TITLE PAGE

USES AND IMPACT OF PUBLIC RELATIONS IN MARKETING TELEVISION SERVICES IN NIGERIA. (A STUDY OF SELECTED TV STATIONS IN THE SOUTH EAST)

BY

UZODINMA, IFEYINWA B. PG/M.Sc/07/46975

PUBLIC RELATIONS PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF MARKETING

FACULTY OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,

ENUGU CAMPUS, ENUGU STATE

MAY, 2009

TITLE PAGE

USES AND IMPACT OF PUBLIC RELATIONS IN MARKETING TELEVISION SERVICES IN NIGERIA.

(A STUDY OF SELECTED TV STATIONS IN THE SOUTH EAST)

BY

UZODINMA, IFEYINWA B. PG/M.Sc/07/46975

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF MASTER OF SCIENCE (M.Sc) DEGREE IN PUBLIC RELATIONS.

PUBLIC RELATIONS PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF MARKETING

FACULTY OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,

ENUGU CAMPUS, ENUGU STATE

SUPERVISOR: PROF. IKECHUKWU E. NWOSU, Ph.D

MAY, 2009

CERTIFICATION This is to certify that this project written by Uzodinma, Ifeyinwa B. with Reg. No.

PG/M.Sc/07/46975 presented to the Department of Marketing is original and has not

been admitted for award of any Degree or Diploma either in this or any other tertiary

institution.

------------------------------------ -------------------------- Student Date

APROVAL PAGE

This research work written by Uzodinma, Ifeyinwa B. with Reg. No.

PG/M.Sc/07/46975 presented to the Department of Marketing, has been approved in

partial fulfillment for award of Master of Science (M.Sc) Degree in the Department

of Marketing.

-------------------------------------- ----------------------------- Prof. Ikechukwu E. Nwosu, Ph.D Date Supervisor

-------------------------------------- ----------------------------- Dr. (Mrs) Geraldine Ugwuonah Date Head of Department

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to God Almighty.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am eternally grateful to God Almighty, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ who has

given me life and the enablement to fulfill my life’s dreams in actualizing this M.Sc.

Degree Programme in Public Relations of which this project is a part.

I wish also to acknowledge and appreciate all those who have contributed to the

success of this project. My Project Supervisor, Prof. Ikechukwu E. Nwosu, Ph.D, is

highly acknowledged for his tremendous wealth of experience and scholarly

guidance. I also appreciate the encouragement and assistance of Dr. Joseph Uduji

who facilitated the commencement of this programme and urged me on.

It is my desire also to acknowledge Dr. Stanley ILBA Uzoh, whose assistance in the

areas of research to a great extent account for the success of this research work. To

the Staff of NTA Enugu, Zonal Network Center, ESBS Enugu, and AIT Enugu, I am

grateful for the valuable information on their organizations. Furthermore, I wish to

appreciate Evelyn Nwikpa, for typing the project with remarkable patience.

It is impossible to mention all that have contributed to the progress of this work. To

all of you good people, I express my very sincere appreciation.

Finally, I wish to recognize the support and encouragement of my very dear

Husband, Pastor Emeka Uzodinma (Engr.) and my wonderful children, Obiora,

Ifeatu, Toki and Azuka whose moral, spiritual and loving support have been of

tremendous inspiration.

Forever, my soul doth magnify the Lord my Maker, Redeemer and Strength.

Forever… Amen.

ABSTRACT Globally, television is a veritable tool for mass information, education entertainment and

mobilization. Television services are important to any nation for the dissemination of

information to the general public. It is a vital tool for the galvanizing and synergizing of

the very fabric of any community, state or nation. In Nigeria, the importance of

television services to the nation for information dissemination, for mass mobilization to a

common cause, for national development, for advancement of her nascent democracy

cannot be over emphasized. The research covered the Nigerian Television Authority

(NTA) Enugu Network Centre, the Enugu State Broadcasting Services (ESBS) and the

African Independent Television (AIT), Enugu. The research determined and established

the role of public relations in marketing television services in South East, Nigeria, where

these stations are domiciled. This is a survey method of research, which has made use of

primary and secondary data. The sample size is 195. The major findings in this research

work are that: Public Relations plays significant roles in marketing Television Services;

that NTA, ESBS, and AIT, apply Public Relations Strategies in marketing their services;

that Public Relations has made very great impact in the marketing of Television Services;

that inadequate funding, ignorance on the part of the organization, and lack of interest

on the part of the organization are sometimes factors constraining the application of

Public Relations in the marketing of Television Services. In conclusion, it is very

pertinent that Public Relations is applied in every facet of life, programmes, and

activities, within the private and public sectors of the economy; at home, in our personal

lives, if our desired goal(s) and objective(s) are to be actualized. It is therefore,

recommended that, in applying Public Relations in any of life’s endeavours, the applicant

must effectively, adequately and carefully plan, organize, implement, monitor and control

the right Public Relations Strategies achieve the desired result(s). Again, competent

professionals who in themselves are Public Relations Experts and members of the NIPR,

should be assigned the responsibility of handling all Public Relations activities and

programmes. Finally, the management of NTA, ESBS, and AIT, should develop and

exercise keener interest in Public Relations and its practice, as well as provide adequate

funding, if they must grow, excel and remain sustained and relevant in the market place.

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1: Total number of respondents - - - - 53

Table 4.2: Understanding of Public Relations - - - - 54

Table 4.3: Knowledge of Television Services marketing - - 54

Table 4.4: Does Public Relations plays any role in Marketing - 55

Table 4.5: Does Public Relations plays any significant role

in marketing Television Services - - - - 55

Table 4.6: Public Relations Strategies employed by T.V Stations

in marketing their products and Services - - - 56

Table 4.7: Does NTA, ESBS, and AIT apply Public Relations

Strategies in the marketing of their Services - - 57

Table 4.8: The impact Public Relations has made in marketing the

services of NTA, ESBS and AIT - - - - 57

Table 4.9: Are Funding, Ignorance, and or Lack of interest attitude

factors constraining the application of Public

Relations Strategies in marketing Television Services. - 58

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page - - - - - - - - i

Certification - - - - - - - - ii

Approval Page - - - - - - - - iii

Dedication - - - - - - - - iv

Acknowledgements - - - - - - - - v

Abstract - - - - - - - - vi

List of Tables - - - - - - - - vii

Table of Contents - - - - - - - - viii

CHAPTER ONE:

1.0 Introduction - - - - - - - - 1

1.1 Background of the study - - - - - - 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem - - - - - - 5

1.3 Objectives of the Study - - - - - - 5

1.4 Research Questions - - - - - - - 6

1.5 Formulation of Research Hypothesis - - - - 6

1.6 Significance of the Study - - - - - - 7

1.7 Scope of the Study - - - - - - - 8

1.8 Limitation of the Study - - - - - - 8

References - - - - - - - 9

CHAPTER TWO:

2.0 Review of related Literature - - - - - 10

2.1 Background of T.V Service in Nigeria - - - 10

2.2 Historical Background of the Areas of Study - - - 11

2.2.1 The NTA Enugu - - - - - - - 12

2.2.2 The ESBS Enugu - - - - - - 13

2.2.3 AIT Enugu - - - - - - - 13

2.3 The Meaning of Services - - - - - 17

2.4 Classification of Services - - - - - 17

2.5 Characteristics of Services and their Marketing Implications - - 18

2.6 Television Services - - - - - - - 20

2.6.1 Characteristics of Television - - - - - 20

2.6.2 Benefits of Television Services - - - - - 22

2.6.3 Types of Television Programmes - - - - - 23

2.6.4 Buying Time on Television - - - - - - 23

2.6.5 Management of Advertising on Television - - - 24

2.7 Conceptual Overview of Marketing - - - - 24

2.8 Functions of Marketing - - - - - - 24

2.9 Strategies for Marketing Services - - - - - 24

2.9.1 Building Customers Satisfaction through Quality, Service and Value - - - - - - - 25

2.9.2 Installing Complaint and Suggestion Systems - - - 26

2.9.3 Carrying out Customer Satisfaction Surveys - - - 26

2.9.4 Using External, Internal and Interactive Marketing - - 26

2.10 Managing Service Quality - - - - - - 27

2.11 Good Television Broadcasting - - - - - 28

2.12 Public Relations Conceptual Overview - - - - 29

2.13 Public Relations: Historical Overview - - - - 32

2.14 Public Relations Functional Areas - - - - - 36

2.14.1 Employee Relations - - - - - - - 36

2.14.2 Media Relations - - - - - - - 36

2.14.3 Community Relations - - - - - - 37

2.14.4 Financial Relations - - - - - - - 37

2.14.5 Corporate Public Relations - - - - - - 37

2.14.6 Political/Government Public Relations - - - - 38

2.14.7 Consumer Relations - - - - - - 38

2.15 Public Relations Planning - - - - - - 38

2.16 How to achieve and manage good Public Relations - - 43

2.17 Evaluating Public Relations - - - - - 44

2.18 Problems and Weaknesses of Public Relations - - - 46

References - - - - - - - - 48

CHAPTER THREE:

3.0 Research Design And Methodology - - - - 49

3.1 Research Design - - - - - - - 49

3.2 Research Method - - - - - - - 49

3.3 Sources of Data Collection - - - - - - 49

3.4 Population of the Study - - - - - 50

3.5 Sample Size Determination - - - - - - 50

3.6 Validity and Reliability of Data - - - - - 51

3.7 Method of Data Presentation, and Analysis - - - 51

3.8 Test of Hypothesis - - - - - - - 51

References - - - - - - - - 52

CHAPTER FOUR:

4.0 Data Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation - - - 53

4.1 Questionnaire Distribution and Responses - - - 53

4.2 Test of Hypothesis - - - - - - 58

CHAPTER FIVE:

5.0 Summary of Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations - 65

5.1 Summary of Findings - - - - - - 65

5.2 Conclusion - - - - - - - - 66

5.3 Recommendations - - - - - - - 66

Bibliography - - - - - - - 67

Appendixes - - - - - - - - 69

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The success of any organization depends largely on whether the organization

recognizes the most crucial aspect of business, that is, the customers or consumers

satisfaction. Consumers satisfaction is said to be the cornerstone of marketing

concept (Kotler, 1975). Marketing tends to mean different things to different people.

At the simplest level, it connotes a function performed only by business

organizations. However, all organizations (profit-oriented and non-profit oriented)

have products they want to sell, or have some customers, and therefore, are finding

“tools” to extol their virtues. For example, the manufacturing firms are in business

to make profit and they make profit by meeting the demands and needs of those who

want their products or services. This is where marketing comes in: ability to marry

such variables as “learning what consumers want, getting it produced as per

specification and selling at a profit”. Without customers, no amount of technology,

good funding or operational expertise can keep the company going (Kotler, 2001).

Consumer satisfaction therefore makes it necessary for an organization to be

marketing oriented. The organization must not only practice marketing but it must

also be effective in its practices of marketing, that is, it must use the right strategies

and marketing mix to offer total product benefits and satisfaction to consumers. This

is very necessary if the organization must survive, grow and remain competitive

(Jones, 2005).

Contemporary marketing operations have grown beyond the original concept of

perceiving the word ‘market’ only in terms of a defined location where buying and

selling transactions could take place e.g. the Orie Orba Market or Ogbete Market.

With the development of the means of communication (which in our own case

started with the traditional modes eg. Wooden and metal gongs, flute, etc) up to this

present stage when satellite transmission is in vogue, the world has now become a

‘global village’. Developing alongside, the communication industry is the business

world whose operations have equally become complex in nature.

There is no doubt that Public Relations practice in Nigeria as in other developing

countries has not assumed the high level of prominence prevalent in the United

States of America and Europe, but its relevance and importance in organizations is

steadily being recognized (Offonry, 1996). Development in business transactions

enhanced by advancement in communication technology, calls for an art and experts

in the art whose activities would revolve around the building of a healthy link

between an organization and its publics, both internal and external (Osuji, 1990). To

achieve this organizational objective, public relations employs tools of

communication like person-to-person contact, use of mass media, press releases,

press conferences various publications such as house journals, house magazines,

newsletters, pamphlets, tours and visits, exhibitions and trade fairs, etc. All these,

are deliberate efforts made at eliciting the goodwill of the various publics as well as

promoting the corporate image of an organization (Nwosu, 1990). One may at this

point ask: what relevance has Public Relations in Marketing? The British Institute of

Public Relations states that: “Public Relations is a planned and sustained effort to

establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding between an organization

and its publics”. From the above definition, one could infer that the major thrust of

PR functions focuses on the creation and maintenance of goodwill and mutual

understanding between an organization and its ‘publics’. Publics here refer to those

other organizations, and individuals and groups that enjoy the good services of a

particular organization.

Another tempting question at this point could be – why the goodwill and why the

mutual understanding between an organization and its publics? Embedded in this

inquiry lies the answer to the relevance of Public Relations and its dynamic

relationship to marketing. When we realize that ‘PR is not just a supplement to

advertising, but an aid to the entire marketing strategy’, then the picture begins to

crystallize. The vital link between Public Relations and marketing deals not only on

products and services but also with the publics.

As a management function, PR is interested in the production of goods and services;

it is interested in the marketing of the organizations products and services; PR is

equally concerned with the consumption of goods and services (Onah, 1996, in

Nwosu and Ekwo, 1996). The consumption of goods and services does not finally

end the public relations efforts. Interestingly, it extends this effort further at

determining the consumption pattern, behaviours, attitudes and opinions of

consumers with the sole aim of relating back to the organization for greater

efficiency in the production of goods and services ((Onah, 1996, in Nwosu and

Ekwo, 1996). This, it does through research. This process of reaching the consumer

and relating back to the organization – encourages and lubricates the two-way

communication system upon which the PR functions and activities are anchored.

In product marketing, testing the consumers attitude is very essential so as to

constantly satisfy customers and increase sales volume. This is even more important

in the case of competing products, where each competing brand strikes at distinctive

quality in order to outshine its competitors and thus control the greater portion of the

market ((Onah, 1996, in Nwosu and Ekwo, 1996),, In this case the marketing

communication mix which aims at effectively reaching the consumer plays a very

vital role. In this sense PR deals with the concept of total communication in the

process of hitting the organizational target. Kanu Offonry, contributing in the book

“Marketing in Nigeria’ summarized the PR use to marketing as to include: Projecting

the corporate image of an organization; Providing services to management;

Promoting effective government relations by understanding and interpreting national

aspirations and objectives; Helping to promote the product.

The practice of effective marketing is considered to be very crucial in all

organizations. A television house should practice effective marketing in order for

viewers and advertisers to patronize its channel. This is important today in Nigeria,

where viewers and advertisers have become very sophisticated and selective in their

choice of channel to watch or patronize. The practice of effective marketing is also

very important because of its role or impact on the achievement of an organization’s

corporate objective. The promulgation of the Media Ownership Decree, which

allows private individuals to run and operate broadcast media (radio and television)

has introduced another dimension in media competition. It becomes imperative that

every television house should undertake effective marketing of its services or else, it

will loose its viewers and customers.

In the South East, Zone of Nigeria, the following television houses compete for

viewers and advertisers: the Nigeria Television Authority (NTA), which is owned by

the federal government, and has a stations in all the five states of the South East;

Broadcasting Corporation of Abia Television (BCATV), owned by the Abia state

government; Anambra Broadcasting Service Television (ABSTV), owned by the

Anambra state government; Ebonyi Broadcasting Service Television (EBSTV),

owned by the state government; Enugu State Broadcasting Services (ESBS), owned

by the state government; Minaj Broadcasting Services, (MBS), which is privately

owned; and African Independent Television (AIT), equally privately owned.

This research work is a study of selected TV Stations in the South East. These are

the Nigeria Television Authority (NTA) Network Centre, Enugu; the Enugu State

Broadcasting Service (ESBS); and Africa Independent Television (AIT). These

three organizations are examined in order to determine and establish whether or not

they apply public relations in their marketing activities; and if they do, what role

public relations plays in their marketing activities

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM:

The approval of the Federal Government to private individuals to own and operate

media outfit, marked an important era in T.V Broadcasting. This development has

brought about intensive competition between the federal owned, state-owned, and

privately owned T.V stations. This competition is necessitated by the desire by these

media houses to survive and remain functional. Unfortunately, most of these media

houses lack what it takes to market their services very well, attract more customers,

and keep their customers perpetually loyal. These qualities, which range from

quality services; good customer relations; effective and efficient research and

development; clearer audio and video signals; widest possible reach for market

penetration; completive discounts and rebates; good and interesting programming;

good presenters; constant and up-to-date information on the progress and plans of the

organizations to the stakeholders and customers etc. are all Public Relations

functions, which when observed play a very significant role in marketing of TV

services. Non-appreciation of and therefore, the non-application of Public Relations

strategies either be due to ignorance of PR significance to marketing by many TV

stations, of lack of interest, or inadequate funding on the part of TV stations for PR

tools and strategies.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY:

The objectives of this research include:

i. To examine the role of Public Relations in Marketing

ii. To determine and establish the role of Public Relations in the marketing of

T.V Services

iii. To x-ray the Public Relations strategies adopted by television stations in

marketing their services.

iv. To ascertain if NTA, ESBS, and AIT apply Public Relations in marketing

their Services

v. To determine the impact Public Relations has made in marketing the

services of the NTA, ESBS, and AIT

vi. To determine whether inadequate funding, ignorance of PR significance

and lackadaisical attitude (lack of interest in PR) are major factors

constraining the effective application of Public Relations by T.V. Stations

in the marketing of their services

vii. To make recommendations based on the findings of the research.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

a. Does Public Relations play any role in marketing?

b. Does Public Relations play any significant role in marketing of T.V

Services?

c. What Public Relations strategies can a T.V Station adopt in the

marketing of its Services?

d. Have NTA, ESBS, and AIT adopted Public Relations in the marketing

of their Services?

e. What impact has Public Relations made in marketing the services of

NTA, ESBS, and AIT?

f. Are inadequate funding, ignorance of PR significance and lackadaisical

attitude major factors constraining T.V. Stations from effectively

applying Public Relations techniques and strategies in the marketing of

their Services?

1.5 FORMULATION OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

The researcher put forward the following hypotheses:

1. Ho: Public Relations does not play any significant role in the marketing of

T.V. Services

Hi: Public Relations plays significant roles in the marketing of T.V.

Services

2. Ho: NTA, ESBS, and AIT do not apply Public Relations in the marketing

of their Services

Hi: NTA, ESBS, and AIT apply Public Relations in the marketing of their

Services

3. Ho: Public Relations has made little or no impact in the T.V. Services

marketing of NTA, ESBS, and AIT.

Hi Public Relations has made great impact in the marketing of T.V.

Services of NTA, ESBS, and AIT.

4. Ho: Inadequate funding; ignorance of PR significance; and lackadaisical

attitude are no major factors constraining the application of Public

Relations strategies in marketing T.V. Services.

Hi: Inadequate funding; ignorance of PR significance; and lackadaisical

attitude are major factors constraining the application of Public

Relations strategies in marketing T.V. Services.

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

On completion, this research will be of immense assistance to the following:

a. Management and Owners: Through the findings, the owners and

management of these T.V stations will be in a position to assess their

strengths, weaknesses and opportunities with a view to capitalizing on their

strengths and opportunities, and evolving Public Relations strategies to

overcome their weaknesses. The findings of this research will also, help the

owners and management of these T.V. Stations make improvement in the

quality of T.V. services offered to consumers in order to retain their

patronage.

b. General Public: The research will be significant to the general public in

that, if the management and owners of these T.V. stations improve on the

quality of their services, it will ultimately lead to greater satisfaction to the

general public.

c. Potential Investors: This research will serve as an insight to potential

investors by bringing to light what marketing of T.V. services entails, the

constraining factors preventing the smooth running of T.V. stations and

possible solutions to these constraints. The potential investors will be better

equipped to decide for or against such an investment. It will also, serve as a

guide to potential investors who may be in doubt as to which of the T.V.

stations he or she may use to market or advertise his goods and services so

that his messages get to the target market.

d. Subsequent Researchers: This research will serve as reference material to

subsequent researchers on this topic.

1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

In carrying out the research, the researcher limited herself to South East, Nigeria,

using three television houses – NTA, ESBS and AIT operational within Enugu

Metropolis.

1.8 LIMITATIONS

This research was originally intended to go beyond the South East, and the three

television houses serving as areas of study, however, the researcher was constrained

by time and finance from extending the research to other zones and other T.V.

stations outside the South East. There was also a dearth of research data on the topic

under study.

REFERENCE

Akerka, A. (1991): “Emerging Technologies and the Quality of Life: A look into the

future” in The Journals of Public Relations, No. 1.

Jones, A. (2005): The Effective Salesman; New York: Albright Publishers.

Kolter, P. (1995) Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation and

Control; New Delhi: Prentice – Hall of India.

Kotler, P. (2001); Marketing Management (The Millennium Edition); New Delhi:

Prentice Hall of India.

Nwosu, I.E. (1990): Mass Communication and National Development; Aba: Frontier

Publisher Ltd.

Offonry, K. (1990): Public Relations in Nigeria; Owerri: New Africa Publishing

Company.

Onah, J.O (1996): “Professionalism in Public Relations and the role of Public

Relations in Modern Marketing” in Nwosu, I.E. and Ekwo, U.

(1996): Mass Media and Marketing Communications (Principles,

perspectives and practices); Enugu: Thought Communications

Publishers.

Osuji, C. (1990): Principles of Public Relations Practice (The Nigerian Approach);

Owerri: Opinion Research and Communications Ltd.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter, the researcher reviewed different dimensions in the marketing of

television services in Nigeria. The review of related literature, therefore, touches on

aspects such as a brief historical background of the NTA, ESBS and AIT, the

meaning of services, characteristics and marketing mix for services, strategies for

marketing services; types of television services, benefits of television services to

consumers, problems and prospects in the marketing of television services in

Nigeria, Public Relations conceptual overview, Public Relations historical overview,

Public Relations planning, functional areas in Public Relations etc.

2.1 BACKGROUND OF TELEVISION SERVICES IN NIGERIA

According to Aliede (1991) television development was motivated by political and

educational factors. Initially, it was the promise of the politicians to use television to

enhance the educational fortune of the masses. This goal was however not strictly

adhered to as the politicians later diverted the medium for propagandistic uses.

The Western Region of Nigeria was the first in tropical Africa to establish a

television station in October 31, 1959. The Central Government had condemned the

opposition, (Action Group), for walking out of the parliament during the

constitutional debate for independence. When the accused sought opportunities to

refute the allegation it was denied the chance to defend itself on the national radio.

Chief Obafemi Awolowo therefore, in response went on to set up the Western

Nigeria Television. Critics however, described it as wasteful and prestigious. Yet, it

became a regional pride and prestige. Its objective was said to be to satisfy the

educational aspirations of the region.

The Eastern Regional Government (NCNC), followed in 1960, the Northern NPC,

also did in 1962. Even the Federal Government joined the race in 1962. Therefore,

television in Nigeria was a child of political discord. The civil war, further gave

awareness of the potentials of the broadcast media. After the war, each of the 12

states sought to have its own television station, as each saw it as a mark of

independence.

All these, though, welcome and useful, served partisan political purposes for the

various governments, a heritage, which was later passed on to new politicians. Their

programmes were divisive and propagandistic, tailored to serve the needs of the

government in power.

A decade later, another scramble began, with the entry of the army into Nigerian

politics in 1966. For an initial 13 years; this brought changes – political, social,

economic-the civil war, oil boom, new constitution, new states (12 in 1967, 19 in

1976 and 21 in 1987, 30 in 1991 and 36 in 1997) which caused sectional

consciousness: statism. Each wanted its own facilities – universities, polytechnics,

hospitals, radio, and television house etc. Some states therefore, established state

television stations; Similarly Private TV Stations began to spring up. By 1976 there

were a total of 10 Television Stations owned by different State Governments.

To co-ordinate the 1973 all African games, all TV stations came together under one

body known as Broadcasting Organization of Nigeria (BON).

2.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ON THE AREAS OF STUDY

The three selected T.V stations for this study are the Nigerian Television Authority

(NTA), the Enugu State Broadcasting Services (ESBS), and the African Independent

Television (AIT). They are Federal, State, and Private owned respectively, and are

operational within Enugu, Enugu State, South East Zone of Nigeria.

2.2.1 Brief History of NTA

The Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) is the National Television Broadcasting

Network, for the people of Nigeria. Its key function is to provide, independent and

impartial television broadcasting for general reception in the interest of Nigeria. No

other television station in Nigeria is charged with the same social responsibility of

public interest broadcasting. Accordingly, the NTA seeks to serve as a tool for

national integration, mobilization, and unification. With only ten stations at its

inception in 1977, the NTA has grown rapidly from 27 stations in 1999 to 101,

following the decision by the Federal Government of Nigeria to further expand

television services in the year 2001 for wider reception, especially to the rural areas.

With this development, NTA can be said to be the largest network in Africa. At

present, NTA has 71 functional Television broadcasting stations with 30 others at

various stages of completion.

Network Centres

For effective operations and administration, Network centres have been established

across Nigeria to ensure that the diversity of the various geo-political zones are

reflected in its daily broadcasts. A Zonal Director administers each Network Centre.

The stations nearest to them are grouped under the Centres to which they are

responsible for operational matters. The Zonal Network Centres are eleven in

number: Lagos, Ibadan, Benin, Enugu, Kaduna, Sokoto, Maiduguri, Makurdi, Jos,

Port-Harcourt and Abuja.

NTA Stations

Each state capital has a full-fledged NTA station headed by a General Manager. The

Zonal Director as well as General Managers of the NTA stations report to the

Director General.

Community Stations

With the expansion, which started in year 2000, every state in Nigeria has on the

average three additional stations, one in every Senatorial District. The community

stations are headed by officers-in-charge who report to General Managers of State

capital stations nearest to them.

NTA INTERNATIONAL (NTAi)

NTA International (NTAi) provides a veritable platform for Africa and Nigeria to

tell their own story, in their own way, to the world. NTA International (NTAi) is

Africa’s window to the world. Transmission to the United Kingdom commenced on

25th June 2008 via BSKyB Cable Network Channel 202. Other carriers of NTAi

signals in Europe include Arquilla’ and Ben TV in London. Transmission to the

United States of America commenced before the end of 2008, Currently, there any

scheduled broadcasts to the USA, UK and Europe, Washington DC, USA, Canada,

parts of Germany and Asia.

BROADCAST CHANNELS

Nigeria - DSTV Channel 130 (West Africa Bouquet)

UK/part of Europe - BSKyB Channel 202

BSKyB Channel 184

Ben TV Europe

Intelsat 905

Washington DC Area

USA - Mhz

- Comsat Cable

- Intelsat America 5 (IA.5)

USA and Canada

- Mhz TV Comsat Cable

- Via Satellite on Intelsat America

- 5 (1.1-5)

NTAi regular programme and comprehensive Newscasts are carefully planned and

scheduled to showcase the African perspective to the International Community.

Repositioned to reach international audiences and markets, NTAi is the break

through channel! Partnering with NTAi gives advertisers the extra mileage for

reaching an extrapolated 200 million adults and children worldwide.

NTAi is breaking into the international market to satisfy a wider yearning for

Africa’s story to be told by Africans. With its large human and materials resourced,

NTAi has enormous deliverables for various publics. A veritable nostalgic-relieving

station for generations of the African millions in the Diaspora. NTAi is a window of

opportunity to network with international patrons/client at user friendly costs and

conditions.

NTA-You Can’t Beat The Reach!

NTA NEWS 24

NTA News-24 is undoubtedly Nigeria’s very first 24-hour round-the-clock News

Channel designed to provide timely, accurate and objective news stories on hourly

basis with dispassionate analysis of national events and developments as they occur

for the enlightenment of our teeming viewers within and outside Nigeria.

The very first of its kind in Nigeria NTA News-24 provides additional platform for

NTA’s agenda-setting role through dialogue and debate on issues of National

Interest and the global community, providing information, education, entertainment,

news and sports to NTA’s esteemed, numerous viewers.

News-24 explores different styles and formats, with versatile packages and attractive

treatment making news content interesting, easy to understand, giving every

Nigerian a sense of worth. News-24 enhanced by dynamic presentation, a departure

from the old school conservatism, livelier, less formal, less rigid and more colorful.

Spontaneous and fresh live reports come direct from different locations as they

happen. Exciting human angle interest stories is the major thrust of NTA News 24.

Vision

To be a World Class Television Network

Mission

To provide Excellent Television Service Worldwide and project the true African

Perspective

Goals and Objectives

To inform, educate and entertain viewers, providing can effective coverage of

Nigeria, and Broadcasting Internationally acceptable programmes.

Core Values

Professionalism, Accuracy, Credibility, Impartiality, Balance and Objectivity,

National Interest, Social Responsibility, Sensitivity, Commitment to world Peace and

Development with Africa as centre-piece.

NTA ENUGU ZONAL NETWORK CENTRE

NTA Enugu Network Centre operates local and network transmission as part of the

network of the Nigerian Television Authority. With a total of 71 operational stations

spread across the Federal Capital, the NTA has 30 stations still at various stages of

development.

The NTA spread of stations ensures adequate signals coverage of the country and

many countries of the International Community in Germany, the USA, Europe and

many Asian Countries.

The Grand Daddy of them all, as it were, NTA in October 2009 celebrated 50 years

of television in Nigeria and indeed Africa. The first television signals in Africa was

beamed from NTA Ibadan in the Western Region of Nigeria in 1959, then known as

Western Nigeria Television (WNTV).

The Eastern Nigeria television (ENTV) in Enugu immediately followed in 1960.

Thereafter, other TV stations came into existence.

The Nigeria Television Authority Channel – 8 Enugu, is one of the 71 Stations of the

NTA. The station was opened on the eve of Nigeria Independence, in October, 1,

1960, then as the Eastern Nigerian Broadcasting Services/Television. It was the

second television station in Nigeria, after WNTV-Western Nigeria Television,

inaugurated in 1959.

Movement to Independence Layout, the present site began in 1966, when the Nigeria

Civil war began. At the end of the war in 1970, the studios lay in ruins. The

organization now became known as East Central State Broadcasting Services

ECBS/TV and only the Radio Station was operational.

Reopening of the ECBS-TV was in two parts. The Aba Station of the ECSB-TV was

the first to be reopened at Ogbor Hill, Aba, in September 1974. Two weeks later in

October 15, 1974 – The opening ceremony of Enugu Station of the BCBS-TV was

performed by Mr. Ukpabi Asika, the East Central State Administrator.

The station’s name changed again in 1979, following the creation of seven new

states in Nigeria. Anambera State and Imo State were created out of the formers

East Central State, ECSBS-TV became Anambra State Broadcasting Service while

the Aba Station geographically created in the newly created Imo State became

autonomous of the Enugu TV Station to be known as NTA Aba-Owerri.

By the Nigeria Television Authority Decree 24 of 1977, the Federal Government,

took over control of the television Division; Anambra Broadcasting Service became

NTA Enugu Channel – 8

2.2.2 The Enugu State Broadcasting Service(ESBS) Enugu:

What is today known as Enugu State Broadcasting Services – ESBS has undergone a

great deal of metamorphosis. It was first opened in 1960, as one of the memorable

ceremonies marking Nigeria’s attainment of Independence, and was then called

Eastern Nigeria Broadcasting Corporation – ENBC.

It has borne such names as East Central Broadcasting Services (ECBS), Anambra

Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) and at present Enugu State Broadcasting Service

(ESBS) following the creation of the East Central State, the old Anambra State and

the creation of Enugu State respectively. Meanwhile, in 1977, the ECBS had to

change its name to Anambra Broadcasting Corporation, (ABC), following the

establishment of a second station at the Ninth Mile Corner, known as ABC I, while

the Hill Top Station continued as ABC II. In 1980, the ABC II was opened at

Onitsha as a commercial station to mark the 20th anniversary of Broadcasting, East of

the Niger.

The Jim Nwobodo administration followed this up with the establishment of the

Anambra Television Channel – 50 (ATVCHANNEL FIVE – 0) in 1981. And in

1985 both ABC Radio and the ATV – 50 were merged into what was then known as

the Anambra Broadcasting Service (ABS) with Radio and T.V. Stations in Enugu

and Onitsha. Today, the Enugu studios of the former ABS has come to be known as

the Enugu State Broadcasting Service, (ESBS), and it transmits on UHF Channel 50.

2.2.3 Africa Independent Television (AIT)

Structure Composition

AIT’s management relies on a careful blend of home-grown Nigerian expertise plus

a backup of seasoned professionals from Europe, the United States and other parts of

Africa. All members of the management team are highly accomplished practitioners

in the field of broadcasting with the proven capabilities required in this highly

competitive sector. Senior Management Staff are ably augmented by a dedicated

workforce, carefully selected from the growing pool of indigenous broadcasting

talents.

The Broadcast Company

DAAR Communications did not start broadcast operation until 1994, six years after

incorporation. This was due to legislative initiative in Nigeria’s broadcast sector. It

was not until August 24, 1992, about fifty years after the advent of broadcasting in

Nigeria that the government promulgated Decree No. 38 which deregulated the

ownership of the electronic media in the country.

Following this piece of legislation, which ushered in a new era of private ownership

of Radio and Television Stations, DAAR Communications applied for Radio,

Television and Direct Broadcasting by satellite license. The license was

subsequently granted. It began full commercial broadcast operations on 1st of

September 1994 on its high profile radio channels with the call sign, Raypower

100.5, the first private independent radio station in the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

Funding

Initial funding of Daar Cmmunications Ltd came from Daar Investment & Holding

Company and the founder of the conglomerate – Chief Raymond Aleogho Anthony

Dokpesi, Ph.D. As a measure of its confidence in the project, a consortium of

leading banks in Nigeria actively supported the company. Leading the consortium is

Union Bank of Nigeria Plc. Other participants are First Bank of Nigeria Plc, NAL

Merchant Bank Plc, Afribank Plc and Lead Merchant Bank Plc.

In line with the regulations of the Nigerian Stock Exchange (NSE) and the Security

& Exchange Commission (SEC) which requires a minimum of five years of

operation before quotation on the first tier of the Stock Exchange, shares were noted

and publicly quoted for the Nigeria Stock Exchange in 2007. This provided the

opportunity to widen the ownership base as well as raise funds to implement the

expansion of the company to all parts of the globe.

Audience

AIT’s audience is global with general viewership. AIT’s appeal is to a broad cross-

section of popular tastes. To those seeking authentic and authoritative information

about the Africa, Caribbean and Afro-American experience, AIT provides the natural

programming choice.

Coverage

AIT beams quality programs round the clock which are down-linked and

redistributed in Africa, the whole of Americas, Mexico and the Caribbean. AIT’s in-

depth coverage aims to keep global viewers fully in tune with the soul of an African

broadcaster offering premium quality services.

Transmission Schedule for Daar’s Services.

Daar Communications Limited broadcast stations are on air 24 hours daily. The

Internet Company also provides a 24 hours service.

AIT Global Satellite Parameters.

Satellite: Telstar 5

Oribital Position: 97w

Number of Transponder: 26

Polarization: 12, 151

Polarization: Horizontal

Symbol Rate: 22 Mband/s

FEC: ¾ (.75).

Standard: MPEG2/DBV fully Complaint

Website: www.globecastwtv.com

AIT

December 6, 1996 heralded the coming of a star in global Satellite Broadcasting,

Africa Independent Television Channel 21. AIT provides a fresh slant to TV.

Broadcasting with a unique programming theme that shares the African Experience

with the wider global community.

The Vision

AIT Channel 21, and AIT International share the same vision and a similar mission.

AIT has a unique mission that of sharing the African Experience with the wider

global community. With its fascinating cross-cultural theme and vibrant programme

content, Africa Independent Television (AIT) aims to share everything that is

exciting about the African experience with the nations of the world. The station’s

logo and pay-off, AIT- Sharing the African Experience worldwide. This sentiment is

proudly echoed in AIT’s corporate identity – AIT Sharing the African experience.

Mission

With a thematic pay-off which emphasizes the objective of sharing the unique

African experience with the world, AIT’s mission is to enhance global understanding

through an untainted appreciation of the world and its peoples.

Unusual amongst global satellite broadcasting stations, AIT is motivated by uniquely

altruistic aims to promote a methodical reduction of tension and friction and foster a

greater appreciation of humanity. It is committed to the task of bridging the gap in

global communication, which places Africa at the ruthless mercy of western

perspectives, opinions and nuances. AIT’s main task is to project Africa from a

wholistic African prospective. Untainted, undiluted and absolutely original. AIT

offers the world a new insight into the African experience.

Management Structure

The management structure allows for autonomy in the running of the distinct

services that make up the broadcast company, Raypower 100.5, Raypower 2

106.5FM, AIT, and Daar Internet with separate general managers for each of the

stations. The autonomy of the distinct arms is only limited to the extent that it is

answerable to a Board of Management, which is headed by a Chief Operating Office.

2.3 MEANING OF SERVICE

Kotler (1995), defines service as any act or performance that one party can offer to

another, that is essentially intangible and does not result in the ownership of

anything. Its production may or may not be tied to a physical product.

The American Marketing Association defines services as “activities, benefits or

satisfaction, which are offered for sale, or are provided in connection with the sale of

goods”.

According to Station (1975), services are separately identifiable and/or industrial

users and which are not necessarily tied to the sale of a product or another service.

Example of services include medical care, insurance, repair services, entertainment

etc.

2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SERVICE

An organization’s offer to the market place usually includes some services. The

service component can be a minor or a major part of the total offer. The offer can

range from a pure good on the one hand to a pure service on the other. Five

categories of offer can be distinguished.

a. A Pure Tangible Good: Here, the offer consists primarily of a tangible

good such as soap, tooth-paste, or salt. No services accompany the product.

b. A Tangible Good with Accompanying Services: Here, the offer consists of a

tangible good accompanied by one or more services to enhance its consumer

appeal. For example, an automobile manufacture must sell more than an

automobile. Levift (1998) observes that “the more technologically

sophisticated the generic product (e.g, cars and computers), the more

dependent are its sales on the quality and availability of its accompanying

customer services (e.g, delivery, repairs and maintenance, application aids

etc).

c. A hybrid: Here, the offer consist of equal parts of goods and services.

Restaurants, for example, are patronized both for their food and their services.

d. A Major Service with Accompanying Minor Goods and Services: e.g.,

airline passengers, buy transportation services but receive magazine, food,

drink, ticket stub etc.

e. A Pure Service: Here, the offer consists primarily of a service. Examples

include baby-sitting, psychotherapy and massages.

As a consequence of this varying goods-services mix, it is difficult to generalize

about services unless further distinctions are made.

First, services vary as to whether they are equipment-based or people-based. People-

based services vary by whether they are provided by unskilled, skilled or

professional workers. Some services require the presence of the client. Thus, brain

surgery involves the client’s presence, but a car repair does not. If the client must be

present, the service provider has to be considerate of his needs.

Services differ as to whether they meet a personal need (personal services). Service

providers typically develop different marketing programmes for personal and

business markets. Finally, service providers differ in their objectives (profit or non-

profit and ownership (private or public). These two characteristics, when crossed,

produce four quite different types of service organizations. (Kotler,1995).

2.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF SERVICES AND THEIR MARKETING

IMPLICATIONS

According to Kotler (1995) services have four major characteristics that greatly

affect the design of marketing programmes namely;

a. Intangibility: Intangible Services, unlike physical products, cannot be

seen, tasted, felt, heard, or smelled before they are bought. The person getting

a “face lift” cannot see the results before the purchase, and the patient in the

psychiatrists office cannot predict the outcome. To reduce uncertainty, buyers

will look for signs or evidence of the service quality. They will draw

inferences about service quality from the place, people, equipment,

communication materials, symbols, and price that they see. Therefore, the

task of the service provider is to “manage the evidence” to tangibilize the

intangible. (Levitt, 1981). Whereas product marketers are challenged to add

abstract ideas, service marketers are challenged to put physical evidence and

imagery on their abstract offers.

b. Inseparability: Services are typically produced and consumed

simultaneously. This is not true of physical goods that are manufactured, put

into inventory, distributed through multiple resellers, and consumed still later.

If the service is rendered by a person, then, the provider is part of the service.

Since the client is also present, as the service is produced, provider-client

interaction is a special feature of service marketing. Both the provider and the

client affect the service outcome.

c. Variability: Services are highly variable, since they depend on who provides

them, when and where they are provided. Service buyers are aware of this

high variability and frequently talk to others before selecting a service

provider.

Service firms can take three steps towards quality control. The first is

investing in good personnel selection and training. The second step is

standardizing the service performance process throughout the organization.

This is helped by preparing a service blue print which, depicts the service

event and processes in a flow chart, with the objective of recognizing

potential service fail points. The third step is monitoring customer

satisfaction through suggestion and complaint systems, customer surveys, and

comparison in shopping so that poor service can be detected and corrected.

d. Perishability: Services cannot be stored. The perishability of services

is not a problem when demand is steady because it is easy to staff the services

in advance. When demand fluctuates, service firms have difficult problems.

For example, public transportation companies have to own much more

equipment because of rush-hour demand than they would if demand were

even throughout the day.

2.6 TELEVISION SERVICE

Television service has become very important in Nigeria, where about 80% of

households now own television sets, with about 30% of households owning more

than one TV set. Television has gradually evolved to become the most influential

advertising media. The expenditure by advertisers on television is often higher than

that of any other media. As an advertising medium, television has been noted to

offer the following advantages:

1. It offers a mix of sound, sight, motion and colour and these make possible

an almost limitless range of creative opportunities that could be exploited

by any advertiser.

2. Television has mass coverage and reach particularly in the urban areas.

3. The cost per person reached is comparatively low.

4. The availability of many selectively targeted programmes ensures that

inspite of the mass audience, it is still possible to use television to reach

selected targets.

5. Since viewing tends to be highly emotionally involving, a high degree of

viewer empathy is achieved. It is therefore easy for viewers to relate to

the context of television.

The disadvantages of television as an advertising medium has also been stated as:

1. Cost of production as well as placement tends to be too high for small and

medium size advertisers.

2. More than any other medium, television adverts suffer from the problem

of clutter.

3. Moreover, and particularly in developing countries like Nigeria, there is

the problem of poor transmission, especially of network programmes.

This is however, gradually being eliminated.

4. Television is highly inaccessible to the vast majority of the population

who do not own TV sets.

2.6.1 Characteristics of Television:

Jefkins (1980) outlined the special features of television as opposed to the print

medium.

i. In addition to sound, television has movement, vision and colour, although,

of course, there are still many black and white sets.

ii. Television is the greatest mass medium of entertainment. Television and

motion pictures are said to be the most captivating media because to get a

message transmitted from them, the key senses of hearing, seeing and

feeling are almost always engaged at the same time, unlike in the

newspapers, magazines and radio which have little levels of captivity of our

sensory system.

iii. The production of TV programmes is time-consuming and costly.

Simultaneity or simultaneous delivery of the message to the people (e.g. live

report of an event) as the event is going on, is also higher in the electronic

media than the print media. Almost all participation in television consume a

lot of time and money, due to the process of research, preparation, rehearsal

and production that is inherent in the medium.

iv. Being a predominantly a visual medium, another service consideration is

that the material or personality must be visually interesting and attractive.

Newspapers, magazines and books are impersonal media, while radio,

television and film are considered to be warm and personal media.

v. Radio, television and film media have higher mobility and transportability

than the print media. Mobility is concerned with the ease with which

electronic or print media production equipment can be moved about during

production of their message contents. Transportability, on the other hand, is

the power of the medium to carry the receiver over to the scene of an event

that is taking place outside its usual place of production, such as during the

production of “live shows” or on-the-spot coverage of events.

vi. Television and radio are the most universal media. Universality refers to the

extensiveness or commonness of a medium as well as the number of people

that can expose themselves to the medium’s message without much personal

requirement. One does not have to be highly literate to get or understand

most radio and television messages, unlike the newspaper or magazine

messages.

vii. Finally, there are the mass media characteristics of flexibility and

credibility. Television and radio, are considered professionally to be the

most flexible media because of their ability to easily change or adjust their

production plans or pattern to accommodate last minute developments or

events in their message dissemination or productions.

2.6.2 Benefits of Television Services:

Television broadcasting provides a number of benefits to consumers:

a. The News Benefits: The television has since 1959 been keeping Nigerians

informed on events, within and outside the country. One objective of this news

function is an attempt to help develop and inform citizenry.

b. The Education/ Information Benefits: The television medium has a

significant role in spreading general information as well as formal education.

Through television, Nigerians have a chance of learning about the need, for

instance, of inoculation against cholera or whooping cough, about the necessary

steps against other diseases, about their legal and constitutional rights, civic

duties, including the need to pay rate, register to vote, and actually vote during

election and so on.

c. The Economic Benefits: By advertising goods and services, the television

contributes to the growth of the economy. Companies need to sell heavily to

make profit, and the most painless way to get the public to buy is by

advertising. The link between advertising and national development is obvious.

The media devote space and time to announce the availability of goods and

services. The reselling companies receive more revenue for growth and

expansion and thus, find themselves in a position to employ more persons, and

thus, contributing indirectly towards economic development.

d. Entertainment and other Benefits: Television is a powerful means of giving

entertainment to viewers, through various types of programmes such as drama,

films, dance, musical shows, sporting events and others. Television contributes

to cultural development in the country. (Ekwelie, 1993).

2.6.3 Types of Television Programme:

Every television house has a programme, which it runs for a particular time and

period, for example, quarterly at specific day and time of the week. According to

Jefkins (1980), a typical television quarterly programme schedule may contain the

following:

a. National News Bulletins.

b. Current Affairs Programmes

c. Political Programmes

d. Sport Programmes

e. Health programmes

f. Services on numerous topics, both informative (e.g. gardening,

cooking).

g. Finance and Economy.

h. Drama, Films, plays and serials.

i. Music e.g. Promenade concerts, top of the pops, Jazzvile etc.

j. Religion, early Sunday Morning hymn.

k. Chat shows, where the presenter interviews personalities.

l. Children’s programmes

m. Science programmes e.g Tomorrow’s World.

n. Educational programmes e.g. Language Course, Uniair, Quiz/

Competition.

2.6.4 Buying Time on Television

Television commercials are usually produced in formats of 15,30,45 and 60 seconds

duration. Once produced, the advertiser through his agency has to worry about the

exposure of the commercial to the target audience.

Television stations sell their commercial time in units of 15, 30, 45 and 60 seconds.

An advertiser can buy several spots of the time applicable to his commercial. For

instance, he can pay for 100x30 seconds spots. This means that his 30 sees

commercial will be aired 100 times by the station.

Normally in buying spot time, the advertiser will indicate the time belt he wants his

commercial on. The time belt offering the heaviest viewing (usually 7 – 10pm) cost

more (NTA Advert Rate 2005). However, apart from spot time, an advertiser can

elect, if he is able to afford it, to sponsor programmes either on network or local

television stations. The sponsorship gives him control over the programme and

entitles him to have his adverts played during programme breaks, and also, at the

beginning and end of the programme. An advertiser can jointly sponsor with others

or sponsor alone.

Once all decisions on number of spots to book and time belt to buy into are made,

the next action is to go ahead and make the booking with the relevant stations using

the space or air-time order.

2.6.5 Management of Advertising on Television

Advertising is the major and most important source of revenue for television

stations. Its management on most television stations is therefore given prominence.

Usually, advertising is the responsibility of the commercial or marketing department

of the station. In most Nigerian TV stations, the head of the commercial or

marketing department is referred to as commercial or marketing manager. In the

NTA Zonal Network Center, the head of marketing is an Assistant Director. Other

nomenclatures are used, in other state and private TV stations, but these seem to be

the most common.

The advertising functions performed by the marketing department are similar to that

of the advertising department of any newspaper. They ensure that all the adverts that

come in are properly scheduled and prepared for broadcast, properly monitoring the

broadcast and making good where necessary. At the same time, they ensure

immediate “invoicing” of agencies for adverts carried and take steps to ensure

prompt settlement of the bills. They also undertake extensive agency liaison to

attract adverts and also as well as perform the function of direct canvassing of

advertisers (Jefkins, 1990: 320).

2.7 CONCEPTUAL OVERVIEW OF MARKETING

Marketing is the management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and

satisfying customer requirements profitably (Tench and Yeomans, 2006). According

to the Chartered Institute of Marketing, in Jefkins and Yadin (1998), marketing is the

management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying

customer requirement profitably. Marketing as a commercial process, spans a whole

spectrum of activities ranging from the conception of a product idea, product

planning, development and fabrication or processing, through product pricing,

promotion and distribution, to transportation, installation, servicing (where

applicable) of the fabricated or processed product. It does not even end here but

extends to such other activities as monitoring the performance of the product in the

course of its use, advising the consumer or buyer on how to get the best out of the

product and so on. Marketing, therefore, differs from production not only because, it

involves the pre-and post-production activities just enumerated but also because, it

involves exchange as a process of commercial transfer of goods and services

between individuals or economic units. In primitive economies, individuals and

groups (households) engaged in the production of goods and services for their own

consumption, that is, without any surplus for exchange (a case of the so-called

subsistence economy). Today, this is no longer the case.

An example will serve to illustrate the various ramifications of the marketing

process. Assuming the consumer chooses any of the goods usually purchased and

consumed or used in the Nigerian society such as a pair of shoes, a safari suit, a

carton of pineapple juice, a piece of furniture, or a brewing plant, and traces its

journey from its conception (product idea) by its makers to its consumption by the

buyer, he or she would discover that a series of activities and decisions preceded the

purchase and consumption of the product. In the first place, the producer or maker

must have identified a need or a want or conceived of a new way of satisfying an

existing one. This must have been possible through accidental or planned and

purposeful interaction with the market (the actual and potential buyers of the

product). In other words, the product idea might have been the result of unplanned,

more or less informal interaction of the marketer with buyers or the result of well

planned, well co-ordinated and goal-oriented marketing research activities of the

marketer or producer, his employees or agents, aimed at gathering information about

the needs and wants of buyers as a basis for the creation of the goods and services

required for the satisfaction of the buyer. In addition to providing this sort of

information about the specific wants-satisfying product, a well planned marketing

research would also provide information to the marketer about the number of people

who would be willing to buy the envisaged product, the expected volume of their

purchases, their location, timing of their purchases and other aspects of their

purchase behaviour.

The marketer would also make plans to produce the product, give it a name (a brand

name), shape it, package it, price it and make it known as well as make it available

and sell it to the intended or target market. As indicated above, all these (and more)

are included in the process of marketing. The marketer “assumes the role of the

entrepreneur in identifying market opportunities and relates these to the skills,

productive relates capacity and other resources of the company”.

It is not difficult to see from the above discussions that production is a tool of

marketing, which as a managerial/social process, involves creating goods and

services to satisfy the needs and wants of individuals and organizations. As a needs

and wants – satisfying process, marketing also involves such post-purchase activities

as delivery, installation and other similar services.

2.8 FUNCTIONS OF MARKETING

As indicated above, marketing as a commercial process, performs many functions in

order to satisfy buyers and achieve the objectives of the marketer to survive in a

competitive environment, make profit and grow.

The first and most important function of marketing is offering products and services

to the market: without a product or service, a marketer has no business with buyers.

In fact, he or she ceases to be a marketer. Successful marketing also requires that the

product or service created and offered is acceptable to the market. This means that

the product or service must be made after due consideration of the buyer’s needs and

wants.

Another important marketing function is information: the provision of accurate

information about the buyer and his environment. This derives from the fact that

marketing decisions are complex, future-oriented and therefore, uncertain. It is also

a consequence of the fact that the buyer is a complex and unpredictable being, whose

buying behaviour and motives can change from time to time. In order to appeal to

the buyers of his or her products, the marketer must produce the right product, give it

the right shape and colour, the right packaging and price and promote it

appropriately. These activities precede the purchase decisions of the buyer and

unless they are based on accurate information about the buyer’s characteristics,

preferences and decision process, they cannot appeal to him or her. In addition,

many other variables, which determine success or failure in the market place must be

considered. These include the actions and reactions of competitors, changing

economic environment, government laws and regulations as well as the ever-

changing nature of other micro-and macro-environmental factors. A continuous

flow of marketing information is, therefore, vital for the effective monitoring of

these and similar environmental factors and imperatives for the success of the

marketer and the satisfaction of the society. This information flow is facilitated by

the organization’s marketing information system, which is a system of information

gathering, processing, analysis, interpretation and use by marketing management for

decision making, that is, for planning, implementation and control of marketing

activities.

Marketing communication is another function of marketing that is accorded a high

degree of significance in marketing theory and practice. This is because, a product

or service remains in the dark, unknown and unsought for, no matter how attractive it

is, unless its existence and attributes are made public through marketing

communication. Although marketing communication has several objectives, the

most fundamental are to inform the target audience about the products or services of

the marketer, their attributes and advantages over competitors’ products and to

persuade the target audience to purchase the products or services. The major tools of

marketing communication are advertising, public relations, publicity, personal

selling and sales promotion.

Bridging the temporary and spatial gaps between the marketer (producer or seller)

and the buyer or between the production and the consumption of goods and services

is also an originally acknowledged function of marketing. The objective of the

marketer here is to ensure that goods and services are available where and when they

are needed. It is common knowledge that products of various types are made

hundreds or even thousands of kilometers away from where they are consumed. It is

also known everywhere that many agricultural products such as yam, pineapple,

orange and banana are harvested during specific periods of the year but consumed all

year round. It is the duty of the marketer to ensure, in each of these cases, that the

products concerned are made available where and when they are needed by the

buyer. These objectives are achieved by the provision of adequate transportation and

storage facilities and by ensuring that agricultural goods are processed and

preserved. A good deal of the problems militating against marketing in Nigeria

today stems from its inability to effectively perform this function. The movement of

goods from areas of production to areas of consumption is generally inefficient and

inadequate owing to poor planning. Many soft-drink companies are, for instance,

known to be spending large sums of money today promoting the sale of their

products throughout Nigeria, only to discover that these products are hardly available

in many areas where demand for them is very high. Also a study undertaken by

Udeagha in 1989 shows that most of the fruits and vegetables wasted in Nigeria

through spoilage during harvest seasons could be put to gainful use if they were

processed and preserved, because a large market exists for processed and preserved

fruits and juices in the country.

Other functions of marketing include selling, financing and, above all, risk-bearing,

which is inherent in all marketing decisions as future-oriented activities.

2.9 STRATEGIES FOR MARKETING SERVICES

According to Kotler (1995), companies wanting to win, let alone survive, need a new

philosophy. Only customer-centered companies will win, those that can deliver

superior value to their target customers. These companies should be able to build

customers, not just building products. They should be skillful in marketing

engineering, not just product engineering.

From a simple perspective, marketing entails a collection of techniques designed to

answer questions concerning: What to sell –the product or services; to whom –

identifying the actual and potential customer, his needs and purchasing motivations,

seeking out changing patterns, in consumer behaviour and buying patterns; How-

definition and implementation of a development strategy in which areas can one

build a competitive advantage.

Major areas of action can be divided into: definition of the product or services to be

offered, obtaining a knowledge of the market, pricing policies, plan development,

building client trust, sales force management, ethics in marketing, communicating

with targets.

2.9.1 Building Customer Satisfaction through Quality Services and Value

Customer delivered value is the difference between total customer value and total

customer cost. Total customer value is the bundle of benefits customers expects

from a given product or service. Buyers will buy from the firm that they perceive to

offer the highest customer delivered value. Customers estimate which offer will

deliver the most value. Customers are value conscious. Within the bounds of

research costs and limited knowledge, mobility and income, they form an

expectation of value and act on it. Then they learn whether the offer lived up to the

value expectation and this affects their satisfaction and their repurchase probability.

Satisfaction is the level of a person’s felt state resulting from comparing a product’s

perceived performance (or outcome) in relation to the person’s expectations. Thus

the satisfaction level is a function of the difference between perceived performance

and expectations. A customer could experience one of three brand levels of

satisfaction; if the performance falls short of expectations the customer is

dissatisfied. If the performance matches the expectations, the customer is highly

satisfied, pleased or delighted.

Companies seeking to win in today’s markets must track their customer’s

expectations, perceived company performance, and customer satisfaction. They

need to monitor this for their competitors as well (Kotler 1995).

2.9.2 Installing Complaint and Suggestion Systems

A customer – centered organization would make it easy for its customers to deliver

suggestions and complaints. Such information-flow provides these companies with a

lot of good ideas for improved performance and enables them to act more rapidly to

resolve problems.

2.9.3 Carrying out Customers satisfaction survey

Kotler (1995) warns that a company must not conclude that it can get a full picture of

customer satisfaction and dissatisfaction by simply running a complaint and

suggestion system. Studies show that customers are dissatisfied with one out of

every four purchases and less than 5% of dissatisfied customers will complain.

Customers may feel that their complaints are minor, or that they will be made to feel

stupid or that no remedy will be offered. Most customers will buy less or switch

loyalty rather than complain. The result is that the company has needlessly lost

customers.

Therefore, companies cannot use complaint levels as a measure of customer

satisfaction. Responsive companies obtain a direct measure of customer satisfaction

by conducting periodic surveys. They send questionnaire or make telephone calls to

a random sample of their recent customers to find out how they feel about various

aspects of the company’s performance. They will also solicit buyers views of their

competitor’s performance.

2.9.4 Using External Marketing, Internal Interactive Marketing

Gronroos (1984) recommends that service marketing requires not only external

marketing, but also internal and interactive marketing.

External marketing describes the normal work done by the company to prepare,

price, distribute and promote the services to customers. Internal marketing describes

the work done by the company to train and motivate its employees to serve

customers well. Berry (1986) argues that the most important contribution the

marketing department can make is to be exceptionally clever in getting everyone else

in the organization to practice marketing.

Interactive marketing describes the employee’s skill as serving the client. The client

judges service quality not only by its technical quality, but also, by its functional

quality. Professionals along with other services providers must deliver “high touch”

as well as “high tech.” (Zeithaml, 1981).

2.10 MANAGEMENT OF SERVICES QUALITY

One of the major ways to differentiate a service firm is to deliver consistently higher-

quality service than competitors. The key is to meet or exceed the target customers’

service – quality expectation. Their expectations are formed by their past

experience, word of mouth, and service – firm advertising. The customers choose

providers on this basis and, after receiving the service, they compare the perceived

service with the expected service.

Parasuraman et al (1985) formulates a service – quality model that highlights the

main requirements for delivering the expected services quality. The model identifies

five gaps that cause unsuccessful service delivery they include.

1. Gap between Consumer Expectation and Management Perception:

Management does not always perceive correctly what customers want.

2. Gap between Management Perception and Service Quality Specification:

Management might correctly perceive the customers wants but not set

a specified performance standard to achieve it.

3. Gap between Service – Quality Specifications and Service Delivery: The

personnel might be poorly trained or overworked and incapable or unwilling

to meet the standard. Or they may be held to conflicting standards, such as

taking time to listen to customers and serving them fast.

4. Gap between Service Delivery and External Communications: Consumer

expectations are affected by statements made by company representatives and

advertisement. If a hospital brochure shows a beautiful room but the patient

arrives and finds the room to be cheap and run down, then the external

communication has distorted the customer’s expectations.

5. Gap between Perceived Service and Expected Service: This gap occurs

when the consumer measures the company’s performance in a different way

and misperceives the service quality. For instance, a physician may visit his

patient more often to show adequate care, but the patient may interpret this as

an indication that something really is wrong.

2.11 GOOD TELEVISION BROADCASTING

Uzoma (1989) points out the important dimensions involved in television

broadcasting:

* Market: In commercial broadcasting, this refers to the listenership/

viewership and the advertisers/clients.

* Area of Coverage: Technically speaking, this refers to the areas in which the

station is very distinctly received.

* Viewership: This refers to the percentage of the population in the area of

coverage that are tuned to the station, most part of the broadcast.

* Product/Service: This refers to the stations airtime and programmes

* Commercial Broadcasting: This involves broadcasting with a view to

generating revenue. This adds a marketing division to the broadcasting

organizations organigram.

According to Uzoma (1989), there are many factors that determine the size of a

station’s Viewership. They are namely, quality content, good programmes, (on

television content is king) good programming or scheduling area of coverage (reach)

and quality of audio-visual (signal) output and reception.

The volume of advertising determines the revenue or sales turnover of the

broadcasting organization and this depends on the size of the market as defined

above. The size of the market of individual broadcasting organizations when put

together is the broadcast industry market. Each organization therefore, has a share

i.e market share of the total industry market. How to increase the market share of an

organization is what commercial broadcasting is all about. This introduces the

element of competition within the industry, which is very healthy in itself for the

growth of the industry.

To increase this market share and by extension, the internally generated revenue,

involves the application of marketing principles and strategies. The total marketing

effort revolves around what in marketing management is referred to as the

“Marketing Mix”, or the four P’s. These variables are controllable by the

broadcasting organization.

1. Products: Under the product strategy, the television house should consider

the following:

a. Programme Planning

b. Programme packaging

c. New packaging

d. New Programme Development

e. Technical Quality and Reception

f. Channels e.g. NTA Channel 8

2. Price (Rates) This refers to the price attached to the services which is usually

called advertising rates:

a. Air Time Rating e.g. prime time, news adjacencies, news

insertions, B Time, C Time etc.

b. Discriminatory rates e.g. combined service etc

c. Discounts e.g. volume discounts on total purchases per year.

d. Billings

3. Promotion

a. Advertising i.e. station identification, promotional jingles.

4. Distribution

a. Area of coverage

b. Sub-station or booster station

c. Logistics – area office; transportation.

2.12 PUBLIC RELATIONS CONCEPTUAL OVERVIEW

Public relations is one of the most difficult concepts to define. The reason for this is

not far fetched. This is because it seems so easy to understand and yet quite difficult

to describe in practical terms. Also, many people including public relations

practitioners believe they have come up with many different definitions. Experts say

there are more than six hundred recorded definitions. The list of public relations

definitions will even be much longer when we decide to add what Nwosu (1995)

describes as the “nonsensical description of the concept that are based on the abject

ignorance, shallow knowledge, misperception or pure mischief by the describers or

definers”.

Among such nonsensical derogatory and ignorance-based definitions or descriptions

are those that present public relations in different words as cover-up gimmick and

public relations practitioners as those hired to tell lies for their organizations. It is

perhaps in response to such distortions that Black (1989) emphasized truth and full

information in his definition of public relations. As he puts it “public relations

practice is the art and science of achieving harmony with the environment through

mutual understanding based on truth and full information.”

Nwosu, (1995) in his criticism to Black’s definition observed that it is silent in, or

does not quite bring out clearly the management orientation of modern public

relations practice as well as the current emphasis on the practice of effective

organizational or management performance, research planning and communication

management.

This is why the researcher shall at this point offer other definitions of public relations

including those that emphasize management orientation, good management or

organizational performance, planning, research and communication, which shall be

used as a working or operational definition in this project.

Two of these definitions which Nwosu (1995) describe as “standard” include one

which was initially produced by public relations News, slightly modified by John

Marston which goes thus:-

The second definition is the one generally agreed upon and worldly accepted, in

Mexico, 1978, popularly termed “The Mexican Statement” which goes thus:

These standard definitions conspicuously indicate the systematic nature of modern

public relations containing most of the functions of the profession.

Offonri (1985) defines public relations as “the business of creating and maintaining

public understanding and support through effective communication,” this definition

is premised on the fact that lack of understanding and information can bring about

the down fall of Governments, organizations, businesses and individuals while

essential information and proper interpretation of plans and programmes can result in

public acceptance and goodwill.

According to Jefkins (1988), the three international and professionally respected

definitions of public relations are the aforementioned “Mexican statement;” the

definition of the (British) Institute of Public Relation (IPR) which goes thus:

“Public relations is the management function which evaluates public attitudes, identifies the policies and procedures of an organization with the public interest, and executes a programme of action to earn public understanding and acceptance”.

“Public relations is the art and social science of analyzing trends, predicting their consequences, counseling organizational leaders, and implementing planned programme of action which will serve both the organization and the public interest.”

“Public relations Practice is the planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding between an organization and its publics”. (as revised November 1987).

Dr. Rex Harlow, a veteran Public Relations practitioner of San Francisco, having

examined 472 different definitions of public relations, came out with the following

working definition (Black 1989).

Implicit in the above definition is the fact that though, they tend to differ in their

stress of some function of public relations, there is a consensus on the functions or

aspect of public relations which has to do with maintaining mutual understanding

between an organization and its publics. In summary therefore, the various

definitions can be encapsulated into the official statement on public relations issued

by the “Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) on 6th November, 1982, from

which the following extract is taken (Black 1989).

Public relations serves a wide variety of institutions in society such as businesses,

trade unions, Government agencies, voluntary associations, foundations, hospitals

and educational and religious institutions. To achieve their goals, these institutions

must develop effective relationship with many different audiences or publics such as

employees, members, customers, local communities, shareholders and other

institutions with the society at large.

The managements of institutions need to understand the attitudes and values of their

publics in order to achieve institutional goals. The goals themselves are shaped by

“Public relations is distinctive management function which helps to establish and maintain mutual lines of communication, understanding, acceptance and co-operation between organization and its publics; involves the management of problems or issues, helps management to keep informed on and responsive to public opinions, defines and emphasizes the responsibility of management to serve the public interest; help management keep abreast of and effectively utilize, change, serving as an early warning system to help anticipate trends; and uses research and sound ethical communication techniques as its principal tools”.

“Public relations helps our complex pluralistic society to reach decisions and function more effectively by contributing to mutual understanding among groups and institutions. It serves to bring private and public policies into harmony.

the external environment. “The public relations practitioner acts as a counselor to

management and as a mediator, helping to translate policy and action” (Osuji, 1990).

2.13 PUBLIC RELATIONS: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

Before the Second World War in 1939 to 1945, public relations had been in

existence. Cutlip and Center (1971), state that public relations was used in ancient

Egypt, Greece, Roman Empire, England, and many other places. In Rome, there

were many orators such as Cicero. The Roman Emperor Caesar, tried to rule the

world with good public relations.

The Era of Reformation and Counter-Reformation

A lot of propaganda was used in the era of reformation and counter-reformation by

Catholics and Protestants to win people’s conscience to their sides. Many other

people made use of this propaganda mechanism especially, during the second world

wars.

During the 17th Century, Pope Gregory used propaganda to spread the Catholic faith

and win coverts. Today, priests are among the best public relations people. Press

agentry was the first form of organized public relations, which started even before

the 19th century.

The greatest press agent of the time was Phineas T. Barnum, who acted as a

middleman between the press and organizations. The era of press agents can be said

to be the first era of public relations because there were no Radio and Televisions,

but they went to industries and companies to collect news and distribute to

publishing houses for publication. Their guiding philosophy was “Let the people be

fooled” because their parties lacked honesty.

In 1900, there emerged the second phase of public relations and techniques to carry

out their public relations work effectively. They were no longer agents, they

improved their educational background and qualifications. They wanted to change

their own image and be seen by the members of the public as informants, instead of

liars. The philosophy changed to “Let the people be informed”. The third phase of

public relations started as from 1920. Public relations became sophisticated. The

practitioners understood that their function was not only informative, but also

involved attitude change, through research and evaluation. The Emirs made use of

their Palace Crown at Katsina and Kaduna, where they danced and won support and

informed people around them what was happening in their palaces.

However, when the white people came, they institutionalized the public relations set

up of the nation. The Ministry of Information was established in 1940 at No. 20

Campbell Street, Lagos to help in disseminating the Second World War information.

They worked hand-in-hand with the London – based public relations office. The

professional practice of public relations in the private sector had however, grown

more efficiently than that of the government.

In 1944, the information department was renamed public relations department. They

produced a lot of publications. Key among these was the “Nigeria Review” which

had a circulation of 31,200 copies at the time. It was published in Igbo, Yoruba and

English languages simultaneously. The Public Relations Department was becoming

highly appreciated by the public. Its communication was recognized as genuine by

the public more than in the war days when the practitioners were regarded as police

informants.

They also published another newsletter: “The Nigeria Children’s own Paper”. It

started as supplement to the Nigeria Review and its circulation got up to 46,000. It

contained inside news, Nigeria digest, colony effort, facts about Nigeria.

Furthermore, broadcasting came with the Radio Distribution Service (RDS).

Photographic Units were established. Their Pictures and illustrations were seen on

magazines and newspapers. The first Director was Mr. H. Cooper, followed by Mr.

J. Stalker.

As time went on they started making use of professional indigenes like J. Davies, B.

Alanyikes, Bank Anthony, and S.I. Kale. These were Nigerians. Public relations

offices were established in the major cities like Ibadan, Kaduna, and Enugu with

photographic and news units.

The Lever brothers, U.A.C. including Kingsway used films and journals for their

own advertisement. The Nigeria Railway Corporation also helped public relations to

grow through Dr. Sam Ekpelle, who established a public relations department for the

Railways.

In 1951, there were only three corporate public relations set up, but today, there are

an impressive number of departments and consultancies which cannot do without

Research, Action, Communication and Evaluation Processes.

The Public Relations Functions

Although, a lot of functions may have been directly or indirectly monitored or

alluded to in the above discussions, the essence of this section is to discuss the

functions more pointedly, and for greater understanding.

Nwosu and Idemili (1992), after examining the specialized areas of public relations

(Media relations, corporate relations, government/political relations, employee

relations, community relations, issues management, financial public relations (etc),

listed public relations functions to include – writing, placement, promotion,

advertising, public speaking, miscellaneous etc.

Perhaps, more elaborate functions as enunciated by Cutlip, Center and Broom

(adapted from Adekunle Salu, Abuja, NIPR Journal, 1997) include:

1. Is a planned and sustained programme conducted by an organization;

2. Deals with the relationship between an organization and it various publics;

3. Monitors awareness, opinions, attitudes and behaviour inside the

organization.

4. Analyses the impact of organizational policies, procedures and actions

found to be in conflict with the public interest and organizational survival;

5. Establishes and maintains two-way communication between the

organization and its various publics;

6. Produces specific changes in awareness, opinions and behaviours inside

and outside the organization; and

7. Results in a new and or maintained relationship between an organization

and it publics.

2.14 PUBLIC RELATIONS FUNCTIONAL AREAS

As part of the larger public relations function, the goals of employee relations are to

identify, establish and maintain mutually beneficial relationships between the

organization and its employees on whom its success or failure depends.

2.14.1 Employee Relations

It is aimed at creating mutual understanding and support between management and

employees. Communication between management and employees can be difficult

and complicated due to the heterogeneous nature of the employees. The employees

are varied and many groups exist due to differences in attitudes, beliefs, perceptions

and expectations.

Employee relations make for running the organization effectively. It is all about

making sure that people know what needs to be done, understanding why it is

necessary, feel committed to achieving it and have a chance to use their own

knowledge and skills to do it better if possible.

The objective of maintaining mutual understanding between an organization and its

employees may include the following amongst others:

i. To create among all hands, an awareness of the organization’s best

operations, problems, goals.

ii. To keep all hands informed on significant developments that affect the

organization and the employees.

iii. To increase effectiveness of all hands as ambassadors on and off the job.

iv. To solicit and encourage employee input for improving operations.

v. To satisfy employee’s desires to be kept informed and to participate in the

organization.

2.14.2 Media Relations

A good deal of media relations work is done while attempting to gain favourable

publicity and news coverage for the organization. Organizations depend a great deal

on the media to reach their desired audience. Cordial media – relations is an asset

during and after a crises. Understanding journalistic rules and practices and being

able to exploit them to achieve positive media coverage is an important condition for

successful public relations.

The way to gain the co-operation of media men and women is to provide them with

interesting, timely stories and pictures that they want, when they want them, and in

the form in which they can readily use them. The media person wants news that is

timely, that is interesting and significant to readers with respect to their personal

affairs or their relations to society.

2.14.3 Community Relations

Frazer Seitel (1987), says that “community relations involves orchestrating

interaction with the community.” Every organization finds its equilibrium within the

environment in which it resides in the same way that an individual can exist within a

family unit. Abraham Lincoln once said that “with public sentiment, nothing can

fail, without it, nothing can succeed”. A community is a miniature of the national

public. This is where national opinions are born. Judgements expressed on the voice

of the community predict the views and interest of the national publics.

2.14.4 Financial Relations

This involves managing relations with the investment community. In the case of

non-commercial organization, it is showing a transparent account correctly as how

the money was spent to those who sponsored or gave you grant with which you carry

out your work. It involves an understanding of the means of communicating with

the key targets of financial public relations.

2.14.5 Corporate Public Relations

Corporate public relations means the management of reputation. Company’s

reputation is reflected in corporate identity and image. Every item of information,

every opinion aired, every article published about an organization contributes to

reputation. Good reputation is difficult to establish, takes many years to build, once

built, the task of the public relations practitioner is to enhance and protect it.

Enhancing and protecting the organizational reputation involves issues management

as in the process of identifying issues, analyzing those issues, setting priorities,

selecting programme of action and communicating and evaluating the effectiveness.

It is a corporate response to change in rotational environments.

2.14.6 Political/Government Public Relations

Practitioners in government have the responsibility of maintaining communication

lines between government and the citizenry. Practitioners who serve government

agencies, legislative bodies and government parastatals have the responsibilities of

making their views known and heard.

2.14.7 Consumer Relations

The goal of consumer relations is to help the sale of products and services with novel

and news-making projects, but with more attention to trust and accuracy of claims

and setting out forms of easy redress for settlement of grievances by private

arbitration.

2.15 PUBLIC RELATIONS PLANNING

The necessity and value of planning must be recognized as fundamental to public

relations practice. Prudent planning eliminates little problems before they grow

larger.

According to Sam Ekpelle (1994), “Planning in Public Relations has its root in the

determination of strategy and tactics”. Objectives or targets are set in the short or

long term. Decisions must be taken between preventive or remedial activities and an

overall public relations philosophy for the organization must be involved to ensure

that preventive measures are adequate, for specific situations or general. He further

stresses that public relations planning should address the question of what the

underlying motivations are in the organization’s public relations policy. Areas of

common agreement and common interest should be isolated, so that appropriate

formula can be designed or strategies evolved to deal with differences and sooth the

disaffection.

Within the framework of the basic policy and longer planning, comes

implementation of programmes and projects towards the desired goals. In this

machinery, public relations plays the role of insurance, for a planned programme

enables the organization to pursue its policy by keeping attention focused on it.

Further, by focusing attention, the need to modify policy from time to time is

sportlighted says Ekpelle (1994). In his definition of planning, he said “it is realistic

and impartial answer to the question; what can be done to solve this problem in

the best interest of this organization and of the public whose support it requires?’

According to Frank Jefkins (1988) without a planned programme, the public

relations practitioner would have to operate on a day-to-day basis. He or she would

always be starting new things and probably never finishing others. At the end of the

year, it would be every difficult to show what had been done and with what effect.

To this end, he recommended a six-point public relations planning model as follows:

a. Appreciation of the situation;

b. Definition of objectives;

c. Definition of publics;

d. Selection of media and techniques;

e. Planning of a budget;

f. Assessment of results;

Peter Hehin (in Salu, 1994) prescribed a thirteen step model to public relations

planning as follows:

Step One-Objectives

These are aims, the purposes of the communications enterprise, the point of doing

whatever is to be done. Understanding what exactly it is that the public relations

initiative or programme is destined to achieve towards corporate aims, in general and

specific terms that are measurable. It is fundamentally the starting point. The test of

an objective is to ask: Will it be clear in quantifiable terms whether or not it has

been achieved.

Step Two-Audiences

Bound up with the objective is the recipient of the work, the group or groups of

people whose views we wish to influence. These are usually segmented to the finest

detail possible, measurable and relevant. Public Relations is concerned with

targeting to very specific audiences and they should be spelt out in detail at this

stage.

Step three-Issues

Realistic consideration of the issues arising from clear questioning of the objectives

is the key to whether the objective and programme are right. It is not enough to

accept ill-considered objectives because they are the clients. Our job is to

understand the constraints surrounding those aims, bring independent, informed

judgement through a commentary on these issues.

Step Four-Strategies

Many are unsure of the differences between strategy and objectives. Some

apparently doubt even whether it matters. It does matter because a failure to

understand the language of management will ensure that we never gain

management’s acceptance. Essentially, strategy is the how in response to objectives

‘what’. It is the overall approach to the securing of objectives – no different, really

from its traditional military meaning. “Taking the hill” is the objective…, “Using

infantry at Night” might be the strategy, what else, it must always reflect the overall

policy of the organization.

Step Five-Messages

These are the words you want to get across to the audience. There will be an overall

message and several secondary ones, probably different for each audience.

A useful method of getting this clear is to write down, in short, colloquial sentences,

the word we would like the audience to be playing back to us in a year’s time. It is

rather like an advertising copy – easy and obvious when you see it written down,

extremely demanding when you have to do it. “The words must represent realistic

possibilities rather than brand managers optimism, and often the hardest part of the

plan is to bring the client” or organization’s view of when it is possible into line with

your more objective view.

Step six – Methods

This is the detailed programme of activity designed to achieve the objectives. In

many ways this is done before the objectives, audience and strategy have been

clearly defined. By all means note good ideas whenever they come up, but beware

of trying to shoe-horn them into programmes where they do not properly fit. It is

important to keep a clear concept of channel and message as separate ingredients.

Step Seven – Time Table

Ideally, set out on a year planner basis obviously, for shorter term programmes, it

can cover months, days, or even hours if necessary, the time also gives a fast visual

picture of when things are going to happen.

Step Eight – Budget

The detailed – step-by-step costs and the programme should be set out as far as

possible and should include fees (or internal time costing for in-house practitioners),

expenses, both – in terms (with mark up built in, if you are a consultant) and even an

indication of cash flow – i.e when the money will be spent across the period.

Step Nine – Measurement

It is vital to set out how the programme will be evaluated. It is not simply a question

of reviewing whether objectives were met; although, this is a central need. If,

evaluation is not to include “expensive” research, what will it include? Column

inches? Assessment of tone and style? Opportunities? To see (the advertising agent’s

favourite)? Direct feedback from small, easily measured evidences such as opinion

leaders? One method is to back the client. “Imagine we are a year on, and the

programme is complete, what sort of things would have happened to make you

believe it was successful?” Simplistic, certainly, but very revealing if explored in

depth at the outset and a good method of checking the validity of objectives.

Step Ten – Resources

A full assessment of the validity of staff to handle the job needed in the plan. In the

consultancy/client relationship, it is the time to be clear on exactly who is going to

handle the client. Within this heading, the client and consultancy relationship should

be discussed including methods of operation and review procedures.

Step Eleven – Long Term View

Public relations doesn’t come in annual chunks. Fortunately however, much as we

all conspire to see life in annual plans and budgets at some stage in the planning,

there should be some consideration of the long term for a one year programme, a

view of the following 1-4 years. This allows everyone to consider the bigger context

in which the programme is fitting.

Step Twelve – Conclusion

The conclusion can be a simple review of the key points. Even better if it takes the

main thread of the developing argument and reiterates it simply and forcibly in a

simple page to underscore the whole document in style. It may be similar to an

introductory summary (an optional beginning to any proposal), but the purpose is to

convince the reader that everything before was worthwhile and necessary a simple,

perhaps emotive, statement on the whole exercise might be appropriate, e.g “This

programme is intended make you more visible and to give you more viability than

any of your competitors.”

Step Thirteen – The Next Steps

It is so easy for a plan to be developed or even shelved because it did not get the

proper priority with management. Setting out the practical steps which have to be

taken to accelerate management’s decision to proceed can be helpful in that they

allow the practitioners to take stronger follow-up initiatives once the plan is

presented.

2.16 HOW TO ACHIEVE AND MANAGE GOOD PUBLIC RELATIONS

Effiong (1979) said that “corporate managers at all levels must continue to improve

and refine their technology in order to ensure higher levels of consumptions and

satisfaction for the society. This should also include a recognition of the society’s

impact on all corporate activities. Such recognition must look ahead and think

through which all of its activities are likely to become social problems. It is the duty

of managers to try to prevent the undesirable results of failure to anticipate society’s

needs and desires and satisfy them profitably.”

In his contribution, Hills (1958) outlined three requirements that are essential for

securing any lasting and substantial success to this effort. The first of these is

integrity and truth. Unless integrity is established, nothing else can be made

credible. The second is the soundness of policies, decisions and act, viewed in the

light of public interest. The third requirement is the use of facts that are

understandable, believable, presented to the public with imagination. He further

added that the end product of effective public relations is not just the publicity that it

creates but also the public attitudes resulting from the communication of

information, facts and management’s point of view.

Canfield (1979) in recognition of this, wrote that good employee-relations policy is

expressed by providing regular employment. Good consumer relation policy

involves producing good product at reasonable prices with adequate services for

consumers, and contributing to the social, cultural, economic welfare of the

community in which the organization operates. Good community relations is

achieved not simply by helping support good causes, but by securing the support of

other citizens for worthy causes. He went further to say that good public relations

cannot be achieved by the delegation of action to a public relations manager and his

staff of specialists. But rather, a function of every operating department head as well

as of line and staff executives. Also, that a poorly managed organization will find it

fruitless to attempt to gain a favourable reputation through a public relations

programme. The expenditure of large sum of money for entertaining can never

successfully substitute for sound practice.

From the forgoing, it is clear that it is not the job of public relations officer to make

excuses for organizations faults or production problem.

Jefkins (1969) arrived at a conclusion that the public relations officer is not an

apologist for irresponsible management, bad design, deficient packaging, poor

manufacturing rendering. It is the job of the PRO to advice that these things be put

right, and to proclaim the good news when that advice has been taken.

2.17 EVALUATING PUBLIC RELATIONS

Evaluating public relations activities is necessity because it helps to determine

whether the activities are achieving their purpose, and to justify the time and money

invested in these activities. There are a number of measurements, which can lead to

a meaningful evaluation of Public Relations activities. Properly done and properly

appraised, they can produce facts and figures, which will satisfy management that its

public relations budget is a worthwhile investment.

Nolte (1974) outlines that public relations deal with intangibles. It is not easy to

measure its accomplishment. A production manager can count the number of items

he produces. A sales manager can record sales in precise figures. The public

relations director or counselor does not have this advantage. Nevertheless, he must

come up with specific statements regarding results and this can lead to error.

He further added that the principal things, which can be measured, are production,

distribution, interest, reach, understanding, and opinion. Of these, only the last is a

real measurement of accomplishment. The other five are merely steps leading

toward the ultimate appraisal. Public relations activities are carried on for one

reason only, to affect public opinion.

He concluded by saying that when a public is favourably affected in a measurable

way there is definite evidence of success. The other items cannot prove success but

they can aid in determining how much effort was made, how much it cost, where the

time was spent, and sometimes why things happened.

In agreement with the above, Canfield (1977) says that because it deals with

changeable attitudes and opinions, public relations is exceedingly difficult to

evaluate. He states that measuring public relations effectiveness is only slightly

easier than measuring a gaseous body with a rubber band. He also says that public

relations results can be measured broadly and generally, but for the most part, not

precisely.

An argument in equity may prove the best tactic; Hoffman in Dilley (1973) says

“When it installed the pollution abatement equipment, those external costs become

internalized. Only by including the cost of pollution abatement can the rate base

reflect the true cost of generating electricity”.

He explains further by giving an instance, where $50,000 spent on shrubs for the

sub-stations is hard to describe in terms of its financial return to stockholders and its

effect on deducting rates.

Implicitly, the commentators assume that power utility has already considered

arguments such as expenditures made voluntarily now are better than expenditures

required in the future because of the steady increase in inflation, and management

decisions should not be questioned later unless there has been a gross abuse of

discretion, says Dilley (1973).

In his contribution, Marquis (1970) contends that checking the results of an image

programme or any public relations campaign is difficult. For some corporations, a

survey on the recognition of the firm or its trademarks may cover the result of

identification, not of reputations, but it can be significant. He added that one

measure of specific programme is the price of the corporation stock before and after

the campaign. Naturally, other factors will probably have as much or more effect on

prices, but if the price-earnings ratio is appreciably higher, the programme has been

successful.

Publicity is one measure, but its value should be judged on what is published and in

what media rather than on the number of inches of clippings.

2.18 PROBLEMS AND WEAKNESSES OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

In spite of its rapid development, public relations is confronted with serious

problems and weaknesses.

In the light of this, Canfield (1977), acknowledged that practitioners and

management frequently disagree as to its functions and objectives. In many

corporations, public relations is largely product publicity and communications. In

others, it covers a multitude of miscellaneous activities, such as entertaining visitors,

contributing to charity, running employee social events and staging anniversary

celebrations. Some corporate managements assume that public relations is vaguely

concerned with creating a corporate image. He asserts further that public relations

practitioners complain that managements do not keep them informed on important

matters or consult them on plans, policies and decisions with significant public

aspect. Management on the other hand, contends that many public relations

practitioners know little about corporate operations or problems and have an

exaggerated opinion of the importance of public relations.

It is therefore, worthy of note, that there is a need for improvement in the ethical

standards and practices of some members of the profession.

In furtherance of his point, Canfield asserts that the rapid growth of public relations

has attracted many inexperienced, unethical practitioners who have created a false

image of the activity and detracted from the honest efforts of the great majority of

competent, ethical public relations people. Spurious publicity stunts, false

organization fronts, suppression of negative fact, influence peddling, deceptive

publicity, and similar unethical practices have aroused criticism.

Jefkins (1969) observes that the greatest weakness of public relations today is that

management is less well informed than it should be about public relations, which to a

degree is the fault of consultants who adopt unnecessarily protective quasi-

professional restrictions on selling their services, the difficulties in assessing the

results of public relations activities and the absence of suitable yardsticks by which

these results can be measured. Even where there are tangible results, as in press

relations, the movements can be misleading. He points out that it does not follow

either that because something is printed, that:

a. It is read

b. It is understood; or

c. It is favourably accepted.

2.19 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PUBLIC RELATIONS AND

MARKETING

“There is a Public Relation element in every facet of Marketing” (Frank Jefkins).

The above assertion by Frank Jefkin who has researched and written extensively in

the area of Marketing and Public Relations show the close relationship between

them. Both marketing and public relations seek to gain and retain the attention,

interest, understanding, good will, and patronage of an organization’s publics. In

doing these, both also try in various ways to project a good image of the organization

before these publics as an entity deserving of recognition, respect, and trust.

Furthermore, both marketing and public relations make it a cardinal point to discover

and cater to the interests and needs of the organization’s publics at the same time

they are defining and articulating the best interests of the organization. In other

words, marketing and public relations activities are aimed at moving closer together

rather than farther apart the interests of an organization and the interests of all

manner of people whom the organization serves.

While marketing sells the organization’s goods and services, public relations sells

the integrity and general image of the organization. For the consumer, marketing

ensures that the goods and services are readily available at affordable prices, while

public relations sees to it that the same consumer feels genuinely satisfied that he/she

has purchased something of value that is worth the money which has been paid for it.

It is in view of the close relationship between marketing and public relations that

Frank Jefkins stated above that “there is a Public Relations element in every facet of

marketing”, and thus describes public relations as “a marketing aid”. In conformity

with this perception, he defines public relations as “the process of assessing

consumer wants, establishing communication, fostering good will so that the

consumer wants or needs can be profitably satisfied”.

It is clear that a management which hopes to steer its organization to success in an

ever increasingly competitive business world, must recognize the important

complementary roles which marketing and public relations play in the process. With

this recognition, the management has the responsibility of co-ordinating and

reconciling the roles of marketing and public relations in such a way that optimum

operational results are attained.

2.20 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PUBLIC RELATIONS AND

MARKETING

Marketing remains an important function of management with major contributions to

make to the corporate plan while drawing assistance from public relations. All the

elements in the marketing mix lend themselves to public relations support and with

effective coordination, deliberately encouraged by the chief executive, the marketing

strategy of an organization will be sharpened. (Ogunsanya, 1991).

Public relations support for marketing is quite visible in the areas of dealer relations,

customer relations, and relations with opinion leaders in launching new products.

Aside from deliberately working towards securing the understanding of these publics

which will “smoothen” the launching of an “aggressive marketing programme”, the

confidence earned through consistent public relations efforts, aids the marketing

programme to achieve almost instant success. (Ogunsanya, 1991).

In today’s business landscape, nothing stands to be gained by keeping public

relations aloof from management or marketing. While marketing and public

relations remain separate and independent departments, a chief executive should

encourage their close interaction.

Emphasis is placed on the management aspect of marketing – that is, the

responsibility of top management to market professionally, not sell goods or services

haphazardly. Professional marketing management makes itself responsible for

finding out precisely what the market needs (and this may be the absence of some

product or service which people would buy if it was supplied) and for satisfying this

need if it can be done at a profit. This is a challenge to business management, some

of which may be content to go on making and selling the same things without

applying any modern marketing techniques at all. Marketing calls for imaginative

enterprise, but it also needs the responsibility of PR-mindedness, for goodwill will be

squandered if the pursuit of maximum profits is at the expense of the customers. As

communicators, marketers and PR practitioners have a lot in common.

In the commercial world, or private sector of the economy, PR and advertising will

be associated with marketing. While marketing is only one function of a business

and PR also has to do with the financial and production functions too, PR can be

applied to every part of the marketing mix, of which advertising is but one

ingredient. The marketing mix consists of every, element in the marketing strategy-

to mention only a few: naming, packaging, research, pricing, selling, distribution and

after-sales services. All of these bear some degree of communication and goodwill.

Market education can be a vital PR contribution, on which the success of advertising

may well depend.

2.21 NEED FOR PUBLIC RELATIONS FUNCTIONS/ACTIVITIES IN

MARKETING

Contemporary marketing operations have grown beyond the original concept of

perceiving the word ‘market’ only in terms of a defined location where buying and

selling transactions could take place. With the development of the means of

communication (which in our own case started with the traditional modes eg.

Wooden and metal gongs, flute, etc) up to this present stage when satellite

transmission is in vogue, the world has now become a ‘global village’. Developing

alongside, the communication industry is the business world whose operations have

equally become complex in nature.

There is no doubt that Public Relations practice in Nigeria as in other developing

countries has not assumed the high level of prominence prevalent in the United

States of America and Europe, but its relevance and importance in organizations is

steadily being recognized (Offonry, 1996). Development in business transactions

enhanced by advancement in communication technology, calls for experts in the art

whose activities would revolve around the building of a healthy link between an

organization and its publics, both internal and external (Osuji, 1990). To achieve

this organizational objective, public relations employs tools of communication like

person-to-person contact, use of mass media, various publications such as house

journals, house magazines, newsletters, pamphlets, tours and visits, exhibitions and

trade fairs, etc. All these, are deliberate efforts made at eliciting the goodwill of the

various publics as well as promoting the corporate image of an organization (Nwosu,

1990). One may at this point ask: what relevance has Public Relations in Marketing?

The British Institute of Public Relations states that: “Public Relations is a planned

and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding

between an organization and its publics”. From the above definition, one could infer

that the major thrust of PR functions focuses on the creation and maintenance of

goodwill and mutual understanding between an organization and its ‘publics’.

Publics here refer to those other organizations, and individuals and groups that enjoy

the good services of a particular organization.

Another tempting question at this point could be – why the goodwill and why the

mutual understanding between an organization and its publics? Embedded in this

inquiry lies the answer to the relevance of Public Relations and its dynamic

relationship to marketing. When we realize that ‘PR is not just a supplement to

advertising, but an aid to the entire marketing strategy’, then the picture begins to

crystallize. The vital link between Public Relations and marketing deals not only on

products and services but also with the publics.

As a management function, PR is interested in the production of goods and services;

it is interested in the marketing of the organizations products and services; PR is

equally concerned with the consumption of goods and services (Onah, 1996, in

Nwosu and Ekwo, 1996). The consumption of goods and services does not finally

end the public relations efforts. Interestingly, it extends this effort further at

determining the consumption pattern, behaviours, attitudes and opinions of

consumers with the sole aim of relating back to the organization for greater

efficiency in the production of even better satisfying goods and services ((Onah,

1996, in Nwosu and Ekwo, 1996). This, it does through research. This process of

reaching the consumer and relating back to the organization – encourages and

lubricates the two-way communication system upon which the PR functions and

activities are anchored.

In product marketing, testing the consumers’ attitude is very essential so as to

constantly satisfy customers and increase sales volume. This is even more important

in the case of competing products, where each competing brand strikes at distinctive

quality in order to outshine its competitors and thus control the greater portion of the

market ((Onah, 1996, in Nwosu and Ekwo, 1996). In this case, the marketing

communication mix which aims at effectively reaching the consumer plays a very

vital role. In this sense PR deals with the concept of total communication in the

process of hitting the organizational target. Kanu Offonry, contributing in the book

“Marketing in Nigeria’ summarized the PR use to marketing as to include: Projecting

the corporate image of an organization; Providing services to management;

Promoting effective government relations by understanding and interpreting national

aspirations and objectives; Helping to promote the product.

Figure 2.1: Helps to Illustrate Roles of Public Relations in the Marketing

Process.

PRODUCT PLACE PROMOTIOIN

PRICE

Fig. 2.1: Public Relations Role in the Marketing Mix

Product research,

Marketing research,

Product design,

Product range,

Packaging, Branding,

Warranties,

After-sales care,

New product planning

Channels:

Retailers

Wholesalers

Multiples

Direct sales

Overseas distributors

Direct export

Sales to governments

Sales to multinationals

Sales to trading blocs

Physical distribution:

Supplies

Stock

Handling

Storage

Transportation

Warehousing

Advertising

PUBLIC RELATIONS

Branding

Positioning

Sales promotion

Competitions

Premiums

Pack offers

Direct marketing

Merchandising

Sales force effort

Sales force support

Telesales

Sales literature

Mailers and flyers

Educational Literature

Tech spec literature

Pricing policy

Regional differentials

Discounts

Commissions

Retail mark-up

Wholesale mark-up

Impact of VAT

Test marketing

Impact of offers

Impact of discounts

The world we are concerned with here is where public relations interfaces with

marketing activities, such as advertising, to stimulate the sale of products and

services in the free market economy. As this section unfolds it will become apparent

that although the endgame of consumer public relations in this context is to drive

sales, its role is often more subtle and sophisticated than more direct forms of

communication. By changing the attitudes and behaviour of consumers, public

relations can create a more favourable sales environment for a company and its

products, and in this way, help to facilitate the path to purchase.

Figure 2.2 illustrates this process by highlighting the stages a consumer can take on

the path to purchase, the journey from initial awareness to purchase and

consumption.

Fig. 2.2: Path to Purchase

In developed countries it sometimes seems that everyone thinks they are a consumer

public relations expert (although they often mistake public relations for advertising).

After all, are we not all consumers and do we not all have valid views and opinions

on the communication that is directed at us? It is true that as human beings we all use

Change in attitude

Improves awareness and

knowledge

May contact third parties for

further information

Campaign activity

Key messages successfully

communicated to target audience

Change in behaviour –

buys product or service

and consume goods and services to satisfy a complex range of needs. Every day we

make countless decisions about the things we buy, from the cheap and mundane, to

the expensive and exciting: everything from food, beer, clothing, bus and cinema

tickets, to holidays, cars and mortgages. Indeed, it could be said that it is consumers

– not companies-who exert the real power in the marketplace, as it is our individual

buying decisions that determine the products that succeed and those that fail. It is

not surprising, therefore, that most companies appear to be obsessively driven by the

need to persuade consumers to buy their goods and services rather than those of their

competitors.

It is increasingly appreciated in marketing circles and textbooks (e.g. Brassington

and Pettitt 2003) that public relations is a diverse practice that when successfully

applied can grab attention, get people talking and move them to action. These are

important attributes when the goal is to sell something to the man and woman on the

street. In this context, public relations has become a valuable part of what is known

as the marketing mix, an often quoted term that refers to the set of tools that a

company has at its disposal to influence sales. The traditional formulation is

popularly known as the 4Ps: Product, Price, Place and Promotion (Kotler 2003).

Promotion is the area that encompasses public relations, as it is this part of the

marketing equation that focuses on the messages that are designed to stimulate

awareness, interest and purchase. To communicate these messages and to attract

interest and awareness in their products and services, companies use a combination

of disciplines-including advertising, sales promotion, direct mail and public relations

– to reach their desired audiences. When used in this way, public relations should

become a planned and sustained element of the wider promotional mix, working in

tandem with other marketing activities to achieve maximum impact and with the

potential to meet a range of objectives, such as:

- raising an organization’s profile

- redefining its image

- helping to promote its credibility in a new or existing market

- demonstrating empathy with a target audience

- launching a new product or service

- reinvigorating an existing product or service

- stimulating trial and purchase.

2.22 APPLICATION OF PUBLIC RELATIONS IN MARKETING

TELEVISION SERVICES

Building Relationships

Underpinning a host of valid communication out-comes, helping an organization to

build positive and lasting relationships with consumers and those that influence them

is the most important role that public relations can play in marketing. While it can

be argued that relationship building represents the holy-grail for all disciplines in the

promotional mix, the world we live in is changing. Mark Adams, a founder of high-

tech public relations firm explains:

Companies boast that they have relationships with their customers,

while customers get more unwanted marketing rubbish in the post, and

less of the face-to-face contact they really love. Ask them if they have a

relationship with companies and they won’t just laugh in your face-

they’ll probably spit. Relationship is being killed by corporate

convenience and mass-producing. With it, customer trust and loyalty

are becoming outdated concepts. It makes pure marketing sense for

companies to spot this and aim to fix it. Those that do will achieve

wondrous things. PR people are there to help do the fixing, to build

relationships.

Public relations is increasingly showing itself to be a first among equals in the quest

to connect with consumers. This is reflected in the growing preponderance of

public-relations-led campaigns with marketing being diverted from advertising,

direct mail and other budgets into what were once regarded as Cinderella activities.

In short, the tools that public relations professionals have at their disposal are

increasingly seen to have the capacity to communicate with consumers in a way that

other marketing disciplines cannot match.

Fit for Purpose

Before discussing the individual tools and techniques that can make up a public

relations programme, it is important to stress that the key characteristics of the target

audience play a big part in defining and shaping the strategy and tactics that are

deployed in a campaign. Who do we need to talk to? How can we reach them? What

are they interested in? What do we want them to do? By posing a series of simple

questions it is possible to refine and sharpen the scope of the planned activity,

ensuring a clinical rather than a wasteful, scattergun approach to the tools and

techniques that are at the practitioner’s disposal. (Tench and Yeomans, 2006).

For example, if the purpose of the campaign is to get young mothers to visit their

local supermarket, a national media relations campaign might not have the same

impact as activity targeted at a local newspaper. Or, if research shows that the same

audience is concerned about their children walking to school, then a road safety

sponsorship executed at local level may strike a cord and help to establish a positive

relationship with the store. One of public relations’ great attributes is its flexibility

as campaigns can be tailored to appeal to many audiences and modified to

accommodate the requirements of different delivery channels, such as the media,

events or sponsorship.

Media Relations

Getting a journalist to write or talk on air about a company, product or service is an

objective of many consumer public relations campaigns. The persuasive power of

editorial is much greater than paid-for advertising as the stories and features that

appear in newspapers and magazines – as well as on radio and television – tend to be

viewed by consumers as unbiased and objective. In contrast, advertising in the same

media channels relies on paid-for space and therefore lacks the same credibility as

coverage that has been created by an independent third party such as a journalist.

Influencing this editorial process is a key task for the public relations practitioner

(Tench and Yeomans, 2006). No advertisement or sales person can convince you

about the virtues of a product as effectively as an independent expert, such as a

journalist, and if this opinion is then repeated to you by a friend, family member or

colleague it has an even greater resonance.

While the benefits of a successful media relations campaign are obvious, achieving

the desired result is not so easy. As editorial coverage, by definition, cannot be

bought and because someone else produces the finished article, the public relations

practitioner has no direct control over it (unlike an advertisement). In addition,

although there are opportunities to write straightforward product press releases that

achieve positive coverage (a glance at the ‘best buy’ features in lifestyle magazines

or an examination of the motoring press will highlight good examples of product-

focused editorial), most journalists tend to shy away from commercially driven

stories and are certainly not receptive to what they see as company propaganda.

Furthermore, to reach many consumers, a company needs to be featured in the

general news sections of the media rather than in specialist editorial. In this

environment, media relations campaigns have to incorporate an additional news hook

to motivate a journalist to cover a story and this might involve independent research,

a celebrity association, an anniversary, a great photograph or a new and surprising

angle on a traditional theme.

Events

It is a common misconception that public relations is only concerned with the

generation of positive media coverage. Open days, workshops, road-shows,

exhibitions, conferences and AGMs are all events that can provide a company with

the opportunity to interact directly with consumers either on its home turf or out and

about in the community, generating enhanced presence for the business and a forum

for face-to-face, two-way communication. (Tench and Yeomans, 2006).

Sponsorship

Whether in sport, the arts or in support of a worthy cause, sponsorship is

fundamentally about third-party endorsement and as such sits neatly under the public

relations umbrella. If successfully managed to maximize opportunities – and this is

where advertising and direct mail also play a role - sponsorship can provide a

powerful platform from which to increase the relevance of a company and its

products among key target audiences. By harnessing the emotions, qualities and

values associated with the sponsorship property and perhaps providing some form of

added value experience, a business can successfully stand out in a cluttered

consumer market. (Tench and Yeomans, 2006).

By discussing the different tools PR practitioners have at their disposal, it soon

becomes clear that a consumer public relations campaign can have many dimensions,

with media relations, event or sponsorship initiatives supporting one another in an

integrated and imaginative programme of activity.

REFERENCES

Aliede, J.E. (1991): “Media and Society” Unpublished lecture material

Anny, O. & Lacobucci, D. (1995): “Consumer Trade – Offs and the Evaluation of

Services”; Journal of Marketing, Vol. 1, No 3, Jan.

Beny, L. (1986): “Big Ideas in Service Marketing”; Journal of Consumer Marketing,

Vol. 1, No. 2, Spring.

Black, Sam (1989): Introduction to Public Relations; Lagos: West African Books

Publishers Ltd.

Cutlip, and Centre (1971): Effective Public Relations; New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc

Cutlip, Centre, and Broom, in Adekun Salu (1996) “Public Relations Practice in

Nigeria: Challenges and Responsibilities of PR Practitioner,” NIPR Journal,

Vol.2.

Jefkins, F. (1988): Public Relations Business Handbook (3rd edition) London: Pitman

Press.

Jefkins, F. and Yadin, D. (1998): Public Relations; Harlow: Pearson Education

Limited.

Kotler, P. (1995): Marketing Management (Analysis, Planning, Implementation, and

Control): 8th Edition, New Delhi: Prentice – Hall of India.

Levitt, T. (1972): “Production – Line Approach to Service”; Harvard Business

Review, Sept. – October.

Nwosu, I. (1995): Public Relations Management Issues, and applications; Aba:

Dominion Publishers.

Nwosu, I. and Ekwo, U. (1996): Mass Media and Marketing Communications;

Enugu: Thought Communications Publishers.

Nwosu, I.E. and Idemili, S.O. (1992): Public Relations-Speeches, Media writing and

copy; Enugu: Acena Publishers.

Offonry, K.H. (1985): Guide to Public Relations Practice in Nigeria; Owerri: New

Africa Publishing Coy.

Ogunsanya, A. (1991): Strategy and Public Relations; Lagos: Richmind Books

Limited.

Parasuram, A. Zeithmal E. et al (1985): “A Conceptual Model of Service Quality and

its implications for future research”; Journal of Marketing, Vol.2, No. 8

Profile of AIT (Internet, via google search)

Profile of ESBS (Information Hand Book)

Profile of NTA (Information Hand Book)

Stantons, N.J. (1981): Fundamentals of Marketing; New York: MC-Graw-Hill Inc

Tench, R. and Yeomans, L. (2006): Exploring Public Relations; Harlow: Pearson

Education Limited.

Udoeagha, A.O. (1995): Principles and Processes of Marketing; Enugu: J.T.C

Publishers.

Uzoma, A. (1989): Issues in T.V. Broadcasting; Enugu: Thought Communication

Publishers.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

In carrying out this research, the researcher employed descriptive research

procedure. This procedure was used because descriptive research gives a picture of a

situation and it serves as a basis for most researches in assessing the situation as a

prerequisite for drawing conclusion. Descriptive research also involves collecting

data in order to test hypotheses or ensure questions covering the study.

3.2 RESEARCH METHOD

The method applied in this research is the survey method. This method made use of

primary and secondary data to elicit the necessary information required for this

research.

3.3 SOURCES OF DATA

Both primary and secondary data were considered pertinent in solving the research

problems.

A. Primary Sources:

i. Oral Interview: This involves the researcher asking questions

which were formulated to elicit relevant information from the

respondents. The responses were also recorded on the spot. This

method became necessary, as the researcher had the opportunity of

explaining everything to the respondents as well as making on the spot

assessment of the situation.

ii. Questionnaire: the researcher also used questionnaire to obtain a

lot of information from the respondents. Questions were formulated to

generate relevant information to the study.

B. Secondary Source:

Relevant information were also obtained from textbooks, records of the three

television stations, journals, magazines and other published and unpublished works

on the subject matter.

3.4 POPULATION OF THE STUDY

The population of this research comprises of the employees of the three television

stations, on one hand. The second population studied were the consumers of

television services, comprising the viewers and advertisers of products within the

Southeast (Enugu Metropolis in particular). The population is regarded as an

INFINITE POPULATION, because the exact population could not be determined.

3.5 SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION

It was not possible to study the entire population because of time and financial

constraints. The researcher therefore determined the sample size from the

population. To determine the sample size, the researcher conducted a pilot survey in

which 20 of the research questionnaire was administered randomly on the

Management and Staff of the three Television Stations under study, and the

advertisers and viewers of the Television Stations under study. Out of the 20

questionnaire administered, 17 was correctly filled and returned, while the remaining

3 was not returned. To calculate the optimum sample size, the researcher employed

or applied the Freund and William’s method/model of sample size determination,

calculated at 95% confidence level of significance and 5% standard error; the

formula is:

n = (2)2 (pg) e2 Where: n = Sample size

P = Percentage of positive response

Q = Percentage of negative response

E = Normal variant for the desired level of confidence

n = (1.96)2 (85.15) 52

= 3.8416.1275 25 = 489.04 25

= 195.92 With this outcome, the researcher decided to approximate the sample to 200 for easy

administration.

3.6 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE DATA

The researcher used the test-retest technique to estimate the reliability of the

questionnaire. By selecting four respondents each, who had filled the questionnaire

and giving them another questionnaire to fill, it was discovered that their responses

showed an appreciable degree of consistency.

3.7 METHOD OF DATA PRESENTATION/ANALYSIS

The data were presented in the following form:

i. Tabular presentation

ii. Charts – Pie Chart, Bar Chart.

iii. Percentages

3.8 TEST OF HYPOTHESIS

The statistical tools used in testing and analyzing data in order to arrive at valid

conclusion is the Chi-square (X2).

This can be used to test more than two population proportions. The Chi-square (X2)

provides means of comparing a set of observed frequencies with a set of expected

frequencies. The formula is:

X2 = (Oi – Ei)2 Ei

Where: X2 = Chi-square

Oi = Observed frequency

Ei = Expected frequency

= Summation sign

REFERENCES

Chisnall, P.M. (1981): Marketing Research Analysis and Measurement; USA:

Illionis Press Ltd.

Fruend, E.J. and William, F.J. in Uzoh Stanley: An Appraisal of Public Relations

Inputs (Instruments/Strategies) in the Awareness Creation of

HIV/AIDS Scourge in Nigeria. (An unpublished project work

submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of

a Postgraduate – Master of Science Degree in Marketing/Public

Relations), University of Nigeria, Enugu-Campus, Enugu.

Sept 2001.

Ikeagwu, E.K. (1998): Groundwork of Research Methods and Procedures; Enugu:

Institute for Development Studies, UNEC.

Osuala, E.C. (1991): Introduction to Research Methodology; Nsukka: University

Press Ltd.

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

To analyze the data collected, this chapter is divided into two sections, vis:

questionnaire administration and test of hypotheses. These sections are hereby,

presented in a chronological sequence in line with the research objectives, questions

and hypotheses. The study seeks to determine and establish the role Public Relations

can play in marketing of Television Services within the South East, with a focus on

NTA, ESBS, and AIT.

4.1 TOTAL NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS

RESPONDENTS NO OF COPIES ADMINISTERED

NO. OF USEABLE COPIES RETRIEVED

RATE (%)

Personnel of NTA,

ESBS, and AIT

65

65

34

Viewers of NTA,

ESBS, and AIT

65

62

33

Advertisers on

NTA, ESBS, and

AIT

65

63

33

TOTAL 195 190 100%

Source: Field Survey, 2009.

Table 4.1, above, shows the number of respondents of this research study. Out of a

total of 195 subjects, 65 were for the personnel (Management and Staff) of NTA,

ESBS, and AIT; 65 were for viewers of NTA, ESBS, and AIT, while the remaining

65 were for the Advertisers on NTA, ESBS, and AIT. Furthermore, out of the 195

questionnaire distributed, 190 of them were retrieved and found useable. This means

that 97% of the copies of questionnaire distributed were useable.

To be able to appreciate the impact of public relations in the marketing of Television

Services, the researcher and other interested parties would want to know: if the

respondents really understand the concept of Public Relations; if they have

knowledge of marketing of Television Services; if Public Relations play any role in

marketing; if Public Relations play any significant role in marketing of Television

Services; if NTA, ESBS, and AIT apply Public Relations in marketing Television

Services; the Strategies Television Stations apply in marketing their services; the

impact Public Relations has made in the marketing the services of NTA, ESBS, and

AIT; the factors that constrain NTA, ESBS, and AIT from effectively applying

Public Relations in the marketing of their services.

The answers to the above questions will be provided below.

TABLE 4.2: UNDERSTANDING OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

RESPONSE VARIABLES

RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE

T.V Stations Personnel

T.V Viewers

T.V Advertisers

Total

NO % NO % NO % NO %

Yes 65 100 62 100 63 100 190 100

No - - - - - - - -

TOTAL 65 100 62 100 63 100 190 100

Source: Field Survey, 2009

Table 4.2, above, indicates that all the respondents understand the real concept of

Public Relations. This can be justified by the fact that a total of 190 respondents,

representing 100% gave their affirmation to the above assertion.

TABLE 4.3: KNOWLEDGE OF TELEVISION SERVICES MARKETING

RESPONSE VARIABLES

RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE

T.V Stations Personnel

T.V Viewers

T.V Advertisers

Total

NO % NO % NO % NO %

Yes 60 92 42 68 60 95 160 84

No 5 8 20 32 3 5 30 16

TOTAL 65 100 62 100 63 100 190 100

Source: Field Survey, 2009

Table 4.3, above, shows that the respondents are knowledgeable of television

services marketing. This can be substantiated by the fact that a total of 160

respondents (84%) affirmed to the above assertion.

TABLE 4.4: PUBLIC RELATIONS PLAYS ROLES IN MARKETING

RESPONSE VARIABLES

RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE

T.V Stations Personnel

T.V Viewers

T.V Advertisers

Total

NO % NO % NO % NO %

Strongly agree 62 95 50 80 61 97 173 91

Agree - - 6 10 - - 6 3

Disagree 3 5 6 10 2 3 11 6

TOTAL 65 100 62 100 63 100 190 100

Source: Field Survey, 2009

The above table shows that Public Relations plays effective roles in marketing. This

assertion is buttressed by the fact that 173 respondents (91%) affirmed to this.

TABLE 4.5: PUBLIC RELATIONS PLAYS SIGNIFICANT ROLES IN

MARKETING TELEVISION SERVICES RESPONSE

VARIABLES RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE

T.V Stations Personnel

T.V Viewers

T.V Advertisers

Total

NO % NO % NO % NO %

Strongly agree 42 65 44 71 56 89 142 75

Agree 5 7 12 19 2 3 19 10

Disagree 18 28 6 10 5 8 29 15

TOTAL 65 100 62 100 63 100 190 100

Source: Field Survey, 2009

Table 4.5, above, presents that Public Relations plays significant roles in the

marketing of television services. The above assertion is supported by the fact that a

total number of 142 respondents, representing 75% affirmed to the above.

TABLE 4.6: PUBLIC RELATIONS STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY TV

STATIONS IN MARKETING THEIR SERVICES.

S/N

T.V STATIONS PERSONNEL

T.V STATIONS VIEWERS

T.V STATIONS ADVERTISERS

1 Good programming with clearer signals

Customer Awards Provision of suggestion boxes

2 Good customer relations

Discounts and rebates Good programming with clearer signals

3 Provision of suggestion and Petition Boxes

Good programming with clearer signals

Sales promotions through discounts, free announcements, Bonuses

4 Prompt and immediate attention and treatment of public complaints

Packaging good presenters and Newscasters

Free coverage of important Community Events.

5 Informing the customers’ of plans, projects and likely break-down in transmission

Provision of suggestion and petition boxes

Advertiser of the year Award

6 Adequate information and clarification on technical faults within the station

Clarification of technical faults to customers

Best Advert of the year award

7 Facility visits by the press

8 Customer luncheon 9 Customer awards

10 Sales promotions via discounts, rebates etc.

The respondents to this research supplied the above information. These Public

Relations strategies are applied by T.V Stations in marketing of their services.

TABLE 4.7: NTA, ESBS, AND AIT APPLY PUBLIC RELATIONS STRATEGIES IN THE MARKETING OF THEIR SERVICES

RESPONSE

VARIABLES RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE

T.V Stations Personnel

T.V Viewers

T.V Advertisers

Total

NO % NO % NO % NO %

Strongly agree 56 86 30 48 46 73 132 69

Agree 3 5 26 42 3 5 32 17

Disagree 6 9 6 10 14 22 26 14

TOTAL 65 100 62 100 63 100 190 100

Source: Field Survey, 2009

TABLE 4.8: THE IMPACT PUBLIC RELATIONS HAS MADE IN

MARKETING THE SERVICES OF NTA, ESBS, AND AIT RESPONSE

VARIABLES RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE

T.V Stations Personnel

T.V Viewers

T.V Advertisers

Total

NO % NO % NO % NO %

Very great impact 50 77 26 42 20 32 96 50

Great impact 13 20 32 52 38 60 82 44

Insignificant impact

2 3 4 6 5 18 11 6

No impact - - - - - - - -

TOTAL 65 100 62 100 63 100 190 100 Source: Field Survey, 2009

The table indicates that Public Relations has made very great impact in the

marketing of Television Services of the NTA, ESBS, and AIT. This assertion can be

substantiated by the fact that 96 respondents, representing 50%, gave their

affirmation to the above.

TABLE 4.9: INADEQUATE FUNDING, IGNORANCE OF PR SIGNIFICANCE AND LACKADAISICAL ATTITUDE ARE MAJOR FACTORS CONSTRAINING THE APPLICATION OF PUBLIC RELATIONS STRATEGIES IN MARKETING TELEVISION SERVICES BY MANY TV STATIONS.

RESPONSE VARIABLES

RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE

T.V Stations Personnel

T.V Viewers

T.V Advertisers

Total

NO % NO % NO % NO %

Strongly agree 56 86 40 64 50 79 146 77

Agree 9 14 12 19 8 13 29 15

Disagree - - 10 17 5 8 15 8

Strongly disagree - - - - - - - -

TOTAL 65 100 62 100 63 100 190 100 Source: Field Survey, 2009

The table above shows that inadequate funding, ignorance of PR significance, and

lackadaisical attitude are major factors constraining the application of Public

Relations strategies in the marketing of Television Services by many TV stations.

146 respondents, representing 77% who affirmed to be above, support this assertion.

SECTION TWO

TEST OF THE FORMULATED HYPOTHESES

Hypothesis One

Ho: Public Relations does not play any significant role in the marketing of

Television Services.

Chi-Square Test for Table 4.5 (Contingency Table)

RESPONDENTS RESPONSES TOTAL Yes No Don’t

know

T.V Stations Personnel 42(49) 5(6.5) 18(10) 65

T.V Stations Viewers 44(46) 12(6.2) 6(9) 62 T.V Stations Advertisers 56(47) 2(6.3) 5(10) 63

TOTAL 142 19 29 190

Source: Table 4.5

Values in the big cells are the observed frequencies, while those in brackets are the

expected frequencies.

Computed X2 = (nij – eij) e2

Where X2 = Chi-Square

nij = Observed frequencies

eij = Expected frequencies

Oi Ei Oi-ei (Oi-ei)2 (oi-ei)2 Ei

42 49 -7 49 1

5 6.5 -1.5 2.25 0.346

18 10 10 100 10

44 46 -2 4 0.666

12 6.2 5.8 33.64 5.425

6 9 -3 9 1

56 47 9 81 1.723

2 6.3 -3.7 13.69 2.173

5 10 5 25 2.5

24.2336

The degree of freedom is determined with the following formula:

df = (r-1) (c-1)

Where r = Raw total

c = Column total

df = (3-1) (3-1)

= 2 x 2 =4

X2 (4) at 0.05 = 7.242

With the 4 degree of freedom at 5% level of significance = 7.242, compared with the

calculated value of 24.2336. Decision Rule, is therefore, to reject Ho if x2 given (i.e

critical value), otherwise do not reject Ho. Since x2 calculated is greater than the x2

given, we therefore reject Ho (null hypothesis) and accept Hi. (alternative

hypothesis). The conclusion therefore is that: Public Relations plays significant role

in marketing of Television services.

Hypothesis Two

Ho: NTA, ESBS, and AIT do not apply Public Relations in the marketing of their

services.

Chi-Square Test for Table 4.7 (Contingency Table)

RESPONDENTS RESPONSES TOTAL

Yes No Don’t know

T.V Stations Personnel 56(45) 3(11) 6(9) 65

T.V Stations Viewers 30(43) 26(10) 6(8) 62

T.V Stations Advertisers 46(44) 3(11) 14(9) 63

TOTAL 132 32 29 190

Source: Table 4.7

Values in the big cells are the observed frequencies, while those in brackets are the

expected frequencies.

Computed X2 = (nij – eij) e2

Where X2 = Chi-Square

nij = Observed frequencies

eij = Expected frequencies

Oi Ei Oi-ei (Oi-ei)2 (oi-ei)2 Ei

56 45 11 121 30.25 3 11 -8 64 5.81

6 9 -3 9 1 30 43 -13 169 3.93 26 10 16 256 25.6 6 8 -2 4 0.5

46 44 2 4 0.09 3 11 -8 64 5.81

14 9 5 25 2.77 75.76

The degree of freedom is determined with the following formula:

df = (r-1) (c-1)

Where r = Raw total

c = Column total

df = (3-1) (3-1)

= 2 x 2 =4

X2 (4) at 0.05 = 7.242

With the 4 degree of freedom at 5% level of significance = 7.242, compared with the

calculated value of 75.77. Decision Rule, therefore, is to reject Ho if x2 calculated is

greater than x2 given, (i.e critical value), otherwise, do not reject Ho. Since the x2

Calculated is greater than the x2 given, we therefore reject Ho (null hypothesis) and

accept Hi. (alternative hypothesis). The conclusion therefore is that: NTA, ESBS,

and AIT, apply Public Relations in the marketing of their services.

Hypothesis Three

Ho: Public Relations has made little or no impact in the T.V Services Marketing

of NTA, ESBS, and AIT.

Chi-Square Test Table 4.8 (Contingency Table)

RESPONDENTS RESPONSES TOTAL

Yes No Don’t know

T.V Stations Personnel 50(33) 13(28) 2(4) 65

T.V Stations Viewers 26(31) 32 (27) 4(3.4) 62

T.V Stations Advertisers 20(32) 38(28) 5(3.5) 63

TOTAL 96 83 11 190

Source: Table 4.8

Values in the big cells are the observed frequencies, while those in brackets are the

expected frequencies.

Computed X2 = (nij – eij) e2

Where X2 = Chi-Square

nij = Observed frequencies

eij = Expected frequencies

Oi ei Oi-ei (Oi-ei)2 (oi-ei)2 Ei

50 33 17 289 8.757 13 28 -15 225 28.125 2 4 -2 4 1

26 31 -5 25 0.806 32 27 5 25 0.925 4 3.5 .5 0.25 0.007

20 32 -12 144 4.5 38 28 10 100 12.5 5 3.5 1.5 2.25 0.064 56.709

The degree of freedom is determined with the following formula:

df = (r-1) (c-1)

Where r = Raw total

c = Column total

df = (3-1) (3-1)

= 2 x 2 =4

X2 (4) at 0.05 = 7.242

With the 4 degree of freedom at 5% level of significance = 7.242, compared with the

calculated value of 56.709. Decision Rule, therefore, is to reject Ho if x2 calculated is

greater than x2 given, (i.e critical value). Since x2 calculated is greater than x2 given,

we therefore, reject Ho (null hypothesis) and accept Hi. (alternative hypothesis).

The conclusion therefore is that: Public Relations has made very great impact in the

Television Services Marketing of NTA, ESBS, and AIT.

Hypothesis Four

Ho: Inadequate funding, ignorance of PR significance, and lackadaisical Attitude

are no major factors constraining the application of Public relations strategies

in marketing of Television Services by many TV stations.

Chi-Square Test for Table 4.9 (Contingency Table)

RESPONDENTS RESPONSES TOTAL

Yes No Don’t know

T.V Stations Personnel 56(50) 9(10) -(5) 65

T.V Stations Viewers 40(48) 12 (9) 10(5) 62

T.V Stations Advertisers 50(48) 8(10) 5(5) 63

TOTAL 146 29 15 190

Source: Table 4.9

Values in the big cells are the observed frequencies, while those in brackets are the

expected frequencies.

Computed X2 = (nij – eij) e2 Where X2 = Chi-Square

nij = Observed frequencies

eij = Expected frequencies

Oi ei Oi-ei (Oi-ei)2 (oi-ei)2

Ei 56 50 6 36 0.72

9 10 -1 1 0.1

- 5 -5 25 5 40 48 -8 64 1.333 12 9 3 9 1 10 5 5 25 5 50 48 2 4 0.083 8 10 -2 4 0.4 5 5 1 1 0.2 13.836

The degree of freedom is determined with the following formula:

df = (r-1) (c-1)

Where r = Raw total

c = Column total

df = (3-1) (3-1)

= 2 x 2 =4

X2 (4) at 0.05 = 7.242

With the 4 degree of freedom at 5% level of significance = 7.242, compared with the

calculated value of 13.836. Decision Rule, therefore, is to reject Ho if x2 calculated is

greater than x2 given, (i.e critical value), otherwise, do no reject Ho. Since x2

calculated is greater than x2 given, we therefore, reject Ho (null hypothesis) and

accept Hi. (alternative hypothesis). The conclusion therefore is that: inadequate

funding, ignorance of PR significance and lackadaisical attitude are major factors

constraining the application of Public Relations strategies in marketing of Television

Services by many TV stations.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

The various data gathered have been presented and analysed in chapter four. This

chapter therefore, will discuss issues generated from the analysis and make

recommendations accordingly.

5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

The researcher, in the course of this study found out the following:

That the respondents, (the personnel of NTA, ESBS, and AIT, the viewers and

advertisers on these TV. Stations) have a fairly good understanding of Public

Relations; that they understand the marketing of TV. Services; that Public Relations

play significant role in marketing Television Services; that Public Relations

strategies are employed by TV. Stations in marketing their services; that these

strategies include: good programming, good customer relations, provision of

Suggestion and Petition Boxes, urgent attention and treatment of public complaints,

informing the customers and general publics about the station’s plans, projects, and

likely break-down in transmission, adequate information and clarification on

technical faults within the station, facility visits by the press, customer luncheon,

customer awards, advertiser awards, business stakeholders dinner, sales promotions

via discounts, rebates, free coverage of some special events and free announcements

as the case may be; that Public Relations plays highly significant roles in the

marketing of Television Services; that NTA, ESBS, and AIT use Public Relations

strategies in marketing of their services; that Public Relations has made very great

impact in the T.V Services Marketing of NTA, ESBS, and AIT; that inadequate

funding, ignorance of PR significance, and lackadaisical attitude are major factors

constraining the application of Public Relations in the marketing of Television

Services by many TV stations.

5.2 CONCLUSION

From the above findings, the researcher concludes that, considering the

indispensability of Public Relations in all endeavours, it becomes therefore, very

pertinent that Public Relations is applied in every facet of life, programmes, and

activities, be it within the private or public sector of the economy, at home or in our

personal lives, if our desired goal(s) and objective(s) are to be actualized

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings and conclusion made, the researcher therefore, recommends as

follows: In applying Public Relations in any of life’s endeavour, the applicants must

effectively, adequately and carefully plan, organize, implement, monitor and control

the right Public Relations Strategies to ensure the actualization of the desired results.

Again, competent professionals who are themselves Public Relations Experts and

members of the NIPR, should be assigned the responsibility of handling Public

Relations activities and programmes. Equally, the Management of NTA, ESBS, and

AIT, should endeavour to provide adequate funding, for PR in the marketing of their

services. Lastly, management of these TV broadcasting stations should develop and

sustain adequate interest in Public Relations and its programmes, if they must grow,

and remain relevant in the industry market place.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Akerka, A. (1991): “Emerging Technologies and the Quality of Life: A look into the

future” in The Journals of Public Relations, No. 1.

Aliede, J.E. (1991): “Media and Society” Unpublished lecture material

Anny, O. & Lacobucci, D. (1995): “Consumer Trade – Offs and the Evaluation of

Services”; Journal of Marketing, Vol. 1, No 3, Jan.

Beny, L. (1986): “Big Ideas in Service Marketing”; Journal of Consumer Marketing,

Vol. 1, No. 2, Spring.

Black, Sam (1989): Introduction to Public Relations; Lagos: West African Books

Publishers Ltd.

Chisnall, P.M. (1981): Marketing Research Analysis and Measurement; USA:

Illionis Press Ltd.

Cutlip, and Centre (1971): Effective Public Relations; New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc

Cutlip, Centre, and Broom, in Adekun Salu (1996) “Public Relations Practice in

Nigeria: Challenges and Responsibilities of PR Practitioner,” NIPR Journal,

Vol.2.

Fruend, E.J. and William, F.J. in Uzoh Stanley: An Appraisal of Public Relations

Inputs (instrument) Strategies) in the Awareness Creation of

HIV/AIDS Scourge in Nigeria. (An unpublished project work

submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of

a postgraduate – Master of Science Degree in marketing/public

Relations). University of Nigeria, Enugu – Campus, Enugu. Sept

2001.

Ikeagwu, E.K. (1998): Groundwork of Research Methods and Procedures; Enugu:

Institute for Development Studies, UNEC.

Jefkins, F. (1988): Public Relations Business Handbook (3rd edition) London: Pitman

Press.

Jefkins, F. and Yadin, D. (1998): Public Relations; Harlow: Pearson Education

Limited.

Jones, A. (2005): The Effective Salesman; New York: Albright Publishers.

Kotler, P. (1995): Marketing Management (Analysis, Planning, Implementation, and

Control): 8th Edition, New Delhi: Prentice – Hall of India.

Kotler, P. (2001); Marketing Management (The Millennium Edition); New Delhi:

Prentice Hall of India.

Levitt, T. (1972): “Production – Line Approach to Service”; Harvard Business

Review, Sept. – October.

Nwosu, I. (1995): Public Relations Management Issues, and applications; Aba:

Dominion Publishers.

Nwosu, I. and Ekwo, U. (1996): Mass Media and Marketing Communications;

Enugu: Thought Communications Publishers.

Nwosu, I.E. (1990): Mass Communication and National Development; Aba: Frontier

Publisher Ltd.

Nwosu, I.E. and Idemili, S.O. (1992): Public Relations-Speeches, Media writing and

copy; Enugu: Acena Publishers.

Offonry, K. (1990): Public Relations in Nigeria; Owerri: New Africa Publishing

Company.

Offonry, K.H. (1985): Guide to Public Relations Practice in Nigeria; Owerri: New

Africa Publishing Coy.

Ogunsanya, A. (1991): Strategy and Public Relations; Lagos: Richmind Books

Limited.

Onah, J.O (1996): “Professionalism in Public Relations and the role of Public

Relations in Modern Marketing” in Nwosu, I.E. and Ekwo, U.

(1996): Mass Media and Marketing Communications (Principles,

perspectives and practices); Enugu: Thought Communications

Publishers.

Osuala, E.C. (1991): Introduction to Research Methodology; Nigeria: University

Press Ltd.

Osuji, C. (1990): Principles of Public Relations Practice (The Nigerian Approach);

Owerri: Opinion Research and Communications Ltd.

Parasuram, A. Zeithmal E. et al (1985): “A Conceptual Model of Service Quality and

its implications for future research”; Journal of Marketing, Vol.2, No. 8

Profile of AIT (Internet, via google search)

Profile of ESBS (Information Hand Book)

Profile of NTA (Information Hand Book)

Stantons, N.J. (1981): Fundamentals of Marketing; New York: MC-Graw-Hill Inc

Tench, R. and Yeomans, L. (2006): Exploring Public Relations; Harlow: Pearson

Education Limited.

Udoeagha, A.O. (1995): Principles and Processes of Marketing; Enugu: J.T.C

Publishers.

Uzoma, A. (1989): Issues in T.V. Broadcasting; Enugu: Thought Communication

Publishers.

APPENDIX 1

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

S/N INTERVIEWER INTERVIEWEE

QUESTIONS RESPONSES

1 Your Name Sir?

2 Your Organization Sir?

3 Your Position in your Org.?

4 Do you understand Public Relations and its strategies?

5 Do you have idea of Television Services Marketing?

6 Does Public Relations Play any role in Marketing?

7 Does Public Relations play any significant role in marketing of Television Services?

8 What Public Relations strategies do Television Stations apply in the marketing of their services?

9 Do NTA, ESBS, and AIT apply Public Relations in the marketing of their Television Services?

10 What impact has Public Relations made in the marketing services of NTA, ESBS and AIT?

11 Are inadequate funding, ignorance of PR significance and lackadaisical attitude major factors constraining the application of Public Relations in the marketing of TV services by many TV stations?

APPENDIX II

Public Relations Programme

Department of Marketing

Faculty of Business Administration

University of Nigeria

Enugu Campus,

May, 2009.

Dear Sir/Madam,

Please find enclosed, a questionnaire for your study and completion. I am a research

candidate, of the above Program, Department, Faculty, and School. The research is a

Postgraduate study, which centers on the Role of Public Relations in the Marketing

of Television Services within the South East, Nigeria; a focus on NTA, ESBS, and

AIT.

Please feel free to fill this questionnaire. It is purely for academic work and as such

the information provided by you will be treated with utmost confidentiality.

Yours faithfully,

Uzodinma, Ifeyinwa B.

PG/M.Sc/07/46975.

QUESTIONNAIRE ADMINISTRATION TO RESEARCH RESPONDENTS

(PERSONNEL, ADVERTISERS, AND VIEWERS OF NTA, ESBS, AND AIT)

1. Sex: a. Male [ ] b. Female [ ]

2. Are you an NTA, ESBS or AIT Personnel? a. NTA [ ]

b ESBS [ ] c. AIT [ ]

3. Are you a viewer or an Advertiser? a. Viewer [ ]

b Advertiser [ ] c. None [ ]

4. What station do you view? a. NTA [ ]

b. ESBS [ ] c. AIT [ ]

5. What station do you advertise on? a. NTA [ ]

b. ESBS [ ] c. AIT [ ]

6. Do you understand Public Relations and its strategies?

a. Yes [ ] b. No [ ]

7. Do you have knowledge of marketing of Television Services?

a. Yes [ ] b. No [ ]

8. Does Public Relations play any role in marketing? a. Yes [ ]

b. No [ ] c. Don’t know [ ]

9. Does Public Relations play any significant role in the marketing of Television

Services? a. Yes [ ]

b. No [ ] c. Don’t know [ ]

10. What Public Relations strategies do Television Stations apply in the

marketing of their Services?

i. -------------------------------------------------------------------------

ii. -------------------------------------------------------------------------

iii. -------------------------------------------------------------------------

iv. -------------------------------------------------------------------------

v. -------------------------------------------------------------------------

vi. -------------------------------------------------------------------------

11. Does NTA or ESBS, or AIT apply Public Relations in the marketing of their

Television Services?

a. NTA yes [ ] No [ ] Don’t know [ ]

b. ESBS yes [ ] No [ ] Don’t know [ ]

c. AIT yes [ ] No [ ] Don’t know [ ]

12. What impact has Public Relations made in the marketing of NTA, ESBS and

AIT Television Services?

a. NTA Very Great Impact [ ] Great Impact [ ]

Insignificant impact [ ] No impact [ ]

b. ESBS Very Great Impact [ ] Great Impact [ ]

Insignificant impact [ ] No impact [ ]

c. AIT Very Great Impact [ ] Great Impact [ ]

Insignificant impact [ ] No impact [ ]

13. Inadequate funding, ignorance of PR significance and lackadaisical attitude

are no major factors constraining the application of Public Relations strategies

in marketing T.V. Services by many TV stations?

a. NTA Strongly agree [ ] Agree [ ]

Disagree [ ] Strongly disagree [ ].

b. ESBS Strongly agree[ ] Agree [ ]

Disagree [ ] Strongly disagree [ ].

c. AIT Strongly agree [ ] Agree [ ]

Disagree [ ] Strongly disagree [ ].