Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Chinese International

Students in Japan

Yifan ZangTokyo University of Foreign Studiescalvinzang8907@gmail.com

Abstract

With an increasing number of Chinese international

students coming to Japan for further study, English

education for them becomes a crucial problem because they

have to learn Japanese and English at the same time.

According to research, vocabulary is a key and fundamental

component in language learning. This paper provides a

picture of vocabulary learning strategies being used by

Chinese international students in Japan and has

implications the curriculum design of teaching English to

these students. The major finding of the study is that

Chinese international students now use a combination of

1

different strategies, most of the time unconsciously. Among

them learning through English Language Media seems to be

the most popular thanks to the development of the Internet.

Unfortunately, due to the lack of instruction of strategy

use, many say that they are not using strategies

consciously and effectively.

Key words: Chinese international students, English education,

language learning strategies, vocabulary, vocabulary learning strategies

2

Background

Nowadays numerous international students are

studying in Japan and among them students from China

consist a large part. According to the report by Japanese

Government Ministry of Justice, international students from

China reach a number of 1,207,435 in 2011. Most of these

students aim at studying in postgraduate program in

universities in Japan. When they are applying for

universities, it is often necessary for them to submit a

score of Standard English Test like TOEFL or TOEIC. If they

are not able to reach a particular score they will be asked

to take the English Test prepared by the school. In fact,

the reason for a lot of Chinese international students

choosing Japan to be the place to study in is that they are

not good at English or dislike English. Thus it is of great

3

importance to understand the present situation of these

students.

According to Schmitt (2008), vocabulary is the key

factor in the success of second language acquisition. Also

from previous research it becomes clear that vocabulary

error happens most frequently among all errors. The purpose

of this paper is to discover the vocabulary learning

strategies that are being used by the Chinese international

students to improve their English leaning. Since they are

in a severe situation where they have to put most effort in

the learning of Japanese, it is crucial to grasp the

present situation and to apply the finding to the

educational front site to improve the teaching result.

The Good Learner Studies

From 1974, a series of study focused on the good

language learners made it clear what impact of learning

4

strategy could have on language leaners. The studies can be

divided into two types. One is to identify the good

learners first, and then to interview them and to have them

complete questionnaires. The other type is to compare the

distinctions between the good learners and the bad

learners, with a purpose of identifying these distinctions

and thus apply the result to all language learners.

What we learned from these good learner studies is

that good learners are basically different from the bad

learner in five areas:

1. A concern for language form

2. A concern for communication (functional practice)

3. An active task approach

4. An awareness of the learning process

5. A capacity to use strategies flexibly in the

accordance with task requirements

(Ellis 1994)

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Another feature that can be found in the good

learners is that they always lay emphasis on language form

and monitor both their speech and the speech from other

learners. They use that as a key strategy as they learn.

By referring to the reference book, learn target

languages systematically. Also, they monitor their

performance in the target language and when it is necessary

they look for correction and learn from their mistakes and

errors. They see the meaning of the language as the crucial

part and actively search the chances to use the language in

a real communication.

As for the language education, Chamot (1988) points

out good learners are aware of their learning process and

make decisions consciously. They have the ability to choose

and follow the learning styles that are most suitable for

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them. They can also use strategies flexibly and

appropriately.

The good learner studies have led the way of the

research on how learning strategies affect the learning

process of language learners.

Definition of learning strategies

To define learning strategies is not easy, as noted

by Ellis, since the concept of the word ‘strategy’ is kind

of confusing. In fact, many definitions have been given

about language strategies. Oxford (1989) gives the

definition of strategies saying ‘behaviors and actions

which learners use to make language learning more

successful, self-directed and enjoyable. Chamot (1987)

defines learning strategies as ‘ techniques, approaches or

deliberate actions that students take in order to

facilitate the learning’.

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Ellis argues that rather than to simply give a

precious definition, it is better to emphasize the

characteristics of the learning strategies. He has then

listed several characteristics.

1. Strategies refer to both general approaches and

specific actions or techniques used to learn a second

language.

2. Strategies are problem-oriented. Learners deploy a

strategy to overcome some particular learning

problems.

3. Learners are generally aware of the strategies they

use and can identify what they consist of if they are

asked to pay attention to what they are

doing/thinking.

4. Strategies involve linguistic behavior (such

requesting the name of an object) and non-linguistic

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(such as pointing at an object so as to be told its

name).

5. Linguistic strategies can be performed in the L1 or in

the L2.

6. Some strategies are behavioral while others are

mental. Thus some strategies are directly observable,

while others are not.

7. In the main, strategies are contributed indirectly to

learning by providing learners with data about L2 that

they can then process. However, some strategies may

also contribute directly (for example, memorization

strategies directed at specific lexical items or

grammatical rules).

8. Strategies use varies considerably as a result of both

the kind of task the learner is engaged in and

individual learner preferences.

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(Rod Ellis, 1994)

The Taxonomy of Learning Strategies

There are two kinds of taxonomy that is well known.

One is presented by O’Malley & Chamot. They divide the

learning strategies into 3 categories.

1. Cognitive Strategies

2. Metacognitive Strategies

3. Social Strategies

The other taxonomy is proposed by Oxford (1990),

which gained the comment from Rod Ellis as being most

comprehensive. In her taxonomy, she divides all the

strategies into two main groups and then into six sub-

groups.

1. Direct Strategies

Memory Strategies

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Learners make connections between the sound and the

form of the target language, practice the target

language repeatedly.

Cognitive Strategies

Learners memorize the linguistic knowledge by

practicing the target language and analyze and make

speculation about the target language.

Compensation Strategies

Leaners use compensatory ways when their knowledge of

the target language do not qualify them to express them

clearly (e.g. using body language)

2. Indirect Strategies

Metacognitive Strategies

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Learners monitor and control consciously their own

learning process and are able to place themselves in the

appropriate position.

Affective Strategies

Learners control their emotions and attitudes towards

the learning to make language learning successful.

Social Strategies

Learners look for cooperation from teachers and native

speakers to succeed in language learning.

(Summarized from Oxford 1990)

Results from previous research

Up to now many research have been conducted into the

frequency of the use of the learning strategies.

Scarcella’s research (1990) shows that in many Asian

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cultures books are considered the container of all

knowledge and wisdom. To remember the contents of the books

word-by-word is regarded as the best strategy by the

students in those cultures. Chen, in his research conducted

in 1990, reveals that Chinese students have a liking for

learning. However, they have the tendency to refuse to take

risks and dislike to learn through strategies. According to

Chen’s research, Chinese students always hold the belief

that there is only one correct answer. Wen (1995) argues

that besides the learning strategies, there also exists a

system called attitude toward learning strategies. This

consists of the belief that ‘what should be done to learn

the language properly’. This belief affects the actual use

of learning strategies in a considerable way.

Li (2002) conducted a comprehensive research on the present

state of the learning strategies being used by Chinese

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college students. The result shows that Chinese college

students think that social strategy is the most effective

one and the least beneficial one is affective strategy.

Viewed from a perspective of the frequency of use, memory

strategy is being used most frequently and the social

strategy the least. Li also made an effort to connect the

attainment with the frequency, revealing that those who

have got higher scores in the College English Test (a test

designed by Chinese Government to measure the English

ability of college students) use memory, cognitive,

metacognitive, social strategy more frequently.

Vocabulary Learning Strategies

The significance of vocabulary learning

Many research have proved the significance of the

vocabulary learning. Learners consider vocabulary errors as

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the most serious among all the errors (Polizer 1978). Meara

(1984) points out that vocabulary errors occur three times

more than grammatical errors. Also, according to Johansson

(1978), native speakers find vocabulary errors more

confusing then grammatical errors. Gass backed the argument

by noting that communication could succeed despite the

occurrence of grammatical errors. On the other hand,

vocabulary error usually leads to misunderstanding, thus

affect the communication. Levelt (1989) notes that

vocabulary is the propulsion of the production of language

and the lay component in understanding the input.

In a word, vocabulary is the key element in second

language acquisition and plays a vital role in the

understanding and the production of language. Based on the

significance of vocabulary learning, Chen (2001) surveyed

50 college students on the learning situation of

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vocabulary. More than 60% of the surveyed reported that the

poverty in knowledge of vocabulary learning strategy

troubled them most. This shows a fact that it is essential

to improve the knowledge of vocabulary learning strategy

and help learners to establish a systematical vocabulary

learning strategy category.

Taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies

Schmitt (1997) introduced the taxonomy of vocabulary

learning strategies based on Oxford’s taxonomy of language

learning strategies and a survey that targeted at Japanese

English learners. He divides the strategies into 5 groups.

1. Social Strategies

Learners discover the meaning of new words or enhance

the knowledge once they have memorized through the

interaction with teachers, friends or native speakers.

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An example for the first one is that learners ask a

teacher for a synonym or paraphrase of the new word.

As for the latter one, once the new knowledge have

been memorized learner enhance it through practicing

it with friends or native speakers.

2. Memory Strategies

Learners make connections between newly acquired

language knowledge and previous knowledge. Rather than

simply remember the word, this kind of strategies

requires learners to link old and new knowledge

through complicated psychological process. For example

using the key word method or imagine a picture when

memorizing a new word.

3. Cognitive Strategies

Learners memorize the words mechanically with out

finding inner connections like they do in memory

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strategies. The most common strategy is repetition,

verbal or written.

4. Metacognitive Strategies

Learners check and control the process of learning and

assess their learning results regularly.

5. Determination Strategies

This is a group presented by Schmitt originally. When

they encounter news words or phrases, learners

determine the meaning of the new word themselves

instead of asking for help, by interfering the meaning

from the context, checking the meaning from the

dictionary etc.

(Summarized from Schmitt 1997)

Research on vocabulary learning strategies

Gu & Johnson (1996) conducted a survey aimed at 850

Chinese college students who are not majored in English and

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then divided all the students into 3 main groups based on

their scores of College English Test. The purpose of the

survey is to determine the relationship between the use of

vocabulary learning strategies and the attainment of

English. The best group is called Readers. They believe that

vocabularies should be learnt carefully under natural

environment. The most used strategies by them is to read a

lot, to guess the meaning of the word, and to make

contextual encoding. They do not think that memorization is

the way to learn vocabulary. The group following Readers is

called Active Strategy Users. The most remarkable characteristics

about them is that they use more strategies than the Readers

flexibly and learn English consciously even outside the

classroom. Their success contributes a lot to their

seriousness and motivation. The third group is called

Passive Strategy Users. They hold strong belief in memory

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strategies. As a result, they are always neglecting other

strategies. The reason why they have not learnt much from

the seven years’ English education program is that they

lack the clear awareness of what language and learning

strategy are. Besides, the lack of diligence is another

reason.

Over the decade, research that focused on Chinese

students has been carried out. However, an overwhelming

majority of them are focused the investigation and the

analysis of the present state. Studies concerning the

appliance of the results obtained from research, like

training, remain in an extremely small number.

We can also find problems in the balance of the target.

Of all the research, there are nine papers concerning

college students; one paper concerning postgraduate

students and one paper concerning children. Still the

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number of research targeting high school students is zero.

The singularity in the research method is another

defect. The previous research employs only questionnaire as

one and only method for investigating the status. Studies

that employ more comprehensive methods are still in need.

Finally the lack of studies on strategies training cannot

be neglected.

Research Methods

Target Form

Twenty students with a range of age from 18~20 took

part in the survey this time, including eight male students

and 12 female students. The average time of learning

English is 10.35 years. All the students are taking the

pre-undergraduate program in a Japanese Language School.

None of them has the experience of studying in a English

speaking country. The hometowns of the participants differ

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from each other.

Table１ Participants (listed by age)Participants (listed by age)18 years old 4 (20%)19 years old 12 (40%)20 years old 4 (20%)

Table 2 Participants (listed by average time of learning English)

Participants (listed by average time of learning English)10 years 13 (65%)11 years 7 (35%)

Questionnaire Design

The Questionnaire consists of three parts: the

general questions on English Learning, the frequency of

vocabulary strategies use and the attitude toward the

vocabulary strategy. The question items are based on the

Schmitt’s taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies,

slightly altered according to the features of Chinese

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language. The participants are required to mark their

answers on a five stages scale answer column.

Table 3 5 stages scale answer columnthe frequency of vocabulary strategies use

the attitude toward the vocabulary strategy

1. Never Use2. Rarely Use3. Sometimes Use4. Usually Use5. Always Use

1. Not Useful2. Not Always Useful3. Useful4. Quite Useful5. Very Useful

Results

The General Question

In this part, participants are required to answer

questions about their attitude toward English learning and

vocabulary learning.

Concerning the question asking if they like learning

English or not, four participants (20%) have chosen that

they like learning English very much. Seven participants

(35%) have chosen that they like learning English and the

rest nine (45%) have chosen that they don’t have a

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preference on learning English. None of the participants

has shown that they dislike English learning.

Question No.4 asks if the participants find it

difficult to learn English. Five (25%) participants find it

very difficult; 6 (30%) participants find it a little

difficult; eight (40%) participants find it normal; and one

(5%) participant finds it quite easy.

Only two participants report that they have heard

about the learning strategies before. Twelve (60%)

participants agree that vocabulary is a very important part

in language learning, and the others think it is an

important part in language learning. However, when being

asked among vocabulary, grammar, listening, speaking,

reading and writing, which they would regard the most

important component in learning a language, only two

participant put vocabulary in the first place.

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The frequency of use of vocabulary learning strategies

According to the questionnaire, the most frequently

used strategy is to use English language media. Then least

frequently used strategy is to study and practice meaning

in a group and to use peg method.

Table 4 Frequency of use (listed by strategy)

Name of the strategy Average FrequencyUse English Language MediaUse bilingual dictionaryStudy the spelling of a word...Ask teacher for an L1 translationStudy and practice meaning in a groupPeg Method

4.3334.0004.000...1.5001.3331.333

Table 5 Frequency of use (listed by groups)Group Average FrequencyMETCOGDET

3.3333.1112.963

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MEMSOC

2.7051.854

The attitude toward vocabulary learning strategies

Participants think that to use new word in sentences is

the most effective strategy. The least effective strategy

in their mind is to study and practice meaning in a group.

Table 6 Attitudes toward strategies (listed by strategies)Name of the strategy Average

Use new word in sentencesWritten repetition

Testing oneself with wordtests...

Analyze any available picsor gestures

Discover new meaning bygroup work

Study and practice meaningin a group

4.5004.5004.167...

2.1672.0001.833

Table 7 Attitudes toward strategies (listed by groups)Group AverageMETCOG

4.0403.578

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MEMSOCDET

3.3772.6502.650

Discussion

According the result of the questionnaire, it is

clear that most of the international students from China do

not dislike English anymore, instead, students who likes

English consists of a relatively large part. This provides

a good prerequisite for English education for these

students. However, most of the students lack the knowledge

of language learning strategies and thus only a few

students are using them consciously and effectively. This

may be due to the absence of the education of the

strategies through out the nine-year compulsory education.

The result should sound the alarm for the teachers to

increase the knowledge of language learning strategies.

As for the frequency of use of vocabulary strategy,

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the reason why using English language media reaches the top

of the chart may be the popularity of American culture in

China. Youngers all over the world are fond of American,

especially TV shows, pop music and publications. Thanks to

the impact of that and the Internet, it is very easy for

students to access to those resources. The fact that

metacognitive strategies are being most frequently used

among the five groups is a little surprising because in

previous research this group of strategies is being

underused. One reason to consider is that international

students may have to plan their lives more systematically

then the domestic counterparts. This may also affect the

strategies use. It is of no wonder that social strategy is

in the bottom. Chinese traditional force-feeding teaching

method makes the student not wanting to corporate with

classmates or peers. This fact should also give implication

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to teachers to encourage students to cooperate with other

students more often.

With regard to the attitude towards the strategies,

the ranking basically coordinates with the frequency one

and thus we can presume that by increasing the awareness

and the attitude we can help students to improve the

learning outcomes.

Limitations & Prospects

There are also several limitations with this survey.

The number of the participants is relatively small. It may

be hard to get a complete picture of the present situation

of the language strategies use. Also, the survey lacks the

information about the English level of the participants.

Therefore, it is not possible to make connections between

the learning outcomes and the strategy use. Although the

target is different from the previous research, the method

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is almost the same. It lacks a more comprehensive method in

investigating the status.

From now on, it is necessary to improve the results

of the survey. Adding methods such as interviews and

observation during class time. Further, it can be predicted

that if the teachers could give students instructions and

training about the language learning strategies, students

would definitely benefit from it. In conclusion, the

subject remained is to improve the result of the survey and

to apply this to the front site.

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Reference

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Gass, S. M. & Selinker, L. (2008). Second Language Acquisition:

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Cambridge, MA: Bradford

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MA: Heinle, Cengage Learning.

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严严 (2001). 英英英英英英英英英英英英英英英英英英英.严严严严, 严严严严严 严严严 pp46-50

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Appendix

Questionnaire ① 严严(age)：② 严严(gender) 严：・女

③ 严严严严严严： （how long have you been learning English?）④ 严严严严严严严严严 严严严严严严严严严严 严→ 严 （do you have any certificate of English?）⑤ 严严严严严严严严 （do you like English?） 严严严严 严严严 严 严严 严严严严严严 严严严／／一／／

严严：

⑥ 严严严严严严 ？ （do you find leaning English is difficult?） 严严 严严 严严严 严 严严 严严严 严严严／一／一／／

⑦ 严严严严严严严严严严严严严 ？ （do you enjoy learning English?） 严严严 严严 严严严严严严严严严／／一／／

⑧ 严严严严严严严严严严严 严严严严 ？／

（have you ever heard about learning strategies?） 严严「严严严严严严严严严严」 严严严严→（ ）⑨

⑨ 严严严严严严严严严严 严严严严严严严严严严严，？ （do you think learning strategies would help you learn English? ）

33

⑩ 严严严严严严严严严 ？ （do think vocabulary is an important aspect of learning English?）严严严 严严严 严 严严 严严严严严 严严严／／一／／

严严、严严、严严、严严、严严、严严严严严严严严严严严？ （Which do you think os the most important: vocabulary, grammar, listening,speaking or writing?）

⑪ 严严严严严严严严严严严严严？ （do you think you are good at learning vocabulary?）严严严 严严严 严 严严 严严严严严 严严严／／一／／

⑫ 严严严严严严严严严严严。 （Have you heard about Vocabulary Learning Strategies?）严→严严严严严严严严严严严？ （Yes → Do you use them consciously? ）严严→严严严严严严严严严严严严。 （No Do you think they would help you in learning English?→ ）

⑬ 严严严严严严严严严严严严严严严严严严严严 严After you came to Japan, did anything about your Englishlearning changed?严严→ 严严严严严（体）

(Yes→ Explain more specifically)严

严严严严严严严严严严严严严严严 （ Likert Scale严严严严严：＊ 严严○严严

34

5 严严严严 4 严严严严 3 严严严严 2 严严严严 严严严１

（５ always ４ usually ３ sometimes ２ seldom if ever １never 严

严 严严严严严严严严严严严严严 严严严严严严严严严严，？1. 严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Analyze part of speech

2. 严严严严严 54 3 2 1Analyze affixes and roots

3. 严严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Check for L1 cognate

4. 严严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Analyze any available pics or gestures

5. 严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Guess from textual content

6. 严严严严严 严严严严严 （） 5 4 3 2 1

Bilingual Dictionary7. 严严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 32 1Monolingual Dictionary

8. 严严严严严 54 3 2 1Word Lists

9. 严严严严严严严 5 4

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3 2 1Flash Cards

10. 严严严严严 54 3 2 1Ask teacher for an L1 translation

11. 严严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 32 1Ask teacher for paraphrase or synonym of the new word

12. 严严严严严 严严严严严严严严 一 5 4 3 2 1Ask teacher for a sentence including the new word

13. 严严严严 54 3 2 1Ask classmates for meaning

14. 严严严严严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 3 21

15. 严严Discover new meaning by group work activity

严严严严严严严严严严 严严严严严严严严严，16. 严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 3

2 1Study and practice meaning in a group

17. 严严严严严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 3 21Teacher checks students’ flash cards or word lists foraccuracy

18. 严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 32 1Interact with native speakers

19. 严严严严严 严严严 严严严严（一） 5 4 3 21study word with a pictorial representation of its

36

meaning20. 严严严严严 严严严 严严严严（一） 5 4 3 2

1image word’s meaning

21. 严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Connect word to a personal experience

22. 严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Associate the word with its coordinates

23. 严严严严严严严 严严严 一 5 4 3 2 1Connect the word to its synonyms and antonyms

24. 严严严严严严严 严严严严严严严严 （ kitchen－food） 5 4 3 2 1Loci Method

25. 严严严严严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 3 21Use scales for gradable adjectives

26. 严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Group words together to study them

27. 严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Group words spatially on a page

28. 严严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Use new word in sentences

29. 严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Group words together within a story line

30. 严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Study the spelling of a word

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31. 严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Study the sound of a word

32. 严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Say new word aloud when studying

33. 严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Image word form

34. 严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 32 1Underline initial letter if the word

35. 严严严严严 54 3 2 1Configuration

36. 严严严严（ambulance 严严严严严－） 5 4 32 1Use key word method

37. 严严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Affixes and roots(remembering)

38. 严严严严严严严严严 5 4 32 1Part of the speech

39. 严严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 32 1Paraphrase the word’s meaning

40. 严严严严严 严严 （ sofa） 5 4 32 1Use cognates in study

41. 严严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1

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Learn the words of an idiom together42. 严严严 严严严严 体 5 4 3 2

1Use physical action when learning a word

43. 严严严严 54 3 2 1Verbal repetition

44. 严严严严 54 3 2 1Written repetition

45. 严严严严严 54 3 2 1Word list

46. 严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Flash card

47. 严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Take notes in class

48. 严 严严严严严严 书 5 4 3 21Use the vocabulary section in your textbook

49. 严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Listen to tape of word list

50. 严严严严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 3 21Put English labels on Physical Objects

51. 严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 32 1Keep a vocabulary notebook

52. 严严严严严体 严严严 严严严严（ 、、）书 5 4 3 2 1

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Use English Language Media53. 严严严严严严严严 APP

Use Applications on Smartphone54. 严严严严严严 5 4

3 2 1Testing oneself with word tests

55. 严严严严 54 3 2 1Skip or pass new words

56. 严严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Continue to study word over time

57.严严严严严严严严严 5 4 3 21 Make an overall plan

严严严严严严严严严，严严严严严。(If you have anything else to complement )

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