681乃 さとσngυage Teσとher》 READERS‐「01嶋7隕

Meredith Anne Stephens涯象≦tS換‡装ゃ機懸‡轟鰺tituttt of鶴 ocio… Fへ両s an銀

懲毯:cnces

ummins (2001) makes a distinction between Basic

Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS), which are

acquired b). all speakers in their L1, and Cognitive/ Aca-demic Language Proficiency (CALP), which refers to literacyskills required for academic language proficiency. This distinc-tion explains the discrepancy in skills of immigrant children inEnglish speaking countries who sometimes demonstrate surfacefluency in L2 English but have difficulties with academic writ-ing. ESL teachers who are familiar with this pattern may thus be

unprepared for a very different trend in Japan; many studentsdemonstrate comprehension of complex written texts but strug-gle to engage in daily conversation (see Takeda,2002). This is

arguably the washback effect of an examination systen-I, whichdemands a high level of reading comprehension but has no oralexarr.. This remarkable acl-rievement has been at a considerablecost to the examinees, because it frequently entails many hoursof homework and attendance at cram schools in order to learnthrough memorization rather than exposure.

Contrasting approaches to attaining Engiish literacv are

evidenced between L1 settirrgs, and L2 settings in ]apan. Irr

L1 settings educators are urged to prorride a strong base inoral language skilis as a prerequisite to English literacy (e.g.

Christie, 1984). In L2 settings in Japan u'ritten terts, rather thanoral language skills are principalll'used to inform the teachingof reading comprehension. The sftrdies reviewed below indicatethe considerable benefits, rvhlch accrue if an understanding ofprosody precedes the teaching of literacv. Cleariy L1 acquisi-tion of English cannot be replicated for lapanese L2 learners ofEnglish because of the ciifferent learning contexts and age ofexposure to English. However at least one aspect of L1 acquisi-

‐‐~‖脩囃■判‖

Keywordsreading comprehens on,plosody

otthography,pedagogy,exam ne「: ,T尽

lapanese students of EFL tyP

caly demonstrate super or readlng

comprehension to ora sk s tth sis

a refect on ofan exan nat on system

ぃヽ/eighted in favour of reading corn―

prehens on sh ls(see Garant,2000)

HoM/ever atta nlng reading compre―

hension sk s w thout an oralfounda―

Jon s burdensome c¢√試anabe,2002)

and typical y requires cons derable

men‐ or zat on Studies of nrstlanguage

acqu stion indicate the format ve role

of Prosody in developing reading

comprehens on(Fox,2010 NA/hJ ey

&Hansen,2006)Japanese EFLlearners、ハ/ould benent iom increased

e×posure to prosody ln orderto

developド eading comprehenslon r ore

emc enJy

外国語として英語を学習する日本人学生

は、通常、会話力よりも読解力が優れてい

る。読解力に重きを置いた入試の在り方が

反映されているからである。しかし、会話の

基礎力がない状態で、読解力を伸ばすのは、

学生の負担になり、通常、相当な丸暗記が必

要になる。第1言語と第2言 語の習得に関す

る研究では、読解力を伸ばす上での音素認

識と韻律の役害」が指摘されている。つまり、

このら、たつが読解学習の前提条件とみなさ

れているのである。第1言語学習者が頻繁に

音読を聞かされるのと同じく、日本の子ども

たちに、読解力をより効率的に向上させるの

に役立つよう、音読を頻繁に間かせるべき

である。

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tion should be adopted/that is/the principle of

eXPOSure to prosody before literacy/because of

prosody′ s role in clariヶ ing meaning in ways that

are not evident fl・om the、 vritten text alone.

The traditional approach:Acquiring L21iteracy through the study of writtentexts

English is sometimes a suttect Of10athing fOr

students in Japan and there is even a special

lvord for this:`igθ gir17, Thislnay be because of

the illlinense burden on the rl■ emOry of havingto process a large number of vocabulary and

grallllllatical rules Traditionally the Japanese

approach tO teaching EFL has focused On ac～

curacy rather than lluencン and thus a bOtton■ ―upapproach has been preferred.Explanations of

vocabulary and gralnlllar are typically presented

in Japanese The linlited Possibilities of positive

transfer means that English grall■ Inatical rules

must be explicitly and painstakingly presentcd

This provides learners v√ ith a heightened leve1 0f

objectivity so that they frequently ask questions

that Ll speakers never ask themselves.HO■、reveし

arguablv/a largely bottOm～ up approach is

inadequate for learning a linguistically distant

language. The demands On the rnemory to

process llllultiple differences on the grallllnati―

ca1/1exical′ and phonetic level are onerous/and

eficient English acquisition could be facilitated

by lnOre top― do、vn processing′ in the forll1 0f

increased input(See Krashen/2004)

Gralnlnar is generally considered to be a skill

that can be ll■ ainly accessed thrOugh v√ritten

texts The study of grallllnaじ along、vith vOcabu―

lary and reading comprehensiOl■ /is an essential

skill′ which Japanese children need to pursue

in order to pass high― stakes university entrance

exalllinations Kollliya― Salllimy and Kobayashi

t2004′ P 252)highlight the chOice lllade by

JaPanese children to focus on English for passingexams oタル77ιなθ)OVer communicative EnglishSimilarl予 Garant(2000′ p.121)describes howCOllllllunicative lessons in high sch001 may be

cancelled because the teachers needed to devote

the lessOns to exarllination preparation:〃 ManyJapanese teachers stated that fOcusing on conl―municative activities does nOt help students PaSS

entrance exalninations and that collllnunica―

tive lessons are/therefOre′ special.〃 Ironically

communicative skills and the skill of passingexaminations are considered to be in conflict:"The ability to communicate was seen as veryimportant, but only if it could be accomplishedwithout interfering with the examination pro-cess" (Garant, ibid., p.723). Hence the approachto acquiring English proficiency is'n eightedtoward reading comprehension rather thanestablishing an oral base.

This leads to the question of whether writtentext is processed visualiy or phonologicall1..Walter (2009, p.5) rnakes a distinction betweenhow written words in alphabetic writing aredecoded and stored; decoding takes place visuallyblul storing takes place phonologically: "The clearevidence here is that the visual trace disappearsin favour of the phonoiogical product." Walteroutlines that information is rehearsed by "uncon-scious vocalization" (ibid.). These findings mayexplain why some L2 learners of English withoutadequate phoneme recognition have readingcomprehension ciifficulties. Walter claims that L2learners who already have good comprehensionskilis in their L1 do not need to be taught how- toidentify the main ideas in texts; the skilis of howto process a iext have alreadv been established inihe L1. Rathe4 "expiicit teaching of L2 phonemerecognition wiil help L2 learners comprehendL2 texts better" (Waiter, ibid., p. 7). Not onlvphoneme recognitiory but aiso prosodic recogni-tion appears to facilitate reading comprehensionskiils. Giibert (2009) argues that L1 rhythm rnayinterfere with the development of I-2 phonemicawareness, which is necessary to conneci oraiskills and iiteracy. The skills ot English read-ing comprehension of learners in Japan mayiherefore benefit from being informed by greaterexposure to oral language.

Acquiring literacy through the priorexposure to prosodyA major difficulty for Japanese students is pro-sodic differences between English and Japanese.Engiish pronunciation is a poor guide to Englishorthography: "English seems to lie at the extremeend of the consistency continuum w,ith regard toorthography-phonology relationship s" (Ziegler& Goswami,2006, p. a3$. Furthermore Englishand ]apanese differ in the ways in which stress,pitch and intonation convey meaning. Unlike

THE LANGUAGETEACHER. 35.4 . July/August 201 l 69

「

fLI " Readers' Forum

Japanese, English is a stress-timed language andthus the use of strong or weak syllables signalschanges in meaning. A largely written approachto EFL instruction ignores some of the impor-tant means of conveying meaning inherent inintonation: "Some of this intonational meaningis shown in writing, through the use of punctua-tiory but most of it is not"" (Wells, 2006, p. 5).

The importance of nuclear stress

Jenkins (2000, p.234) devised the well-knownLingua Franca Core, in order to promote com-munication between speakers of English as anInternational Language; the minimum featuresof English pronunciation are included in orderto "guarantee mutual phonoiogical intelligibil-ity." Jenkins does not recommend the inclusionof features of L1 pronunciation, which are notcrucial for intelligibility, but does include nuclearstress. Nuclear stress is essential for accuratelvconveying meaning in English because it fuIfillsa function other languages can undertake bvother means; other languages may rely on wordorder, inflections or particles to highlight impor-tant information. Because English word order isrelatively fixed nuclear stress is implemented toidentify the focus of the message (Creide1, citedin |enkins, 200A, p.46).

|enkins (2000, p. 150) acknowledges thedifficulty of teaching word stress: "word stressrules are so complex as to be unteachable" , andtherefore recommends that just the core featuresof word stress be taught. However the teachingof nuclesr stress is deserving of particular atten-tion:

Nuclear stress, whether unmarked (or on theIast content word in the word group), or con-trastive (somelthere else) is the most impor-tant key to the speaker's inter-rded meaning.It highlights the most salient part of tire mes-sage, indicating where the listener should pa1,particular attention. And contrastirre stressis particularly important in English, as thelanguage does not have the morphological orsyntactic resources that manv other languageshave to highlight contrasts: English has fewinflections, and its word order is reiativelyinflexible. (Jenkins,2000, p. 153)

The reason prosody has been neglected in theteaching of EFL in |apan may be because it isonly minimally featured in English orthography,and is used unconsciously by L1 speakers.Lrbiquitous prosodic features such as nuclearand word stress, and the schwa do not appearin English orthography. Although every vowelmay be sometimes produced as a schwa, this isnot represented in the orthography. The rule thata full vowel in the first syllable is followed by a

syllable with a schwa tends not to be explicitlytaught. (Wade-Woolley & Wood, 2006, p.254).Despite their infrequent treatment in textbooks,prosodic differences are one of the major ob-stacles confronting EFL learners in Japan, andconsequently, the acquisition of English literacy.The following discussion concerns how prosodyaids L1 learners of English to acquire literacy,and suggests that some of the techniques used toteach prosody also be adopted lorL2 learners.

Lessons from prosody in L I literacyinstructionSpoken and written English provide differingciues to signal the beginning and ending oflvords. In written English this is represented byspaces. If the EFL classroom focuses predomi-nantly on written text, students may not learnhow to separate the stream of speech into chunksof meaning. Children learning English as their L1learn this skill thanks to the exaggerated prosodyprovided by their caregivers. Prosody is thus themeans by which the stream of speech is mademeaningful.

Prosodic cues help segment the speech streaminto phrases, words and syllablg,s, informsyntactic structure and emphasize salientinformation to facilitate understanding. Lan-guage users perceive speech to be made up ofdiscrete sentences, phrases, words and evenphonemes, although utterances are producedin an almost continuous speech stream. InEnglish, the prosodic stress pattern of alter-nating strong and weak syllables provides areliable and useful tool to separate words inspeech, because strong syllables generallyare assumed to mark the beginning of lexicalwords (such as nouns and verbs). (Whalley &Hansen, 2006, p.289)

一一一一

．一一一．一一．．一一一一一一

70 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER Online " < jalt-publrcations.org/t t>

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――――__________ Stephers:空螢差ftt。ンで1922§≦立 sわ2堕⊇たce“ めqttacを生ェたσc壁概亀輩l∬1性PttP∝ePЮttdy on have h… _J.- :ten te\[ than chirdrer, ;i;I;;prosody on have been inrroduced to r,::Jre integrat role for.nl,j.* L'i'

mav ptav t,u"" r.,ua'ii'*:;;jff,;:jeading berore thev- :ead than for ad,l+o .,-r ^;^-" vvr rcrl learnlng conforrrc ^r rr--^-," '"'ttutarlzQ themselves wifh rh^

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r :'"T *?ffi **r#r#'ffi,*. ***ft*ll+t*ii"li*':m :f't\\Areness

"1l.._.-*rl r..,r,"i"r'ii-';i;.:::t :,:;"'*o'"' suggesr thar the"abi,,iii"lr.il-:::.;,+;;::.::,#.iffi:,:::::Tw::$ :i*::_1 r,33,0,.,,.",- to' p.zI+r.1.^l,l,r"I-li,lj-lI^Y::, characterisri.'or.r.iir*a 'cPresentations is a

j, part.ir'n:ilil1:l';,i'i:;Hss sensitiv- 2006, p 331) '-- -'''rt reading. raJui:nethingaisunctiv*.iol;;;,:;;TL1ll::^ . Krasrr

--:.,-ofld this assoi :sues tr, at,uu*f,I11',1,';A-,'h # ffil"JffiI *ilH+,"", ffi iiiiil:f,T,'ffi:f :':"

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-ucessi,,8 'o"o"lll"t"J:j!:l Tff::.,m5: ,,T*ggent

courd 0""^r",a*a t. ,,.i,a-- r-Lot evident fror.

u n c. n s c ",.' ri iH",.,'[i*#,liTl f# ffi{iJ,; tr r,,,,fl *:.fffi [:,1.#]",,,:ii,fi: ilJull $1,,*:Ujn.*::i,,t'. ;H::;T:tmeaning

r"* .i#*nrs are ab,e ro_-.ainrs that reader

r te\r as th", .*o.iTp:r" i o,i..r,i'.;.Lliil ;;;:"J: rrom written texts to sp-oken ,r,*.i-,.urci sugsei,,r,ol

,t iitentrvla;.#::#j:,T :/f::: TI:",,flf::ifl:1::ili3t1lil*:nkages be-tween

't readers erploit ,"."*ir"" orthography una pho,-i;il;,, djsassociation

:, ;,-i,' 0,,;;;T,:i,: i::J, ;*,1;r;1 m:: :- iii,[: jl]:"

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BICS' There would o-l"tr trrr,lr"'

i*g':,I*#1i5t{}:il.jff '[:i,'-{*,,r*Tn1:ffi H**rl{*iii?:l:ru:rosody on the orth""--L.,'.)'j,']l rrnposlng of aural inr

:ne painstaking p.o"ogllpr'v ,,'ii'iv'."IJ, .r, sruderrrs ,i,Yi;3;'1",t:;;;i:i::l lljhl.,i-

rFL rearners,,i;,il;I;::'il;i,:::;\, -;;;;;,r:"vcrop reading comprehension -o.f:""lTT l,:li" gorzernment back in 1e22 to.:.rromote TEFL, consi

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lilli;ll1,li;Xlj"i:;#::,":"^i1ig;;-H;l_, ;,,J1:::fl[..rences ber,,een .hiia'.*,, r",,,i,*,rtr, rrgg"rir'rf;J.",r","-,u,*. sylabJe-bas-,f;?::"d Jang^uage, rrJ;;;h;';''r ranguage. Goerty et at. tp. :sii

THy 7ary5g4r,t , taCrtn, ,S,C . JurylAusust zoi f I

flf " (szdsrs' Forum

speculate that native-French speaking childrenmav have difficulties processing readlng andspelling a stress-based L2 such as English orDutch because of the demands of processingprosodli and conclude "If SpA (Stress proceisir.rgAbilities) influence reading development instress-based languages like English and Dutcir,then the inclusion of exercises iimed at develop-ing some sensitivitl, to prosody and stress shoutabe beneficia) for L2learners, especially if theirL1 presents very contrasted prosodic propertiesand/or functions" (p. aOt) Similarly, t".irr"contrasting the prosody between English andJapanese creates a difficulty, English prosodvshould be presented to Japanese EFllearners inorder to facilitate their English reading compre_hension.

How can prosody be presented to EFLlearners?Explicit instruction to L2 learners is considerednecessary because the conditions of L1 acquisi_tion cannot be replicated for L2learners (seeShen, 2003). F{owerrer, prosody is too complexto be exclusively taught in a bottom-rp *ir-,r-r"r.If modeling of prosodv is provided from theearly years children may be able to acquire someaspects of it effortlessly. This could be providedeither by increasing children,s exposuie tolistening to English through partial immersioryor regularll. reading English stories and rhymesto children. Clrildren's author and literacvconsultant Fox (2010) highlights the importanceof prosody for L1 childrer-i learning to read. Foxadvises that before childrer-r learn to read ther.need to hear a thousanci stories, to hear thes;rme stories read repeatedlv, and for parents tomaintain the same intonation for each reading.Equally, children learning to read L2 Englishshould be read to frequentiv in order to icguireprosody, and thus a foundaiion for literacr,.

Watanabe (2002) has proposed .lvavs in n hich|apanese schoolchildren can be erposcd to morespoken English in order to facilitate their generalproficiency. This begins in the primary scltcrolbv atturring childrt'rr lo Ii>tclrirrg kr Englislr, intrrdcr to Iater reinlorce stlund arrd lctter cor-responclence. Watanabe criticized the tendencyto present all four skills of listening, speaking,reading and writing in midclle school before

children have had the opportunity to familiarizethemselves with the suund of spoken English.Watanabe appeals for a greater focus on listeningcomprehension throughout subsequent stagesof EFL education through to univeisity. Henceexposure to prosody needs to occur not onlybefore children are introduced to literacli butsimultaneously as they learn to read. Accord_ingiy, students should be able to gain moreextensive exposure to the prosodic features ofEnglish which are implicit in written texts, andwhich rnake wriil.en terts meaningful.

ConclusionThe suggestion that prosody be taught beforelituacy is not incompatible with the principlesof English as an International Languige; it is notsuggested that prosody be taught in oider forlearners to conform to Anglo-American norms.Rathe4 prosody is critical because of the waysin rvhich it informs literacy. Given the majorprosodic differences from ]apanese, in orjerfor English to be taught effectir.ely it should beintroduced in the primary schoolbefore Iiteracyinstruction. Japanese children could learn to readmore efficiently, and be spared the burden on the*."-:ly of learning a stress-timed language forwhich prosodic cues are unavailable oitho"graph_i ca-lly.- Thi-s may f acil itate readin g comprehensionat high school, and thus relieve chitaren of theconsiderable time and effort in the memorizationthat currently characterizes the learning style ofmanv examinees.

ReferencesAshb1,, J. (2006). Prosody in skilled silent read-

ing: evidence from eye rltovements. Joumal ofResearch in Rendin g, 29(3), 318-313.

Christie, F. (1984). The functions of language,pre-school larrguage, learning arrd thi trinsi_tion to print. In F. Christie (Ed.), Childrenutriting: Study guide . Deakin: Deakin UniversityPress.

Cummins,I. (2001). The entrv and exit fal_lacy in bilingual education. In C. Baker & N.Hornberger (Eds.), An introtluctonl rettrler to tlrcutritings of lim Cuntnzlns. Cleveclor-r, Ut<, Multi-lingual Matters Ltd. (pp. 110-13g).

Fox. M. (2rng.Retcom/wr

Garant, Madmissirof Englis

Gilbert, |-ness as €

recent rtGoetry, V,

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lntanatisity Pres

KomiyaScToward r

co[lmurpedagogTeachers

Krashe+ S

gratificalThe l-ang

Masukaw:survey. I& K. Suz

Iapan,pFSheru H. (2

in ESL/I36(3). pp

Takeda C.fundameinJapan-Educatim,

Wade-WooProsodic

lournal oJ

Waltea C.lcompreh

Watanabe,prehensirPrefecturt

Wells, ]. (2(

Cambrid

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uKIヽlulti― ∵I……………………………~~THご

面 高 5ス″ 7面 邑高 ξl l T品「 7瓦[話面 173