposal of the Committee of the Privy Council which was the basis for the establishment of a new federal service-the Meteorological Service of Canada-and Professor Kingston became its first superintendent. It is probable that the establishment early in 1870 of a national Weather Service in the United States of America had given the necessary stimulus.

Commencing 2 January 1872, telegraphic reports from five synoptic stations in southern Ontario were sent to Washington, and in return daily data from a number of stations in the USA as well as predicted storm warnings for Canada were sent to

Professor Kingston. In 1880 C. Carpmael succeeded Professor Kingston and the decade which followed saw a great expansion of the Service. Carpmael died in October 1894, and the new director, R. F. Stupart, was the first native Canadian to be so designated. By 1902 there were 18 full-time employees at the central office, plus some 150 others throughout the country, practically all employed on a part-time basis to observe the weather and display storm signals. There were 32 telegraphic stations from which reports were sent twice daily to Toronto, and 330 climatological stations provided monthly reports of temperature and precipitation.

Meteorological activities increased considerably in the early years of the twentieth century. Qualified M. A. graduates were employed. Dr John Patterson became Director

18

in 1929 and remained in post until 1946. Chief meteorological stations were set up at Winnipeg, Vancouver, Edmonton and Moose Jaw. An agricultural meteorologist was appointed at the central office to study weather-crop relations. In 1910, a kite station was set up at Agincourt to obtain upper-air temperatures, pressures and humidities. During and after the First World War, the self-recording balloon-borne meteorograph was brought into service. Pilot balloons were used to obtain the speed and direction of winds aloft.

The growth of aviation in the 1920s resulted in a rapid expansion of meteoro­logical services. An aeronautical section was set up at the central office in Toronto in 1928, and a system for providing weather forecasts for trunk and inter-city airmail services was set up in 1931 and 1932. Unfortunately, all this activity came to a halt when economic conditions during the Depression forced the cancellation of airmail contracts. Nevertheless the need for a transcontinental and transatlantic aeronautical weather service was felt very strongly. In 1935 Canada assumed responsibility for transatlantic weather information and forecasts extending from Montreal through Newfoundland to longitude 30°W. That story is continued in the interview with Dr McTaggart-Cowan on page 5.

At the end of the Second World War military requirements for meteorological services dropped rapidly, and by late 1945 more than 100 meteorologists had had to leave. Thus the Meteorological Service had gone through a decade of unprecedented growth from 1936 to 1945, by which time the need for a complete overhaul of meteoro­logical systems was apparent.

The abundance of meteorologists immediately after the war had brought training activities to a halt. However, in the autumn of 1948 the Meteorological Service and the University of Toronto reinstated the M.A. course in physics with specialization in meteorology. At the same time the first post-war intensive B.A. and B.Sc. courses for meteorologists were organized, and both have been running ever since. McGill University later undertook M.Sc. training and the first course there finished in December 1962.

In the sphere of forecasting, a central analysis office was established and became operational in 1952. Research in numerical weather prediction started during the 1950s and a computer was acquired in 1965. More and more routine work was taken over by the computer, and in August 1970 computer-generated upper-level wind and temperature forecasts for aviation replaced those previously prepared by synoptic methods.

Soon after 1945, planners and designers in government and industry had realized the value that climatological services could render in their operations and capital investment planning. In 1950 the Service began using punch-cards and over the next two decades succeeded in bringing modern methods of data processing to its routine and projected operation.

Dr An drew Thomson took over the reins from Dr Patterson in December 1946 and the Meteorological Division headquarters was reorganized into a system which remained unchanged until 1971. Among section chiefs were such names as J. R. H. Noble, L. T. Campbell and P. D. McTaggart-Cowan, to mention only a few. The latter became director upon Dr Thomson's retirement in September 1959, and was in due course (1966) succeeded by Mr Noble. In 1971 the Meteorological Branch of the Ministry of Transport became the Atmospheric Environment Service of the Department of the Environment, and Mr Noble became Assistant Deputy Minister until he retired in 1976. Dr A. E. Collin succeeded him and served until 1980. The present Assistant Deputy Minister is Mr J. P. Bruce.

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During the 1950s and 1960s several new programmes were introduced. Technical and professional manpower was in short supply, and to improve the situation new classification standards evolved. Long-range planning (over five to ten years) was introduced, and with it a new style of financial management. An ocean weather ship programme was started and attention was also turned to the far north-the first Arctic weather stations were established and supported jointly by Canada and the USA. A significant step forward was taken in March 1968 when the first permanently installed Meteorological Automatic Reporting Station (MARS) came into operation at Victoria (British Columbia); automatic observations were made of temperature, dew point, wind and precipitation and the data transmitted on a teleprinter circuit every 15 minutes.

The Atmospheric Environment Service today

Full-time employees of the Canadian AES currently number about 2400, about 800 being at the headquarters in Downsview (near Toronto) which houses the adminis­trative and major central services. There are five directorates, each headed by a director-general: central services, field services, research, the Canadian Climate Centre and programme development and evaluation.

Mr J. McCulloch is Director-General of the Central Services Directorate, and in an interview with the Editor he described in some detail the activities of his own direc­torate and outlined those of the Field Services Directorate.

Central services

The four branches of the central services deal with data acquisition, computers and communications, ice and training.

The data acquisition branch appraises instruments and instrument systems produced in the private sector and studies their adaptation to the needs of the Service. An example is the latest generation of automatic weather stations developed by a Canadian company with input from the data acquisition services branch. These stations will be micro-electronic and will transmit over landline or satellite links. They can be used as climatological stations in remote locations, as part of airport instal­lations or deployed in the high Arctic.

The second branch is responsible for the operation of the national communication system and its interconnections with the GTS. There is a big computer at the Canadian Meteorological Centre at Montreal and a smaller one at Downsview, and a vector processor (which can handle a number of computations in parallel) is shortly to be installed at the Montreal centre. The communication system is gradually being upgraded over a period of several years.

The ice reconnaissance headquarters are at Downsview and employ 30 specially trained technicians. Two aircraft leased from a Canadian company are equipped for this service and are based in different locations according to the season. A third aircraft will soon be brought into use. The ice forecasting centre in Ottawa is responsible for short-term forecasts of ice conditions as well as for a seasonal outlook. The service is to be expanded to include an iceberg survey to assist those employed in drilling operations in the Labrador Sea and the Grand Banks, and will be further developed when the energy resources of the Beaufort Sea and the high Arctic come to be exploited. There is also an ice climatology group responsible for the preparation of statistics and charts, and which contributed to the recently published Ice Atlas of the

20

Canadian Arctic. Finally, a very small research group is studying the use and interpre­tation of passive microwave radiometer data from satellites and aircraft for obtaining information on ice conditions. Plans are in hand for a satellite with a synthetic aperture radar, designed primarily for this purpose.

The training branch is responsible for both operational and technical training in English and French. Professional training for university graduates in operational meteorology is given in a six-month course at Downsview or Montreal. Trainees come as graduates in mathematics, physics or meteorology from one of the four universities: McGill, Toronto, Alberta or the University of Quebec at Montreal. Other universities are developing the appropriate courses. Technicians, recruited from high school, are given a 13-week course in a training institute at Cornwall (Ontario) operated by the Department of Transport with AES instructors in meteorology. Some go on to a further course in upper-air observing, and there is also a possibility for those already experienced in the field to train as 'presentation ' technicians whose duty is to provide local short-range forecasts based on more general forecasts issued by one of the regional weather centres.

Field services

The Field Services Directorate is responsible for data-gathering and the delivery of weather information and forecasts to the users. There are six Regional Weather Centres under a regional director, each responsible within the region for weather services, station operation, scientific services and administration. The regions are: Pacific, Western , Central, Ontario, Quebec and Atlantic. Agrometeorology and marine meteorology are also basically handled in the regions, though co-ordinated by specialists at the headquarters in Downsview. The Canadian Meteorological Centre is also part of this directorate. In all , the field services account for about 60 per cent of the employees and 50 per cent of the budget of the AES.

Research

When Dr W. L. Godson, now Director-General of the Atmospheric Research Directorate, joined the Service in 1942, training and research were together in one branch. A full training programme was in progress during the Second World War, but later on when more time was available for research, the branches separated. The emphasis was at first on cloud physics, but the scope gradually broadened to include dynamic meteorology, physical meteorology (radiation and ozone) and boundary-layer meteorology.

When the Atmospheric Environment Service was established in 1971 , these groups were brought together and there was a new mandate to do significant air pollution research. This has now become a major area with the recognition of the importance of studies of acid rain, toxic chemicals and tropospheric oZGne - all involving atmospheric chemistry.

The directorate currently employs about 70 research scientists. Most are at Downsview, but one group (numerical weather prediction) is at Montreal. There is much interdisciplinary work between the groups as there is inevitably much overlapping of interests. Co-operation with the universities is very close and has been for the past 40 years. A system of post-doctorate fellowships brings young people to Canada from all over the world, and AES staff members are in turn sent to such places as the ECMWF at Reading (England) or to the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) (USA).

21

Research programmes are chosen in consultation with the Government and reflect the key problems of the day. For instance, a big gap in acid rain research was the lack of knowledge of cloud chemistry, and accordingly weather modification and cloud physics activi ti es shifted to cloud chemistry, with the resulting development of what may be the world's best instrumented cloud physics plus cloud chemistry research aircraft.

Priorities of the AES

In an interview on 17 June 1983, Mr J. P. Bruce, Assistant Deputy Minister and Director of the Atmospheric Environment Service, spoke of the present priorities and future projects of the Service.

As top priority he places the improvement of weather forecasts, both in accuracy and usefulness, especially short-range forecasts. Aids to this would be the installation of additional weather radars and greater use of satellite information. A further impetus towards the improvement of longer-term (two- to seven-day) forecasts would be provided by the installation of the new Cray- 1 computer at the Canadian Meteoro­logical Centre in Montreal.

The second priority will be in atmospheric research, particularly the acid rain problem, and in co-ordination leading to an agreement on trans-boundary air pollution between Canada and the USA. Thirdly, help in the economic development of the country would be provided by improved services to forestry, to water management and to the offshore oi l and gas industry; this latter wi ll include ice and state-of-sea forecasts.

Recently the Canadian Climate Programme was approved as an integrated federal provincial programme. Here the focus will be on gaining a better understanding of the impact of C02 and other radiatively active gases on features of Canadian climate, and on the development of techniques for making seasonal forecasts.

Mr Bruce also spoke of the continuing challenge inherent in providing infor­mation in French or Engl ish or, in the bilingual parts of the country, in both languages. In addition there was an attempt on the part of the Government to ensure that the public services reflect the two language groups in proportion to their numbers in the general population, and also to increase the number of women employed in jobs hitherto usually given to males. Employment opportunities are also given to the Inuit and Indian peoples.

Mr Bruce said that the AES may not be able to provide all the services required by private enterprises, and for this reason private meteorological consultancy firms were encouraged. Of course it was often difficult to decide whether a particular service was of benefit to the public as a whole (and as such should be provided by the National Service) or whether it was too specialized and thus more appropriately the domain of a private firm. He affirmed that he stood by the principle that those jobs that could best be done by private firms should be left to them.

In reply to the Editor's question as to whether being Third Vice-President of WMO would take up a lot of his time, Mr Bruce said that he would certainly need to involve himself more actively in WMO affairs, which are substantial and likely to remai n so in the future. Fortunately he had very knowledgeable colleagues in his Service who would help him considerably in his task.

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Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society

Mr Thomas told the Editor that until 1939 there had been no national Meteoro­logical Society in Canada, although many Canadian meteorologists belonged to the American Meteorological Society or the Royal Meteorological Society (or both). In May I 939 authority was given for the formation of a Canadian branch of the Royal Meteorological Society, which held its first meeting in 1940. The bureau (executive body) was in Toronto and meetings were held there in the 1940s and 1950s ; publication of proceedings of meetings began in I 950 in series called Canadian Branch Publi­cations.

When the universities began to show an interest in meteorology, the bureau moved to Montreal where McGill University had established a department of meteorology. Centres were created in other places across the country. The formation of a separate Canadian Meteorological Society was discussed in the early 1960s but did not take effect until I July 1967. A periodical review Atmosphere was published at McGill with Sven Orvig as its first editor.

Several meetings are now held during the year at the different centres, and there have been about 20 annual congresses, usually held in conjunction with meetings of Canadian learned societies.

In the 1970s membership of the Society was extended to oceanographers, whereupon it became the Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society. The bureau has been based successively in Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver and Edmonton; it is currently in Ottawa where help is given by the Canadian Association of Physicists and the bi-monthly periodical, entitled Atmosphere-Ocean, is published by the University of Toronto Press. There is also a Newsletter issued four or five times a year. Financial help comes from the AES and through sponsorship by a number of firms as corporate members. Membership is around 500 and is open to non-Canadians.

A climatologist in the criminal lawcourt

In the Ontario Weather Centre at Toronto Airport, a climatologist called Dave Murdoch has an unusual but rather exciting job. He spends up to 40 per cent of his time in lawcourts, not infrequently testifying under oath. He has been employed by the Meteorological Service of Canada for almost 30 years and has become a specialist in criminal cases which involve meteorological evidence. Mr Murdoch is the first person in Canada-and probably anywhere else-to teach forensic climatology at a police college. Furthermore he gives talks to various groups such as police, lawyers, research organizations and teacher courses.

His work requires careful searches into climatological records, meteorological maps and satellite pictures, and he must prepare himself for cross examinations which are often ruthless. Here is a typical case in which Mr Murdoch's evidence proved to be decisive.

In Brantford (Ontario) a nine-year-old girl disappeared on 15 February 1978. Her friends had seen her in the schoolyard that morning. Four days later her body was found, fully clothed, lying in the snow not far from a river. Her face was covered with snow crystals. The police concluded that she had been battered to death, but they could not determine the time of death, and it was essential to know how long the body had been lying there. The Defence and Civil Institute of Environmental Medicine in Toronto has a cold room in which weather conditions can be reproduced so as to study their effect on the human body. Mr Murdoch provided the Institute with detailed records of temperature and wi nd direction and speed over the four-day period during

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which the child had been missing. These conditions were then duplicated in the cold room. Another important piece of information supplied by Murdoch was that there had been only one brief snowfall during that period, and he could give its exact time and duration. Since the snowfall on the face was crystalized, the body must still have been warm during the snowfall. This meant that the probable time of death was a couple of hours after the girl was last seen in the school playground.

The suspect was the girl's stepfather who had an alibi for the four-day period except for a short time coinciding with the established time of death. He was tried and convicted.

Today, 'calling Mr Murdoch' has become routine in Ontario's criminal courts. It seems this relatively new field of specialization in forensic climatology has a promising future.

REGIONAL METEOROLOGICAL TRAINING CENTRES: The Caribbean Meteorological Institute

(Submitted by the Permanent Representative of Barbados with WMO)

Background

After the failure of the Federation of the West Indian Islands in 1962, a Common Services Conference was convened by the governments of the region to consider the future of various services. This conference proposed that the Meteorological Services of countries in the region should be embodied in a single unit, and established a formal Agreement among the member countries to this effect. A Caribbean Meteorological Council (CM C) was established consisting of ministers with responsibility for meteoro­logical matters in their respective territories; this was to be the supreme organ as far as meteorology was concerned. A headquarters unit with a director-general was also established to co-ordinate activities of the various national Services.

Prior to, and for some years following these events, training of staff for Meteoro­logical Services had been mainly restricted to in-service training. This was particularly true of the meteorological assistant grade. A few training courses for forecasters were organized by the headquarters unit; they were conducted by experienced personnel in the region, and were followed by a period of on-the-job training at one of the estab­lished forecast offices. In addition, a few people were sent for training at the United Kingdom Meteorological Office Training School, but the number that could be accom­modated was limited.

These initial training efforts were useful, but less than satisfactory in view of the planned development programmes of the Meteorological Services; it was felt that a more comprehensive approach was required. Therefore the CMC decided that the creation of a training institution was desirable in order to meet the particular needs of the region. To this end, advice and assistance were sought from WMO, and an evaluation mission toured the region. The major finding was that some 200 meteoro­logical assistants and forecasters would be required over a fi ve-year period to permit the Meteorological Services to function adequately.

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The CMC therefore decided to establish a Training and Research Institute in Barbados, and a project proposal entitled ' Improvement of the Caribbean Meteoro­logical Services' was prepared. Funding for the project was obtained from UNDP, with WMO as executing agency, and the Institute was established in 1967 with five experts appointed to lead and develop the various sections.

Barbados had been chosen largely because of its geographical situation. It is the most easterly of the Caribbean island chain, so that only the Atlantic Ocean lies between it and the west coast of Africa. It was felt that this location would provide a good base for studying systems that come across the ocean, and in fact several universities and organizations have used Barbados (and the Institute's facilities) for this purpose. Perhaps the most notable experiment was BOMEX in 1969.

The Hon. J. M. G . Adams, Prime Minister of Barbados (cenire), pays a visit to the Caribbean Meteorological Institute. The acting principal, Or C. A. Depradine, is second from the right

In 1973, the governments of the various States decided that the arrangements in respect of the Meteorological Services in the region which derived from the Common Services Conference should be formalized, and it was decided to establish the Caribbean Meteorological Organization (CMO). This consisted of the CMC, the headquarters unit and the Caribbean Meteorological Institute (CMI).

In 1977, after 11 years in operation, the CMI was designated a WMO Regional Meteorological Training Centre for Region IV. So far, some 689 students have been trained at all the four WMO classified levels. Students have come from the English­speaking Caribbean countries and from Surinam and Kenya. Most were employed in their national Meteorological Services but some were private students. Unfortunately it has not yet been possible to cater for the Spanish-speaking countries of Region IV because of the language problem.

The CMI has received assistance from various international agencies, in particular UNDP and WMO which supported the initial five-year project. At the end of this initial period an extension was granted because of the Institute's expanded programmes, but with a reduced level of support. Assistance has also been provided by the Government of the United Kingdom and the Canadian International Development Agency; the former provided training fellowships and equipment for the repair and calibration of meteorological instruments, the latter assisted in the construction of a building for the instruments centre. The Organization of American States .funded a

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project for the collection and publication of historical data from several islands in summary form.

As part of the UNDPfWMO project agreement several nationals from Caribbean countries were trained at universities in the United Kingdom and USA to take over responsibility for the various sections of the Institute from the project experts.

Organizational and operational relationships

The principal functions of the CMI are: (a) to provide training and to conduct research in meteorology and allied sciences; (b) to provide facilities to member­countries for the repair and maintenance of meteorological equipment; (c) to undertake the processing and dissemination of climatological data; (d) to advise the governments in matters related to meteorology.

A board of governors appointed by the CMC and including representation of the University of the West Indies is responsible for the general policy and conduct of the Institute's affairs. Board meetings are held at least twice a year when the Institute's programmes and budget are reviewed. The first principal of the CMI was Mr Geoffrey Rudder who is currently a WMO staff member. Dr Colin Depradine is at present serving as acting principal. The teaching staff numbers 14.

To ensure that the Institute's programmes respond to requirements, meetings are held with the directors of the national Meteorological Services of member-countries of the CMO at least once a year. At these meetings the syllabus content, the number of students and the courses to be mounted the following year are decided upon. Other meetings are also held from time to time to review the overall development of meteorology in the region and to make recommendations as necessary.

In 1972 the Institute was affiliated to the University of the West Indies following the decision to provide undergraduate training in meteorology to meet the needs of the growing and expanding Meteorological Services. The B.Sc. degree programme at the UWI lasts for three or four years, depending upon students' initial qualifications. The meteorology courses are taught by the Institute's staff and the remainder of the programme by University staff. Students major in meteorology and mathematics or meteorology and physics. The first batch graduated in 1977.

Training courses

The principal areas of operation of the CMI are climatology, agrometeorology, aerology, hydrometeorology, operational radar meteorology, and instrument maintenance, repair and calibration. Courses are offered in these subjects at various levels. The Class IV observer course lasts for 17 weeks and is run twice a year. The Class Ill programme is designed to offer specialized courses in the above topics and is held once a year; it lasts for six months. Specialization at the Class 11 level depends upon demand, but is generally offered in aerology with emphasis on the tropics. At the Class I level the principal topic is again aerology, but with shorter courses in agromete­orology, hydrometeorology, climatology and radar meteorology. A short course for agrometeorological observers is offered once a year.

Successful candidates are awarded certificates at the end of their courses at Classes 11 , III and IV. The award of a B.Sc. degree is made under the auspices of the University, and students must therefore satisfy all the relevant requirements. The Class 11 certificate is recognized for entry to the University, otherwise a candidate requires General Certificate of Education 'A' Levels in mathematics and physics. With

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the Class II certificate, a candidate may be exempted from the first year of the meteorology courses.

Number of students enrolled at the CMI up to July 1983

CLASS I B.Sc. (meteorology) 31 * Meteorology (6 courses) 58

CLASS 11 Agrometeorology and climatology (I course) 4 Radar meteorology (2 courses) 23

CLASS Ill Various specializations (9 courses) 84

CLASS IV Aeronautical met. observer (28 courses) 357 Agromet. observer (8 courses) 54

Radar maintenance (2 courses) 20

Workshops (2) 26 TOTAL 657

* Another 32 students took the degree course in meteorology who were not employed by a Meteorological Service.

Training facilities

The Institute possesses six classrooms and two laboratories for its trammg programmes, plus electronic and mechanical workshops, meteorological calibration equipment, a printing press and associated equipment, a photography laboratory, a I 0-cm weather radar, solar radiation and digital recording equipment. There is also a small but comprehensive library with some 6000 volumes and subscriptions to 35 journals.

The CMI assists in the maintenance of the observational network in the region. Technicians make annual visits to airport and agrometeorological stations to carry out repairs and advise on general upkeep. They wi ll also come to a station at any time if requested. There are six weather radars located throughout the region which are linked by single-side-band equipment. This network is also serviced by technicians from the Institute. A stock of spare parts is kept for meteorological instruments and radars. These are sold to governments on a non-profit-making basis. The Institute has recently acquired a minicomputer which is used for the storage of data, for research and for student training.

Current and future activities

New training programmes are scheduled to begin in August for Class Ill and Class IV personnel, and in September for Class II. The B.Sc. degree programme will commence in October with the University's academic year.

Research, monitoring and other activities at the Institute have largely been of an applied nature. The principal areas include: (a) hydrometeorology-rainfall intensity/ duration studies; (b) meteorology-hurricane climatology, low-level wind shear, tropical meteorology case studies and statistical analysis of data; (c) agromete­orology- soil moisture, evaporation, precipitation characteristics, solarization of soil ; (d) climatology-data collection, analysis, processing and publication in summary form ; (e) alternative energy-wind and solar resource assessments in the various islands.

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The CMI has undertaken a large-scale programme to collect and analyse wind­flow data over the various islands in an effort to find the best sites to erect wind turbines for electric power. Solar radiation measurements are also carried out and the data are being analysed. The Institute is also conducting a programme of stream­gauging and measurement of other hydrological parameters to determine the potential for a small-scale hydroelectric power plant in one island. This programme is expected to be expanded shortly.

Other planned programmes include more extensive work in agrometeorology, climatology and meteorology. This includes: infiltration and evaporation studies and their application to irrigation practices ; air pollution/air chemistry studies in collabo­ration with the University of the West Indies ; further work on wind and solar power potential in the eastern Caribbean; application of climatological data to research on building materials and tourism.

Recording radiation measurements at the CM! ( Phoros: Barbados Mereorologica / Office)

A major expansion programme has been undertaken in operational hydrology within the framework of the Caribbean Operational Hydrological Institute (COHI), which is part of the infrastructure of the CMO and forms an entity with the CM I. This programme is designed to train personnel in various categories capable of carrying out projects on the hydrological network in the Caribbean region. Students will be trained at the higher and lower technician levels, and it is proposed to set up an extensive stream-gauging network throughout the region. The programme is being funded by the Netherlands Government, UNDP and by money provided under the European Devel­opment Fund. An additional role for the Institute will be that of a central data depository for hydrological data. Analysis and publication of the data will be carried out by the Institute's staff who will also function as advisers to governments. Six-month training courses will be offered at the lower technician level and sixteen-month courses at the higher technician level. The first lower technician course has already been completed.

As a part of our B.Sc. programme it is planned to introduce an applied meteorology option. This will comprise subjects such as agrometeorology, climatology

. and hydrometeorology with emphasis on the analysis and application of data. This option should interest those persons not primarily interested in forecasting. It is also proposed to introduce a postgraduate programme with emphasis on applied asf!!ects, and aimed primarily at regional problems. The introduction of the computing system is expected to boost this programme. Finally, the installation of wind turbines, and possibly wind farms, in the region will also provide opportunities for the Institute to expand its activities related to alternative energy sources.

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METEOROLOGY AIDS FOOD PRODUCTION

This is the theme of the World Meteorological Day in I984, and to mark the occasion the Editor of the WMO Bulletin went to interview a well-known personality in the field of agrometeorology, Dr P. M. A. Bourke, former Director of the Meteorological Service of Ireland. Dr Bourke lives on the north side of Dublin between the city and the ailport. Clad in an elegant dark blue suit, he greeted the Editor with his customa/y cordiality. The Editor was greatly surprised to learn that Dr Bourke was just goingfO/· a few days' stay in hospital for a routine check-up-he gave the impression that he was on his way to some forma l reception rather than to a hospital bed.

Patrick Martin Austin Bourke was born on 10 May I913. He graduated with a B.Sc. first class honours degree from University College, Cork, in I933, obtaining a gold medal and the Peel Memorial Prize as outstanding graduate of the year. He obtained his M. Se. in I936, also with first class honours. In I939 he joined the newly-formed Irish Meteoro­logical Service and was appointed Assistant Director in I948. He became Director in I964 and held that position until his retirement in I978.

Dr P. M. A. Bourke (Pho10: H. Taba)

Dr Bourke acted as adviser to the Government of Chile on agricultural meteorology under a United Nations technical co-operation scheme in the mid-I950s. He was president of the WMO Commission for Agricultural Meteorology from I958 to I962. He obtained his first doctorate, a Ph. D. from the National University of Ireland, in I967 for a thesis on the epidemiology of potato blight in the years I845-I847. A second doctorate, D.Sc. (honoris causa), was conferred on him in 1978. In 1975 he was awarded the William F. Petersen gold medal for his work in the field of plant biometeorology.

After his retirement Dr Bourke has continued to pursue his various activities. At present he and Professor H. H. Lamb are engaged in a European Economic Community climatic project dealing with synoptic aspects of the I845 epidemic of potato blight in western Europe which led to the great famine in Ireland and disasters in the Netherlands, Belgium and elsewhere.

This interview took place on 16 August I983, and the Editor was pleased to see Dr Bourke full of his usual vigour and enthusiasm and is very grateful to him for according this interview.

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H. T - Dr Bourke, you have been involved with agricultural meteorology for most of your professional life. How did this association begin?

P. M. A. B.- The Irish Meteorological Service was founded as recently as 1939, just before the outbreak of the Second World War, in response to the demands of trans­atlantic aviation which was then just beginning. So, for many years aviation requirements took up its complete attention, but when peace came we were able to turn our thoughts to the needs of agriculture-a major industry in Ireland. As it happened this development coincided with the rebirth of international interest in agricultural meteorology.

H. T - What do you mean when you speak of the rebirth of agricultural meteorology after the war?

P. M. A . B. - Of course, realization of the critical importance of climate and weather to the farmer is as old as agriculture itself; in every country there are dozens of age-old proverbs and sayings on the subject which incorporate the wisdom of empirical experience. As modern meteorological services began to evolve, WMO's predecessor, IMO, decided to bring a more organized and scientific approach to meteorological aspects of farming, and in 1913 the Commission for Agricultural Meteorology--one of the earliest such specialized groups-was set up. Unfortunately, 1913 was not an auspicious moment to begin. The First World War broke out in the following year, aeronautical meteorology was almost the sole object of meteorological activities in the inter-war years, and then the Second World War followed. For these reasons, agricultural meteorology was largely stagnant for some 35 years after the IMO Commission for Agricultural Meteorology had been set up. In fact we are still paying the price for neglecting the subject in those years because meteorology became largely divorced from agriculture. That is why I speak of a postwar rebirth or resurgence, marked, for example, by the founding in 1964 of the first scientific journal devoted entirely to agricultural meteorology.

H. T - How did you first become involved in international agrometeorology?

P. M. A. B. - One of the first things we concerned ourselves with in Ireland was a recurrent disease of one of our most important crops-late blight of potatoes. We evolved a very successful system in which weather data were used to forecast the date of onset and the intensity of the disease, and this enabled growers to adopt the best and most economical programme for applying fungicides to the crop. When potato blight became a serious menace in Chile in 1950, I spent a year there as an adviser under UN technical assistance. Indeed I happened to be the first meteorologist who served as an expert in South America, and I was greatly impressed by the help which agro­meteorology could offer to farming on that continent-as indeed elsewhere in the Third World. A little later I served as president of CAgM which brought me into close contact with the problems of other countries.

H. T - I'd like to come back a little later to meteorology as a weapon in the fight against farm diseases and pests. But first would you say something about farming in general and the help which meteorology can provide.

P. M. A. B. - It is not easy to give a short summary of the help which meteorology can provide to agriculture. There is scarcely any aspect of agriculture in which weather does not play a vital part, and this applies to animal husbandry and forestry as well as crop growing. I don't want to bore you or your readers with the long list of what

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meteorology can do, but in a broad way one can distinguish between assistance towards the strategy of agriculture (that is to say planning, decisions on land use, management and so on) and assistance towards tactics (the day-to-day operations on the farm). Irrigation is an example of both types. The planning of irrigation requirements, and the corresponding equipment which will be needed, can be decided on the basis of climatic data, and this is an example of strategy. At the same time there is a tactical requirement for a continuous supply of information on soil moisture balance throughout the growing season for controlling irrigation so that growth is not hindered by lack of water, but also that over-irrigation does not lead to waterlogging and damage to the soil (quite apart from the waste of valuable water). One of the more obvious strategic uses of meteorology is in deciding which crops could advantageously be grown in certain climates, or what climatic hazards might follow a change of land use.

Destruction of sparse vegetation by domestic animals can have serious consequences (Photos: J. Lomax)

H. T. - Could you give some concrete examples of meteorological factors as affecting agricultural planning?

P. M . A . B. - A classic extreme example of the problems which can arise when planners neglect simple agrometeorological factors is the ill-fated and short-lived East African groundnuts scheme, into which some £24 million of capital was poured without the precaution having been taken of checking whether the soil moisture regime in central Tanzania was capable of supporting the crop. That was a negative example, and they are always more spectacular. As a positive example, I might cite the reclamation of large marsh areas of the border between the Netherlands and the Federal Republic of Germany into arable land about 30 years ago. There the danger of subsequent wind erosion was foreseen and obviated by the inclusion of an appropriate network of windbreaks into the original planning.

H. T - You mentioned also the help the meteorologist could bring to day-to-day tacties of farm work.

P. M. A . B. - The weather impacts almost every aspect of the farmer's work, such as the preparation of land for crops, sowing, planting and transplanting, applying fertilizer (this should be done in periods free from high winds and heavy rain), and the control of diseases and pests. The meteorologist's aim is to help the farmer take full advantage of the favourable aspects of the seasonal weather (for instance by forecasting a sequence of fine days suitable for such tasks as haymaking), and at the same time to warn him of impending weather hazards (such as frost , snowstorms, gales or conditions favouring epidemics of plant or animal diseases) so that the farmer can take appropriate protective measures.

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H. T - How exactly does the weather come into disease forecasting?

P. M. A. B. - Weather enters into the disease and pest picture in at least three major ways. First, stressful weather conditions may predispose plants and animals to disease either directly or, in the case of animals, by affecting their nutrition. Second, the onset and intensity of many plagues is affected-even controlled-by weather factors. For example, leaf wetness in the case of apple scab, high humidity in the case of the downy mildews, and soil moisture in the case of livestock liver fluke. Third, meteorological factors influence the spread of disease, especially through the windborne transport (sometimes over great distances) of inocula, like the spores of cereal rusts which are carried northwards from Africa into Europe in most summers. They also travel over great distances in North America. Incidentally, the concept of transport in the atmosphere has recently been used in England to help stamp out secondary attacks of foot-and-mouth disease and fowl pest (Newcastle disease). The sectors into which winds were blowing from the site of the initial outbreak are mapped out and the search for new infections concentrated in these regions.

H. T - Is it still true that plant and animal protection continues to be an important part of agrometeorological work now that there are effective chemical counters and resistant varieties of crops and livestock?

P. M . A. B. - Even today epidemics of diseases and pests are still a major factor in reducing yields and causing losses in storage. This is true even in the most advanced countries. Such losses become increasingly intolerable as the demand for food continues to outstrip production in much of the world. Unfortunately, the risk of serious attack by plant parasites is paradoxically increased by the very practices which are used in modern agriculture to promote food production; such things as the intro­duction of new varieties, more intensive cropping, the growing of more than one crop per year, the wider practice of irrigation, and increased use of fertilizers. There have been several significant warning signs lately of the phytosanitary dangers of monoculture-that is the growing of huge areas of the same crop and often of the same variety in place of the less vulnerable diversified patterns of traditional farming. The wheat cultivar, named Heines VII, was so promising that it swept most other varieties from the fields of Europe in a couple of years, only to collapse disastrously in a single season to the yellow rust which it had been bred to counter.

H. T - Nevertheless, leaving disease and pests to one side, surely the present generation of farmers, with modern technology on their side, have less reason to fear the weather than had their fathers and grandfathers?

P. M. A. B. - Some years ago it was not uncommon to hear it said that the achievements of modern agriculture had 'weatherproofed' farming. The steady rise in American grain production during the climatically favourable period of some 15 years up to 1971 convinced many observers that the weather factor had been virtually eliminated from cereal growing, thanks to plant breeding and selection, and to better farm management. However, the food crises which were triggered off by adverse weather in many parts of the world in 1972 shattered this illusion in a most dramatic way, and led to the convening of the World Food Conference in 1974. The vulner­ability of human society to climatic events has not been vanquished by technological innovations. The consequences of unfavourable seasons on food production, although reduced on average, are still very far from having been eliminated. Human nature being what it is, the panic created by the bad weather of 1972 lasted only up to the next good harvest, indeed for many the sense of urgency had already lost its cutting edge by

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the time of the World Food Conference. Today the temporary inconvenience of local food surpluses (for example those due to high milk production in the European Economic Community or to the magnificent 1982 grain harvest in the USA) tends to mask the underlying fundamental problem of a continuous rise of world population. Yet widespread food crises can only recur with ever greater severity in the future. That is one thing which is absolutely certain; panic will return in an even more acute form. So it is here, helping to meet the basic human need for a sufficiency of food, that the first priority of agricultural meteorology should lie. In contributing to this objective, agrometeorology can find its greatest achievement.

Ploughing by the age-old method and planting rice the modern way

H. T - Are you happy with the progress of agricultural meteorology in recent years? How do you see its future development?

P. M. A. B. - Thanks to the work of WMO (in particular the devoted efforts of CAgM) and to the co-operation of FAO, there is a heightened appreciation in most countries of the role which agrometeorology can play in the development of agriculture. I am glad to say this recognition is especially strong in the third world countries, where the task is most onerous but the potential gains greatest. Most Meteorological Services have set up an agrometeorological section. This, of course, is no more than the first step. If real progress is to be made there are certain fundamental things to be remembered. First, a service is valuable only if it is used. There must be close working contacts on a national scale between the meteorologist and the various agricultural specialists and farm advisers, as well as farming bodies. There must also be good communications between the team with which the meteorologist works and the agriculturist in the field. Advice should be given in practical terms so that the farmer sees clearly how to use it. The objective should be to make the agrometeorological service as operationally effective as aeronautical meteorology is today. Second, agricultural meteorology deals with the interface between two very complex sciences. Its practice calls for the very best brains available; it should not be thought of as a field in which less bright staff members might be employed. Third, meteorological services to agriculture comprise not only climatic information but also real-time data and forecasts, so that an agrometeorological section confined within the climatological division of a Meteorological Service is prevented from achieving a full healthy growth. These and similar precepts are gaining widespread acceptance, and I am confident that the useful role of agricultural meteorology will expand to assist in solving whatever problems agriculture will face as we move into the third millenium.

H. T - Dr Bourke, thank you very much for this concise account of the role of meteorology in food production.

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MONSOONS By P. K. DAS*

The thermal gradients set up by the different response times to incoming solar radiation between land and oceans give rise to a system of winds which blow from the sea to the land in summer and from the land to the sea in winter. These alternating . regimes, affecting many tropical countries, and being particularly pronounced in the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea regions, came to be known as monsoons, the term being derived from an Arabic word meaning 'season'. Monsoonal circulations are important to many countries of Asia and Africa because of their capacity to generate seasonal rains. Agriculture and the replenishment of water supplies rely heavily on monsoon rains; in fact the national economy of many countries is dependent on the timely arrival and subsequent distribution of rains.

The intensity and extent of monsoons is determined by several factors: the impact of orography, moist convection, and latent heat released by the conversion of water vapour into rain are some of the important features which influence the path of monsoon winds.

Planetmy-scale features

The designations employed and the presemmion of marerial in £his map do not imply the expression of any opinion 1\'hatsoerer on the pan of rite Secretmiat of the World i\tlereorologi­ca/ Organization concemiug the legal status of any coumry. territOIJ, city or area or of its aurhorifies, or conceming the delimiration of its f romiers or boundaries.

Figure 1 -Normal dates for the onset of the summer monsoon over India

Global monsoons are dominated by large-scale overturnings in zonal and meridional planes. By this means, available potential energy is converted into kinetic energy of motion. Overturning in the meridional plane is referred to as a Hadley cell,

* University of Nairobi. (This is a summary of the IMO Lecture delivered by Professor Das at Ninth Congress. The

complete version is being published by WMO.)

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while similar overturning in the zonal plane is known as a Walker cell. Hadley and Walker circulations are maintained by a pattern of diabatic warming which shows a characteristic alignment. There is a north-south migration of diabatic sources and sinks in response to the movement of the sun.

The ascending branches of these circulations are located over heat sources; in the case of the northern hemisphere summer monsoon the Tibetan plateau acts as a major heat source, while the winter monsoon is dominated by latent heat released through moist convection over the oceanic regions surrounding Indonesia and Malaysia. Descending limbs of the Hadley circulation are located near large anticyclones; in the summer monsoon this is near the Mascarene high-pressure area to the south of the Equator; in the winter monsoon it is over Siberia. Evidence of Hadley and Walker circulations is also found over West Africa. The ascending branch of the Hadley circu­lation is over the Sahel region, while its descent is in the form of a south-westerly current off West Africa.

An interesting feature of the Walker circulation associated with the Asian summer monsoon is its descending limb observed over the semi-arid regions of north-west India. This area receives a larger-than-normal amount of solar radiation, and yet is still a radiative sink because of the high albedo of the soil. To compensate for cooling due to the radiation deficit, there is subsiding motion and adiabatic warming over this region- observations over the deserts of Saudi Arabia confirm subsidence through a substantial part of the troposphere.

An atmospheric feature which responds significantly to the seasonal north-south movement of the sun is the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), which is the region of convergence between the trade winds of the northern and southern hemi­spheres. During the northern hemisphere summer the ITCZ moves to the north of the Equator, but it is not yet clear whether it eventually loses its identity or merges with an extended trough in lhe lower troposphere.

The summer and winter monsoons are dominated by large anticyclonic circu­lations in the upper troposphere, with a westerly jet stream to the north and an easterly jet stream to the south. Just prior to the onset of the summer monsoon a pronounced northward movement of the westerly jet stream is a characteristic feature.

Regional-scale features

The regional features of monsoons are linked with the Hadley and Walker overturnings, but the coupling mechanism is not well understood at present. Short­period rainfall variations within the monsoon season are brought about by synoptic­scale perturbations whose dimensions are small compared with the Hadley and Walker circulations. An important regional characteristic is the surprising regularity of the onset of monsoons. For example, the standard deviation of the date of arrival of summer monsoon rains over the extreme south of India is of the order of only a week. An important discovery arising from the Monsoon Experiment (MONEX) of 1978/79 was a sudden increase in the kinetic energy of the monsoonal winds a little prior to the date of onset. This increase was observed within the space of a few days. Opinions differ on the mechanism responsible for such a substantial conversion of available potential energy into kinetic energy at the time of onset. Barotropic instability leading to the formation of an onset vortex has been suggested as a possible mechanism, but there is no unanimity on the existence of such a vortex.

Among the other regional features, the formation of a low-level monsoon trough, mid-tropospheric cyclones and the westward propagation of monsoon depressions and

35

equatorial waves have received most attention, systems which appear to be embedded in regions of meridional and vertical shear. Consequently, recent research has tended to be focused on combined barotropic and baroclinic instability. But there is also evidence that some systems are remnants of westward-moving disturbances located away from the monsoon lands.

The monsoon processes

Studies on instability have concentrated on detecting inflection points on profiles of absolute and potential vorticity. At best this is only a necessary condition for insta­bility, a condition which is fulfilled over many parts of the monsoon regime. A second necessary condition, requiring a positive correlation between the mean flow and the meridional gradient of mean vorticity, has not been tested in any great detail. Conse­quently, it is difficult to assess the relative importance of barotropic and baroclinic instability for monsoonal circulation. Energy conversions suggest the dominance of barotropic instability on some occasions.

Attempts have been made to ascertain how far a combined barotropic-baroclinic instability mechanism is modulated by (a) moist convection, and (b) boundary-layer friction through conditional instability of the second kind. Parameterization schemes for inclusion of these effects in a stability analysis indicate additional available

'"

~~~:: ID

I ~ c-)UF.?---~~~ =-......'-... S~:t:'~~//~2ss "·' -~ -~ -~ - -- -- - - - - . - 180E 160\<1 140 120 lOO 90W

120

Figure 2- Mean January wind fields: (a) at 200 hPa, and (b) at 850 hPa

potential energy through latent heat release, but the results are, surprisingly, not very different. There is a divergence of opinion as to a preferred scale of motion, largely because most theoretical studies have been based on linear versions of the governing equations.

General circulation models have been used to simulate the growth of monsoonal circulations, but unfortunately they have not been very successful in capturing many of the finer details, especially the distribution of pressure and rainfall. (This is probably due to inadequate horizontal and vertical resolution.) Notwithstanding the lack of success in that respect, general circulation models have been useful for sensitivity tests. It has been demonstrated that fluctuations in sea-surface temperature, soil albedo, ground hydrology and snow cover are likely to influence the intensity of monsoons. Anomalies in sea-surface temperature over the central Pacific indicate teleconnections between monsoonal rainfall on the one hand and events over the Pacific on the other, but views differ on the appropriate statistical tests to establish the significance of a

36

change brought about by fluctuations in boundary conditions. Comparing long-term integrations incorporating anomalies with control runs has not provided much infor­mation on how the model-generated changes are brought about. Nevertheless there is mounting evidence of teleconnections. It is pertinent to recall that many years ago Sir Gilbert Walker postulated a 'Southern Oscillation' in the atmosphere which tended to link events in the Pacific with summer monsoon rainfall by large-scale zonal overturning.

Studies of the Indian Ocean monsoons

Sensitivity tests with and without the Himalayan barrier suggest that, if the Himalayas were not there, the abrupt northward movement of the westerly jet in the upper troposphere would be largely absent. They also indicate that without the elevated heat source formed by the plateau of Tibet, the Hadley circulation of the summer monsoon would be much weaker. The vertical flu x of sensible heat would then be the only drive for the Hadley cell and, in all probability, the monsoon would then have little effect in bringing about the summer rains.

The mountains of eastern Africa are very effective in accelerating the northward cross-equatorial flow during the summer monsoon. The cross-equatorial flow appears in the form of a low-level jet stream off the coast of Kenya; it is reinforced by surges

4SN ~4SN )0~ ~~~~ ~ )0

10 10

2 ~05~~((~CV--~1 o 90W 60 40 20W 0 20E 40 60 80 100 120 140 160E 180 160 140 120 •hh hh

4sN\~ ~\1\R' =-::'*· /~( ~~~~·fr\::N 10

Figure 3- Mean July wind fields: (a) at 200 hPa, and (b) at 850 hPa

across the Mozambique channel and at around latitude I 0°N appears to be deflected away from the coast towards India. Modelling experiments to simulate the jet have been based on either the conservation of potential vorticity along streamlines, or with one-level barotropic primitive equations; both have successfully simulated the deflection of the jet away from the coast after it has traversed some distance north of the Equator. The alignment of the jet has also been confirmed by the BALSAM INE

experiment with constant-level balloons released from the Seychelles and Diego Suarez by a team of scientists from France. Careful monitoring of the track of the balloons suggests close coupling between the pressure gradient force and frictional drag near cross-equatorial flow patterns, and also suggests an advective type of boundary layer very near the coast of Africa between the Equator and 5°N; over other regions away from the Equator an Ekman boundary layer is inferred from the balloon trajectories.

Amongst other regional-scale barriers, the flow over the Western Ghats has received attention. It has been conjectured that this generates downstream Rossby

37

waves which, ultimately, accelerate cyclogenesis to the east of the barrier. But opinion is divided on this, and numerical models have been unable to detect downstream Rossby waves.

The monsoons generate a system of ocean surface currents which is unique in that it is one of the few instances where the ocean seems to respond quickl y to changes in atmospheric circulation. This feature is known as the Somali current. It fl ows northwards during the summer monsoon, but reverses its direction during the winter monsoon. It sets in about a month before the onset of the monsoon winds over the Arabian Sea. Theoretical analysis suggests this to be the result of forcing from remote distances if baroclinic modes are considered. Subsequent modelling experiments

N

15° 1~0

50

EO

50

15°

2~0, I \ I I I I I I li~ · 40° 50° so• 7o• eo• 90° E

Figure 4 -Tracks of constant-level balloons launched from Seychelles and Diego Suarez during Summer MONEX. Broken lines indicate the tracks of balloons released before the onset of the

monsoon, whereas the continuous lines show the tracks after the onset

emphasize the importance of forcing by local winds rather than by a remote disturbance. Theory suggests that in the initial stages local forcing by the divergence of the wind stress is more important, but later remote forcing measured by the curl of the wind stress will gain importance. The Somali current is associated with strong coastal upwelling, leading to strong thermal gradients.

Prior to the onset of the monsoon, a general cooling of sea-surface temperatures over the Arabian Sea is observed, a fact which has not been satisfactorily explained. It was believed that upwelled waters from the Somali current propagated eastwards to cool the Arabian Sea, but model results do not support this idea.

38

Predicting the monsoons

The long-range prediction of monsoon rainfall has engaged the attention of meteorologists for many decades. Three types of prediction are attempted: (a) a forecast of the date of onset of rain; (b) the total quantum of rainfall during the entire monsoon season ; (c) monthly rainfall forecasts . The first two are based on regression equations with a number of predictors; they have achieved reasonable success in forecasting the date of onset, but have not been very successful in predicting the seasonal rainfall amount. Statistical correlation between rainfall and antecedent events displays large fluctuations with time. Autoregressive models are being developed for foreshadowing seasonal and monthly rainfall, and, although still at an early stage, have performed better than a regression equation for anticipating seasonal rainfall (their success with monthly rainfall predictions is still being assessed).

The predictability of monsoons has been the subject of interesting research in recent years. Measured in terms of the ratio of interannual to natural variability, predictability has been observed to be better in the tropics than in mid-latitudes. Whereas this indicates a greater potential for long-range prediction of the monsoon's performance, theory suggests that this mainly holds true for the prediction of monthly means; on smaller scales of time, the tropics are probably less predictable. This conclusion is based on numerical experiments with general circulation models ; beginning with widely different initial mean values, and with random perturbations imposed on them, long-term integration shows results with hardly any difference after a month. Unlike mid-latitude systems, the Hadley and Walker circulations are more stable for monsoons; fluctuations are largely the outcome of changes in lower boundary conditions. If this basic premise is correct, then it is possible that future improvements in model performance will depend on better parameterization schemes.

VERY -SHORT -RANGE FORECASTING: SYSTEMS AND RESEARCH

WORKSHOP AT BOULDER (USA), AUGUST 1983

Very-short-range forecasting (VSRF) is a concept that is rapidly catching on all over the world. It is in the short-lived and small-scale weather phenomena that the weather often exhibits its most devastating face, constituting a serious hazard to human life and causing disruption and property losses which may be measured in millions, or even thousands of millions of US dollars. Therefore, the ability to forecast more accurately up to approximately 12 hours ahead is of great potential value, and many countries are currently developing systems to meet this challenge. A step forward was taken through an international workshop from 15 to 17 August 1983 at the NOAA Environmental Research Laboratories (ERL) premises in Boulder (Colorado). It had been organized jointly by NOAA and NCAR and eo-sponsored by WMO, and attracted some 35 participants from among the most active groups in the field of VSRF in the world today, although Japan was unfortunately unable to be represented. In all, some 20 papers were presented. The first day was devoted to descriptions of national projects.

USA - Of particular interest was the pilot station for very-short-range forecasting named PROFS, located at the ERL in Boulder. PROFS incorporates a local 'mesonet'

39

of automatic weather stations and integrated real-time high-resolution satellite and Doppler radar observations. The operator can call up data on colour display units, and he controls a wide menu of processed products by touching symbols on another screen. The sophisticated data and their timely availability have made it possible to conduct a series of tests to find out how forecasts of severe storms can be improved, and to try to design an optimum mix of observations. Now that the build-up phase is complete, the emphasis in PROFS will be on forecasting research. PROFS is something of a prototype for future forecast offices, eventually replacing the AFOS * systems.

Many national research and operational projects besides PROFS have been set up in the USA to improve the forecasting of severe storms. Of special interest is NEXRAD, the next generation of weather radars. The specification calls for S-band (1 0 cm) Doppler radars equipped with velocity azimuth display facilities. NEXRAD will also be designed to give accumulated precipitation.

Sweden - The PROMIS system is a blueprint for Sweden's whole future weather service function in which the YSRF components have the leading role. A pilot station (resembling PROFS) is currently being assembled at Norrkoping, employing 40 automatic weather stations and a Doppler radar. The emphasis is on testing and developing new techniques and technology, and assessing the reaction of users of weather forecasts to considerably improved and detailed predictions for up to 12 hours ahead.

Boulder (USA ), Augusr 1983- Some of the participants in the Workshop on Very-short-range Forecasting: Systems and research

(Photo: NOAA}

United Kingdom - The British Meteorological Office has developed the FRONTIERS system, geared to precipitation forecasting over England and Wales. FRONTIERS is based on radar and satellite data and represents the end result of more than 15 years' research (using radar) into the mesoscale mechanisms of precipitation. The facility now produces a composite of radar rainfall maps and projects the movement of rain areas to produce precipitation forecasts out to six hours ahead over 20 x 20 km squares. FRONTIERS also employs colour visual display units. Human intervention is primarily needed in the analysis stage to remove erroneous radar data. The system is being improved by incorporating METEOSAT data which, combined with the radar data, makes it possible to extend the observed influence area and the projection times.

* Automatic Forecast and Observing System.

40

Canada - SHARP and RAINSAT in Canada resemble FRONTIERS and demonstrate the capabilities of a combined use of satellite and radar data in very-short-range precipi­tation forecasting.

The second day the workshop focused on methods for VSRF. For several years VSRF will clearly have to rely on fairly simple methods for extrapolation and preparing forecasts out to 12 hours ahead. Conceptuals models of the life cycle of mesoscale phenomena and simple physical models may be part of the arsenal of tools for VSRF. It was suggested that mesoscale models be used to simulate the mesoscale response to various synoptic flow situations and topographic features. The output could aid and guide the forecaster by supplying a catalogue of possible events in different situations.

The last day was devoted in part to international co-operation. The participants were informed about the WMO programme on short- and medium-range weather prediction research, in particular the concept of 'activity centres' in VSRF. Canada, Czechoslovakia, Sweden and USA had volunteered to serve as activity centres in this field, although this could not yet be regarded as an official commitment. Any other country wishing to serve as a VSRF activity centre should write to WMO.

International co-operation in the field of VSRF was regarded as highly desirable by the workshop, having regard to the fact that this rapidly evolving field is still in its infancy. The development of VSRF would be greatly facilitated by the exchange of information, software and scientists between the countries involved, and the participants wholeheartedly endorsed the WMO programme.

In conclusion, both the presentations and the concluding panel discussion brought out the importance for VSRF of satellites, radars and other remote-sensing techniques ; rapid data coll ection, processing and display; colour graphics with overlay capability and time sequencing ('looping'); better contacts and exchanges between forecasters and researchers; the role of management; the study of mesoscale processes and the training of forecasters.

S. BODIN

THE MAINTENANCE OF THE QUASI-STATIONARY COMPONENTS OF THE FLOW IN THE ATMOSPHERE

AND IN ATMOSPHERIC MODELS

IAMAPJWMO SYMPOSIUM, PARIS, AUGUST/SEPTEMBER 1983

Excellent facilities for this symposium were provided by the French Ministry of Research and Industry, whilst valuable assistance was given by the American Meteoro­logical Society in publicizing it. The programme was organized by A Hollingsworth and R. Sadourny (IAMAP) and J. R. Bates and X. Du (WMO). There were 138 participants from 20 countries. The following report is incomplete and only attempts to summarize the highlights of the symposium as seen by someone whose main concern is the forecasting problem.

Scientific background

The symposium was convened to discuss the emerging connections between three areas of interest, namely (a) new theories of the general circulation , particularly those concerned with low-

41

frequency variations (by low frequency is implied periods of between 10 and 90 days), (b) current problems in general circulation simulation and operational forecasting, and (c) the possibility of future advances in longer-range forecasting.

Progress in these areas will depend on the development of our understanding of the time­meaned flow and the low-frequency variability of the atmosphere. Close collaboration between observational, theoretical, and modelling workers is clearly essential. Over the last decade there has been considerable progress in all three aspects and the relationships between the scientific problems have become much clearer. There has been considerable observational and theoretical activity in recent years on the determination of the structure and dynamics of the low-frequency changes in the atmosphere (which is where much of the atmosphere's variability occurs). These are the fluctuations that lead to persistent blocking patterns, for example, or to the large differences that may occur between one winter (or summer) and another. The work of the Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean of the University of Washington in Seattle (USA) has been particularly significant.

Substantial progress has also been made in the simulation of the general circulation. Current general circulation models provide good simulations not only of the mean state of the atmosphere and the high-frequency variability associated with baroclinic waves, but also of the low-frequency variability.

Considerable strides have also been made in operational numerical forecasting. Current forecast systems have extended the range of useful mid-latitude forecast skill-from the two days attainable 10-15 years ago to about six days at present.

A common problem in these areas is that of 'systematic errors' in forecast and general circu­lation models. After about six days the forecast models exhibit a growth to substantial size of errors in the stationary or nearly stationary (low-frequency) components of the flow. The same sort of errors are shown by general circulation models. The elimination of these errors is necessary for further improvements in medium-range forecasts, and is an essential first step for progress in numerical forecasting on longer time scales-of order a month or more. To understand the causes of these errors requires a thorough grasp of the mechanisms that maintain the mean flow in the atmosphere and that modulate the low-frequency variability. These mechanisms may be of purely dynamical (internal) origin, they may be controlled by the interaction of the atmosphere with variable boundary conditions such as sea-surface temperatures, or even by interaction with fixed boundary conditions such as relief. All three possibilities were extensively discussed at the symposium.

The relative roles of orography and diabatic heating

The keynote address by Dr A. C. Wiin-Nielsen reviewed the theoreticalbackground in two of the critical areas of concern-the relative roles of orography and diabatic heating in forcing the mean state of the atmosphere, and the possibility of multiple equilibria in turbulent flows-and the relevance of these theories to blocking.

Many views expressed at the symposium on the relative roles of orography and diabatic heating in forcing the mean standing waves of the atmosphere appeared to be widely held. Most of the theoretical papers suggested that orography is the major forcing mechanism in the upper troposphere, with diabatic heating playing an important role at all tropospheric levels but predominantly in the lower troposphere. However some results suggested that the diabatic heating by large-scale convection in the tropics plays a central role in explaining seasonal variations in the stationary components of the flow.

The importance of orographic forcing was underlined by the forecasting studies discussed below. These latter results will have to be carefully examined by theoreticians before we are satisfied that orographic effects are adequately represented in either the linearized steady-state calculations or in the forecast models. The use of linearized normal modes for the analysis of atmospheric data was also discussed, and this approach may be expected to lead to some new theoretical insight in due course.

Internally-generated low-frequency variations

In parallel with the formulation of observational ideas about coherent structures in the low­frequency fluctuations, there has been a rapid development in theories about how wave motions can modify their environment. This was motivated by the realization that low-frequency structures can arise from purely internal mechanisms, analogous to non-linear rectification. Some results concerning theoretical approaches to calculating the interaction of short-time-scale eddies

42

on the ti me-meaned now were part icula rl y interesti ng. This has been a rapidly progressing fi eld in recent years and it has been difficul t for those not directly involved to keep abreast of devel­opments. There now seems to be general agreement among the va ri ous workers about the va lue of alternati ve formulations, and a fair measure of quanti ta ti ve agreement on the relative contri ­butions of the baroclinic and barotropic components of eddy fo rcing or dissipation of the mea n now. There was good quantitative agreement on the dissipa tive effect of eddy heat convergence on large-scale waves. Simila rl y there was general agreement on the mechanisms by which eddy convergences in di fferent freq uency bands could affect the mean now.

These diagnostic results for the atmosphere may be of help in understanding why some results suggest that within the firs t few days of a forecast the structu re of both the eddies and the mean now begins to change. We need to know if the changes in the forecast eddy structures can be related quantitatively to the structure of the mean now. The observed dissipation ti mes fo r the effect of eddies on the mean now (approximately one week) are such that changes in eddy structure in the course of medium-range forecasts could well have important effects on the mean now. The question is complicated by the fact that changes in the mean state, such as a poleward movement of a critical line (a zero in the Doppler shi fted phase velocity), will have a profound effect on eddy structu re.

For the operational forecaster, the question of whether errors occur first in the mean now or in the eddies is of some importance. Current thinking seems to be that the changes in eddy structures in the ea rl y stages of the forecasts are forced by changes in the mean f1ow rather than vice versa.

Low-frequency variations in general circulation models

Results presented from a fi fteen-year integration using a low-resolution general circulation model were very encouraging in that they showed the ability of such models to reproduce many aspects of both the low- and high-frequency variabil ity of the atm osphere. In particular the geographical distribution and spatial coherence patterns of the observed variations were well reproduced .

On the other hand, some reported results suggested that standing waves in the model troposphere were highly sensitive to the formul ation of stratospheric dissipation and to the vertical finite difference scheme. Further work is necessary to resolve questions on the treatment of the upper boundary region.

A very useful comparison was made of mean errors in the tro pics in a representati ve set of high-resolution general circulation models. The similarity of the errors in many cases was very instructive. There was also a report of experiments with cloud radiation feedback in the tropics which indicated the important role of this process (which is diffi cult to model) in determining the time-meaned state of the atmosphere.

Low-frequency lropical-exlra tropical imeraClions

Many studies were presented on the structu re and dynamics of the mid-latitude response to anomalous heating in the tropics, with particula r reference to the recent El Niiio event. Our understanding in this area is improving rapidly as observational and theoretica l results accumulate. An important contribution was the demonstration that in a one-level model the time­meaned now has a complicated instability with many of the featu res of the Pacifi c-North America and eastern North Atlantic teleconnection patterns which have been documented in recent years. These theoretical results suggest that whatever anomalous excitation is applied to the northern hemisphere mid-latitudes or subtropics, the hemispheric response will tend to exhibit the above response patterns. Experimental support for these tentative suggestions was provided by resul ts from more comprehensive models.

Studies of the low-frequency variability of the atmosphere in recent years have made extensive use of simple one- level barotropic models. These are easy to work with and have provided many exciting new results. However, their relevance has been challenged by those who fee l that the barocli nic nature of the time-meaned state is central to the problem. Some useful results were presented which indicated that the distant response to an arbitrary fo rcing could be modelled barotropica lly provided the scale of the forcing was shorter than the wavelength of the stationary Rossby wave. These results are relevant if one is considering the response to a localized anomaly in the forcing.

Another important result was the suggestion that the subtropical western Pacifi c is a crucial area fo r forcing anomalous responses in the northern hemisphere. This found support from some observational analyses also. For most of the subtrop ical oceans (except the western Pacifi c),

43

analyses of rainfa ll teleconnection patterns, satellite measurements of outgoing radiance, and mid-latitude height fields suggest that the predominant sense of the forcing is from mid-latitudes to the tropics. Only in the western Pacific was this sense significantly reversed.

Some results were presented on the existence and structure of a large-scale tropical periodicity on the order of 50 days. Our understanding of this phenomenon is very incomplete, but it is the subject of a variety of ongoing investigations.

Low:frequency mid-larirude variability and blocking

Many papers dealt with the role of baroclinic eddies in maintaining low-frequency or long­lived features in mid-latitudes. Most interest centred on blocking phenomena. There were reports on observational studies, low-order model studies, linearized eigenvalue studies and non-linear model studies. The original proposals of Charney and De Yore-implying a resonance mechanism involving interaction with fi xed orographic or thermal forcing- seem to be losing support, although their work has been profoundly important in stimul ating a wide range of new investigations. Many of the results, both observational and theoretical , emphasized the baroclinic nature of blocking and demonstrated the importance of potential enstrophy exchanges (between the block and short-lived baroclinic waves) for its maintenance. The shearing effect of the block on higher-frequency motions produces strong enstrophy cascades on the periphery of the block. The dynamics of these regions need further study.

There were also reports of synoptic studies whose results emphasized the indirect contri­butions of moist processes to the energy budget of blocking phenomena.

Forecast srudies

A major objective of the symposium had been to stimul ate a mutual interest between the operational forecasting community and the theoretica!fmodelling community in each other's problems. The sessions on forecasting problems were very successful in this respect. Many major forecast centres presented results on the mean errors in their models, and it was possible to establish a close similarity between the mean errors of different models in the same synoptic situations. Results in several papers suggested that errors in diabatic and orographic forcing are rather important in the early stages of the forecasts.

There was considerable discussion on the implications of certain reported results on the relationships between forecast errors and the representation of orography in forecast models. This suggests that the representation of orography must receive more attention than it has in the past; the validity of an 'envelope' orography was discussed, and it seems that the representation may be valid for most components of the response except the local barotropic component.

There seems to be firm evidence that the past five years have seen considerable improvements in three-day forecast skill at many centres. The outcome of the symposium gives the impression that continued research along the lines mentioned above will lead to further improvement.

As regards the tropics, there were indications that the use of FGGE data , together with a considerable effort on realistic initialization of the field of convective heating, could lead to remarkably high levels of forecast skill. On the other hand, with the inadequate operational data and initialization procedures, maintenance of the quasi-stationary components of the flow was shown to be vital in attaining current levels of forecast ski ll in the tropics.

In the fi eld of monthly forecasting, some encouraging results were presented, but they also indicated that substantial efforts are needed before such forecasts can be considered reliable on a routine basis.

Conclusion

There was a good all-round exchange of views, with lots of discussion during and after the sessions. It is to be hoped that the symposium will result in a quickening of interest on the part of a ll who look for a convergence of views on how to understand what happens in the atmosphere, and ultimatel y in how to foreca st it. The optimistic tone of the symposium expressed in the closing address by Dr L. Bengtsson was genera lly shared by the participants.

A. H OLLI NGSWORTH

44

World Weather Watch

Global Telecommunication System

Dissemination of Antarctic data on the GTS

A meeting on Antarctic meteorological data telecommunication arrangements was held in the WMO headquarters from 20 to 22 June 1983. Experts from Argentina, Australia, Chile, the United Kingdom, USA and USSR participated in this meeting, representing the various points on the GTS where Antarctic data are injected. 1'he meeting was under the chairmanship of Mr J. R. Neilon (USA) who is also president of CBS. The purpose was to review existing telecommunication arrangements within the Antarctic and at GTS centres and to make suggestions for operational improvements.

CBS at its eighth session had agreed that delayed Antarctic . data should be exchanged over the GTS up to 24 hours after the time of observation. Even so, from results of monitoring carried out in October 1982 and March 1983 (as well as results reported at the meeting), it was noted that Antarctic data were received very irregularly at certain centres on the Main Telecommunication Network (MTN), and that avail­ability did not reach 80 per cent of the total number of reports expected. The meeting discussed causes of delayed and missing data in some detail; apart from certain natural (aurora) effects and problems of staffing at Antarctic bases, it became clear that, in many cases, non-adherence to the approved WMO standard telecommunication procedures was the reason for the loss of reports.

To improve the situation, the experts recommended that:

- All stations south of 60° be allocated a station index number within Block number 89; - All observational data required by Antarctic centres be included in radio broadcasts and

transmissions directed towards the Antarctic; - Satellite circuits be used between the different collecting centres and for link with entry

points on the GTS; - Automatic weather stations be installed.

As regards the exchange of Antarctic data on the GTS, whereas certain adjustments in the dissemination of these data were required, it was agreed that no changes or additions should be made to the established WMO telecommunication procedures. The meeting agreed on the following recommendations :

- The entry point on the GTS should be responsible for the proper compiling and formatting of bulletins containing Antarctic data ;

- Members should only inject into the GTS data from those stations for which they have the data-collection responsibility ;

- Established WMO telecommunication procedures as regards the transmission of ' retard' and 'nil ' messages should be strictly adhered to;

- The centres concerned should exercise real-time monitoring.

The meeting went on to update diagrams which had been established by different Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings since September 1978, taking into account information provided by the participating experts. Two diagrams were drawn up: one of existing links for daily international exchange of meteorological data within the Antarctic (as at June 1983), and the other of principal routes by which Antarctic meteorological data enter the GTS.

The Secretary-General has invited permanent representatives of Members of WMO which are party to the Antarctic Treaty to take note of the conclusions of the meeting and implement them as early as possible.

45

Seminar on GTS operation and monitoring

At the invitation of the Government of Argentina, a seminar on GTS operation and monitoring in the zones of responsibility of RTHs Brasilia, Buenos Aires and Maracay was held in Buenos Aires from 13 to 22 September 1983. The purpose was to streamline the operation of the GTS in these zones. Meteorological telecommunication experts from 12 countries participated in this seminar.

From 13 to 16 September lectures were given on various topics concerning GTS operations and monitoring the operation of the WWW. Then, from 19 to 22 September, results of a specific monitoring period earlier in the same month were analysed by the experts in order to identify areas where deficiencies exist, and to solve the problems at the earliest possible date. Thus this seminar followed along similar lines to the one held in Nairobi in March 1983 (see WMO Bulletin 32 (3) p. 236).

The spirit of co-operation among the experts made it possible to arrive at definite conclusions which have been conveyed to permanent representatives in the Region.

Main Telecommunication Network

A meeting was held in Geneva from 13 to 17 June 1983 at which 21 experts from 18 different countries discussed the co-ordination of measures to improve the operation of the Main Telecommunication Network (MTN), formerly referred to as the Main Trunk Circuit.

The experts surveyed the impact that current and foreseen requirements, in terms of observational and processed data, would have on the efficient operation of the MTN, and studied measures to be taken so as to ensure that it can fulfil its function properly.

Recommendations formulated by the meeting concerned the routeing of messages, procedures for detecting and eliminating duplicated messages, for trans­mitting delayed messages, for allocating transmission priorities, and so forth. The experts called for the early implementation of measures to conform with ITU/CCITT Recommendations V29 and X25. The meeting's conclusions will be considered by the CBS Working Group on the GTS.

Instruments and methods of observation

A fifth edition of the WMO Guide to meteorological instruments and observing practices (WMO- No. 8) has been published in English.

The eighteen chapters of the previous edition have been revised in the light of recent technological developments. In accordance with the decision of CIMO, the following seven new chapters have been added:

Meteorological rocket sensing;

Lower troposphere soundings;

Measurement of sunshine duration;

Automatic meteorological stations;

- Soil moisture;

- Quality control of observing practices and procedures ;

- Techniques for sampling surface variables.

The revision and the extension of the Guide (first published in 1954 with twelve chapters) was carried out through working groups and rapporteurs of CIMO assisted

46

by the Secretariat. CMM and CAeM were also involved in the preparation of chapters related to their respective work programmes.

The main purpose of the Guide is to promulgate guidance material for Members which can be used to draw up detailed national instruction manuals for the use of observers. It should thus help to bring about the desired degree of standardization and uniformity in methods of observation throughout the world.

The publication is in loose-leaf form, and chapters will be revised from time to time to reflect new developments in this rapidly evolving domain.

World Climate Programme WORLD CLIMATE RESEARCH PROGRAMME

Carbon dioxide

C02 concentrations from pre-industrial times to the IGY

Twelve invited experts from four countries, together with two observers from a U.S. Department of Energy carbon dioxide research project, gathered in the NOAA Environmental Research Laboratories in Boulder (USA) from 22 to 25 June 1983 to review the available scientific information regarding likely ranges of atmospheric C02 concentrations from the early nineteenth century up to the IGY (1957 /58). Since the time of the IGY there have been systematic C02 measurements at a growing number of stations, so during the past quarter-century concentrations are less speculative.

The meeting's agenda included a comparison of results of direct and indirect C02 measurements going back over the last 50 000 years, including ice-core analysis, chemical analysis of deep ocean water, carbon isotope measurements in tree rings and spectroscopic data from early in the present century. These discussions were followed by an assessment of the implications of anthropogenic and natural C02 sources and sinks for modelling a COz-induced warming.

The experts arrived at conclusions which are important for the history and modelling of the global carbon cycle, as well as for the climatic response to increasing C02. They should be taken into account in future studies. The following are the most important recommendations:

- The relatively low C02 concentration (260 to 280 ppmv) in the period 1800 to 1850 implies that there was a major non-fossil C02 source in the nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth century of about the same magnitude as the cumulative fossil C02 input up to 1980. Studies are required to determine if this source was biospheric or possibly oceanic.

- The data suggest natural fluctuations of about ± 10 ppmv on the scale of decades to a century. This should be considered when discussing possible causes of these fluctuations, as well as their significance in carbon cycle modelling. Studies to detect signals of a C02-induced warming have to take into account that the C02 concentration in the period 1800 to 1850 was probably in the range 260 to 280 ppmv rather than 290 to 300 ppmv as had hitherto often been assumed.

Nevertheless, observations exhibit so much variability that it does not seem possible at this stage to decide whether the observed secular warming is due to the C02 increase or to other causes. For this it would be necessary to determine the causes of

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the residual variability, mainly in the lower frequencies, such as the cooling which started in the 1940s.

The report has been published as World Climate Programme Report No. 53. Copies can be obtained from the WMO Secretariat.

WORLD CLIMATE APPLICATIONS PROGRAMME

Energy

During recent months ongoing activities included :

Preparations for short-term missions by experts on energy and special appli­cations ; about twelve missions were carried out during the second half of 1983 in Latin America, Africa and Asia. They were mainly designed to assist national Meteorological Services in the application of climatological infor­mation to various economic activities.

- The writing of reports by consultants on: (a) the use of satellite information for solar energy resources assessment ; (b) methods for estimating wind variations with height, having special regard to wind energy exploitation; (c) statistical methods for spatial interpolation of meteorological and climato­logical data.

- The issuing of the first version of CARS * fWind energy and CARS/Solar energy. These are being circulated for comments and additions.

- The translation into French and Spanish of Technical Note No. 172 -Meteorological aspects of the use of solar radiation as an energy source and Technical Note No. 175 - Meteorological aspects of the use of wind as an energy source.

Urban and building climatology

A meeting took place at the WMO headquarters in Geneva on 14 and 15 June 1983 with representatives of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, UNEP, WHO, ISO and the International Federation for Housing and Planning. The main purpose was to establish regular contacts between organizations with special interests in housing, building and human settlements, to co-ordinate efforts, to promote research and application studies, and to make proposals for international co­ordination in practical aspects. The report of a meeting of experts on urban and building climatology convened by WMO in December 1982 served as the basis for discussion.

Before they passed in review relevant activities of their respective institutions, the participants commended WMO for its systematic approach to the problems, and for the valuable information in the experts' report. It was affirmed that WMO, through the WCP and CCI activities, had the capacity to help alleviate urban and building problems of today, problems which had become specially critical in some tropical countries due to rapid and often uncontrolled urbanization. The expert meeting had recommended seven project areas (with specific proposals for WMO action) namely : (a) promoting co-operation with users of meteorological and climatological data; (b) studying effects of climate on buildings and human settlements ; (c) ensuring adequate education and training, both of meteorologists and users; (d) defining the requirements for meteorological information; (e) providing guidance in compiling manuals of data; (f) disseminating information on relevant activities ; (g) promoting

* Climatic Applications Referral System.

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international co-operation and joint activities. The representatives welcomed the formulation of this programme. They also learnt with interest that Ninth Congress had approved a technical conference on urban climatology and its application (with special attention to tropical areas), and of the plans to hold this conference towards the end of 1984.

WORLD CLIMATE DATA PROGRAMME

WCDPplan

The WCDP plan has been finalized, incorporating comments by Members and the Advisory Committee on Climate Applications and Data (ACCAD). The plan is being distributed to Members, technical commissions and regional associations for action, as appropriate, to achieve the WCDP objectives.

CLICOM

Following up the decisions of Ninth Congress, a project has been formulated within the WCDP to promote the transfer and exchange of technology in climate data processing and management (acronym CucoM). Emphasis has been placed on inexpensive microcomputer systems and easy-to-use computer software packages. Such microcomputer systems are beginning to be used extensively both in developing and developed countries, and they provide substantial computing power at low cost. A project outline will be circulated to all Members.

INFOCLIMA

Development work on INFOCLIMA (the world climate data information referral service) is progressing well, following the support it received from Congress. Summarized information about climatological and radiation stations is currently being prepared in tabular and graphical form, based on material provided by Members. A concise form of questionnaire has been developed to obtain information from Members on available data sets, and these were distributed recently. A first series of INFOCLIMA publications on a test basis are scheduled for 1984.

Arising from decisions of ACCAD and Congress, the concept of 'climate system' monitoring is being explored in consultation with CCI. A meeting is planned to advise on practical steps which can be taken to provide Members with concise, summarized information on the status of the climate system, perhaps on an annual basis.

Research and development

Atmospheric sciences

The Advisory Working Group of CAS held its sixth session on the premises of the Deutscher Wetterdienst, Seewetteramt in Hamburg (Federal Republic of Germany) from 10 to 12 August 1983, immediately prior to the eighteenth General Assembly of IUGG.

Under the chairmanship of the president of CAS, Professor F. Mesinger, the group had a lively exchange of views on the best way in which CAS could .fulfil its mandate, keeping in mind its revised terms of reference and also the statement on the

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future role, objectives and outline plans for the 1980s, as endorsed by Ninth Congress (see WMO Bulletin 31 (3) p. 255; 32 (4) p. 323).

On the subject of short- and medium-range weather prediction research, the group made a number of suggestions for new projects relating to the prediction of actual weather (quantitative values rather than general statements) and Mediterranean cyclones, including the promotion of research using FGGE data. These would be in addition to the five ongoing study projects (see WMO Bulletin 32 (3) p. 240). As regards long-range forecasting research (see WMO Bulletin 32 (2) p. 134), the group endorsed action currently being taken to formulate and carry out study projects on relevant aspects of monthly and seasonal long-range forecasting through conferences and symposia and the preparation of review papers. For the benefit of the user community, a statement on long-range forecasting was recommended.

Turning to research in tropical meteorology, the group reviewed the status of ongoing projects (see WMO Bulletin 31 (3) p. 252). Satisfaction was expressed at progress in formulating a long-term study project for the Asian summer monsoons, the main aim of which was to improve monsoon prediction-its onset, intensity and varia­bility on a regional scale. Consideration was also being given to developing study projects on the South-East Asian winter monsoon and the African monsoon. The group noted the initiatives taken to formulate proposals for two newly-added components of the programme of research on tropical meteorology. These were the interaction between tropical and mid-latitude weather systems, and tropical limited­area weather prediction modelling.

The Advisory Working Group discussed thoroughly climate-related activities of CAS and made some recommendations in respect of those items for which CAS has the primary responsibility, namely (a) the role of sea ice in the climate system, (b) radiatively important gases (C02 and 0 3) and aerosols, and (c) monsoon studies, as well as subject areas in which CAS has a supportive role such as radiation in the atmosphere and land-surface processes.

Ninth Congress had designated CAS as the leading WMO body on environmental matters, and so the group considered the role the Commission should play in promoting and co-ordinating activities in the field of atmospheric chemistry and air pollution ; this led to a discussion on the possibility of an eventual merging of the CAS Working Group on Atmospheric Chemistry and Air Pollution with the Executive Council Panel of Experts on Environmental Pollution.

In the domain of weather modification, the group endorsed plans for continued activities connected with PEP. It was recommended that CAS direct its efforts towards hail suppression in an attempt to clarify areas of uncertainty.

Environmental pollution

Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network (BAPMoN)

According to information from participating Members, BAPMoN now consists of 196 stations in 64 countries, of which 153 stations would be at least partially opera­tional on I January 1984, the other 43 stations being at the planning stage. The number of baseline stations increased to 14 (another three stations planned), whilst the number of regional stations with extended programmes (continental stations) had reached 22. Stations actually reporting data regularly to the WMO data centre are expected to have increased in number from 47 in 1982 to 51 by the end of 1983. More details are contained in one of the reports described below. Substantial financial support was provided by UNEP through its Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS),

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where particular emphasis was placed on strengthening acid precipitation monitoring in developing countries.

Training course

The ninth training course on background air pollution measurements was successfully completed in October 1983 with eight participants who came from Barbados, China, Iran, Jordan, Malaysia, Philippines, Sudan and Viet Nam. These courses are organized jointly by WMO and the Meteorological Service of the Hungarian People's Republic with support from UNEP (see WMO Bulletin 28 (4) p. 293). In the nine courses which have been held so far, 70 participants from 41 countries have been trained in all aspects of operating background air pollution monitoring stations, including precipitation chemistry, aerosols, turbidity and trace gases. The tenth course is expected to take place during ApriljMay 1984.

Carbonaceous particles in the atmosphere

As mentioned elsewhere in this issue (page 52) carbonaceous particles are now regarded as very active in atmospheric radiative transfer processes because of their absorptive properties. WMO was represented at the second International Conference on Carbonaceous Particles in the Atmosphere, held at Linz (Austria) in September 1983. Incidentally, the term 'carbonaceous particle' is used synonymously with elemental carbon, graphitic carbon, black carbon and soot carbon. On average the elemental carbon content of aerosols is roughly one-third of their total carbon content, although this varies with such factors as location and altitude. Non-elemental carbon (organic carbon) and PCH (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) are major components to which are ascribed adverse health-related properties.

Diesel engines are considered to be the major contributors to the elemental carbon aerosol, much more so than burning fossil fuels in power plants and for space heating. Most reported studies have been carried out in fairly industrialized areas, with the exception of research flights in the Arctic. The Arctic haze layer consists of elemental carbon aerosols in concentrations not much lower than those found in industrialized areas; it was estimated that there the temperature increase caused by elemental carbon aerosols would be about the same as that due to C02 and other radiatively active trace gases.

Recent reports issued

Three reports in the environmental pollution monitoring and research programme series have appeared recently.

Number 17 is entitled General consideration and examples of data evaluation and quality assurance procedures applicable to BA PM oN precipitation chemistry observations, and was written by Dr Charles Hakkarinen. In it a rather strict approach is applied to assess the comparability of submitted BAPMoN data. Various statistical procedures are used, including factorial analysis and, of course, frequency distributions. The author concludes that there is a need to apply extensive quality control procedures in a standardized way, and he underlines the advantages of faster data submission and their earlier publication. Under most conditions of a global network, monthly sampling is not the best way of obtaining reliable and comparable data.

Number 18, SummWJ' report on the status of the WMO Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network as at May 1983, contains the annual update of the network's current and planned status (see paragraph above), indicating station names, locations,

51

monitoring programmes, sampling instruments, data reported by each station and a number of category and summary tables useful in describing the progress made.

Number 19, Forecasting of air pollution with emphasis on research in the USSR (by M. E. Berlyand) contains much information on how to forecast the spatial and temporal distribution and dispersion of atmospheric pollutants. The report emphasizes progress made, in particular with 24-hour predictions of surface-layer concentrations. Numerical and other weather prediction methods are considered. The topics covered include physical principles and numerical, statistical and synoptic methods of air pollution forecasting, predicting unfavourable meteorological conditions, emission controls and the effectiveness of forecasts.

Interchange of pollutants between the atmosphere and the oceans

An expert consultation was held in London in September 1983 to evaluate existing knowledge about the air-sea interchange of materials. The transformation of pollutants and the underlying ocean-related processes (especially those pertinent to climate) were considered.

For example, it was noted that the air-sea exchange of halogenated hydrocarbons of low molecular weight was important for understanding the basic atmospheric chemical reactions. Recent measurements of carbon tetrachloride (CC14) and 'Freon-11 ' (CFC13) indicate no net flux between the atmosphere and the oceans. As for other halogenated hydrocarbons, the oceans release methyl chloride (CH3Cl) and chloroform (CHC13). It was estimated that the tropospheric concentration of the former was approximately ten times that of man-made 'Freon-11' and 'Freon-12' (CF2Cl2).

Another pollutant potentially important to climate was soot carbon. New data showed that the concentration of soot carbon (probably originating from fossil fuel and biomass burning) in marine aerosols over the oceans was in the range l 0 to lOO jlg m - 3 ; soot carbon in the atmosphere would affect the global energy budget, and in addition a catalytic effect by soot carbon on so2 oxidization has been suggested.

The experts believed that not all the S02 in the marine atmosphere was attri­butable to long-range transport. There was evidence that S02 was formed from a number of organosulphur compounds through reactions initiated by the hydroxyl radical. It was understood that the ocean was a source of these volatile compounds which were produced by biological and chemical processes.

Monitoring environmental pollution in the Ukrainian SSR

When the biosphere undergoes a change due to natural causes, it is sure to return to its original state, or else the changes are so gradual that there is no apparent ecological stress. However, in many parts of the world the impact of human activities over the past few decades is comparable with natural changes lasting hundreds of thousands of years, and here the consequences are substantial and usually detrimental to the environment. The USSR is a highly industrialized country with rapidly expanding urbanization and agriculture, so that the environment is coming under increasing pressure. This is particularly so in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.

There is thus the need for a scientific appraisal of the effects of natural causes and human activities on the state of the biosphere, and special observations are made to detect anthropogenic changes against the background of natural changes. The funda­mental purposes are (a) to observe and assess the current state of the environment, and (b) to detect and forecast changes in this state. The information obtained is used to

52

determine what preventive measures may be needed to avoid or minimize adverse changes and to optimize man's interaction with his environment.

In 1972 the Supreme Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a decree to strengthen environmental protection and rationalize the use of natural resources, entrusting the Hydrometeorological Service with the organization of a programme to observe and monitor environmental pollution levels.

Back in the 1950s there had been a standard programme to analyse water samples for temperature, transparency, oxygen content, salts and suspended matter. Physical characteristics of sediment deposits in water bodies were also recorded. From 1968 the programme was extended to include analysis for certain pollutants. By 1972 obser­vations were being made at 142 sites on 28 rivers and reservoirs in the Ukrainian SSR.

Analysis of samples of air commenced in 1965 when a number of air pollution observation stations were set up in four large Ukrainian cities. By 1970 there were 38 stations in 13 different conurbations.

The Hydrometeorological Service was therefore well prepared to assume its added responsibility and, being in no way connected with the industries which create pollution, could be relied upon to make an objective evaluation of the state of the environment.

The chief thrusts of the State Service to Observe and Monitor Environmental Pollution are the following:

- To observe and monitor, according to standard physical, chemical and hydrobiological criteria, the level of pollution in the air, soil and water (rivers, lakes, reservoirs and seas), with the object of assessing the degree of pollution and perceiving significant changes in concentrations;

- To observe changes in the environmental state caused by traces of toxic substan ces; - To provide the industrial sectors concerned with regular up-to-date reports on the level

of air, so il and water pollution as well as forecasts of possible changes in pollution concentrations;

- To prepare and issue reference material on pollution, its transport and diffusion, as affected by industrial procedures and hydrometeorological conditions, taking into account protective measures already in force.

The monitoring system provides for simultaneous measurements of environmental pollution levels with meteorological, hydrological and hydrobiological observations. Standard observing and sampling equipment and procedures are used throughout, and maximum use is made of automated measuring systems, especially as concerns pollutants in the air and in fresh water. There are also baseline stations located in areas remote from sources of pollution and regional stations located in intermediate areas.

In the USSR, maximum permissible concentration (MPC) levels have been estab­lished for more than 500 substances in fresh and sea water destined for domestic use, cleaning or for fi shing. Similarly, MPCs have been declared for 214 substances (and 32 combinations of substances) in the air. Several have also been set for pollutants in the soil. The MPC is conceived as being the level which is still favourable for a given organism rather than the maximum load it can survive.

In devising the programme it was necessary to define priorities for the monitoring of pollutants, and three categories were decided upon :

I Substances emitted on a massive scale, because of their widespread effect (such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide in city air ; petroleum products, phenols, detergents and certain metals in water ; pesticides in soi ls) ;

II Particularly toxic substances (with an extremely low M PC) in areas where their existence had been confirmed by observation ;

Ill Pollutants known to exist in emissions or discharges in a given region.

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The Ukrainian Hydrometeorological Observatory has maintained an environ­mental pollution analysis and monitoring division since 1973, and a special centre was created in 1980 to permit more efficient management of this work.

Air pollution

Regular pollution measurements are made at 120 fixed sites in 32large towns, and the number of pollutants analysed has risen to 20. In principle the density of sites in urban areas is one in every I 0-20 km2, but in cities with complex relief this is brought up to one in every 5-10 km2. The Hydrometeorological Service and Epidemiological Service jointly decide on the observational requirements. The Hydrometeorological Service issues forecasts of air pollution levels so that appropriate measures can be taken to limit harmful emissions when a critical situation is imminent. At Kiev an automatic air pollution monitoring system has been brought into operation. There is a central computer complex linked to ten peripheral monitoring stations which measure concentrations of sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide.

Marine pollution

Monitoring of marine pollution has been stepped up considerably. There are now some 250 stations on the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, concentrated near the mouths of the Danube, Dnepr and Yuzhnyy Bug Rivers. They are in three categories :

- Stations situated close to actual or potential sources or discharges of pollutants which detect increased concentrations of pollutants and alert all concerned;

- Stations in relatively polluted waters which record pollution levels and their monthly variability ;

- Stations to monitor background marine pollution levels through sampling once per season.

Freshwater pollution

There is a hydrobiological laboratory concerned mainly with analysing freshwater samples. A combination of various chemical compounds in water may have a very different effect on an organism than the substances would have separately. It is therefore not sufficient to monitor water simply on the basis of physical and chemical criteria; biological criteria must also be introduced so as to assess the ecological balance in the water sample. Up to 1000 samples from rivers in the Ukrainian SSR are analysed each year.

As regards the sampling sites, they are again of three types: (a) a number of fixed stations in conjunction with an established hydrometric station, (b) a special station network in areas of relatively polluted water to predict the evolution of the pollution and to study the sedimentation of pollutants and its consequences; (c) temporary sites on water bodies which do not normally have a station of the types described above.

Soil pollution

There is a special laboratory for monitoring the level of pollutants in soil samples.

Safeguards for the future

Several cities in the Ukrainian SSR have set up departments to promulgate standard acceptable limits of potentially harmful emissions into the atmosphere, to

54

devise measures to protect the atmosphere and to examine plans for proposed new or modified industrial plants.

N. P. SKRIPNIK

Applications of meteorology AGRlCUL TURAL METEOROLOGY

Agrometeorology

Short-term missions to advise on the development and strengthening of agromete­orology and its application to food production were carried out in the Central African Republic, Fiji, Guinea Bissau and Papua New Guinea. Similar missions to Belize, Kenya, Uganda and Vanuatu have been planned. A medium-term mission is also planned to Ethiopia to assist in the assessment of drought.

Roving seminars on agrometeorology are planned in the following French­speaking countries of Africa: Algeria, Chad, Congo, Guinea Bissau, Tunisia and Zaire. They are intended to give intensive training to agrometeorologists and agriculturists on the various aspects of agrometeorology.

The following reports have been published:

CAgM Report No. 18 - Lectures presented at the eighth session of CAgM ; CAgM Report No. 19- Guidance material for agrometeorological services to rice farmers ; WCP-50- Guidelines on crop-weather models (see WMO Bulletin 32 (I) p. 52).

A CAgM rapporteur has prepared a report on weather-based mathematical models for estimating the development and ripening of crops. This has been sent for publication as a WMO Technical Note.

Desertification

A roving seminar on rainfall intensity analysis as related to soil erosion and deser­tification has been held in the Gambia, Guinea Bissau and Morocco. Further seminars were planned for Ethiopia, Somalia and the United Republic of Tanzania during the latter part of 1983. The purpose of these seminars is to train staff of national Meteoro­logical Services in methods of processing meteorological and hydrological data so as to estimate rainfall erosivity in connection with activities to combat desertification.

A request has been made to WMO by the Council of Ministers of the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) for a special scientific round-table discussion on the climatic situation and drought in Africa. This would focus on the climatic aspects of the drought which affected the Sudano-Sahelian zone of Africa during the early 1970s and which has now spread to many other African countries. It would attempt to establish a scientific explanation for the continuing drought in Africa (its causes and periodicity and any trends that are discernible) and make recommendations to the ECA about practical measures to alleviate the effects of the drought in the short, medium and long term. As a first step WMO convened a meeting of experts on 6 and 7 October 1983 in Geneva to examine the present state of knowledge on the problems of drought. A document was forthcoming from that meeting which was to be presented first to a special multidisciplinary meeting at the end of 1983 and subsequently to the round-table discussion in February or March 1984.

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One of the tasks in the WMO plan of action to combat desertification is to prepare a report on methods of applying meteorological, climatological and hydro­logical data and information to assess and combat desertification. This report will define the concept of desertification, its magnitude and characteristics, and will examine the distribution of deserts and relationships with climate, the desertification processes and factors which lead to them. One chapter wi ll be devoted to climatic change and variability and the impact on desertification. The second part of the report will deal mainly with methods of monitoring, assessing and mapping desertification and the use of meteorological, climatological and hydrological information in measures to prevent and combat it. A special meeting of experts was convened in the WMO headquarters from 3 to 5 October 1983 to review and finalize the report.

MARINE METEOROLOGY

Safety at sea

The forty-eighth session of IMO's Maritime Safety Committee was held in London from 6 to 17 June 1983. The session was attended by representatives of 58 Member States and 28 intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations. WMO was represented by Captain G. V. Mackie (United Kingdom). There were two subjects of particular interest to WMO which arose from the report of the Sub-Committee on the Safety of Navigation.

With a view to reducing marine casualties by encouraging ocean-going ships to make greater use of weather-routeing services, the Committee felt that Members should be recommended to inform all their ships of the availability of this service. National Meteorological Services which provide weather-routeing services are listed in VolumeD of WMO Publication No. 9, but no information is given there about the availability of such services on a commercial basis in certain other countries. This matter was subse­quently taken up by the Advisory Working Group of CMM (see below).

The Maritime Safety Committee endorsed the view of its sub-committee that wind speed should be given in knots (nautical miles per hour) or metres per second in meteorological observations from ships and weather bulletins and gale warnings for ships.

The committee's report will be submitted to the IMO Council.

CMM Advisory Working Group

The CMM Advisory Working Group held its fifth session in Geneva from 12 to 16 September 1983 under the chairmanship of Professor K. P. Vasiliev, president of the Commission. The main task was to review progress in the activities of CMM since its eighth session (Hamburg, September 1981) and to consider the plan of future work. Reports had been submitted by the chairman of each of the Commission 's working groups and by the Rapporteur on Marine Telecommunications.

Within the Working Group on Technical Problems, a report entitled 'Drifting buoys in support of marine meteorological services' had been prepared by Dr G. D. Hamilton (USA) and is now available in the programme report series 'Marine meteorology and related oceanographic activities'. Preparation of a second study entitled ' Forecast techniques for ice accretion on different types of marine structures including ships, platforms and coastal facilities ' was making good progress. The development of a WMO wave programme, as recommended by CMM, was going ahead.

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The Working Group on Marine Meteorological Services had prepared a revised text for inclusion in the Manual on marine meteorological services (WMO-No. 558) concerning the provision of information by facsimile to marine users, as well as the outline of a monitoring programme for marine meteorological services as called for by CMM. It was decided that the former material should be submitted to the ninth session of the Commission whilst the latter was approved for promulgation among Members so that results may be available in time for the session. With regard to weather-routeing for ships, the Advisory Working Group recommended inclusion in Volume D of WMO Publication No. 9 of national contact points from which can be obtained, on request, lists of private firms engaged in the provision of weather-routeing services.

The Working Group on Sea Ice had carried out a revision of the WMO sea-ice nomenclature for adoption by CMM. It had also set down guidelines for the estab­lishment of a global sea-ice data bank. In view of the need for global sea-ice data in digital form on a routine basis for the purpose of medium- and extended-range forecasts, a suitable code for the regular exchange of these data on the GTS will be developed in collaboration with CBS.

The Working Group on Marine Climatology was studying the problem of marine data quality control procedures. The subject of oceanic current data was also receiving attention with the object of providing standard data sets. The Advisory Working Group agreed that the possibility should be studied of archiving high-quality sea­surface temperature data from drifting buoys, using data tapes available from Service Argas, to ensure that these data were not lost.

As regards marine telecommunications, it was agreed that a detailed plan for a world-wide inquiry into difficulties in the transmission, collection and distribution of ships' weather reports should be submitted to the ninth session of CMM. The plan will be prepared in collaboration with CBS.

The Advisory Working Group then discussed action by CMM in support of the WCDP, such as better availability of marine meteorological data sets collected and assembled under the marine climatological summaries scheme, improved climate observing systems over the oceans, improved data archives at national and interna­tional centres, and the marine part of the World Climate Data Information Referral Service (INFOCLIMA). Steps were taken for the preparation of material relating to the marine meteorology programme for inclusion in Part 11 of the First WMO Long-term Plan.

Finally, the Advisory Working Group of CMM agreed on a provisional agenda for the ninth session of the Commission which is scheduled to be held in November 1984, and on plans for the scientific lectures to be given at that time.

Service Argas

Or Glenn Hamilton and Mr Raymond Rosso have completed the users' guide to the Argos system (WMO Bulletin 32 (4) p. 333), and it has been issued as No. 10 in the series of reports on marine meteorology and related oceanographic activities. Besides technical descriptions of the different services available, details are given of procedures and conditions which apply to users of Service Argas. The guide is being given wide distribution in WMO, IOC and other institutions concerned. Copies may be obtained on request to the WMO Secretariat.

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Hydrology and water resources

Activities of CHy

(This article is based on the report by the president of CRy to the seventh session of Jhe Commission, to be held in Geneva from 27 August to 7 September 1984.)

The main concern of the WMO Commission for Hydrology is the execution of the Operational Hydrology Programme (OHP), itself part of the Hydrology and Water Resources Programme approved by Congress as one of the five major technical programmes of the Organization.

During the Commission 's inter-sessional period, the main emphasis of the OHP has been towards attaining the economic and social goals established by the UN Water Conference, and therefore focused on the needs of developing countries. World-wide co-operation among the Hydrological Services of Member-countries has contributed greatly to the success of the programme, as has the support given to CHy, whose work has been spearheaded by six working groups and 37 rapporteurs, plus 174 experts from the Hydrological and Meteorological Services of 96 Member-countries.

Within the OHP, the Commission has concentrated on fi ve main subjects:

- Hydrological instruments and methods of observation ;

Hydrological data collection, processing and transmission systems;

- Users' requirements for hydrological information ;

- Modelling and simulation ;

- The WMO Guide to hydrological practices, Technical Regulations, standardi-zation and technology transfer.

A major achievement in the Commission 's work has been the completion of the first phase of HOMS-the organized international transfer of hydrological technology. This represents one of the most significant advances within WMO's Hydrology and Water Resources Programme. Noting that HOMS had proved most effective in collecting components of available technology in operational hydrology and in facili­tating their transfer to meet the needs of Members in varying stages of development, Ninth Congress approved the launching of the second phase of HOMS (1984-1991) to extend and strengthen the network of National Reference Centres into fully opera­tional technology transfer centres and, simultaneously, to encourage the technical development of HOMS components and sequences.

Five technical working groups composed of 27 rapporteurs were assigned respon­sibility for tasks covering the above-mentioned fi ve principal thrusts of the OHP. In addition, ten individual rapporteurs have been dealing with specific subjects such as the area! assessment of evaporation, precipitation, snow cover and soil moisture; the data, applications and impact components of the WCP; the hydrology of tropical regions ; hydrological aspects of weather modification ; training activities and the preparation of training material in operational hydrology; hydrological aspects of droughts and desertification. The president of C Hy has been assisted in the overall implementation of the OHP by the CHy Advisory Working Group, which has also acted as the Steering Committee for HOMS. In both capacities the group provided invaluable support in reviewing and advising on the progress of the Commission 's work.

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Nearly all the CHy working groups and rapporteurs have virtually completed their assignments. To keep track of progress, the Commission asked them to submit quarterly reports, a system which Congress hoped would be adopted by other technical commissions. This enabled the Secretariat, in consultation with the president, to provide assistance and encouragement to rapporteurs when needed. Among the guidance material prepared by the Commission, the most important has been the fourth edition of the WMO Guide to hydrological practices (WMO- No. 168), issued in two volumes, and the HOMS Reference Manual with its updating supplements. Both are in the process of being translated into French, Russian and Spanish.

Recently there has been increased participation by CHy working groups and rapporteurs in other WMO programmes and projects involving hydrology, and in WMO's collaboration in the water resources programmes of other international organ­izations, especially Unesco's International Hydrological Programme. Regional OHP activities, carried out through regional association working groups, continue in co­ordination with those of CHy.

Future work

Ninth Congress approved certain priority activities to be undertaken by WMO in the fields of hydrology and water resources which are reflected in the relevant part of the First WMO Long-term Plan. These were developed in greater detail so as to ensure a maximum input to other WMO programmes. They comply with recommendations of recent intergovernmental conferences, and aim to assist international projects co­ordinated by other UN agencies, such as the IHP and the WHOJUNDP International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1980-1990). It is proposed that the main thrust be towards the development of new operational technologies relating to the collection, transmission, processing and retrieval of hydrological data, data banks, data analyses and hydrological forecasting. HOMS will ensure the transfer of available knowledge and proven methodologies in all the above fields .

Users' requirements for hydrological information

Hydrology has developed primarily as an applied science to meet the demands of engineers who construct bridges and dams, develop schemes for irrigation, water supply and drainage, build hydropower production plants and implement water conservation projects. In the past, the hydrological information they needed was produced and supplied on an ad hoc basis, often the national Hydrological Service was not even consulted. With the initiation of the successful technology transfer exercise under HOMS, both hydrologists and users of hydrological information came to feel the need to specify the hydrological data requirements for various purposes.

The CHy Working Group on Users' Requirements for Hydrological Information has now prepared comprehensive matrices showing which hydrological data are required for specific activities related to: agriculture, food production and irrigation ; flora and fauna; energy production; water supply, sanitation and urban drainage; navigation and channel stability; water resource projects and planning. These matrices were reviewed and completed during the second session of the working group which was held in Geneva from 12 to 16 September 1983. During the session the group also drafted detailed technical reports on hydrological information required for agriculture, water supply and energy production, which it recommended be published in a single volume. In addition, the group reviewed a report on distribution types for flood frequency analysis, which was also recommended for publication.

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Hydrology at the IUGG General Assembly

The Eighteenth General Assembly of IUGG was held in Hamburg (Federal Republic of Germany) from 15 to 27 August 1983. It was attended by some 3600 persons, many of whom had registered to participate in symposia and workshops organized by IAHS. WMO had eo-sponsored two of these symposia, one on the hydro­logical application of remote sensing and data transmission and the other on the hydrology of humid tropical regions.

The first day of the remote sensing symposium was devoted to a special session on existing and future satellite systems, and this was organized by WMO. Presentations were made on behalf of seven countries and consortia operating or planning satellite systems of use to hydrology. The session proved to be very valuable, particularly as an introduction to the subsequent discussions during the following five days on the use of remote-sensed satellite data transmission capabilities. The IAHS International Committee for Remote Sensing and Data Transmission for Hydrology, which had organized the symposium as a whole, is considering holding a workshop on some specific aspect of remote sensing for hydrology in the USA in the first quarter of 1985.

The four-day Symposium on the Hydrology of Humid Tropical Regions opened with an overview paper on the subject by WMO. A wide range of papers was presented, and the participants' final conclusions strongly endorsed the views expressed in the WMO paper. These were summarized in the January 1983 issue of this journal ( WMO Bulletin 32 (1) pp. 56-58).

Sessions of all the IAHS commissions and committees were held on this occasion, as was the General Assembly of IAHS itself; Dr G. Kovacs of VITUKI (Hungary) was elected President of the Association and Dr T. O'Donnell (United Kingdom) was appointed the new Editor. Dr J. Rodda (United Kingdom) and Mr C. Reeks (USA) were re-elected respectively Secretary-General and Treasurer.

Following the success of the first Scientific Assembly of IAHS at Exeter (England) in July 1982 (see WMO Bulletin 32 (1) pp. 58-59), it was decided to convene a second one in mid-1986. It will be held in Budapest on the occasion of the centenary of hydrology in Hungary.

The International Prize in Hydrology for 1983 was awarded to Professor J. C. I. Dooge (Ireland).

lntercomparison of models of snowmelt runoff

At its fifth session (Ottawa, July 1976), CHy recommended that a project be undertaken to compare models of snowmelt runoff in a manner similar to the previous intercomparison of rainfall runoff models. The project was planned during the next three years and detailed arrangements were agreed upon at a meeting in October 1979.

The past four years have seen much time and effort devoted to the project by national agencies in the ten countries most involved, namely Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, France, Japan, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom and the USA. Eleven models have been tested on six standard sets of data, and from 26 to 30 September 1983 the participants met at Norrkoping (Sweden) to discuss the results.

A detailed comparison was made of the form and structure of the models and of their performance characteristics. A large amount of material was assembled which will be of considerable value to all who are interested in snowmelt modelling, and a series of conclusions and recommendations were prepared. It is hoped to present more details of this work in a later issue of the WMO Bulletin and to publish the final report of the project as an Operational Hydrology Report during the course of the year.

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ISO Standards Handbook for hydrologists

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) comprises the national standards bodies of some 90 countries. ISO's main objective is to promote the devel­opment of standards throughout the world, with a view to facilitating the international exchange of goods and services and fostering co-operation in economic activities. ISO functions through technical committees (TC), of which there is one for each field. The work of these TCs culminates in the publication of international standards relating to the field in question.

In fi xing an international standard, one of the first stages takes the form of a draft proposal, which is a document circulated for study within the TC. When agreement has been reached within the TC, the document is registered as a draft international standard (DIS). The DIS is then circulated to all ISO member bodies for voting. If 75 per cent of the votes cast are in favour of the DIS, it is sent to the ISO Council for final acceptance as an international standard.

International organizations may be granted ' liaison status' with TCs and their sub­committees. This may be either by participating in the deliberations leading up to the adoption of an international standard, or simply by being kept informed of progress. WMO, through its Hydrology and Water Resources Programme, has a liaison of the former type with, inter alia, ISO(fC-113 which deals with the measurement of liquid flow in open channels.

CHy is reviewing the relevant ISO standards in connection with the WMO Technical Regulations in hydrology and the Guide to hydrological practices. Conse­quently, all the ISO(fC-113 standards have been or are being examined by the relevant rapporteurs and working groups of the Commission. Certain standards expressed in terms of accuracy are being summarized in the WMO Technical Regulations. Thus, the 1983 edition of the WMO Technical Regulations, Volume Ill (Hydrology), contains an annex with six sections based on a number of the TC-113 standards. Such action will not only assure that there is no conflict between ISO standards and the WMO Technical Regulations, but also that ISO standards may be introduced and accepted by the many WMO Member-countries not currently represented in ISO.

At the time of writing, 29 international standards had been issued as a result of the work of TC-113. ISO has now published these standards together in one volume: /SO Standards Handbook 16. It is a handy size for the field hydrologist, although a loose­leaf presentation would have assured that subsequent standards could easily be incor­porated.

The handbook, available in separate English and Frenc)l versions, may be obtained from the ISO Central Secretariat, P.O. Box 56, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland. It costs Sw. fr. 94.50. It may also be obtained through most ISO members' national bodies.

Education and training Course on understanding climate

A short course under the title 'Understanding climate' was held at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia at Norwich (England) from 24 April to I July 1983. Eleven people from as many countries of Africa, Asia and South America

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attended the ten-week course. Although most participants were employed by a national Meteorological Service, there were also a few professionals from the fields of agricultural planning and engineering. ·

The programme of lectures and practical work covered all aspects of pure and applied climatology- basic atmospheric science, climatic change, regional climatology, hydrology and agricultural climatology. Training in the manipulation of climatological data was provided through work programmes in statistics and computing. Wherever possible, the course content was tailored to the specific requirements of the participants. Lectures were given by staff of the University of East Anglia and by a number of invited speakers distinguished for their work in climatology. Participants were provided with a comprehensive set of course notes. .

One week was spent visiting places of interest in the south of England and Wales, such as the European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts and the Rothamsted Agricultural Research Station. A further week was spent at the University of Reading's Department of Meteorology and devoted to climate modelling and prediction. Over the period of the course, participants were encouraged to start a piece of independent research utilizing the facilities of the Climatic Research Unit; topics taken up included soil moisture deficits in Kenya, solar radiation in Colombia and a comparison between Penman and pan evaporation data for Sri Lanka.

This was the first training course of its kind run by the Climatic Research Unit and the organizers welcomed it as an opportunity to meet people from other countries working in subjects related to climatology, and to share knowledge and experience. It is hoped to arrange another course in 1985.

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Norwich (England), April 1983 - Participants in the course ·understanding C limate' at the Climatic Research Unit in the University of East Anglia

Forthcoming Training Events

Course on tropical meteorology and tropical storm forecasting

The University of Miami and NOAA (USA) are organizing this training cour~e in collaboration with WMO. It will be held at the University of Miami from 27 February to 4 May 1984. The programme of lectures and exercises is divided into three sections: tropical meteorology and cyclone forecasting, special topics in tropical meteorology; radar and satellite meteorology. The course will be in English and up to 25 participants can be accepted, drawn from Class I meteorologists working in national Meteoro­logical Services or institutions concerned with tropical cyclone forecasting in regions affected by them.

Class I I meteorology course

The need for this type of course for training meteorologists from Latin America was stressed by the Executive Council. The Government of Costa Rica has kindly offered to host such a course, which is being organized by the Meteorology Section in the School of Physics of the University of Costa Rica, in collaboration with the National Meteorological Institute and WMO.

The course will commence in March 1984 and will be of 18 months' duration. It will be conducted in Spanish and will follow the relevant WMO guidance material and syllabuses for Class 11 meteorological personnel.

Technical co-operation UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

Sectoral support

A valuable addition to WMO technical co-operation activities in the past few years has been the allocation by UNDP of funds for sectoral support in the fields of the smaller agencies (see WMO Bulletin 29 (I) p. 62). The main purposes of sectoral support, it will be recalled, are to provide UNDP resident representatives and governments, on request, with advice and assistance in assessing the current level of development in a particular sector, formulating programmes and projects for that sector, identifying technical co-operation requirements in the context of the country's economic and social goals, and in co-ordinating UNDP assistance at the country level with regular programme activities of the agency and other multilateral assistance.

For this purpose the agencies appoint sectoral advisers using the annual financial allocations from UNDP for sectoral support. Procedures are the same as for any UNDP/WMO project. Although WMO had initially requested funds for four or five such advisers (to cover as many regions in as many disciplines as possible), funds allocated in the years 1979 to 1982 were sufficient for only two full-time sectoral advisers, one in meteorology and one in operational hydrology. Further reductions in funding since mid-1981 have permitted only the sectoral adviser in meteorology to serve full time on the project, although several missions in hydrology have been carried out by specially-appointed consultants or by qualified Secretariat staff, the costs being reimbursed from the project.

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Over the period 1979 to 1983, thanks to a total UN D P allocation of US $900 000, nearly 70 countries have been visited, a few of them more than once and several by more than one adviser. In almost every case a draft project document for UNDP/ WMO assistance was prepared . Particular attention was given to Central and South America because UN DPjWMO activities there had fallen to a very low level, and these efforts now appear to be bearing fruit ; there is a significant increase in the programme in those regions in 1983/84. It is to be hoped that the UNDP funds for sectoral support will continue at least at the same level in 1984/85.

Country programmes

Ben in

Following a WMO consultant's mission to Benin in December 1979, a project proposal entitled 'Strengthening of the agrometeorological service of Benin' has been prepared and submitted to the Government and UNDP. The immediate objectives of this project would be to train agrometeorologica l and climatological personnel , to strengthen the agrometeorological and climatological network, to organize agrometeoro­logical data collection, processing and rublication , and to promote agrometeorological studies and research relating to Benin. Preparatory assistance in connection with this project had been approved by the Government and UN DP in September 1982, and this support provided for a consultant mission, for training four nationals and for procuring meteorological equipment. The mission has already been carried out by Mr Ch. Baldy (France), and a report assessing the present situation and providing advice on the development of agrometeorological activities in Benin has been prepared and submitted to the Government and the UNDP. It is expected that implementation of the full -scale project will start early in 1984.

Haiti

The project 'Strengthening of the National Meteorological Service' in Haiti is now being implemented. The chief technical adviser in meteorology, Mr E. Mustea (Sweden), arrived there at the beginning of September 1983 and started to make good progress towards achieving the first objective, namely the establishment of a synoptic meteorology station at Port-au-Prince airport. He is at the same time collaborating with the local authorities in the reorganization of the Service and on the adoption of new methods and techniques, and has prepared specifications for instruments, equipment and training aids to be purchased with project funds.

On-the-job training of meteorological staff is one of the most important activities, and Mr Mustea is assisted by Mr P.A. Behlau, associate expert, whose services are provided and paid for by the Federal Republic of Germany. Mr Behlau helps in particular with climatological activities, instruments and training.

Negotiations continue regarding possible assistance from the European Economic Commission for a meteorological radar to be installed in the Dominican Republic and linked by microwave to the meteorological office in Port-au-Prince ( WMO Bulletin 32 (2) pp. !57 and 158).

India

Important steps have been taken in implementing the project 'Improvement of flood-forecasting systems in India ' ( WMO Bulletin 31 (I) p. 54). The project has been extended up to June 1984 with more study tours, fellowships in flood-forecasting systems, radar techniques for flood forecasting and the development of a snow

64

hydrology programme. A three-month group training course on hydrological models was completed last March under the supervision of Mr S. Cooper (USA), chief technical adviser of the project. There were 20 participants from the India Central Water Commission. A follow-up course is being organized with more emphasis on the operational side. Eight fellowships were completed in 1983 and nine are planned for 1984.

Sites for the network of river-flow and precipitation stations have been selected and building work completed. The computer has been installed and automatic tele­metering is in progress. Work on appraising several mathematical models has been initiated and a computer specialist, Mr N. Jensen (Norway), has assisted the chief technical adviser in this field . Snow hydrology equipment was received and installed during the last quarter of 1983 in the upper Yamana River basin.

Nepal

Good progress has been made in the pursuit of activities under the project entitled 'Agrometeorology and instrument maintenance' ( WMO Bulletin 31 (3) p. 272). Since the arrival in October 1982 of the expert in agrometeorology, Mr J. L. Lambert (USA), work has been accomplished on upgrading the agrometeorological network of stations, computerized data processing, weather forecasting for farmers and establishing data management systems. Meteorological equipment, telecommunications facilities and a minicomputer have been provided under the project, and programs for data processing have been developed. Two fellows completed university meteorological studies in the USA in December 1983 and two other fellows have been nominated for training abroad in agrometeorology and meteorological instrument maintenance. There has been a delay in recruiting an expert in meteorological instruments due to the withdrawal of the candidate selected for this post.

Field activities under the project to develop and strengthen hydrological services in Nepal started with the arrival of the chief technical adviser of the project, Dr G. Kite (Canada), on I September 1983. Equipment and vehicles were ordered and received. Fellowship and group training candidates have been nominated by the Nepalese counterpart authorities and their placement is under way.

Nicaragua

Good progress has been made in implementing the UNDPjWMO project for strengthening the National Meteorological Service. The computer equipment purchased with project funds has been installed and is operating satisfactorily. A consultant in data processing, Mr E. Herrera (Costa Rica), conducted a one-month mission in October 1983 and assisted with the adaptation of computer programs and training local personnel. In the last quarter of 1983, Mr E. Linares (Cuba) carried out a three-month mission on meteorological networks and Mr V. Montejo (Cuba) a one­month mission for an instrument workshop. They too gave special attention in their respective fields of competence to training local personnel. A large quantity of meteor­ological instruments and equipment was purchased and has already arrived, so that rehabilitation of the observing station network is under way. Other equipment has been received in the country under VCP projects.

Sierra Leone

Following the recommendations drawn up during the preparatory assistance project ( WMO Bulletin 31 (4) p. 385), the new project proposed for organizing the Meteorological Service was approved by UNDP in October 1982.

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-----.

It is being carried out with the assistance of two experts, Mr K. D. N. de Silva (Sri Lanka) and Mr V. S. Ramachandrarao (India). Meteorological equipment for new observing stations, as well as testing and telecommunication equipment, has been ordered. Candidates were selected for training abroad in agrometeorology and tele­communications. The antennas at the meteorological centre were improved, thus considerably enhancing data reception from neighbouring countries.

In addition, a site survey was undertaken by a radar consultant, Mr G . N. Rao (India), in September 1983 and recommendations were prepared for the installation of a weather radar purchased by the Government.

Uruguay

UNDP recently approved a project entitled 'Meteorological studies for the evaluation of potential solar and wind energy utilization '. A consultant in wind energy carried out a one-month mission and chose sites for installing wind observing stations, prepared specifications for the equipment needed, and elaborated a detailed plan for activities in this field.

Following a preliminary mission on solar energy, most of the equipment for solar radiation measurements has been purchased and an expert will carry out a mission early in 1984.

As part of the project, additional computer equipment and peripherals have been purchased. There is also provision for two long-term fellowships in applied clima­tology, and candidates will be selected for studies abroad commencing in mid-1984.

Yemen

Implementation of the trust-fund project in the Yemen Arab Republic financed by the Government of Saudi Arabia ( WMO Bulletin 31 (2) p. 140) continued to be a highly important element in the day-to-day activities of the Meteorological Department. The operational component of the project under the supervision and guidance of the project director, Mr M. Nowailaty (Saudi Arabia), continued to make good progress, especially as concerns the replacing of Saudi Arabian staff by Yemeni counterpart personnel. The maintenance team continued to ensure the daily operation of the telecommunication equipment, the weather radar, the APT station and the three upper-air stations at Sana'a, Ta ' izz and Hodeida. Spare parts, tools and vehicles were provided. The APT images and the weather radar constitute the basic elements in weather forecasting at the main meteorological office at Sana'a international airport. A general training course for Class I II meteorological instrument technicians was organized in 1983 and was attended by 11 Yemenis and three Saudi Arabians. The trainees will receive two months ' on-the-job training with the Meteorology and Envi­ronment Protection Administration (MEPA) of Saudi Arabia during the first half of 1984.

In addition to the assistance provided under the above trust-fund project, a UNDP preparatory assistance project covering 1982 and 1983 (it is a four-year project which started in January 1982) was approved in February 1983. The primary purpose is to build up the Yemeni Meteorological Department's different services and to institute an extensive training programme. Mr A. Mallouhi (Syria), expert in education and training, was appointed as project co-ordinator as from June 1982 in addition to his other duties. He is assisted by Dr S. Venkataraman (India), expert in climatology and agrometeorology. Dr A. Karein (Jordan) left in June 1983 following a o ne-year assignment as expert in aeronautical meteorology, but a replacement will join the

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project shortly. By November 1984, five Yemenis will have completed two years' study in meteorological forecasting with the Syrian Meteorological Department. Two will receive M.Sc. degrees in general meteorology. Some other candidates have been nominated for further training abroad, in addition to Class IV and Class II training provided locally by the training expert. Under the VCP, two fellows will complete university studies in telecommunications and general meteorology in July 1984 and December 1985. Meteorological equipment, spare parts and vehicles have also been provided under the project.

Inter-country programmes

Hydrological forecasting in Central America and the Andean countries

UNDP approved a small project aimed at assisting participating countries in their efforts to apply technology available through the Hydrological Operational Multi­purpose Sub-programme (HOMS). A workshop was organized in Tegucigalpa (Honduras) with the participation of all the countries involved. The main subject dealt with was models for hydrological forecasting.

Another aspect of the project is assistance in hydrological forecasting for countries in the Central American Isthmus. With their own resources several countries have already installed hydrological forecasting systems in selected basins. A · WMO consultant visited Guatemala and Nicaragua to assist the local authorities in planning their future activities in this field. The consultant also participated in the Tegucigalpa workshop and could therefore inform the other participating countries of progress.

Hydroniger project

Implementation of this River Niger basin project ( WMO Bulletin 31 (2) p. 141 ) has made significant progress during the past year, and it is expected that the objectives for the first phase will be achieved. An evaluation mission was carried out in June 1983 which recommended, among other things, that appropriate funding be allocated for carrying out the activities planned for this first phase.

The approved data acquisition system is now being manufactured in France under a contract totalling US $ 1.5 million. Sixty-five data-collection platforms are to be set up together with one principal reception station for the main forecast centre and eight secondary stations (one for each country) ; spare parts, assistance in installation and the training of nationals will be provided. Implanting of some of the equipment has already begun, and it is expected that the overall system wi ll be completed by late in 1985.

In February 1983, another contract was signed with a French company for the development of a mathematical model for hydrological forecasting. The work is progressing and will culminate by the end of 1984 with the incorporation of the model at the AGRHYMET computer centre in Niamey and training nationals in its use.

Bids for the construction of the inter-state hydrological forecasting centre have been received and analysed, and it is expected that construction will start early in 1984. Several tenders have also been made for the construction of national forecasting centres in the various participating countries.

Training activities, a highly important part of the project, have also been making good progress. Nearly twenty candidates from six countries have received training in hydrology or specialized fields, and several candidates are being placed. Group training in equipment maintenance and data processing will be organized soon.

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Regional projects in the Asia and Pacific region

Four inter-country projects continued during 1983 in UNDP's Asia and Pacific region. A brief review follows of each.

In the new 'Programme support to the Typhoon Committee' project ( WMO Bulletin 31 (2) p. 141) an important equipment allocation was included for TOPEX activities. A portion was used to provide spare parts and additional observation equipment for several countries participating in the programme, and a substantial part was used for the acquisition of equipment to improve facilities at the RTH Beijing to speed up the exchange of data between members of the Typhoon Committee.

The project 'Support of the regional tropical cyclone programme in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea' ·saw the departure of the chief technical adviser, Mr R. Southern (Australia), in June 1983. It had already been agreed that the Permanent Representative of Sri Lanka would act as regional co-ordinator for the project, taking over that function from the chief technical adviser. The Permanent Representative is assisted by a staff member from the Sri Lanka Department of Meteorology, Mr Priyasekera. Mr Southern will return early in 1984 for a two-month mission to give further guidance and assist wherever necessary. Meanwhile, the expert on telecommunications and electronics, Mr K. Martinsson (USA), left the project in September 1983 ; his replacement is awaited.

The project 'Regional development and application of HOMS' made considerable progress. No less than five workshops were organized to further the application of specific technology in the processing of hydrological data or the application of computers to hydrological forecasting. A workshop in Jakarta was on the application of real-time data acquisition technology, during which new developments in this field (including METEORBURST) were demonstrated. Of the other workshops, three were held in Bangkok and the other in Vientiane.

Finally, the project 'Regional co-operation and development of Meteorological and Hydrological Services' was used to support the attendance of nationals from many countries in Region II and V at WMO training events. Particular attention was given to the least developed countries of the Region, namely Afghanistan, Bangladesh, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Maldives and Nepal, and to countries in the South­West Pacific which do not have other regional projects to assist them. In this connection, the project financed a survey mission to southern Pacific islands to review the need for, and the structure of, a possible tropical cyclone body for the South Pacific.

AGRHYMET Operations Manual

A technical meeting held in March 1983 at the AGRHYMET Centre in Niamey had the task of determining the form and content of an AGRHYMET Operations Manual. The intention was to provide those concerned with a detailed description of tasks to be undertaken, the sharing out of these tasks, and how they should be performed as part of the series of operations which constitute the operational phase of the AGRHYMET programme. The Manual was subsequently compiled by staff of the AGRHYMET Centre, and it became available in the original French version during the 1983 cropping season. It is currently being translated into English.

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AGRHYMET operations consist essentially of three types of activity:

- Undertaking agrometeorological and hydrological monitoring in the eight CILSS countries ;

VACANCIES IN WMO TECHNICAL CO-OPERATION PROGRAMMES (As of 11 November 1983)

Count1y Title of post Date of Duration Language commencement needed

Country projects

Costa Rica Consultant in crop Early 1984 I month t English & water balance studies Spanish if

possible

Dominican Consultants in: Early 1984 I month each t Spanish Republic (a) hydrological

telemetry; (b) data processing

Jamaica Expert in hydrology Early 1984 1 year t English (mapping of t1ood-prone areas)

Nicaragua Consultants in: Early 1984 2 months each t Spanish (a) meteorological networks ; (b) meteorological telecommunications

Paraguay Consultantin Mid 1984 4 monthst Spanish organization of meteorological and hydrological services

Qatar Expert in January 1985 I year English & meteorological Arabic if training possible

Republic of Korea Consultants in: (a) September 6 months eacht English (a) numerical weather 1984 prediction ; (b) heavy (b) April 1985 rain analysis & forecasting

Trinidad & Tobago Expert in Early 1984 I yeart English climatological data processing

Uruguay Consultant in solar Early 1984 2 monthst Spanish radiation

Venezuela Consultant in Early 1984 2 months Spanish hydrological data processing

Inter-country projects

A GRHYMET Centre Niger Instructor in As soon as 3 years* ! French

agrometeorology possible

t Subject to UNDP and/or government approval * Initial contract of one year

Furth er information may be obtained on written request to the Secretmy-General, WMO. Geneva.

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Building up an agrometeorological and hydrological data bank to meet the needs of CILSS countries;

Disseminating data and information on the weather, climate, state of crops, water resources and agricultural work, down to the level with which the farmers are concerned.

The purpose of the operations, which are carried out at national and regional levels, is thus to make better allowance for meteorological and climatic factors in the management of agricultural and water resources, and thereby contribute to an overall increase in food production in the Sahelian countries.

Reference was made earlier ( WMO Bulletin 32 (I) p. 68) to the establishment of the regional AGRHYMET computer centre at Niamey which will provide regional syntheses, prognoses and alerts for feedback and dissemination on the basis of data and reports received from national centres. Operations at the national level consist, essentially, in observing the basic physical parameters at a given place, transmitting them to one or more collecting points, and processing the data so collected. Such processing makes it possible to have an overall picture of the national situation which can then be used to provide summarized data and information.

Such a system presupposes that the activities undertaken by widely differing services are co-ordinated, that the functions of each service are clearly defined, and that the distribution of information within the system is carefully organized. In each country there will be an infrastructure which incorporates a number of bodies with specific fields of responsibility:

- The national multi-disciplinary working group to examine the processed data, undertake monitoring during the rainy season, and bring together specialists in all the disciplines involved in the AGRHYMET programme. Regular meetings of this group permit an exchange of opinions, the taking of technical operational decisions, and the formulation of advice and information for agriculturists ;

- The AGRHYMET national unit (usually in the agrometeorological division) which receives and checks the data and then processes them at national level. This unit is supervised by the AGRHYMET national co-ordinator ;

- The national telecommunication centre responsible for the collection of basic data from stations in the country, for their transmittal to the AGRHYMET unit, and for their insertion on the GTS;

Computing centres, including the centre established (or about to be estab­lished) by the AGRHYMET programme in each country;

Centre(s) to receive messages sent by certain climatological or rainfall stations. These centres may be in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the national police force, the Post Office, army headquarters or other government offices ;

- The hydrological service which collects hydrological information from stations in the country ;

Agricultural extension services and other agencies to receive messages relating to agricultural monitoring ;

Centres to re-disseminate agrometeorological and hydrological messages, such as the Post Office, radio broadcasting, and the press agencies.

The AGRHYMET Operations Manual gives a complete description of the mechanism by which co-ordination between these bodies shall be achieved. Opera­tional activities are described according to network and observational data, national data collection, processed data at national level, regional data collection, processed

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data at the regional level, dissemination of national products, and dissemination of regional products. The manual also includes a description of methods of phenological observation, a method for calculating crop water balance, and codes for the regional transfer of data. In an annex are lists of all the meteorological, agrometeorological and hydrological observation stations in the Sahel upon which the system will depend, together with standardized observation forms, recommended presentations of ten-day and monthly bulletins and year books.

News and notes

Indian national satellite system (INSAT)

India's national satellite system is conceived as a multipurpose programme with payloads for telecommunications, meteorology and television broadcasts. The first satellite was launched on I 0 April 1982 but unfortunately failed fi ve months later. The second was launched from the USA's space shuttle Challenger and went into geosta­tionary orbit on 30 August 1983, the location being above the Equator at 74°E. It is reported to be functioning well.

Image in the visible spectral channel from 11\SAT on 25 September 1983 ( Photv: India A1etevrological Departmem )

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INSAT-lB, as this satellite is called, carries the following meteorological payload:

- A Very High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR) for imagery of the Earth's disc in the visible and infra-red channels ;

- A transponder to receive data transmitted by a number of data-collection platforms (DCPs) and relay these to the central processing facility at Ne\\< Delhi.

The two-channel VHRR has a nominal ground resolution of 23-4 km in the visible channel (0.55-0.75 11m) and 11 km in the infra-red channel (10.5-12.5 11-m). It can provide a picture of the whole Earth's disc every 30 minutes, but in sector-scan mode (over a limited area) a picture can be obtained every six minutes. Image data are trans­mitted in the 4 GHz waveband at a rate of approximately 4 x 105 bitsjs.

The India Meteorological Department plans to install 100 land-based DCPs in various parts of the country. The DCPs broadcast their data signals at 402.75 MHz, the satellite relays these in digital format to the Meteorological Data Utilization Centre (MDUC) at New Delhi in the 4 GHz waveband at a rate of 4.8 x 103 bitsjs.

At New Delhi the VHRR and DCP data are processed independently. Full­resolution visible and infra-red images are produced; these can be archived to a limited extent. The centre has computer processing facilities for interactive display and analysis, cloud analysis, derivation of winds at two or three levels, derivation of sea­surface temperature and of cloud-top temperature and height. Processed cloud pictures are transmitted to some 20 forecast offices of the India Meteorological Department. DCP observational data are similarly distributed to users after processing and formatting.

There is no doubt that the availability of INSAT meteorological data in near-real­time will help improve the quality of the weather forecast services for agriculture, fisheries, aviation, shipping, hydroelectric power projects and so forth. Particularly important will be the better surveillance of impending tropical cyclones and of the evolution of the monsoon.

International Geophysical Calendar for 1984

The International Geophysical Calendar is prepared each year by the Interna­tional Ursigram and World Days Service (IUWDS) to recommend dates for making solar and geophysical observations which cannot be carried out continuously.

The definitions of the designated days remain as described for previous calendars. Universal Time (UT) is the standard time for all world days. Regular Geophysical Days (RGD) are each Wednesday. Regular World Days (RWD) are three consecutive days each month, always Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday near the middle of the month. Priority Regular World Days (PRWD) are the RWDs which fall on Wednesday. Quarterly World Days (QWD) are one day each quarter and are the PR WDs which fall in the World Geophysical Intervals (WGI). The WGI are fourteen consecutive days in each season, beginning on a Monday of the selected month, and normally shift from year to year. In 1984 the WGis will be in February, May, August and November.

It is recommended in the note attached to the calendar that particular efforts should be made to carry out an intensified meteorological programme on the RGDs-­each Wednesday, UT. A desirable goal would be the scheduling of meterological rocket sondes, ozone sondes and radiometer sondes on these days, together with maximum­altitude rawinsonde ascents at both 0000 and 1200 UT.

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International Geophysical Calendar for 1984

JANUARY

FEBRUARY

MARCH

s

8

15 22

M T W T F

2 3 4 5 6 9 10" 11" 12 13

16 @/ ®+@r 20 23 24 Z5 26 27

s 7

14

21 28

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2 3" 4" + 5 6 7 9 10 11 12 13 14

APRIL 15 16 @ ® @ 20 21 23 24 zs 26 2 7 28

MAY

27 28 29 3 4 5

2 3

31 6 7

1 8

2 9

JUNE 1 0 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 @ ® @ 22 23 :Z4- - 25- w - 2r+ 28"+29 --ioi ~---------------- -----J SMTWT FS

@ Regular World Day (RWD)

® Prior ity Regular World Day (PRWD)

k Quarterly World Doy (QWD ) ~ also a PRWD and RWD

4 Regular Geophysical Day (RGD)

[I World Geophysical Interval (WG I)

17 + Incoheren t Scatter Coordinated Obser vation Day and Coord inated T ida l Observat ion Doy

1 8

15

M T W T F

2 3 4 5 9 10 11 12 13

16 @ ®@ 20 23 24 25"+ 26" 2 7

31 1 2

26 27 28 31 2 3 4 5 6

s

14

21 28

9 10 11 12 13 14 15

JULY

AUGUST

~~--~~,~~@f~~@[~!=~~~J SEPTEMBER 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6

7 8 9 HI 11 12 13 14 15 @ ~+@* 19 20 OCTOBER 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

30 31

NOVEMBER 24

25 2 3 4 5 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

~~~~~~-_@_-~~~:'_-~1_-~j~ DECEMBER 23 24 25 26 27 28 2 9

31

U U H ~

S M T W T F S

@QJ Day of Solar Eclipse

[~j~ Airglow ond Aurora Per iod

10* Dark Moon Geophysical Day (DMGD)

1985 JANUARY

Additional copies of the calendar may be obtained from the IUWDS Cha irman, Dr. P. Simon, Ursigrammes O bservatoire, F-92 190 Meudon, France, o r JUWDS Secretary for World Days, Miss H. E. Coffey, W DC-A for Solar-Terrestrial Physics, NOAA, EjGC2, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA.

73

Retirements

Dr K. Langlo

On I October 1983, Or Kaare Langlo retired from his post as Director of the Norwegian Meteorological Institute. After graduating from Oslo University, Or Langlo entered the Institute and soon became closely involved in the work of the former IMO. His particular aptitude for international affairs in meteorology led to his joining the staff of WMO in 1952, shortly after its creation. He became Chief of the Technical Division and later Director of the Scientific and Technical Department, finally being appointed Deputy Secretary-General ofWMO in 1971, a post he held until November 1975 when he retired and returned to det norske meteoro/ogiske institutt.

As Permanent Representati ve of Norway with WMO and member of the Executive Council, Or Langlo continued his association with international meteoro­logical activities, and in 1979 was appointed to serve as chairman of the Executive Committee Panel of Experts for the Review of the Scientific and Technical Structure of WMO. This involved him in a great deal of work, and notably the delicate task of presenting a balanced synopsis of Members' sometimes diverging views on this funda­mentally important subject.

Or Langlo's services with and for WMO were recognized by King Olav of Norway who conferred on him in 1975 a knighthood, the First Class Order of St Olav.

Sir John Mason

Or K. Langlo Phmo: Sjou·ai!J

Sir John Mason ( Phvw: G. A. Cvrbr)

On 30 September 1983, Sir John Mason retired from his post as Director-General of the United Kingdom Meteorological Office. He had succeeded the late Sir Graham Sutton as Director-General in 1965, and for most of those 18 years served as member of the Executive Council of WMO.

74

He made numerous positive contributions to WMO programmes; for example he was chairman of the Tropical Experiment Board (the group with overall responsibility for directing the planning and execution of the successful GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment (GATE) in 1974) and he played a leading role in defining the objectives and strategy of the Precipitation Enhancement Project (PEP) launched by Seventh Congress in 1975. More recently, Sir John chaired the ad hoc group of the Scientific and Technical Advisory Committee which laid down the outline of the First WMO Long-term Plan 1984-1993.

As regards the part he played in the advancement of his own Meteorological Service, Mr G. A Corby writes :

'Of the countless achievements of John Mason's Director-Generalship, the most significant have probably been the impressive enhancement of the material resources available to the Office, the many auspicious acts of re-organization and modernization introduced to meet changing requirements, the great emphasis placed on research, both fundamental and practica lly-o riented, and, perhaps most important, a genuine heightening of the scientific standing of meteorology and the Meteorological Office.' 1

Sir John was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1965, and 11 years later became treasurer and senior vice-president of this highly prestigious body. He was awarded his knighthood in 1979.

Fortunately, Sir John's departure from the Met. Office does not mean that he will disappear from the scene of international meteorology. He has been appointed scientific director of a major new research project on acid rain 2 which is to be conducted over several years by the Royal Society in association with the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He has also become a member of the WMOjiCSU Joint Scientific Committee in place of Professor J. T. Houghton who has now taken over the reins as Director-General of the Met. Office. Moreover, Sir John has agreed to serve as scientific di rector for the important WMO conference in 1985 on results of the GARP Global Weather Experiment (see WMO Bulletin 32 (4) p. 335).

Joint USSRjCuba Tropical Meteorology Laboratory

Within the framework of an intergovernmental agreement on scientific and technical co-operation in the field of tropical meteorology and hu-rricane research, the USSR State Committee for Hydrometeorology and Control of the Natural Envi­ronment and the Republic of Cuba Academy of Science jointly created in 1979 the Soviet-Cuban Tropical Meteorology Laboratory to carry out investigations and theor­etical studies of mutual interest. Tropical cyclones are a hazard both to Cuba and the far eastern part of the USSR, and these are the primary object on which the work of the laboratory is focused. However, the programme also includes cloud physics and weather modification aimed at regulating precipitation.

1 The Mereorologica/ Magazine 112 (1334) pp. 269-273. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London.

2 This project is being funded by the United Kingdom 's Central Electricity Generating Board and National Coal Board to make a completely independent investigation of the acidifi­cation of surface waters in Norway and Sweden, and of the extent to which this is responsible for the reduction of fish populations in some Scandinavian lakes. The investigation wi ll be conducted in parallel with research already being undertaken by the Central Electricity Research Laboratories and the Met. Office into the degree to which emissions of sulphur and nitrogen oxides from British power stations a re responsible for the acidification of precipitation over Norway and Sweden, and the result if S02 were to be partially or tota lly removed from the emissions.

75

The Cuban Institute of Meteorology has amassed almost 100 years ' observations of tropical cyclones constituting a substantial file of data, and one of the first tasks was to process these data in such a way as to compile (on magnetic tape) a data bank on the tracks of tropical cyclones and associated synoptic conditions. That can then be used in physico-statistical schemes for predicting the movement of tropical cyclones.

The plans for the immediate future are to create a set of homogeneous primary data on tropical cyclones to which can be added, in operational mode, data from other countries. Data from this array will be available for exchange with other countries in accordance with WMO recommendations.

Studies on tropical cyclones are concentrated on their physical structure and energetics, with the object of developing a satisfactory model of a tropical cyclone, taking into account interaction between the active zone of the cyclone and its surroundings. A variety of archived data are used, including synoptic observations, satellite information, radar data, actinometric and ozone data. Preliminary composite data sets have been compiled for hurricanes Catlw·ine in 1981 and Alberta in 1982.

A large amount of data on tropical clouds have been obtained from experimental studies using aircraft and ground-based radar. There were interesting results concerning microstructure, water content and temperature regimes, as well as the influence of trade winds and small-scale circulations on the development of convective clouds and the variability in time and space of rain clouds. To gain further insight about the feasibility of precipitation enhancement, some clouds were seeded with solid carbon dioxide or silver iodide.

One other very important benefit brought about by the Soviet-Cuban Tropical Meteorology Laboratory is the training of professional Cuban staff.

The joint studies between the USSR and Cuba will continue and may well be further intensified in the future. The laboratory has the requisite instruments and equipment to perform valuable theoretical and experimental work, and a nucleus of highly competent scientists and technicians is in the making.

American Meteorological Society awards in 1983

The Society's highest honour, the Carl-Gustav Rossby Research Medal, was conferred in 1983 on Or Joanne Simpson, Head of the Severe Storms Branch at the Goddard Laboratory for Atmospheric Sciences, for 'her outstanding contributions to our understanding of convective clouds, and the role of convection in the formation and maintenance of hurricanes and other wind systems over tropical oceans'.

Professor Helmut E. Landsberg and Or David Atlas both received the Cleveland Abbe Award in 1983. Professor Landsberg of the University of Maryland was honoured for 'his long and distinguished record of contributions to the atmospheric and related sciences, and for his broad perspectives on the impact of atmospheric variability on global societies'. Or Atlas, Associate Director of Applications for Meteorology at the Goddard Space Flight Center, was chosen for 'his outstanding leadership of scientific activities and contributions to national and international scientific affairs. He has provided wise and effective guidance coupled with a contagious enthusiasm that makes hard work seem easy'.

The Jule G. Charney Award went to Or Francis P. Bretherton, sen ior scientist at the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), for 'his innovative and signi­ficant contributions to our understanding of the dynamics of the atmosphere and oceans encompassing a wide variety of scales, processes and phenomena'.

76

CALENDAR OF COMING EVENTS

(Sessions will be held in Geneva, Switzerland, unless otherwise stated)

1984

27 February -2 March

5-9 March

12- 17 March

30 April-4 May

6 - 23 June

23 - 27 July

27 August-7 September

I - 12 October

I - 14 October

World Meteorological Organization

Executive Council Panel of Experts on Education and Training, 11th session; Oran, Algeria

Co-ordinating and Advisory Committee for the AGRHYMET Pro­gramme, I Oth session; Rome, Italy

WMO/ ICSU Joint Scientific Committee, 5th session; Hangzhou, China

Executive Council Panel of Experts on Environmental Pollution, 5th session; Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Fed. Rep. of Germany

Executive Council, 36th session

International Symposium on Challenges in African Hydrology and Water Resources ; Harare, Zimbabwe

Commission for Hydrology, 7th session

Commission for Marine Meteorology, 9th session

Workshops on (a) Agrometeorology in semi-arid zones, and (b) Limited-area numerical weather prediction models for compu­ters of limited power ; Erice, Italy

Also planned for the second half of 1984:

1984

26 - 30 June

30 - 31 August

3 - 7 September

3 - 7 September

Regional Association for Asia, 8th session

Other international organizations

Symposium on Space Observations for Climate Studies (COSPAR/ WMO); Graz, Austria

Mini-symposium on Polar Lows (IAMAP); Copenhagen, Denmark

Second International Symposium on Nowcasting (SMHIJWMO/ IAMAPJESA); Norrkoping, Sweden

International Ozone Symposium (IAMAPJWMO); Kassimdra, Greece

The Charles Franklin Brooks Award was presented to Dr Chester W. Newton, Head of Empirical Studies at NCAR, for 'his wise leadership as president and his long record of devoted service to the American Meteorological Society as editor of its journals and member of its committees'.

A Special Award in 1983 was attributed to the Mauna Loa Observatory (Hawaii) for 'service to the scientific community for providing measurements of the chemical and physical background state of the atmosphere. The continuous records of C02 and atmospheric transmission, in particular, are internationally unique and specially

77

important as basic information applicable to understanding climate variability' . The award was received on behalf of the observatory by Or Lester Machta, Director of the NOAA Air Resources Laboratory.

Rare books on meteorology listed on microfiche

The Royal Meteorological Society has produced microfiche containing a listing of rare books available through the National Meteorological Library of the United Kingdom. These are (a ) in alphabetical order by author (152 pp.) and (b) in chrono­logical order of date of publication ( 156 pp.). The microfiche may be obtained from the Royal Meteorological Society, James Glaisher House, Grenville Place, Bracknell, Berkshire RG 12 1 B'X, England. The price for a single microfiche is US $5.80, and US $9.10 for the pair.

Obituaries

Teresia Gudmundsson

Mrs Teresia Gudmundsson, nee Anda, former Director of the Icelandic Meteoro­logical Office, died in Reykjavik on 31 July 1983.

Born in Norway in 190 I, Mrs Gudmundsson studied mathematics, chemistry and astronomy at the University of Oslo, and joined the staff of the Icelandic Meteoro­logical Office in 1929 as a scientific assistant. In 1934, she returned to the University of Oslo and passed examinations in meteorology and physical geography in 1934. She was appointed Director in February 1946.

Teresia Gudmundsson , Phmu: Sf.::,ulgdrssoi/J

As in many other national Meteorological Services, the decade after the Second World War was a period of great expansion and extensive reorganization for the Icelandic Meteorological Office, in particular as concerned aeronautical meteorology. The difficult and time-consuming administrati ve tasks associated with these changes fell on Mrs Gudmundsson , and she proved more than equal to them. Under her guidance the number of observing stations of all types almost doubled, forecast activities strengthened and a new division dealing mainly with services to aviation was established. At the same time, the international role of the Icelandic Meteorological Office had grown, and Mrs Gudmundsson was actively involved ; she attended the two

78

last Conferences of Directors of IMO and the first four WMO Congresses. She was also a member of the Icelandic delegation to the PICAO Conference in Dublin in 1946 and other ICAO meetings. She retired in June 1963.

Those who knew Mrs Gudmundsson wi ll remember her for her cheerful dispo­sition, her strong sense of duty and dedication to the interests of her adopti ve country, Iceland, which in no way diminished her love for her native country, Norway. At inter­national meetings she was distinguished for the way she represented Iceland, and a lso for the fact that she was very often the only lady representative present.

Mrs Gudmundsson's younger brother, Mr H. l. Anda, was a lso a meteorologist and had been working for WMO as expert in a technical co-operation project in Afghanistan when he tragically lost his life in an air disaster at Copenhagen in 1957 (see WMO Bulletin 6 (4) p. 158).

Teresia Gudmundsson is survived by a daughter and several grandchildren.

H. SIGTRYGGSSON

Jean Bessemoulin

Mr Jean Bessemoulin, former Director of the French Meteorological Service and Second Vice-President of WMO from 1971 to 1975, passed away on 19 October 1983 after a long and painful illness. An interview with him in 198 1 appeared in the WMO Bulletin 31 (I) pp. 3-14.

Born at Garches (near Paris) in 1913, Mr Bessemoulin initially trained as an astronomer, but in 1935 he joined the staff of the French Meteorological Service. He was an active member of the French Resistance during th e Second World War and at

Jean Bessemoulin

the cessation of hostilities he helped Andre Yiaut to restore meteorologica l serv ices in France as rapidly as possible, being appointed chief of the forecasting division. In 1964 he succeeded Yiaut as Director of La Meti!Orologie nationale, and during his 11 yea rs in this office introduced a modern computer centre which gave new impetus to numerica l weather prediction modelling and automatic data processing.

He was an accomplished pilot of powered aircraft and gliders, and published various manuals on aeronautical meteorology. He a lso made a number of other technical and scientifi c contributions to the meteorological community, for instance in connection with the International cloud atlas.

Over a period of more than a quarter of a century, Jean Bessemoulin participated in numerous sessions of WMO constituent bodies where his great intellect, experience

79

and friendliness were universally appreciated. He was member of the Executive Committee for 13 years.

He received many and important honours, in particular appointment as Commander of the Legion d'honneur in 1976.

J. LABROUSSE

Cecil Daking

Mr Cecil W. G. Daking, who was well known in WMO circles as advisor to the late Sir Graham Sutton and subsequently to Sir John Mason, died on 10 September 1983 at the age of 76.

After graduating in physics, Mr Daking joined the United Kingdom Meteoro­logical Office in 1928 and, after a year at Calshot (the old flying boat base), was trans­ferred to Cardington as a member of the research group concerned with the meteorology of airships, work which came to an end after the accident to the ill-fated R-101 towards the end of 1930. He then spent nearly ten years as a forecaster in North America, mostly for civil aviation, serving as liaison officer first with the Canadian Meteorological Service and then with the United States Weather Bureau. After the Second World War he served as chief meteorological officer at a number of Royal Air Force stations.

It was in 1957 that he became Assistant Director in charge of international affairs, and his frequent visits to Geneva gave him much pleasure and satisfaction. In fact, he wrote to me shortly before my retirement to say that the most vivid and enjoyable of his memories was being a member of the United Kingdom delegation to Fifth Congress in 1967, just before his retirement. I was not to know then that he was so near the end of his life, and so was very glad that I wrote back a long letter describing recent developments which he read with great pleasure shortly before he died.

Cecil Daking was a very dedicated and loyal servant of meteorology who, despite his ultra conservative and outspoken views, inspired widespread affection as a real 'character'. Many of his old Commonwealth colleagues in WMO who were especially favoured by the sharp edge of his tongue will mourn his passing.

JOHN MASON

News from the Secretariat

Secretary-General's visits

United States of America - On 21 July 1983 the Secretary-General addressed the House of Representatives in Washington, D.C. on how the commercialization of weather, land and future ocean remote-sensing satellite systems would affect WMO and its activities. During his stay in Washington he also had talks with the Permanent Representative of the USA with WMO, Dr R. E. Hallgren.

France - On 29 and 30 .August 1983 the Secretary-General presented a keynote address at the IAMAPfWMO symposium reported on page 41 of this issue. He also chaired one of the afternoon sessions. Then from 14 to 17 September Mr Wiin- Nielsen visited Toulouse on the occasion of the transfer of the training school of the French Meteorological Service to Toulouse-Mirail.

80

Federal Republic of Germany - As member of the Scientific Advisory Committee of the Max-Planck Institute in Hamburg, the Secretary-General took part in a meeting of the committee on 22 September 1983.

Finland - On 9 October 1983, the Secretary-General received the Wihuri Interna­tional Prize at a ceremony held in the Finlandia Hall in Helsinki. The Prize was given for his contributions to the development of medium-range weather prediction.

Staff changes

Departures

Dr Rumen D. Bojkov, who has been with WMO for the past 14 years, left the Organization on 9 September 1983 to return to active research work on his appointment as senior scientist for ozone research in the Canadian Atmospheric Envi­ronment Service. Following an initial spell of duty at the Meteorological Institute for Research and Training in Cairo as senior expert on the physics of the upper atmosphere, Or Bojkov joined the Secretariat in 1970 where he became Chief of the Atmospheric Sciences Division, energetically promoting various CAS programmes such as the ozone and carbon dioxide research and monitoring projects and the Preci­pitation Enhancement Project. Latterly he had been responsible in the WMO/ICSU Joint Planning Staff for the co-ordination of CAS climate-related research projects.

Mr Michael Malone resigned from his post of technical officer seconded to the Office of the WMO/ICSU Joint Planning Staff on I October 1983 to return to the Canadian Atmospheric Environment Service. He had joined the Secretariat in 1977 to serve in the Instruments and Observing Techniques Branch.

Appointments

On I August 1983, Mr Xunliang Zhang was appointed Chief of the Data Processing Division in the World Weather Watch Department. Mr Zhang has a B.Sc. in synoptic and dynamic meteorology from the Tsing Hua University. He has worked since 1952 in the Central Meteorological Bureau of China where his most recent post was chief engineer of the National Meteorological Centre.

On I October 1983, Miss Carolyn M. Gatfield was appointed Chief of the Languages Division in the Languages, Publications and Conferences Department. Holder of an M.A. (Hons.) from Victoria University, Wellington (New Zealand) and a Ph.D. in applied linguistics from the University of Toulouse (France), Miss Gatfield taught languages for some years before joining the ICAO terminology unit in 1977. In 1980 she transferred to Unesco where she was chief of the terminology, documentation and references section.

Recent WMO publications

First WMO Long-term Plan - Part 1: Overall policy and strategy (1984-1993). WMO-No. 616, 1983. v + 65 pages ; 10 figures. In English (French, Russian and Spanish editions in preparation). Price : Sw.fr. 11.-.

This is the first part of the WMO Long-term Plan approved by Ninth Congress (see WMO Bulletin 32 ( 4) pp. 329-331). After a short introduction there follows a discussion on the challenges which are going to face Meteorological and Hydro­meteorological Services during the coming decade, three factors being given special prominence, namely meeting the world's need for food, water and energy, the exploi­tation of resources in or under the sea, and global scale alterations of elements of the

81

environment due to human activities. This leads to the statement of the major objectives of WMO's scientific and technical programmes (40 pages). Considerat ion is then given to means through which the execution of the plan may be promoted and supported.

Guide to meteorological instruments and methods of observation. WMO-No. 8, fifth edition, 1983. xii + 491 pages, loose-leaf; figures and tables. In English (French, Russian and Spanish editions in preparation). Price: Sw.fr. 38.-.

See page 46 of this issue. The 25 chapters deal with general considerations; reporting the weather and state of ground ; measuring atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, surface wind, precipitation, evaporation, soil moisture, radiation, sunshine duration, visibility, cloud and upper winds; radiosonde techniques, balloon techniques ; atmospherics location; aeronautical meteorological observations; observations from aircraft and ships ; rocket soundings ; soundings of the lower troposphere ; automatic weather stations; quality control and sampling techniques.

Tropical cyclone operational plan for the South- West Indian Ocean. WMO-No. 618, 1983. vii + 34 pages, loose-leaf; tables. In English and French. Price: Sw.fr. 18.-.

The presentation of this publication follows along simi lar lines to the Region IV hurricane operational plan (WMO-No. 524) described in the WMO Buf!etin 28 (3) p. 206. It describes the internationally co-ordinated systems and mutually agreed arrangements which have evolved in setting up an effective tropical cyclone warning scheme for the region. Topics dealt with include terminology, units, and cyclone identi­fication ; observing systems; forecasting arrangements; procedures for issuing warnings; information exchange; quality control ; tropical cyclone information services.

Reviews Climate of Papua New Guinea. By J. R. McALPI NE and Gael KEIG with R. FALLS. Canberra

(Austra lian National University Press) 1983. xii + 200 pages ; numerous figures and tables. Price : SA12.95.

This book is not directed towards the specialist in climatology, but towards a wider audience of scientists in natural resources, medicine and social science, engineers, planners and students. The introduction gives interesting historical details about weather observing in Papua New Guinea. A number of climatological observations were made in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, and a station network has been in near continuous existence since 1910.

The climate of Papua New Guinea reflects the latitude and the altitude of the country­alm ost half the land mass of New Guinea lies above 1000 m-and in the second and third chapters the climate is described in the context of the location of Papua New Guinea with respect to the main features of the low-latitude general circulation. This approach is, as the authors state, more satisfactory than adopting the earlier concept of an a lternation of south-east trades and north-west monsoon air masses, local effects being attributed to orography. These two chapters form a useful part of the book.

Five chapters are then devoted to rainfall , temperature, humidity and evaporation, day­length, cloudiness, sunshine and radiation, and water balance. An even treatment over the whole country has been attempted for each, rather than a detailed discussion of only those aspects for which there are substantial sets of data. Enough data are reproduced to adequately describe the main features, and references are given that enable the reader to locate more complete infor­mation. An appendix contains selected climatological tables.

82

The book concludes with a discussion of the applicabi lity of the climatic classifications of Koppen, Thornthwaite, Holdridge and Terjung to Papua New Guinea. The authors consider that none seem appropriate, and so present a further classification based first on altitude (as the determinant of temperature regim es) and second on mean annual rainfall. The altitude class intervals selected correspond to recognized changes in vegetati on.

In general , the book succeeds in achieving its objective. It gives a good overall account of the main features of the climate for the non-specialist, and provides references for delving more deeply. A more complete map showing place-names, and a more comprehensive topographic map placed early in the book would be helpful. Moreover, in a few parts of the book it would have been better to have presented new sets of illustrations or tables instead of (apparen tl y) using other more readily avai lab le material. The mixture of 'monthly' and 'week number' climatological data (especially in the chapter on water balance) slows the reader down a little, and certain loose terminology as, for example, the ·synonymous use of 'probability' and 'frequency distribution ' (Chapter 8), as well as a few misprints, might well disturb the most discriminating.

However, the chosen approach is to be commended, and the overall result is good . That such a publication describes the climate of a 'young' Pacific country is worthy of note.

J. s. HtCK~·I AN

ClimaTO!ogica/ Ice Atlas for the Balric Sea, Kauegar. Skagerrak and Lake Viinern {1963- 1979). Norrkoping and Helsinki (SM HI and Finnish Institute of Marine Research) 1982. 220 pages; numerous maps, also photos, diagrams and tab les. Text trilingual English, Swedish and Finnish. Price: Skr. 150.-.

This recent publication provides an excellent statistical analysis of the annual development and decay of ice in the Baltic Sea region . The book has a hard cover and has die-cut index tabs which allow direct access to seven series of charts covering specific ice features. (The tabs are unmarked, a feature which allows the user to letter them in his own language.)

Sixteen years of ice data have been digitized using a 28 x 28 km grid and ten-day time interval ( 1, 11 and 21 of each month from November to May inclusive). The resulting charts depict key ice features and include dates of formation , amount of ice present, the dominant ice type, mean ice thickness and the severity of ridges. Mean level-ice thickness is a lso presented in tabular form for 18 representative areas, a long with its probabil ity of occurrence in nine thickness ranges. Although a much longer general ice record is available, only the data of the last 16 years were comprehensive enough for such a detailed analysis.

An interesting approach is taken in treating the occurrence of high ice concentrations. Using all the data, the frequency is calculated for each area, then those years when ice does not form are excluded and a new frequency derived. For example, high ice concentrations occur only 10 per cent of the years in mid- February along the Swedish Kattegat coast. However in the years that ice does occur, it will reach the very close or compact stage 50 per cent of the time. This extra treatment provides a better indication of the possible hindrance to naviga tion, but unfortunately the charts showing this latter frequency are inappropriately labelled 'Amount of very close and compact ice'.

The Atlas was produced as a joint Swedish-Finnish project and is intended mainly for the marine user. Despite its excellence there is some misleading or inconsistent material. Ice frequency is reported in percentage intervals of I 0 or 25, as is the mean ice concentration, even though the latter is reported and mapped in tenths. Also, the list of dominant ice types includes such expressions as open pack ice and close pack ice, terms which define the amount of ice present but not its type or thickness. The amount of ridged ice is given as a frequency of occurrence which can be combined with thickness data to derive equivalent ice thickness. Presumably this is to be added to the mean level-ice thickness, but that is not made clear. SimpLe ridge height and frequency data would have been much more useful.

Several illustrations of ice types are provided, along with an aerial photograph and a satellite image depicting ice cover. The captions for these are absent or quite inadequate-the ice types are not named and no dates are given. Admittedly a three-language caption is not easily included, but with the page size used, the layout and format cou ld have been adjusted.

Despite these shortcomings the book is sure to be welcomed by planners and operators of wi nter shipping in the area. It is carefu lly prepared, of convenient size and with adequate detail to make a very useful guide.

W. E. MARKHAM

83

Weather Satellite Picture lnte1pretation. Director of Naval Oceanography and Meteorology (United Kingdom), DNOM Memo No. 1/82 . Taunton (Hydrographic Department) 1982. In two loose-leaf volumes: Vol. 1 (text) of 76 pages ; Vol. 2 containing 60 plates plus descriptive summary and synoptic charts. Price: £25.-.

The primary purpose of this publication is as an up-to-date practical handbook on the inter­pretation of satellite imagery for forecasters in the field. To the reviewer's knowledge no such guide has been published since WMO's Technical Note No. 124 of 1973.

There is little new important information on the interpretation and application of satellite imagery in this publication, but it reflects developments which have taken place since 1973, in particular as regards the geostationary satellites.

The first part comprises an introduction and background information relating to orbital characteristics, instrumentation, telecommunications, and, to some extent, geographic gridding techniques. The major aspects of these topics are presented in a clear and concise way, and it is felt that this information will, as stated in the text, 'provide for a more intelligent understanding of the subject'. All necessary practical information on the satellite systems such as orbits and messages in coded form (the TBUS of the USA and FAN AS of the USSR) can be found in this part of Volume l.

As far as the textual part of the publication is concerned, the second part contains the main substance. It deals in some detail with characteristic features of different cloud types as revealed in both visual and infra-red imagery. Some of the more common patterns and their relation to the synoptic situation are discussed. Cloud systems associated with the development of various extra­tropical weather systems are also touched upon. That leads to the section on weather systems in the tropics.

The third part, which makes up Volume 2, is by far the largest part of the publication, and probably the most valuable. Highly enlightening scenes of different cloud situations depict most effectively the points brought out in the foregoing text. However, Volume 2 can stand by itself as a valuable aid to the forecaster because all the situations shown are accompanied by a note explaining most of the interesting features. In addition there is a surface weather chart with each example (and in some cases also a 500-hPa contour and thickness chart).

The loose-leaf system makes for easy use because one can pick out just those images which are relevant to the actual situation, and the forecaster may even supplement the collection with images of his own.

With the digital transmission of original image data from satellites (for instance the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (A VHRR) data from NOAA spacecraft) it has become possible to manipulate the data in computers, and thereby extract yet more information. However, for many years forecasters in many parts of the world will still have to deal with ordinary APT imagery received by inexpensive equipment. For these practising forecasters- and for the training of new forecasters-this book should be an excellent practical guide for analysing and predicting the weather.

0. H. BREMNES

Energy Altematives in Latin America. Francisco SzEKELY (Editor). Dublin (Tycooly International Publishing Ltd.) 1983. xii + 180 pages; 29 tables, 6 figures. Price: US $40 or £26 (hard cover); US $20 or £13 (paperback).

This is Volume 9 in the series 'Natural Resources and the Environment' and deals with the fundamental problem of how to provide enough energy sources for millions of people in Latin America so as to improve substantially their quality of life. The book limits itself to an assessment of the region 's potential for using the following renewable sources of energy: Direct solar radiation, wind, plant material, biogas and hydropower. Most of the information is based on a series of surveys carried out during 1979 in nine Latin American countries by a joint team of UNDP and UNEP experts, but also includes findings of the Latin American Energy Association (OLADE). The selected countries were: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru, Trinidad and Tobago.

Following an introduction to the problem, we are given a true picture, based on ECLA statistics, of the uneven distribution of income in Latin America and the inadaptability of the economic structure to change. Despite the fact that six of the countries are self-sufficient in fuels, oil consumption is fairly low, reflecting the relatively small participation of Latin America in the world's income. Other energy resources besides oil, such as hydropower, natural gas and coal-all

84

abundant on the continent-are a lso used to a small degree. Biomass accounts for a significant proportion of the energy used, but unfortunately indiscriminate exploitation has destroyed vast areas of a highly valuable ecological and energy source, namely the forests. Also interesting is the analysis which follows of the industrial capacity and human resources available in Latin America to produce devices to harness renewable sources of energy. Marketing and institutional aspects are also discussed. Case studies in several of the visited countries are presented, of which perhaps the most striking is the national alcohol programme of Brazil which demonstrates the economic and technical feasibility of extracting alcohol from sugar cane and using it as an alternative to petroleum by-products.

The book is intended for a broad spectrum of specialists, decision-makers and planners. It is also very useful for meterorologists working on energy problems in the Latin American countries. It fits naturally within the scope of the WMO plan of action in the field of energy problems and the World Climate Programme. It is most desirable to have a similar study for the other countries in the region.

I. GALI NDO

The Design of Air Quality Monitoring Networks. By R. E. M UNN. London (Macmillan Publishers Ltd) 1981. xiii + 109 pages ; numerous figures and tables. Price: £20.-.

This book is the second in the series ' Air Pollution Problems' edited by D. J. Moore (the first was Urban Air Pollution Modelling by M. M. Benarie). There are five substantive chapters:

17Je objectives of air quality monitoring programmes-both in urban or industrial districts as well as in rural or remote areas. This introduction is essential since the structure of a network is closely dependent on its objectives.

Time and space variability in air quality. The author emphasizes the fact that air quality measurements are correlated both in space and time, which complicates the problem of designing the optimum network. Conventional statistical tests, which presuppose the existence of independent random data, cannot strictly be used.

Siting criteria for a single station-taking into account the station's purpose and micrometeoro­logical environment. The criteria for baseline or regional BAPMoN stations are specifically covered in this chapter in some detail.

Methods available for network design. This chapter is the most substantial , covering ways of objec­ti vely defining a network. Two general approaches are discussed, to wit: statistical methods (use of correlation and structure functions , rank-ordering, principal components, and so forth), and diffusion models (point and multiple source).

Some practical guidelines on network design in urban and rural areas. Here some recommendations a re given as to network density and specific problems related to certain pollutants such as C02, S02, particulates, photochemical pollutants and precursors.

Generally speaking, almost all the aspects of the subject are touched upon, but their devel­opment is too concise to be used directly. Nevertheless, the text sets out the problems well and usually refers the reader to relevant sources for further study (there are 122 references in the bibli­ography, including a considerable number to USSR sources, which is rare in western scientific literature).

It would have been useful to have made a critical study of the operational methods described; in other words to discuss not only the possibilities but also the limitations of each one. Meteorologists wi ll regret that no mention is made of the indispensable meteorological infor­mation needed to interpret measurements and eventually forecast pollution levels (in particular, the vertical structure of both pollutant concentrations and meteorological parameters).

Nevertheless this work should be of great use to engineers responsible for a ir quality monitoring, whether they a re installing new networks or improving the costfbenefit ratio of existing ones.

P. BESSEMOULI N

New books received

The Origin and Evolution of Planetwy Atmospheres. By A. HENDERSON-SELLERS. Bristol (Adam Hilger Ltd) 1983. xv i + 236 pages ; figures and tables. Price: £ 19.50.

85

86

MEMBERS OF THE WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION* STATES (152)

Afghan istan Albania Algeria Angola Argentina Australia Austria Bahamas Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belgium Belize Ben in Bolivia Botswana Brazil Bulgaria Burma Burundi Byelorussian S.S.R. Canada Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Chile China Colombia Comoros Congo Costa Rica Cuba Cyprus Czechoslovakia Democratic Kampuchea Democratic People's

Republic of Korea Democratic Yemen Denmark Djibouti Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Ethiopia Fiji Finland France Gabon Gambia, the German Democratic Rep.

British Caribbean Territories French Polynesia Hong Kong

Germany, Fed. Rep. of Ghana Greece Guatemala Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Iran, Islamic Rep. of Iraq Ireland Israel Italy Ivory Coast Jamaica Japan Jordan Kenya Kuwait Lao People's Dem. Rep. Lebanon Lesotho Liberia Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Luxembourg Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Mal dives Mali Malta Mauritania Mauritius Mexico Mongolia Morocco Mozambique Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Norway Oman Pakistan Panama

TERRITORIES (5)

Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Qatar Republic of Korea Romania Rwanda Saint Lucia Sao Tome and Principe Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Somalia South Africa t Spain Sri Lanka Sudan Suriname Swaziland Sweden Switzerland Syrian Arab Republic Thailand To go Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Uganda Ukrainian S.S.R. Union of Soviet Socialist

Republics Uni ted Kingdom of Great

Britain and Northern Ireland

United Rep. of Cameroon United Rep. of Tanzania United States of America Upper Volta Uruguay Vanuatu Venezuela VietNam Yemen Yugoslavia Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe

Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia

t Suspended by Resolution 38 (Cg- VII) from exercising its rights and enjoying its privi­leges as a Member of WMO.

*On I November 1983.

Radar Observation of Clear Air and Clouds. By E. E. GOSSARD and R. G . STRAUCH. Amsterdam and New York (Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co.) 1983. xii + 280 pages ; numerous figures. Price: Dfl. 150.- or US $63 .75.

Future Weather - Carbon dioxide, climate and ·the greenhouse effect. By 1. GRIBBIN. London (Penguin Books Ltd) 1983. xv + 272 pages ; figures and tables. Price: £3.50.

Weather in your Life. By Louis J. BA TT AN. OJ:[ford, San Francisco (W. H. Freeman and Company Limited) 1983. vii + 230 pages ; numerous figures. Price: £17.95 (hard cover) or £8.95 (paperback).

Satellite Microwave Remote Sensing. T. D. ALLAN (Editor). Chichester (John Wiley & Sons Ltd) 1983. 526 pages; numer01,1s figures and tables. Price : £45.-.

Acid Deposition (Proceedings of a workshop in Berlin, September 1982). S. BEILKE and A. 1. ELSHOUT (Editors). Dordrecht (D. Reidel Publishing Company) 1983. x + 235 pages ; numerous figures and tables. Price : Dfl 75.- or US $32.50.

World Climate Change: The role of international law and institutions. Ved P. NANDA (Editor). Boulder, USA (Westview Press Inc.) 1983. x + 264 pages. Price: US $26.- .

Atmospheric Diffusion. (Third edition). By F. PASQUILL and F. B. SMITH. Chichester (John Wiley & Sons Ltd) 1983. 437 pages; numerous figures and tables. Price: £35.- .

Variations in the Global Water Budget. A. STREET-PERROTT, M. BERAN and R. RATCLIFFE (Editors). Dordrecht (D. Reidel Publishing Company) 1983. xiv + 518 pages; figures and tables. Price: Dfl 160.- or US $69.50.

Climate and Energy Systems: A review of their interactions. By Jill Ji\GER. Chichester (John Wiley & Sons Ltd) 1983 . ix + 231 pages; figures and tables. Price: £19.95.

Sunsets, Twilights, and Evening Skies. By Aden and Marjorie MEINEL. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press) 1983. x + 163 pages ; figures, plates. Price: £17.50 or US $29.95.

SELECTED LIST OF WMO PUBLICATIONS

WMONo.

Operational manuals

197 - Manual on meteorological observing in transport aircraft. E. 306 - Manual on codes.

Volume I -International meteorological codes. 1974 edition. F-R-S. (with cover)

Volume 11 -Regional codes and national coding practices. 1982 edition. E- F. (with cover) (without cover)

386 - Manual on the Global Telecommunication System.

414 -446-485 -

Volume I -Global aspects. 1974 edition. E - F-R-S. Volume 11 -Regional aspects. 1975 edi tion. E- F-R-S. North Atlantic Ocean Stations vessel manual. E- F- R. Handbook on wave analysis and forecasting. E- F - S. Manual on the Global Data-processing System. Volume I -Global aspects. E- F-R-S. Volume 11 -Regional aspects. E- F-R-S.

}

491 - International operations handbook for measurement of background atmospheric pollution. E - F- S.

544 - Manual on the Global Observing System. 1981 edition. E - F-R-S.

* E = English, F = French, R = Russian, S = Spanish.

Sw. fr.

4.-

35.-

50.-40.-

110.-

30.-37.-

25.-7.-

30.-20.-

Note: Etcep t fo r publications indicated as being multilingual, 1he dijferem language rersions are published separately and the price srated refers 10 the l'ersion in one language only.

87

WMONo.

Atlases

Climatic atlas of Europe. '{olume I : Maps of mean temperature and precipitation. Quadrilingual (E/F/R/S). *

Climatic atlas of South America. Volume I: Maps of mean temperature and precipita­tion. Quadrilingual (E/F/PortuguesejS).

Climatic atlas of North and Central America. Volume I : Maps of mean temperature and precipitation. Trilingual (E/F/S). (Atlases published by WMO/UnescojCartographia.)

Manual on the observation of clouds and other meteors. International cloud atlas -Vol. I (revised edition). F.

International cloud atlas- abridged edition. E. International cloud atlas- abridged edition (reprint 1976). F.

· International cloud album for observers in aircraft. E - F. Cloud sheet.

Technical Regulations

WMO No.

49 - Technical Regulations. E - F- R - S. Volume I - General. (1983 edition in preparation) Volume 11 - Meteorological service for international air navigation. 1976

Sw.fr.

150.-

175.-

150.-

62.-36.-36.-9.-5.-

edition. 30.-Volume Ill - Hydrology. 1979 edition. 12.-Cover for the three volumes. 8.-

555 - Technical Regulations. (Hydrology and international hydrological codes). E. 20.-558 - Manual on marine meteorological services. E- F- R- S. 20.-

Guides

8 - Guide to meteorological instrument and observing practices. 1983 edition. E. 134 - Guide to agricultural meteorological practices. 1981 edition. E - F- S. 168 - Guide to hydrological practices. 1981 edition.

Volume I - Data acquisition and processing. E. Volume 11 - (In preparation)

305 - Guide on the Global Data-processing System. 1982 edition. E. 468 - Guide on the automation of meteorological telecommunication centres. E. 471 - Guide to marine meteorological services. E. 488 - Guide on the Global Observing System. E - F- R - S.

Recent Operational Hydrology Reports (In English)

461 - Casebook of examples of organization and operation of hydrological services.

38.-25.-

33.-

21.-15.-26.-42.-

No. 9. 22.-476 - Hydrological application of atmospheric vapour-flux analyses. No. 11. 10.-513 - Applications of remote sensing to hydrology. No. 12. 10.-519 - Manual on stream gauging. No. 13. E.

Volume I - Fieldwork Volume 11 - Computation of discharge both volumes 52.-

559 - Hydrological data transmission. By A. F. FLANDERS. No. 14. 5.-560 .,. Selection of distribution types for extremes of precipitation. No. 15. 6.-561 - Measurement of river sediments. No. 16. 7.-576 - Case studies of national hydrological data banks. No. 17. 10.-577 - Flashjloodforecasting. By A. 1. HALL No. 18. 6.-580 - Concepts and techniques in hydrological network design. By M. E. Moss. No. 19. 6.-587 - Long-range water-supply forecasting. By M. DYAR-NIELSEN. No. 20. 6.-589 - Methods of correction for systematic error in point precipitation measurement for

operational use. No. 21. 10.-

Reports on Marine Science Affairs

472 - T11e influence of ocean on climate. No. 11. E. I 0.-499 - Meteorological aspects of the contributions presented at the Joint Oceanographic

Assembly. No. 12. E- F. 10.-500 - Present techniques of tropical storm surge prediction. No. 13. E. 20.-548 - Satellite data requirements for marine meteorological services. No. 14. E. 17.-595 - T11e preparation and use of weather maps by mariners. No. 15. E. 11.-

88

WMONo.

Weather reporting : stations, data processing and transmissions

9 - WeaTher reporTing Volume A- Observing sTaTions. Bilingual (E/ F). (Explanatory texts E/ F/ R/S).

Revised edition issued twice yearly: Annual subscription: surface mail airmail

Cover Volume B- DaTa processing. Quadrilingual (E/ F/ R/S).

Annual subscription for supplement service : surface mail airmail

Volume C- Transmissions. Bilingual (E/F). (Regulatory material E/F/R/S). Annual subscription for supplement service (complete volume):

surface mail airmail

CaTalogue of meTeorological bulleTins. (Reprint from Chapter I) (E/ F). Revised edition issued twice yearly. Annual subscription: surface mail

airmail Volume D - InformaTion for shipping. Bilingual (E/F). (Regulatory material

E/F/R/S). Coastal radio stations accepting ships ' weaTher reports. (Reprint from Volume D, Part B.) Bilingual (E/F). Meteorological facsimile broadcasts. (Reprint from Volume D, Part A;;.) Bilingual (EfF). Annual subscriptions for supplement service : Complete volume :

surface mail airmail

Part B only surface mail airmail

Part A;; only surface mail airmail

Orders for WMO publications should be addressed directly to: World Meteorological Organization, Publications Sales Unit, Case postale 5, CH-1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland.

Residents in the United States of America should place their order with: UNIPUB Inc. WMO Publications Center, P.O.Box 433, New York, NY 10016, USA

Sw. fr.

115.-140.-

12.-60.-27.-37.-

125.-

120.-160.-

75.-95.-

150.-

15.-

15.-

80.-120.-20.-30.-20.-30.-

Readers are reminded that if they have difficulty in purchasing WMO publications due to exchange control regulations, in many countries they may make use of Unesco Coupons for this purpose. The procedure is described in the WMO Bulletin 27 (I) p. 64 (January 1978).

Publications of general interest

410 - WMO- The achievement and the challenge. F- S. 463 - Weather and water. E- F- S. 543 - Man and climatic variability. E- F- S.

The Global Weather Experiment, 1978-1979. E. 616 - First WMO Long-term Plan: Overall policy and strategy (1984-1993). E.

WMO Bulletin (The quarterly official journal on the work of WMO and recent devel­opments in international meteorology.) E- F-R-S. Annual subscription - I year: Sw. fr. 44.- ; 2 years: Sw. fr. 71.- ; 3 years : Sw. fr. 100.- . (30% supplement for dispatch by airmail.) Some back numbers of the Bulletin are available.

6.-5.-3.-4.-

89

WMONo.

General reference publications

2 - Meteorological Services of the World. 1982 edition. Bilingual (E/ F). 5 - Composition of the WMO. Bilingual (E/ F).

Note : Th is publication is issued four times a year. Subscription ra tes for I year: 60.- : for 2 years: 110.- ; and 3 years: 150.-. By airmail 70.-, 130.- and 180.- respectively.

47 - International list of selected, supplementmy and auxilimy ships. Bilingual (E/ F). 117 - Climatological normals (CLI NO)for CLIMAT and CLIMAT SHIP stations for the period

1931-1960 (E/F). 170 - Short-period averages for 1951-1960 and provisional averages values for CLIM AT

TEMP and CLIMAT TEMP SHIP stations. Bilingual (E/F). 174 - Catalogue of meteorological data for research (Part I) E.

(Part 11) Bilingual (EJF). (Part Ill) E. (Part IV) E.

232 - Instrument development inquily. 2nd edition, 1976. E. 259 - WMO sea-ice nomenclature. Quadrilingual (E/FJRJS). 276 - Selected bibliography on urban climate. Original titles with English translation.

Recent technical notes

473 - The use of satellite image1y in tropical cyclone analysis. No. !53. E. 478 - Scientific planning and organization of precipitation enhancement experiments,

with particular attention to agricultural needs. No. !54. E. 482 - Forecasting techniques of clear air turbulence including that associated with moun­

tain waves. No. 155. E. 487 - Techniques of .frost prediction and methods of .frost and cold protection.

No. 157. E. 495 - Handbook of meteorological forecasting for soaring flight. No. !58. E - F. 497 - Weather and parasitic animal disease. No. !59. E. 498 - Soya bean and weather. No. 160. E. 507 - The application of atmospheric electricity concepts and methods to other parts of

meteorology. No. 162. E. 526 - The economic value of agrometeorological information and advice. No. 164. E. 530 - The planetmy boundary lay er. No. 165. E. 532 - Meteorological factors affecting the epidemiology of the cotton leaf worm and the

pink bollworm. No. 167. E. 539 - Review of urban climatology 1973-1976. No. 169. E. 550 - Meteorological and hydrological aspects of siting and operation of nuclear power

plants. No. 170. E. Volume I - (in preparation). Volume 11 - Hydrological aspects

557 - Meteorological aspects of the utilization of solar radiation as an energy source. No. 172. E. (includes world maps of relative global radiation as separate annex)

566 - The effect of meteorological factors on crop yields and methods of forecasting the y ields. No. 174. E.

575 - Meteorological aspects of the utilization of wind as an energy source. No. 175. E. 581 - Review of atmospheric diffusion models for regula tO/)' applications. No. 177. E. 583 - Tropospheric chemislly and air pollution. No. 176. E. 597 - A study of the agroclimatology of the humid tropics of South-East Asia. No. 179.

E.

Scientific and technical publications (In English unless stated otherwise)

480 - Papers presented at the WMO Technical Conference on Instruments and Methods of Observation (Hamburg, July 1977).

481 - Agrometeorology of the maize (corn) crop. WMO Symposium (Ames, July 1976). 510 - Papers presented at the WMO Symposium on Boundmy Layer Physics applied to

Specific Problems of Air Pollution (Norrkoping, June 1978). 511 - Papers presented at the WMO Sy mposium on the Geophysical Aspects and Conse­

quences of Changes in the Composition of the Stratosphere (Toronto, June 1978). 527 - Proceedings of the Symposium on Forest Meteorology (Ottawa, August 1972). 537 - Proceedings of the World Climate Conference (Geneva, February 1979).

90

Sw . .fr.

24.-17.-

33.-

30.-

36.-30.-20.-50.-17.-15.-50.-35.-

25.-

10.-

10.-

35.-18.-30.-20.-

20.-10.-20.-

10.-10.-

25.-

45.-

7.-36.-

7.-14.-

40.-

40.-55.-

35.-

30.-10.-40.-

WMONo.

568 - Scientific lectures presented at the Eighth World Meteorological Congress, Geneva, May 1979. E. or F.

596 - Proceedings of the Technical Conference on Climate - Africa (Arusha, January 1982). EjF.

603 - Long-range transport of sulphur in the atmosphere and acid rain. (Lectures pre­sented at the thirty-third session of the WMO Executive Committee). E.

610 - The results of the Global Weather Experiment. (Lectures presented at the thirty­fourth session of the WMO Executive Committee). E.

Training manuals

240 - Compendium of meteorological trainingfacilities. 1982 edition. E. 258 - Guidelines for the education and training of personnel in meteorology and oper­

ational hydrology. 1977 edition. E- F. 327 - Compendium of lecture notes in climatology for Class I V meteorological personnel.

E-S. 364 - Compendium of meteorology for use by Class I and Class I I meteorological

personnel. Volume I : Part I - Dynamic meteorology. E- S.

Part 2 - Physical meteorology. E - S. Volume 11: Part I - General hydrology. E.

Part 2 - Aeronautical meteorology. E. Part 3 - Marine meteorology. F.

382 - Compendium of lecture notes for training personnel in the application of meteoro­logy to economic and social development. E- F- S.

432 - Proceedings of the WMOjiAMAP Symposium on Education and Training in Meteorology and Meteorological Aspects of Environmental Problems. E.

434 - Compendium of lecture notes in marine meteorology for Class I I I and Class I V personnel. E - F- S.

489 - Compendium of training facilities in environmental problems related to meteoro­logy and operational hydrology. E.

492 - Lectures on forecasting of tropical weather, including tropical cyclones with particu­lar relevance to Africa. E.

.493 - Proceedings of the meeting on education and training in meteorological aspects of atmospheric pollution and related environmental problems. E.

551 - Lecture notes f01· training Class II and Class II I agricultural meteorological per­sonnel. E.

!MO Lectures

309 - Radiation processes in the atmosphere. By K. Ya. KONDRA TYEv . E. 523 - Atmospheric boundQ/y layer. By R. W. STEW ART. E. 542 - Climatic changes and their effects on the biosphere. By B. BouN. E.

Special Environmental Reports

440 - Determination of the atmospheric contribution of petroleum hydrocarbons to the oceans. No. 6. E.

448 - Weather, climate and human settlements. No. 7. E. 455 - 77Je quantitative evaluation of the risk of disaster from tropical cyclones. No. 8.

E- F- S. 459 - An evaluation of climate and water resources for development of agriculture in the

Sudano-Sahelian zone of West Africa. No. 9. E- F. 460 - Air pollution measurement techniques. No. I 0. E. 496 - Systems for evaluating and predicting the effects of weather and climate on wild­

land fires. No. 11. E. 504 - Implem entation _planfor the determination of the atmospheric contribution of pet­

roleum hydrocarbons to the oceans. No. 12. E. 517 - Meteorology and the human environment. No. 13. E. 549 - Papers presented at the WMO Technical Conference on regional and global obser­

vation of atmospheric pollution relative to climate. No. 14. E. 563 - Proceedings of the Symposium on the development of multi-media monitoring of

environmental pollution (Riga. 12-15 December 1978). No. 15. E.

Sw.fr.

11.-

35.-

8.-

13.-

·50.-

20.-

20.-

35.-25 .-10.-14.-11 .-

25.-

50.-

25.-

22.-

42.-

40.-

18.-

50.-20.-30.-

16.-12.-

50.-

40.-35.-

10.-

10.-6.-

31.-

45.-

91

151

ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH PAPERS , REVIEW A RTIClES AND PRELIMINARY COMMUNICATIONS

AIR POLLUTION

ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY

INDUSTRIAL AERODYNAMICS

M/CROMETEOROLOGY

AEROSOLS

Odord llewhrk Toronto Sydner P1ris Fnnkfurt

One of the oldest established journals in the field, Atmospheric Environment publishes papers on all aspects of Man's interactions with his atmospheric environment, including the administrative, economic and political aspects of these interactions. Air pollution research and its applications are covered, taking into account changes in the atmospheric flow patterns, temperature distributions and chemical constitution caused by natural and artificial variations in the earth's surface.

Atmospheric Environment has one of the largest circulations of scholarly journals of this kind, and its high reputation is reflected in the frequency of references to it. Recently it extended its scope to include the publication of book reviews and a bibliography.

The editors welcome the submission of papers, notes and reports of meetings for publication . Papers should describe original work and be of general interest. Contributions should be submitted to one of the Editors.

Subscription Information No price increase for 1984 Published monthly Annual subscription (1984) Two-yea r rate (1984/85)

US$450.00 US$855.00

FREE SPECIMEN COPIES AVAILABLE ON REQUEST Advertising rate card ava ilable on request. Back issues and current subscriptions are also available in microform. Prices are subject to change without notice. Journal prices include postage and insurance. Sterling prices are available to UK and Eire customers on request.

ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT Air Pollution* Industrial Aerodynamics* Micrometeorology *Aerosols* Atmospheric Chemistry Editors : DJ MOORE, Central Electricity Research Laboratory, Leatherhead, Surrey KT22 7SE, UK, J P LODGE Jr, 385 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80303, USA, W KLUG, Technische Hochschule, Darmstadt, FRG, M BENARIE, lnstitut Nationale de Recherche Chimique Appliquee, BP No 1, 91719 Vert-le-Petit, France, H HARRISON, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA

A selection of papers Trace element concentrations in erodible soils, L SCHUTZ & K A RAHN . Should we trust models or observations? H W ELLSAESSER. Horizontal diffusion in the atmosphere: a Lagrangian-dynamical theory, FA GIFFORD. The potential for secondary pollutant formation in the atmospheric boundary layer in a high pressure situation over England, R G DERWENT & 0 HOV. Review: atmospheric deposition and plant assimilation of gases and particles, RP HOSKER Jr & SE LINGBERG. Aircraft cabin air ozone contamination and compliance with regulations, J F LEACH et al. Relationships involving particle mass and sulfur content at sites in and around St Louis, Missouri, A PAL TSHULLER. Exotic tracers for atmospheric studies, J E LOVE LOCK & G J FERBER. A re-examination of lateral dispersion from continuous sources, P PHILLIPS & HA PANOFSKY. A note on the use of asymptotic similarity theory in neutral atmospheric boundary layers, D M DEAVES & RI HARRIS. Extreme value statistics related to performance of a standard air quality simulation model using data at seven power plants sites, D B TURNER & J S IRWIN.

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(415) 843-1282 Twx 910-366-2035 SM BERK

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THE HARVEST­SAVING ROCKET

IIALAZAN'' Rocl<ets

offer the most advanced technique of preventing hail and retaining full harvest . . .

while the MRP-5 Met Radar will unfailingly warn you that hail, a cyclone or typhoon is coming , and compute the number of rockets required to combat the hail hazard .

AUTOMATIC WORLD-WIDE RECEPTION OF WEATHER SATELLITE FACSIMILE TRANSMISSIONS

with ALDEN Satellite Ground Receiving Systems

ALDEN COLORGRAPHICS SYSTEM

Model C1000 The ALDEN Colorgraphics System, Model CIOOO, is confi­gured for the enhancement, contouring and display of weather graphics and weather satellite pictures, utiliz ing the ALDEN Weather Graphics Recorder, ALDEN Colorgra­phics Processor, ALDEN Satellite Picture Enhancement and Contouring System (SPECS), and the ALDEN 19" Colorgraphics Video Monitor. The ALDEN Colorgraphics System is designed to display from sources such as the GOES, GMS, METEOSAT, TIROS and Soviet satellites. The ALDEN Colorgraphics System provides the user with a hard copy display of the received product as well as a calor soft display, whi le per­mitting the assigning of a calor or calor intensity to any amplitude level of the received satellite picture data. The desired enhancement curve is programmed into the system by utilizing a graph tablet provided with the system. The Colorgraphics System can be added to any ALDEN weather satellite receiving station.

ALDEN APTS-3C Orbiting Weather Satellite Ground Receiving Station

ALDEN 1100 WEFAX Ground Receiving System

The ALDEN APTS-3C Satellite Ground Receiving Station is designed as a dedicated system for com­pletely automatic reception of all VHF transmiss ions from orbiting weather satellites through the use of an omni-directional antenna. The signal inputs are digitally processed to an 11-inch wide format utilizing the ALDEN Universal Weather Satellite Recorder, Model 9511S. This recorder may also be used to receive HF radio facsimile weather chart broadcasts.

APT fWEF AX Receiving and Recording Equipment

The ALDEN 1100 WEFAX Ground Receiving System is a dedicated system for the reception of WEFAX transmissions from GOES, METEOSAT and GMS (LR-FAX) geostationary meteorological satellites. Simple and reliable, the system permits unattended

.·operation and provides continuous, clearly detailed JO Y, -inch square satellite pictures in the WEFAX mode.

Computer-based HRPT Receiving and Processing Equipment.

ALDEN INTERNATIONAL, Inc. 117 NORTH MAIN STREET

BROCKTON, MASSACHUSETIS 02403, U.S.A. CABLE ADDRESS: ALDENSA TELEX: 92- 4451

22

ALDEN WEATHER FACSIMILE SYSTEMS TO MEET ALL USER NEEDS

ALDEN Continuous Use, Heavy-duty Flat Copy Scanners

For automated networks or wherever continuous trans­missions are required.

The ALDEN 1800 Universa l Weather Graphic Scanner, Mode l 9600, operates at60, 90, 120, 180 and 240 scans/

minute with paper advance rates of 48 and 96 lines/inch (IOC 288 a nd 576).

Benefits and Features

• Solid-Stale Scanning Array el iminates rotating

discs, drums and mirrors.

• Continuous flat copy transmission-No de lay between maps.

• Accepts copy up to 54 inches (137 cm) wide by un­

limited length and up to ¥,, inch (5 mm) thick.

• Hand les the complete range of chart data.

• Optiona l Mode and Messag~ Selection System

(MOMSS) for complete schedu ling flexibi lity and

automatic network operation.

The ALDEN digital scanner, Model 9600 D, is also

avai lab le. When used in association with the ALDEN

1800 Digita l Recorder, the digital scanner provides

the ultimate in digita l weather map network opera­

lion. Charts can be l ransmiued at 720 or 960 scans/

minute in a completely digita l format. Off-t he-shelf

digita l reconstructors and compressors are available

for interfacing with the scanner and the recorder.

NEW - M icroprocessor-based Weather Graphic Recorder

The new ALDEN Weather Graphic Recorder, Model 9800, is microprocessor-based and features real-time digital pro­

cessing. This recorder is designed for automatic operation at speeds of 60, 90, 120, 180, and 240 scansfminule and includes indices of cooperation of 576 (96 linesjinch) and 288 (48 lines/ inch) to meet WMO requirements.

Unique ly, the Model 9800 Recorder processes and displays a ll analog weather graphic signa ls, ipcluding all weather charts and with the opt ion for WEFAX and orbiting satellite trans­missions from U.S. and Soviet sate llites. Thirty-two switch selectable en hancement curves are included. A computer port for interface wit h customer-prov ided video graphics processor is sta ndard. Options include a built-in TV interface for TV dis­play of all gratJhics received by the recorder. The ALDEN SPECS (Sate llite Pictu re Enhancement & Contouring System) is available as a plug-in option.

For high-speed weather chart transm ission, ALDEN provides the digital sca nners. recorders, encoders and decoders neces­sa ry for these netwo rks.

ALDEN recorders can be provided with various printing widths for user and network requirements.

147

RANGE LIMIT Continuous information on the measuring range limit.

TRANSCEWER FAILURE Will light up if a fault should occur in the transceiver unit. The display will also ·show a flashing fault code.

CLOUDBASEI Lowest cloud height. Dis­played in feet or metres.

TRANSMITTER POWER Indicates when the laser output power is too low.

CLOUDBASEII Second cloud height. Dis-played in feet or metres.

CONTROL UNIT FAILURE Indicates when a fault has occurred in the control unit. The display will also show a flashing fault code.

VERTICAL VISIBILfTY If no definite cloudbase is detected, the vertical visibility will be displayed here (below SOD m).

TRANSMITTER SWITCH For swiching the transmitter laser on and off. When the switch is on, information on the measured height and measuring cycle time will be

to the transceiver unit.

TEST For testing all indicating lamps.

INTENSfTY For adjusting the light inten­sity of the displays and indicat­ing/amps.

CONTROL UNIT SWITCH For switching the control

on and off.

ASEA TRACTION S-72183 Viistercb, Sweden.

For single or combined satellite data reception, processing, recording and distribution we deliver . . .

e Ground stations for HRPT-Service containing realtime processing as -contrast enhancement - pseudocolouring - image enlargement -correction of earth curvature - stereographic projection -overlay of coastlines and gridding -movie-loops, etc.

e Ground stations for APT- and WEFAX-Service, microprocessor controlled , completely prepro­grammable, performing -image enhancement - automatic overlay of longitude and I attitude

gridding in realtime

e METEOSAT, GOES and GMS Data Collection Platforms for mobile and land-based applications with universal sensor interface.

Programs. Products. Perspectives.

iiDDRNIER For further information please write or phone

Dornier System GmbH, P.O.B. 1360 D-7990 Friedrichshafen 1, Phone 7545 / 81, Telex No. 734 209-0 Department VRK.

, I

NEW!

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FREE! l

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THE MOST COMPLETE WEATHER INSTRUMENTS CATALOG­EVER.

The new 1984-85 catalog from WeatherMeasure / Weathertronics is now available. This informative publication details a complete line of meteorological and hydrological instrumentation , made even more complete by the merging of two giants in the industry. Whatever you need, we have. Send for your FREE copy today.

SYSTEMS- WEATHER STATIONS- WIND- TEMPERATURE SOLAR RADIATION- HUMIDITY- PRECIPITATION

HYDROLOGY- EVAPORATION- PRESSURE- UPPER AIR AIRPORT SYSTEMS- SHELTER I TOWERS I MISC.

Weather Measure -= WEATHERtronics

Oi1;ision of QU;\L/ tVf f~·miCS, In c.

P.O . Bo x 41039 I Sacram ent o , Cali fo rni a 958 41 I 916 481- 75 65

Telex : 377-310

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IMPROVED

RAWINSONDE TRACK~NG

STATION

1 ~. ~.~ -~-~ r .. ,. 7 • ~ "' . . . . . . . . . .......

D ; ; · r ~ .~ • rE !"';.- ' ..

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This newly developed system is completely automatic, from tracking to data reduction. lt provides greater tracking accuracy and speed, improved operating reliability, and lighter weight for portability. For complete details on this and other tracking systems, contact us.

G rT1eisei Electric: Co.

5-7 Koishikawa 2-chome, Bunkyo-ku Tokyo, 112 Japan

Phone: Tokyo 814-5111 Telex: 2722152

WEATHERtronics P.O. Box 41039

Sacramenta, California 95841 Phone (916) 481-7560

Telex : 377-395

37

For upper-air soundings throughout the world

THE Ol-GIP HYDROGEN GENERATOR Appreciated for its qualities: Simplicity - Safety- Economy

A self-contained, fully automatic electrolyser which produces from 250 to 1000 litres per hour of pure hydrogen at a minimum cost.

With the choice of storage containers offered in the various versions, from 3 to 24 m3 of usable hydrogen is available at a pressure which can be adjusted from 0 to 15 atmospheres.

For further information and quotations, write to:

OL - L'OXYGENE LIQUIDE GIP - Depart. GAZ INDUSTRIELS DE PROVINCE

Factory at SAINT-ETIENNE (42000) Rue Scheurer-Kestner (FRANCE) Tel.: (77) 74 63 33 Telex: 300 736

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OUTPUT

ADAS UNIVERSAL AUTOMATIC

METEOROLOGICAL DATA ACQUISITION

ADAS .. =-.Jhe Heart of the Systems

TETHERSDNDE® and AIRSONDE® Systems That Use ADAS

The TS-3A TETHERSONOE system measures pressure. temperature. wind velocity and either wet-bulb temperature or relative humidity directly. The AS-3A AIRSONOE systems measure pressure temperature . and either wet-bulb temperature or relative humidity directly. Relative humidity is measured using a carbon hygristor. AS-3A systems also measure wind velocity when used with a theodolite.

With its powertul microcomputer and five 1/0 ports. ADAS can compute and output up to 60 meteorological variables.

AOAS. with its 400-4 f 0 MHz receiver installed. serves as an automatic ground station for both TS-3A TETHERSONOE and AS-3A AIRSONOE systems. 11 can also accept and process data from a 1680 MHz radio-theodolite receiver. When ADAS is used wilh an AIRSONDE system and the sonde is tracked by a theodolite equippeil with shaft encoders. it calculates wind velocity automatically.

Significant and mandatory level da!J can be calculated in real time and coded into upper-air messages automatically.

THEODOLITES

irn:lude: i c isselle recorder. a ·~od'iil; ·-=--- .. ~:::::::"'" - . - -~'m'i,_.,_. Shift encoders mounted on a theodolite

sen-lhe-atavation-and-azimulll-dall to AOAS. When an AIRSONDE on a free balloon is tracked by a theodolite equipped with shaft encoders. AOAS computes wind speed and direction as functions of height. Most Warren­Knight optical theodolites. GM0-1. W8RT. and RO -65 radio-theodolites can be filled with AJ.R .. Inc. shaft encoders.

HP-97 printing calculator. and a line printer. ADAS can also transfer data to other equipment through the IEEE-488 (H P-18). RS-232C. and 20 ma current

looplormat4

Represented by:

AMBIENT ANALYSIS. INC. 729 WALNUT ST.. SUITE C BOULDER. COLORADO 80302 USA (303) 44Z-5305 TWX 9t0-940-5904 AIRBLOR 138

11111 ATMOSPHERIC

INSTRUMENTATION ~ ~ RESEARCH, INC. •

Boulder, Colorado

Automatic Precipitation Collector The development of the collector is a result of meteorologists many years of experience in the field defined by the OECD-Programme and is qualified for collecting wet depo­sition (rain and snow).

Special characteristics of ARS 721 (Standard version):

l sampling bottle ( 10 l) Rugged glass fibre polyester construc­tion with 200 mm insulation lid with seal to prevent contamination and evapo­ration during dry periods. Stainless steel funnel, diameter 250 mm incl. sieve. When the lid is opened it is completely turned down to prevent the collector from introducing aerodynamic inter­ference to the sampling process.

Optional

Electric heating with thermostat Batte­ries (24 VDC) for operating without mains power, recorder for beginning and end of deposition, polyethylene (PET) funnel

The rain sensor REF 7 4

with built-in heating unit for operation down to - 30°C, transforms the precipi­tation into electrical signals. The appro­priate control electronics A WE 79 opens the lid according to the setting of the number of drops and closes it a t the end of delay time. The rain sensor AQ is a low-cost con­struction, also with heating and fixed delay-on and of£

AQ

Erni + Co. Elektro-lndustrie CH-8306 Briittise llen (Zurich) Tel Ol/833 33 33

METEOROLOGICAL DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

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• Societa ltaliana Apparecchi Precisione S.p.A. VIA MASSARENTI 412/2-40100 BOLOGNA (IT ALIA) . ((; (051) 531168- TELEX 511197 CABLE : SlAP BOLOGNA

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139

5-FW-1 Series Water Level Recorder

Available with potentiometric output

35·1550/1551 Punched Tape Tide Level

Recorder

35·1558/1559 Punched Tape

Precipitation Recorder

5·780 Series Weighing Precipitation Gauge

Available with potentiometric output

A complete line of meteorological instruments Write for our catalog

BELFORT INSTRUMENT COMPANY 1600 South Clinton Street Baltimore, Maryland 21224 U.S.A. Telephone: (301) 342-2626 TWX: 710-234-0383 A subsidiary of TransTechnology Corporation

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE WMO BULLETIN

The second column gi res the filii title in English (though the abbreriation may derive from the French title) follo ll'ed b_r the initials of the parent or sponsoring bod_r (in brackets)

BAPMoN CA eM CA gM CAS CBS ccco CCI CHy CJLSS CIMO CMM COS PAR ECMWF ECOSOC ESA ESCAP FAO GDPS GEMS GOS GTS HOMS IAEA IAHS lAMAP lAP SO lATA ICAO ICES ICID ICSU IFAD IGOSS IGU IHP IIASA IMO IMO IOC ISO ITU IUGG JSC NAOS NMC OHP PEP RMC RTH SCAR SCOPE SCOR SCOSTEP TCP UN UNDP UNDRO UNEP Unesco VCP WCAP WCDP WCIP WCP WCRP WFC WHO WMC WMO www

Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network (WMO) Commission for Aeronautical Meteorology (WMO) Commission for Agricultural Meteorology (WMO) Commission for Atmospheric Sciences (WMO) Commission for Basic Systems (WMO) Committee on Climate Changes and the Ocean (SCORjiOC) Commission for Climatology (WMO) Commission for Hydrology (WMO) Permanent Inter-State Committee for Drought Contro l in the Sahel Commission for Instruments and Methods of Observation (WMO) Commission for Marine Meteorology (WMO) Committee for Space Research (ICSU) European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts Economic and Social Counci l (UN) European Space Agency Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations WWW Global Data-processing System (WMO) Global Environmental Monitoring System (UNEP) WWW Global Observing System (WMO) WWW Globa l Telecommunication System (WMO) Hydro logica l Operational Multipurpose Sub-programme (WMO) International Atomic Energy Agency

International Association of Hydrological Sciences (I UGG) International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics (IUGG) International Association of Physical Sciences o f the Ocean (lUG G) International Air Transport Association International Civi l Aviation Organization Internationa l Council for the Exploration of the Sea International Comm iss ion on Irrigation and Drainage International Council of Scientific Unions International Fund for Agricultural Development (UN) Integrated Global Ocean Services System (WMOjiOC) Internat ional Geographical Union (ICSU) International Hydrological Programme (U nesco) Internationa l Institute for Applied Systems Analysis Internat ional Maritime Organization

International Meteorological Organization (predecessor of WMO) Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (Unesco) International Organization for Standardization Internationa l Telecommunication Union International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (ICSU) Joint Scientific Committee (WMO/ICSU) North At lantic Ocean Stations National Meteorological Centre (WWW) Operational Hydrology Programme (WMO) Precipitat ion Enhancement Project (WMO) Regional Meteorologica l Centre (WWW) Regional Telecommunication Hub (WWW) Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (ICSU) Scientific Committee on Problems of the Enviro nment (ICSU) Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (ICSU) Specia l Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Physics (ICSU) Tropical Cyclone Programme (WMO)

United Nations United Nations Development Programme Office of the Un ited Nat ions Disaster Relief Co-ord inator United Nations Environment Programme Un ited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Voluntary Co-operation Programme (WMO) WCP World Climate Applications Programme (WMO) WCP World Climate Data Programme (WMO) WCP World Climate lmpact5tudies Programme (UNEt-j World Climate Programme (WMO)

WCP World Climate Research Programme (WMO/ICSU) World Food Counci l (UN) World Health Organization World Meteorological Centre (WWW) World Meteorological Organization World Weather Watch (WMO)