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Vulnerability of women and girls in post-conflict Iraq:

Bridging gaps in education and employment for sustainable reconstruction*

By Anuradha Sen Mookerjee anuradha.senmookerjee@gmail.com

Introduction: Vulnerability of Women in Reconstruction in Iraq

The reconstruction context of Iraq needs some unpacking in terms of who are amongst the

most vulnerable and what are the most formidable barriers facing them in the steps towards

creating a peaceful and developed society. Vulnerability is to be understood here as being

defenselessness to external shocks.1 It is a combination of both external issues of risks, shocks

and stress which people face as well as their internal capacity to cope with the threat to

livelihoods without sustaining damaging loss.2 Undoubtedly vulnerability is high for populations

of Iraqi women including female heads of household (FHHs), impoverished women and girls,

survivors of violence and women in rural areas. In terms of the single most damaging factor

confronting Iraq in its reconstruction, both currently and inter-generationally, is the slow

national progress in education and associated gaps that have their reflection in the distortions

existing in the labour markets. An estimated five million people in the country are illiterate,

with almost 30 percent of the rural population unable to read or write.3 More than 25 percent

1 Chambers, Robert (Edited), ‘Vulnerability: How the Poor Cope', IDS Bulletin Volume 20 Number 2, 1, Brighton:

Institute of Development Studies, 1989 2 Byrne, Bridget with Baden, Sally, Gender, Emergencies and Humanitarian Assistance Report commissioned by the

WID desk, European Commission, Directorate General for Development, Report # 33, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton, 1995, Accessed April 24, 2014, http://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports/re33c.pdf 3 Literacy and Non-Formal Education in Iraq, UNESCO Iraq Office, accessed April 27, 2014

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/iraq-office/education/literacy-non-formal-education/ * Presented at The First Annual Symposium on Peace Building and Education, Centre for Peace and Conflict Resolution Studies, University of Duhok, May 2014

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of the Iraqi female population is currently illiterate with illiteracy rates among young rural

women being estimated to be as high as nearly 50 percent.4 The Iraq Knowledge Network’s

(IKN) 2011 Labour Force Factsheet shows unemployment at 8 percent (7 percent for males and

13 percent for females). The same survey reveals that only 13 percent of females aged 15 or

older participate in the labour force, compared to 72 percent of men.5 The statistic on women’s

employment rate consequently addresses only a minuscule percentage of Iraqi women as

millions remain unaccounted for as they often do not seek to engage economically, while

others face barriers to work. Comprising 49.1 percent of Iraq’s population, women largely

remain at a distance from any engagement in the economy; many of them lack any livelihood

strategies, while many others are burdened with running female headed households in the

absence of any primary source of income or complementary earning member. Maternal

mortality is still highest in Iraq as compared to the rest of Middle East, with only 37.6 percent of

women in the 15-49 year age bracket receiving post-natal care, and in surveys conducted 35.4

percent perceived their health status to be bad or very bad and 46 percent of girls between 10-

14 years were found to be exposed to violence at least once by a family member.6 These socio-

economic parameters alongside the burden of inadequate employment constitute long-term

challenges with ramifications that severely deter Iraq’s goals in achieving peace and sustainable

human development. In addition, Iraq hosts large numbers of displaced people and asylum

seekers from neighbouring countries. Identified as people of concern for 2014, approximately 1

million IDPs and 110,000 stateless people are on the UNHCR list of refugees and asylum-

4 Wilson, Claire, Bombs and Backpacks: Education in Iraq, 2013, accessed April 27, 2014,

http://muftah.org/bombs-backpacks-education-in-iraq/#.U1l26lWSw28 5 Iraq Knowledge Network, Labour Force Fact Sheet, December 2011, Accessed on April 29, 2014,

http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/LB%20Factsheet-English.pdf 6 Maternal mortality is 84 female deaths per 100,000 live births.

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seekers from the neighbouring countries, including Iraqi refugees returning to Iraq from

neighbouring countries who are in need employment and public services, including education.7

In this context, this paper expands upon the role of crucial factors of education and

employment of women in Iraq and analyzes the context that contributes to inequity among

women and girls in the Iraqi society. With an assessment of the status of girls and women

across Education for All goals, female labour force participation (FLFP) and the national

strategic development policies, this paper argues for the absolute imperative for a more

educated and skilled female labour force and the major role that their contribution as a

significant factor of production can play in the socio-economic reconstruction for Iraq.8

Status of women and girls

The low Gender Inequality Index (GII) of 0.557 for Iraq as per 2012 data reflects significantly on

the three dimensions of gender-based inequalities – reproductive health, empowerment, and

economic activity. The gaps in women’s secondary and higher education, their relatively small

presence in the Iraqi parliament, low MMR and low female participation in the labour market

are reflective of women’s marginalization in Iraqi society where they are not in a position to

fully contribute economically, politically and socially. Limiting provisions within the Iraqi tax

code, Personal Status Code and Penal Code about the roles of men and women reinforce

women’s roles essentially as mothers and homemakers and hinder their place in public affairs

and the economy. Participation in labour markets has been found to be low for diverse reasons

7 2014 UNHCR country operations profile – Iraq, Accessed on April 26, 2014

http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e486426.html UNHCR Iraq Fact Sheet, Accessed on April 24, 2014, http://www.unhcr.org/4c9084e49.html 8 Women constitute 49.1% of the Iraqi population. EFA consists of six internationally agreed education goals that

aim to meet the learning needs of all children, youth and adults by 2015.

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including women not finding paid employment; surveys have shown 17.2 percent women

stating that the main reasons for their unemployment to be having a low level of education or

lacking skills, while 6.9 percent have cited family opposition.9 Importantly, 38.6 percent of

women in Iraq do not perceive men and women as being equal in society. 50 percent of women

are of the opinion that the government and the parliament can empower women to perform

their social role by providing projects for women’s support.

Data for 2011 shows 21 percent of active females are unemployed compared to 11 percent of

active males. The percentage increases to 27 percent for young women and is significantly

higher in urban areas than in rural areas where women are mainly employed in the agricultural

sector. According to Iraq Knowledge Network 2011, young women with higher levels of

education have more difficulties accessing work: the unemployment rate increases to 41

percent for those with a diploma and to 68 percent for those with a bachelor’s degree.10 This is

clear evidence that there is a dearth of jobs for women with education. In addition, the conflict

in Iraq has resulted in between one and two million Female Headed Households (FHHs).11 IOM’s

report on FFHs has identified access to work among their three top needs. Many among them

lack access to financial resources, alongside benefits such as social security, pensions, and food

that is distributed through the Iraqi government’s Public Distribution System. They are found to

be sustain themselves in diverse ways, including aid from relatives and friends (39 percent),

daily wage (24 percent), aid from government (14 percent), agriculture (4 percent), aid from

NGOs/Charities (4 percent), livestock/fisheries (3 percent), aid from friends and relatives

9 ibid

10 Women in Iraq Factsheet, accessed on 29 April, 2014,

http://unami.unmissions.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=xqx9gxy7Isk%3D&tabid=2790&language=en-US 11

The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), “Iraq: Women Struggle to Make Ends Meet”. Jan-Feb 2011, accessed on 28 April, 2014, http://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/2011/iraq-update-01-02-2011-icrc-e ng.pdf

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abroad (1 percent), Salary (9 percent) and other (2 percent).Only 2 percent of FHOH

interviewed are employed and have a steady salary. Yet the national data shows only 14

percent of Iraqi women are working or actively seeking work compared to 73 percent of men.12

Progressive elements of the 2005 Iraqi Constitution by Articles 22 and 25 guarantee Iraqis the

right to work and equal work opportunities regardless of gender. Similarly, Article 2 of the

Unified Labour Code “guarantees the right to work, under equal conditions and with equal

opportunity, to all citizens who are able to work, without any discrimination on the basis of sex,

race, language or religion.” Nevertheless, interpretations of these laws and the assumption that

men are the primary breadwinners and also decision-makers for the households create

distortions that negatively impact on women in the work place. The Tax Law, for example which

gives married men a tax break unavailable to women, under the assumption that, men, not

women are heads of household.13 Only widows and divorcees are accorded similar deductions

under the law. Additionally, the prohibition of women from working in the evenings, working

additional hours when they are pregnant, and from being assigned to dangerous tasks under

the Unified Labour Code results in discrimination faced by women from private employers in

terms of their cost to the company while also limiting the jobs for which they can apply.14

12

Women in Iraq Fact Sheet, accessed on April, 29, 2014 http://unami.unmissions.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=xqx9gxy7Isk%3D&tabid=2790&language=en-US 13

Article 12 of the Income Tax Law Number 95 of 1959, UNDP, Women’s Economic Empowerment, Integrating Women into the Iraqi Economy, accessed on April 28, 2014, http://www.iq.undp.org/content/dam/iraq/IQ%20Women%20EE%20-%20Final.pdf 14

Iraq Unified Labour Code (1987) Articles 80-89

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Consequently, Iraqi women’s participation in the economic sphere is constrained variously,

including legally, socially, personally, educationally, capacity-wise and by lack of skills and

economic opportunities due to familial reasons.

The falling levels of education of women and girls

A review of education status of women and girls in Iraq across Education for All (EFA) goals

bring out barriers in the education sector, constraining their development of capabilities.

Goal 1: Early childhood care and education

The data for Iraq of children aged 36 to 59 months who have attended some form of organized

early childhood education programme, 2005–2012, shows that few poor 4 year olds receive

pre-primary education, the average being 4 percent.15 This shows a fall in numbers as

compared to World Bank data for 2008, which shows 6.2 percent. 16 The data disaggregated for

the regions shows 4 percent for rural areas and 5 percent for urban areas, with a high disparity

between regions, with the governorate Thi-Qar being the lowest at 1 percent, Missan, Wasit,

Salahaddin at 2 percent, Ninewa, Al-Najaf 3 percent, Al-Anbar 4 percent, Diyala, Karbala 6

percent, Erbil 7 percent and Suleimaniya the highest at 8 percent.

Table 1

Early Childhood care and education classified by Wealth across Iraq (Age 3-4 Years), 2011

Poor Middle Rich Richest

15

UNESCO, EFA Global Monitoring Report, Teaching and Learining: Achieving Quality for All, 2013/14, Accessed on April 25, 2014, http://unesco.nl/sites/default/files/dossier/gmr_2013-4.pdf?download=1 Figure 2 16

School enrollment - preprimary (% gross) in Iraq, Accessed on April 26, 2014, http://www.tradingeconomics.com/iraq/school-enrollment-preprimary-percent-gross-wb-data.html

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1% 3% 7% 10%

Source: http://www.educationinequalities.org/countries/iraq/indicators/preschool_3#?dimension=all&

group=all&age_group=|preschool_3&year=|2011

Given the importance of the foundational first thousand days of a child’s life, from conception

to the second birthday and its consequent impact on children in multiple ways, including

health, immune systems and cognitive abilities that support learning, the data for Iraq overall is

grim and the wide enrollment gap between the richest and the poorest is a challenge. UNICEF

reports that with an average class-size of 40 students, kindergarten classrooms in Iraq are

overcrowded, being well above the normal size for pre-school classes around the world.17

Possible reasons behind the poor levels of early childhood education are not only the low

emphasis across communities in creating opportunities for young children to discover and learn

in their early years of development but also availability of sufficient cost efficient providers of

pre-primary education. The relatively high cost of education provided by the private sector has

been identified as one of the factors that contribute to inequity in access at this level.

Goal 2: Universal primary education

Amidst the abundance of information and reports documenting information on primary

education, there are discrepancies in numbers even as issues identified as gaps and challenge

are similar. Statistics point to a 92.7 percent net attendance ratio for male primary school

participation, as compared to 87 percent for girls for 2008-2012, with the survival rate to the

17

UNICEF Iraq, Accessed on April 27, 2014, http://www.unicef.org/iraq/media_7076.html

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last primary grade being 95.5 percent for the same period.18 Comparing with figures for 2007-

2008, which showed that there were just under 89 girls for every 100 boys enrolled in primary

schools in Iraq, it confirms the declining numbers of girls in primary classes.19 Data shows there

are 21.66 percent fewer girls in grade 2 compared to grade 1. Likewise there is a 28.63 percent

national drop in the number of girls between grades 5 and 6. Latest UNESCO reports suggest

that 14 percent of school age children are currently out-of-school in Iraq as they have no access

to suitable schooling or are obliged to contribute to household income20. The current figures

show that 22 percent of the adult population has never attended school, and only 9% of adults

have completed secondary education. Gender disparities are significant and sharp with

illiteracy rates reaching higher than 47 percent among women in some areas.21 While access to

primary education is reported to be often similar for males and females, risk physical disability

was a disadvantage that is reported to negatively affect the number of children in school. In

Iraq, 10 percent of 6- to 9-year-olds with physical disability had never been to school in 2006,

but 19 percent of those with a risk of hearing impairment and 51 percent of those who were at

higher risk of mental disability had never been to school.22 Reasons identified as deterrents

include family concerns for safety (both civil crimes and military conflict), distance from home

18

UNICEF Iraq, Accessed on April 27, 2014, http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/iraq_statistics.html 19

UNICEF, Girls Education in Iraq, 2010, Accessed on April 27, 2014, http:// www.ungei.org/files/full_report_iraq_2010.pdf 20

UNESCO Iraq, Accessed on 28 April, 2014, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/efareport/reports/2013/ 21

UNESCO Iraq, Accessed on 28 April, 2014 UNESCO Iraq, Accessed on 28 April, 2014http://www.unesco.org/new/en/iraq-office/education/literacy-non-formal-education/ 22

UNESCO Iraq, Accessed on 28 April, 2014http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/efareport/reports/2013/

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to school, early marriage and the need to help at home. Girls interviewed have described

schools and behavior of teachers as unpleasant and unhelpful.23

Goal 3: Youth and adult skills

The net attendance ratio (percent) for secondary education for females in Iraq for the period

2008-2012 was 44.6 percent as compared to 52.5percent among male students.24 This is

marginally higher than the World Bank figure of 41.5 percent for 2006-2008.25 This is the

percentage of female students at the secondary level including enrollments in public and

private schools. Secondary vocational pupils enrolled in technical and vocational education

programs, including teacher training stand at 12 percent among female students for 2006-2008

period.26 For every 100 boys, there were 73 girls in lower secondary and 80 girls in upper

secondary for 2007 reflecting rather poor gender parity as per the UIS database in the gender

summary of the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2013-2014. The same report mentions not only

of slower progress towards gender parity in Iraq but the exclusion of rural girls. The lower

secondary completion rate was 58% for boys who were urban and from rich families, while just

3 percent for the poor rural girls in 2011, more so in areas of insecurity and instability.

Goal 4: Adult literacy

23

UNICEF, Girls Education in Iraq, 2010, Accessed on April 27, 2014, http://www.ungei.org/files/full_report_iraq_2010.pdf 24

UNICEF Iraq, Accessed on 28 April, 2014http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/iraq_statistics.html 25

Secondary education - pupils (% female) in Iraq http://www.tradingeconomics.com/iraq/secondary-education-

pupils-percent-female-wb-data.html 26

Secondary education - vocational pupils (% female) in Iraq, Trading Economics, Accessed at April 25, 2014, http://www.tradingeconomics.com/iraq/secondary-education-vocational-pupils-percent-female-wb-data.html

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National illiteracy rates are estimated at 18-20 percent in Iraq.27 Women are particularly

affected by illiteracy, especially in rural areas, where close to 50 percent of women aged

between 15 and 24 are illiterate, compared to 28-30 percent of women living in urban and

metropolitan areas.28 Literacy and Adult Learning are provided by the Ministry of Education

which includes the provision of literacy courses to adult illiterates mostly women between the

ages of 15 and 45 years. Challenges of implementing adult and non-formal education

programmes include the engaging of formal school teachers who are not trained on adult

literacy and do not receive tangible incentives for teaching extra-hours.29 In addition, the

opportunities for adult women who take literacy training remain inadequate. The challenge of

accessing to micro credit for these women works as a disincentive for adult skill building as it

does not connect women to income opportunities.

Goal 5: Gender parity and equality

The data presented so far across the EFA targets establishes the context of poor gender parity

in Iraq towards achieving equal enrolment ratio of girls and boys. The goal of full gender

equality in education which calls for appropriate schooling environments, practices free of

discrimination and equal opportunities for boys and girls to realize their potential remains a

from being realized. While the Literacy Initiative for Empowerment in Iraq being implemented

by UNESCO with support of the Government of Iraq recognizes the lack of gender parity and

27

Literacy Initiative for Empowerment in Iraq, 2010-2015, Literacy Needs Assessment Report, UNESCO Iraq, Accessed at April 25, 2014, http://www.irinnews.org/pdf/literacy_needs_report.pdf 28

Literacy Initiative for Empowerment in Iraq 2010-2015, UNESCO Iraq, Accessed on 26 April, 2014, http://iq.one.un.org/documents/230/UNESCO%20Literacy%20Leaflet%20(ENG).pdf 29

Literacy Initiative for Empowerment in Iraq, 2010-2015, Literacy Needs Assessment Report, UNESCO Iraq, Accessed at April 25, 2014, http://www.irinnews.org/pdf/literacy_needs_report.pdf

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equality in education, it shifts the responsibility onto women without mentioning the barriers

and institutional inadequacies by stating, “There is a need to make literacy and NFE

programmes more proactively attractive to women and girls so as to address the gender

imbalance.” However Iraq’s National Development Plan (NDP) 2013-2017 does recognize the

need to increase the education particularly among women.

Goal 6: Quality of education

The education sector witnessed a decrease in fiscal spending from 75.4 percent in 2009 to 36

percent in 2010, and an increase to 57.8 percent in 2011.30 For every year, from 2009 onwards,

actual spending with allowance for the education sector was less than the respective annual

allocation. The Literacy Needs Assessment Report by UNESCO with the Government of Iraq has

come up with a list of gaps and challenges along with a strategic road map for implementation

highlighting the need for a governing law and national literacy strategy. It includes institution

development, the need for adequate funding for literacy programming, administrative

capacities at the various levels of governance, coordination between stakeholders, a need for a

targeted literacy curriculum that is plugged to the formal education system, innovative and

need based literacy programming and building public awareness on literacy programming and

30

Ministry of Planning, Government of Iraq, National Development Plan 2013-2017 Accessed at April 29, 2014, http://www.mop.gov.iq/mop/resources/IT/pdf/123.pdf

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their availability..31 A large number of teachers working without and often without no pay

cheques, a system lacking both necessary and adequate infrastructure, institutions, capacities

and resources, are issues that need quality revival and reconstruction.

A survey by UNICEF (2010) identified the difficulties of access faced by girls to include, at

various levels, home and family, teachers’ behaviour, health and hygiene, dilapidation of

buildings, journey to school, boys’ behavior, danger and displacement. Family attitudes and

circumstances, including family poverty, were the single most crucial factor in girls’ education.

Parents, particularly fathers, play a major role in girls’ attendance at school. Likewise lack of

security caused by distance from school also plays a crucial role in the continuation of girls’

education. Academics, parents, and school children, especially girls are threatened with security

challenges of gender based violence, and these have impacted the psyche towards the

schooling of girl children. Consequently, there is overall decline in numbers of children in the

primary schools and enrollment of girls continues to decline sharply with each grade.

The present public education system and its administration are unable to effectively deliver to

women and girls living in poverty, in far flung rural areas, alongside barriers of patriarchy where

girls are less preferred than boys for education. The probability of being entrenched early into

domesticity and the reproduction cycle has risen considerably with the new legal code lowering

the minimum age for marriage for girls to 9 years.

Low female labour force participation: Education is not leading to jobs

The general rate of women’s participation in economic activity remains low at 13 percent of the

total economically active population, and women continue to have low participation in

31

Literacy Initiative for Empowerment in Iraq, 2010-2015, Literacy Needs Assessment Report, UNESCO Iraq, Accessed at April 25, 2014, http://www.irinnews.org/pdf/literacy_needs_report.pdf

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legislative, judicial and executive branches of government. The gap between men and women’s

participation in economic activities increased to 56.6 percent in 2011 after being 50 percent in

2005.32 Rates of low employment, both visible and hidden, continued to increase at 38.6

percent and 61.4 percent respectively through 2011. The increase in unemployment in the 15-

29 years age group with 15.5 percent of men and 33.3 percent of women unemployed in 2011

reflects the continuing gender gap in employment. This is higher than the official

unemployment rate of 11.1 percent for the same year. Data for 2011 shows 12.7 percent of

those with secondary level education were unemployed, while 24.2 percent for those with

higher education were without employment, with that of young women being higher than that

for young men. This indicates that there is no clear correspondence between higher education

outputs and the labour market.

The Iraq Woman Integrated Social and Health Survey (I-WISH) data for 2011 reveals that 10.9

percent of women aged 15-54 were in paid employment during the survey period. The majority

of "not working" women (57.8 percent) referred to personal reasons (e.g. not interested, family

affairs, etc), while 17.1% referred to lack of competency (education, skills, etc), and 12.9

percent to economic difficulties (e.g. lack of work, low wages, dismissal factors of market, etc).

The survey results showed that 35.3 percent of not working women would be willing to work if

a suitable opportunity is made available, 7.3 percent were available to be enrolled in labor

market training programmes, particularly in Kurdistan region (10.6 percent).33

The UNDP’s report on Economic Empowerment shows a high percentage of men across 32

Ministry of Planning, Government of Iraq, National Development Plan 2013-2017 Accessed at April 29, 2014, http://www.mop.gov.iq/mop/resources/IT/pdf/123.pdf 33

CSO, Iraq, Iraq Woman Integrated Social and Health Survey (I-WISH) , Summary Report , March 2012

http://www.irinnews.org/pdf/i-wish_report_english.pdf

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education levels participate in Iraq’s labour force and as a result count in official unemployment

statistics. However, fewer than 15 percent of Iraqi women who range from illiterate to having

finished secondary school seek employment. In many cases this is not voluntary, therefore the

percentage of Iraqi women lacking jobs (rather than being technically “unemployed”) is very

high.

Perception of women’s role and gender equality plays a deterring role

The Iraq Woman Integrated Social and Health Survey (I-Wish), 2012 indicates that 47.8 percent

of women the 15-54 years age group believe there exists gender- based inequities in favour of

boys in the freedom to go out, 18.5 percent believed that males get higher allowance and more

than 20 percent believe that males have greater ability to participate in decision making and

freedom in choosing friends and spouses. More than one-tenth of families discriminate in

favour of males in education expenses and in respecting boys' privacy. I-WISH results also

showed the absence of positive discrimination in favor for girls at any level. Further, 29.9

percent of these women said that they are equal, 38.6 percent said that there is discrimination

between genders. High levels of bias ranging between 20-67 percent exists in favour of men

across variables such as law, political participation, social participation, taking decisions for the

family, having jobs, wage in public and private sector, acceptance at university, free access to

IT, access to property. Preference for male children and their education being considered a

priority further marginalizes women’s education. Girls are often at home taking care of the

younger siblings or doing home-based farm work in rural areas. To make things worse, the

number of intermediate schools that can prepare girls for higher education are grossly

inadequate; “for every three elementary schools, there is only one intermediate school.” With

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the lack of schools, the likelihood of girls foregoing secondary education is much higher.34

Nonetheless, UNICEF’s 2010 report on Girls Education in Iraq reported on a survey which

revealed that most want to go to school, to succeed in education and have a valued place in

society.

The perceptions of women doubting the achievement of gender equality find their reflection in

Iraq’s National Development Strategy 2013-2017, where the in the roadmap for achieving

MDGs and setting national targets, the plan states, “It is not expected that gender equality in

Iraq will be achieved due to cultural and social factors. Achieving the goal requires longer

periods of time.”

Productivity growth holds key to sustainable economic growth

Public policy and perception, including those of women on the issue of women’s equality which

drive their achievements across diverse sectors fail to adequately set targets in view of their

constraining belief in the capabilities of women to deliver. Consequently both education and

employment fail to adequately respond and deliver for Iraqi women and girls and the country

continues to suffer from poverty and unemployment. This is despite the steady GDP growth

rate which was 9.043 percent in 2013 and is expected to continue with high growth through

2016.35 While 23 percent is the official figure for people in poverty, the real number exceeds 35

percent (12 million).36 With the dominance of the oil sector, the increase in the price of oil

rather than oil output has been pushing up the GDP irrespective of domestic demand,

34

Government of Iraq Ministry of Planning. National Development Plan for the Years 2010-2014. Baghdad, 2010. Data from 2006-2007. 35

Economy Watch, Accessed on April 30, 2014, http://www.economywatch.com/economic-statistics/country/Iraq/ 36

Iraq-business news, Accessed on April 30, 2014, http://www.iraq-businessnews.com/tag/gdp/

16

economic activity and investments in Iraq.37 Consequently the slow rebuilding of the economy

and capital formation that is tied to the wellbeing of the Iraqi people is not reflected from the

country’s GDP growth. The goals of human development remain to be adequately served by

government policies and their administration. Government investments and spending in Iraq to

that end, needs to contribute to capital formation (including human). The challenges to physical

capital formation include the migration of Iraqis abroad and the displacement within Iraq of

skilled and professional labour.38 The out migration of skilled Iraqis often a consequence of

security and life conditions in Iraq deprives the country of needed skilled personnel, thereby

causing deduction of human capital from the country’s productive assets. Dynamics of

cumulative causation influence resulting in a complex nature of forced migration has been

identified as a factor influencing migration decision of Iraqis to neighbouring countries and

Europe.39 Women’s ability to participate in the labor market in Iraq is constrained by higher

allocation of their time to unpaid work such as child-rearing and household tasks, contributing

to economic welfare though they are often unseen and unaccounted for in GDP. Similarly,

restrictions on their independent mobility and participation in market work reduce women’s

economic potential. Women often work in the informal sector, characterized by vulnerability in

employment status, a low degree of protection, mostly unskilled work, and unstable earnings.

The government’s pursuit of addressing structural issues of women in conflict related poverty

by diversifying the economy needs to specifically address gaps in human capital by connecting

women to the labour markets and ensuring women’s access.

37

Youssif, Bassam, The Economy Of Iraq since 2003 – a follow-up , August 2012, Accessed on April 30, 2014 http://costsofwar.org/sites/default/files/articles/32/attachments/Yousif_Iraq_Economy_08-19-2012.pdf 38

Ibid 39

Ali, Ali Displacement in Iraq after 2003: coerced decisions in a time of crisis. PhD thesis, University of East London, 2012, Accessed on April 25, 2014,. http://roar.uel.ac.uk/3038/

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Productivity growth as a driver of long term per-capita growth has been highlighted in

economic growth literature through studies that have examined cross-country productivity

differences.40 Cuberes and Teignier (2012) have estimated that GDP per capita losses are

attributable to gender gaps in the labor market that were estimated to be up to 27 percent in

certain regions. Aguirre and others (2012) have shown that raising the female labour force

participation rate (FLFPR) to country-specific male levels would raise GDP in the United States

by 5 percent, in Japan by 9 percent, in the United Arab Emirates by 12 percent, and in Egypt by

34 percent. Loko and Diouf, 2009 uses use the principal components analysis (PCA), dynamic

panel data model and case analysis of Maghreb countries to show the increasing share of

women in the labor force has a beneficial impact on total factor productivity (TFP) growth.41

They showed that a high level of FDI and human capital, a high level of female labor

participation, greater trade openness, and better institutions and business regulation are

usually associated with high TFP growth. Ewa Lechman and Anna Okonowicz (June 2013) in

their study of women’s participation in labour market and their contribution to economic

growth in 83 world countries also concluded that female participation in the labour market

creates possibilities for growth and further development, higher stability and less inequality on

labour market.42 In view of the extensive evidence available globally, it is essential that female

participation in the labour force is enhanced in Iraq through shifts in peoples’ perspectives,

40

Hall, Robert E. and Jones, Charles I., Why Do Some Countries Produce So Much More Output Per Worker Than Others? The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 114, No. 1 (Feb., 1999), 83-116, Accessed on April 26, 2014, http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~kslin/macro2009/Hall%20and%20Jones%201999.pdf 41

Loko, Boileau and Diouf, Mame Astou Revisiting the Determinants of Productivity Growth: What’s New? IMF, 2009, Accessed on April 30, 2014, http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2009/wp09225.pdf 42

Lechman, Ewa, Okonowicz Anna, Are Women Important For Economic Development? An Evidence on Women’s Participation In Labor Market and Their Contribution To Economic Growth in 83 World Countries, Accessed on April 28, 2014, http://www.zie.pg.gda.pl/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=112f1a0a-a64e-479d-b6cb-0b37dbabda75&groupId=10236

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including enhancing the willingness among the female population and creating among the

entire population an urgent felt need of female labour for the economy, as well as focused

planning and implementation prioritizing women’s education and work.

Conclusion: Addressing vulnerability of women and girls by bridging skills and FLFP

Conflicts across regions, alongside relief and development issues, have led to considerations

regarding the effects of war on women, especially the increased burdens placed on women in

post-conflict scenarios through the last twenty years. It is observed that the tendency for

women’s interests to be marginalized in the political processes of peace negotiations is a fairly

common trend across national contexts. Feminists and advocates of gender equality have

deliberated on ways to integrate gender into emergency and humanitarian responses and in

responses to conflict situations.43 It may be noted that policy that aims to reduce vulnerability

seeks to enhance peoples’ sense of security and make them more resilient to withstand shocks

and stress. Physically vulnerability can be a factor of sickness or lack of material resources to

cope with shocks; social vulnerability occurs through marginalization and exclusion from

decision-making and political processes and psychological vulnerability is a factor of feelings of

powerlessness and victimization.44 The purpose of a gender perspective for post conflict

reconstruction is to highlight women’s capacities that remains to be utilized and indicates the

availability of opportunities by making aid and supporting policy to be more effective through

development of women’s skills and capacities. It integrates the socio-cultural constraints that

43

Byrne, Bridget with Baden, Sally, Gender, Emergencies and Humanitarian Assistance Report commissioned by the WID desk, European Commission, Directorate General for Development, Report # 33, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton, 1995, Accessed April 24, 2014, http://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports/re33c.pdf 44

Anderson, Mary B.. “ Understanding the Disasters-Development Continuum”. Focus in Gender 2(1): 7-10, 1994

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women face, that restricts their behavior, decision-making and mobility and thereby their

ability to respond to emergency situations.

The studies by numerous UN agencies and international organizations on girl’s education in Iraq

and women’s economic integration point to an entire range of vulnerabilities and policy

prescriptions and targeted guidance to support development, execution, and follow-up to

improve accessibility, effectiveness, and outreach of education and employment opportunities

for girls and women. Since underrepresentation of girls begin with the pre-primary and primary

education, it is essential that a life cycle approach for skill development is implemented, even

as the less or uneducated and less or unskilled adult women are connected to informal and non

–formal education. Skills play the critical role of converting the benefits of technological

progress into economic growth. In an increasingly knowledge based global society, the absence

of skills leads to marginalization of populations and fosters poverty and other related

inadequacies. The OECD Skills Strategy framework shows, people with poor skills face a much

greater risk of experiencing economic disadvantage, and a higher likelihood of unemployment

and dependency on social benefits.45 It calls for three inter related policy levers that include,

developing of relevant skills, activating skills supply and putting skills to effective use. It calls for

policy action for governments to assess the quality and quantity of the skills available in the

population or that can be targeted to be developed in case of conflict ravaged economies.

Governments can accordingly anticipate or determine skills required in the labour market and

thereby develop and use those skills in practice to ensure better jobs are available that enable

people to lead better lives. Skills impact peoples’ lives beyond achievements in the labour

45

OECD, Better Skills Better Jobs Better Lives A Strategic Approach to Skills policies, 2012, Accessed on May 1, 2014 http://skills.oecd.org/documents/OECDSkillsStrategyFINALENG.pdf

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market and engagement in the economy. They bring positive effects to a range of human

behavior including health, civic and social behavior, democratic engagement and business

relationships. In the long run, a high skilled economy pays less for lesser health, incomes,

unemployment and social exclusion, factors closely correlated to lower skills.

Fiscal policy of incentivized taxation, tax credits or benefits for low-wage earners, expenditure

measures like publicly financed parental leave schemes and other social security measures that

currently deter private firms from hiring women, linking benefits to labor force participation

(“in-work” benefits), participation in job training, or other active labor market programs can

promote female labour force participation (FLFP).46 Simulation studies by Anatonopoulos and

Kim (2011) has shown that job creation in child and elderly care can increase female labor force

participation by reducing the burden of unpaid work for women and girls and consequently

expanding income earning options for women.47 Flexible work arrangements and part-time

work that allows women to better balance their formal employment with other demands on

their time, expanding expenditure on the education of women and improvements in rural

infrastructure and policies to Increase demand for female labor are among the measures that

can also significantly contribute to expand employment opportunities and boost FLFP in Iraq.

In conclusion, the reconstruction process in Iraq is more sustainably addressed with

development innovations that are able to harmonize policy and implementation which address

46

Elborgh-Woytek, Katrin, Newiak, Monique, Kochhar, Kalpana, Fabrizio S,tefania, Kpodar Kangni, Wingender , Philipp, Clements,Benedict, Schwartz, Gerd, Women, Work, and the Economy: Macroeconomic Gains from Gender Equity, IMF, September 2013, Accessed on May 3, 2014, https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/sdn/2013/sdn1310.pdf 47

Rania Antonopoulos & Kijong Kim, “Public Job-creation Programs: The Economic Benefits of Investing in Social Care. Case Studies in South Africa and the United States”, Economics Working Paper Archive, 2011, The Levy Economics Institute

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women’s needs of opportunities and resources by promoting education of girls in a deliberate

effort to reduce inequity and build a less dependent (publicly-financed) society for the future by

supporting gender-inclusive labour markets. Such a policy approach of making the economy

more efficient through the increased participation of women can both raise the GDP to reflect

well-being beyond revenues and transform the quality of human development to address

vulnerability while enabling both inclusive and distributive sustainable growth.