US-China Education Review 2013(3B)

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US-China

Education Review

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Volume 3, Number 3, March 2013 (Serial Number 22)

Publication Information: US-China Education Review B (Earlier title: Journal of US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613) is published monthly in hard copy (ISSN 2161-6248) by David Publishing Company located at 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA. Aims and Scope: US-China Education Review B, a monthly professional academic journal, covers all sorts of education-theory researches on Higher Education, Higher Educational Management, Educational Psychology, Teacher Education, Curriculum and Teaching, Educational Technology, Educational Economics and Management, Educational Theory and Principle, Educational Policy and Administration, Educational Sociology, Educational Methodology, Comparative Education, Vocational and Technical Education, Special Education, Educational Philosophy, Elementary Education, Science Education, Lifelong Learning, Adult Education, Distance Education, Preschool Education, Primary Education, Secondary Education, Art Education, Rural Education, Environmental Education, Health Education, History of Education, Education and Culture, Education Law, Educational Evaluation and Assessment, Physical Education, Educational Consulting, Educational Training, Moral Education, Family Education, as well as other issues. Editorial Board Members: Professor Alexandro Escudero Professor Cameron Scott White Professor Diane Schwartz Professor Ghazi M. Ghaith Professor Gil-Garcia, Ana Professor Gordana Jovanovic Dolecek Professor Güner Tural Professor Lihshing Leigh Wang Professor Mercedes Ruiz Lozano Professor Michael Eskay Professor Peter Hills Manuscripts and correspondence are invited for publication. You can submit your papers via Web submission, or E-mail to [email protected] or [email protected]. Submission guidelines and Web submission system are available at http://www.davidpublishing.org or http://www.davidpublishing.com. Editorial Office: 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA Tel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082 Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457 E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Copyright©2013 by David Publishing Company and individual contributors. All rights reserved. David Publishing Company holds the exclusive copyright of all the contents of this journal. In accordance with the international convention, no part of this journal may be reproduced or transmitted by any media or publishing organs (including various Websites) without the written permission of the copyright holder. Otherwise, any conduct would be considered as the violation of the copyright. The contents of this journal are available for any citation. However, all the citations should be clearly indicated with the title of this journal, serial number and the name of the author. Abstracted/Indexed in: Database of EBSCO, Massachusetts, USA Chinese Database of CEPS, Airiti Inc. & OCLC Chinese Scientific Journals Database, VIP Corporation, Chongqing, P.R.C. Ulrich’s Periodicals Directory ASSIA Database and LLBA Database of ProQuest Excellent papers in ERIC Norwegian Social Science Data Service (NSD), Norway Universe Digital Library Sdn Bhd (UDLSB), Malaysia Summon Serials Solutions Subscription Information: Price (per year): Print $600 Online $480 Print and Online $800 David Publishing Company 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA Tel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082 Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457 E-mail: [email protected]

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US-China Education Review

B Volume 3, Number 3, March 2013 (Serial Number 22)

Contents Teacher Education

A Potential Approach to Support Pre-service Teachers’ Professional Learning: The Video Analysis of the Authentic Classroom 149

Wang Xiong

An Investigation of How Lecturers’ Teaching Strategies Promote Productive Classroom Interaction 162

Helena Hing Wa Sit

Educational Policy and Administration

Science Education and the Challenges Facing Its Integration Into the 21st Century School System in a Globalized World: A Case of Igbo Nation 172

Ezeudu F. O., Nkokelonye C. U., Ezeudu S. A.

New Method of the Earth Mineral Resources Study at Ilia State University, Georgia 183

Avtandil Okrostsvaridze

Home-School Collaboration in Sweden and China 188

Margaretha Kristoffersson, Limin Gu, Yan Zhang

Educational Psychology

Finnish Sauna Behaviors, Dirty or Decent 202

Riitta Parvia

US-China Education Review B, ISSN 2161-6248 March 2013, Vol. 3, No. 3, 149-161

A Potential Approach to Support Pre-service Teachers’

Professional Learning: The Video Analysis of the Authentic

Classroom

Wang Xiong

Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, China

This article focused on a deeper analysis of pre-service teachers’ observations of video lessons based on the

authentic classrooms across three stages in eight sessions in order to reveal their changes in the abilities to

understand pedagogical content knowledge and the effects of specific observation frameworks introduced in the

observation sessions. With those aims, we developed the coding schemas at the content and the method level to

analyze the pre-service teachers’ observation reports and reflections. It was found that the video lesson analysis

based on the authentic classroom teaching has a great potential to support pre-service teachers’ professional

learning with the appropriate guidance.

Keywords: pre-service teacher, professional learning, video lesson

The Significance of the Research

It has been recommended that pre-service teachers should be offered more authentic experiences to

prepare them to handle the complexity and challenges of the school context (Darling-Hammond, 1997;

Goodlad, 1990; Huling, 1998; National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983) with the two following

assumptions: (1) exposure to examples of teaching creates learning opportunities for pre-service teachers; and

(2) through authentic experiences pre-service teachers meld theory into practice (Santagata, Zannoni, & Stigler,

2007).

Nevertheless, the previous program for the pre-service teachers’ professional development was mainly

operated to impart the theories on the mathematics education and the experiences abstracted from the teaching

practice in Shanghai Normal University. The pre-service teachers have such few opportunities to come into

contact with the authentic classroom teaching that they believe that: (1) The theories on the mathematics

education are so far away from the teaching practices that they are not useful to serve the future teaching

practices of pre-service teachers when they will have been in-service in one or two years; and (2) The

experiences abstracted from teaching practices stay only in the master teachers’ minds but far beyond mine

(Huang, 2012). The apparent chasm (Bencze, Hewitt, & Pedretti, 2001) between what often happens in

The outcome of this paper is a part of the achievements of the project “The Development and Application of a Method to Research Classroom Based on Discourse Analysis” (B12031) funded by Shanghai Municipal Education Commission, and the project “The Development and Application of a Method to Research Mathematics Classroom Based on Discourse Analysis” (No. SK201209) funded (2012-2013) by Shanghai Normal University.

Wang Xiong, Ph.D., associate professor, Mathematics and Science College, Shanghai Normal University.

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APPROACH TO SUPPORT PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL LEARNING

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university-based teacher education and teaching in schoolsa theory-practice gaphas caused the instructors

to shift much of their instructing efforts out of academia and into the usage of case (Koc, Peker, & Osmanoglu,

2009) to provide opportunities for pre-service teachers to apply their theoretical and practical knowledge to

classroom contexts (Lundeberg, Levin, & Harrington, 1999).

Given the shift challenge, this research has built the pathway to getting the pre-service teachers involved

in both observation and analysis of two video lessons for the purposes of facilitating their professional learning.

The use of video in teacher preparation programs has progressed from being a means to expose pre-service

teachers to specific behaviors to be imitated to a tool for the development of teachers’ professional judgment.

While the video-based teacher learning projects offer promising results, many questions still remain open. On

the one hand, many would agree that, unless one has a clear goal in mind, classroom observations can easily

turn into messy and unstructured notes. Although most programs provide pre-service teachers with some kind

of guidance, the focus varies widely. What counts as effective guidance is still one open question (Santagata et

al., 2007). On the other hand, researches that document the knowledge growth and the conceptual changes of

pre-service teachers in the learning process are lacking. This paper aims to address the two gaps by analyzing

the pre-service teachers’ learning process in the video lessons analysis activities.

Methods

Videotaped Lessons

Two seven-grade mathematics videotaped lessons were chosen to be the case video lessons in this research.

The two lessons videotaped by the research team were an experienced teacher’s authentic classroom teachings

in Shanghai Tianlin Middle School, China. Its assumption was to provide an authentic classroom teaching

situation for students to analyze the learning activities in the lessons, even without the field observation. The

teaching contents of the two lessons were both about the proof strategies in geometric problems. And the two

lessons were similarly structured with the aim of learning activities arrangement for pre-service teachers’

professional learning in the research. The first video lesson would be taken as a learning practical platform on

which students were able to obtain the basic skills and knowledge about how to observe and analyze a lesson;

while the second one would be done as the field of the acquired skills and knowledge application. Thus, the

similar construction of the second lesson to the first one was potential to stimulate students to apply the

obtained skills and knowledge within the second lesson situation.

Session Organization

The whole sessions were grouped into three stages with eight sessions and each session was 80 minutes.

Only Chinese was used in the sessions.

Stage oneBrainstorming observation and analysis. The first session: Encouraging students to observe

the first video lesson which was projected on a big screen. Seventy-six participants who were pre-service

teachers majoring in mathematics education of Shanghai Normal University were divided into 19 groups to

facilitate the sharing of participants’ ideas in the observation and the analysis of video lessons. Each member

within every group was assigned the specific observation task by the group leader or initiatively took the task.

For instance, some members took notes of the lesson sequence, and others focused on the case teacher’s

discourse, and so on. Then, every group uploaded its observations and reflections on the first lesson to the

online forum at http://qun.qq.com/air/#141854935 which was built up for the group discussion in the research.


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After the first session, the instructor (the corresponding author) reviewed the reports of every group submitted

at the online forum. The results demonstrated that: (1) Participants mainly analyzed the lesson according to

their perceptions rather than reliable data collected from the lesson; and (2) Participants were not able to

logically express their opinions in their report of lesson observation and analysis.

Stage twoThe application of the selected analysis framework. The second session: Offering the

pre-service teachers the guidance to the observation of the video lesson. Taking the review results into account,

the instructor recommended Hiebert, Carpenter, Fennema, Fuson, Wearne, and Murray’s (1997) critical

dimensions of mathematics classroom as the classroom observation framework and instructed how to logically

express the analysis results. Meanwhile, the instructor presented the excellent groups’ reports and her own

analysis report of the lesson observation. The third session: Encouraging the pre-service teachers to re-observe

the first video lesson. The procedure of the observation activity was the same as that of the first session. Its aim

was to improve pre-service teachers’ abilities to observe a lesson and express their viewpoints by application of

the classroom observation framework. The fourth session: Reviewing every group’s report downloaded from

the online forum and presenting the review results. The fifth session: Encouraging pre-service teachers to

observe the second video lesson. The procedure of observation was the same as that of the first and the third

sessions. This kind of design was conducive to pre-service teachers’ transformation of their obtained

knowledge from the previous sessions to this round observation task. Moreover, the members in each group did

not change. Under this situation, it is possible to observe the each member’s knowledge increase and

conceptual changes during the professional learning process through the video lesson observation and analysis.

The sixth session: Online discussion. Each group uploaded its report at the online forum. As a facilitator, the

instructor encouraged the pre-service teachers to look into the other groups’ reports and give the feedback on

them. The seventh session: Reviewing the group reports on the second video lesson.

Stage threeThe refinement of analysis method. The eighth session: Encouraging the pre-service

teachers to reflect the whole learning process. A questionnaire was used to exam the pre-service teachers’

capacities of refining the analysis method on the classroom teaching and their gains and experiences. The

questionnaire included the following questions: (1) Explaining how to analyze a mathematical classroom

teaching based on your previous learning activities; and (2) Summarizing the knowledge and experiences which

you acquired from the previous learning activities.

Data Sources

The data consisted of the videotaped group discussion, the groups’ reports, the instructor’s feedback, and

the questionnaires. Videotaping the group discussion was mainly intended to snatch the whole scene of the

group discussion. The group reports were downloaded from the online forum and amounted to 44. The

instructor’s feedback contained her own observation report, the reviews of the groups’ reports, and the

instructions in the sessions. The questionnaire was implemented as an exam, and therefore, every participant’s

answer sheet was marked. In addition, participants did not post any substantial comments on the groups’ reports

at the online forum, so we only catch a glance at the data from online forum discussion.

Data Analysis

The content analysis techniques were utilized (Neuendorf, 2002) to explore the participants’ knowledge

growth and conceptual changes and the effects of analysis frameworks provided for them. In order to capture

the pre-service teachers’ viewpoints and thoughts in the video lesson analysis, the coding schemes based on the


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five-dimensional framework of classroom (Hiebert, Carpenter, Fennema, Fuson, Wearne, & Murray, 1997)

were developed at the content and the method level: (1) mathematical task, teachers’ roles, classroom culture,

tools, and accessibility in Table 1; and (2) statement, portion, formalization, and elaboration (including

innovation) in Table 2 with the low and the high quality of coders in each dimension.

Table 1

The Codes at the Content Level Codes Core features

Mathematical task Mathematics problems; Connect with where students are; Leave behind something of mathematical value

Teachers’ roles Select tasks with goals in mind; Share essential information; Establish classroom culture

Classroom culture Ideas and methods are valued; Students are encouraged to share their ideas or methods; Mistakes are learning sites for everyone; Correctness resides in mathematical argument

Tools Meaning for tools must be constructed by each user; Used with purpose to solve problems; Used for recording, communicating, and thinking

Accessibility Tasks are accessible to all students; Every student is heard and contributes

Table 2

The Codes at the Method Level Codes Descriptions Score interval

Statement The context is expressed without framework and the five-dimensional framework is not applied

Low quality: 60−64 High quality: 65−69

Portion Parts of the five dimensions in the framework are mentioned or discussed Low quality: 70−74 High quality: 75−79

Formalization The five-dimensional framework is applied by rote, but all the five dimensions are mentioned or discussed


Elaboration The five-dimensional framework or other reasonable framework is taken as the analysis tool


Particularly, the participants’ answer sheets on the Question 1 at stage three were assigned a score by the

following procedures: (1) confirming a score interval by looking at the quality in each dimension at the method

level (see Table 2). Comments that did not include the certain instances of the video lessons to support the

general ideas summarized from the lessons were coded as low quality. Comments that included the certain

instances of the video lessons to support the general ideas summarized from the lessons were coded as high

quality; and (2) specifying a score within the score interval by looking at the emerging viewpoint amount. The

more viewpoints were mentioned or discussed, the higher score were marked within a score interval.

Coding Reliability

We followed three procedures to ensure coding reliability: Firstly, two coders (the corresponding author’s

postgraduate students) individually coded the data. Then, we examined the code-matching rate. Initially, we

found the matching rate was 67%; Secondly, in order to increase the matching rate, the corresponding author

coordinated the disagreements negotiation in a three-way conference by going over every coded message until

the coding match rate reached 85%; and Finally, the two coders coded the entire data set maintaining the 85%

match rate.

Results

In this section, we provided the results of two types of analysis at the content and the method level. The

results were organized into the following three dimensions.


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Dimension One: The Shift From Superficial Features to Pedagogical Content Knowledge

At stage one, the pre-service teachers were encouraged to observe and analyze the first video lesson in

their own way in the first session. When they first observed the first video lesson, the pre-service teachers

tended to pay a lot of attention to the superficial features in the lesson. Firstly, during the observation process,

they kept a watchful eye on the laughable scenarios. For instance, they could not help laughing when they saw

a chubby student sitting beside the student who was answering questions, and they also talked about that the

case of teacher’s necktie was slanting; Secondly, in the first group reports, some groups attached importance to

the description of the superficial circumstances. For example, of 19 group reports, three focuses on the

description of what was going on in the lesson without substantial comments; Another three highlight on the

discussion of the characteristics of the case teacher, such as the appropriate dress style, nonstandard mandarin,

and the friendly face emotion; Thirdly, in the first group reports, many groups mainly stayed at the superficial

perceptions on the five dimensions of the framework. For example, of 19 group reports, two mention the

mathematical task in one very short sentence, such as “The examples are typical”, five mentioned the case

teacher’s roles in one phrase, such as “Making the connection between new and previous knowledge and

explaining the proof process step by step”, two mentioned the classroom culture in one phrase, such as “The

active interaction between the teacher and students”, three mentioned the tools in one phrase, such as “The

usage of the mini blackboard”, and one mentioned the accessibility in two clauses, such as “The instruction is

vivid and accessible, which is easy for most students to access”. Consequently, even those groups mentioned

the two, or three, or even four dimensions of the five-dimensional framework, they adopted the very general

way to discuss those without the reasoning process from the instances of the lesson.

At stage two, firstly, the pre-service teachers were encouraged to re-analyze the first video lesson, and

then to analyze the second video lesson with the instructor’s guidance based on the review of the groups’

reports and the introduced analysis framework. Under the guidance of the instructor, and finally, the pre-service

teachers were able to focus on the analysis of the lesson tasks, the way of the case teacher helping students

construct reasoning in the proof, and the students’ thinking in the interaction between teacher and students, and

the tools application, and so on. The specific description was as follows:

Firstly, building on their first observation and assimilating the five-dimensional framework, all the groups

were able to organize their viewpoints into five dimensions in their second observation of the first lesson.

However, the viewpoints were still expressed in very general way, such as “Teacher roles: instructing with the

targets, stimulating students’ initiative thinking by pointing out the key points, mobilizing the students’

interests by question and interaction in the classroom”. It was hard to link such viewpoints with the specific

scenarios from the lesson. Therefore, it was also difficult to examine how the viewpoints were generalized from

the evidences collected from the lesson;

Secondly, taking the above situation into account, the instructor presented her own analysis report of the

first lesson and explained how to generalize and express the viewpoints based on the specific scenarios from

the lesson under the five-dimensional framework. For instance, the core feature of the examples selected in the

lesson in the dimension of mathematical task was the emerging variation theory. It could be illustrated by the

gradual changes in the structure, the background, the covered knowledge points, the questioning type

(open-closed), and the question numbers of the examples. Then, with the features, it is reasonable to understand

its significance through the students’ performance in the examples of learning process. Therefore, the


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viewpoint-variation in the example and its expression-substantial comparison data were written in very

coherent way. With the coherent expression way, it was potential to facilitate the pre-service teachers to not

only improve their viewpoints expression, but also acquire the deep understanding of the knowledge of

mathematical task. The instructor’s analysis report was available at the online forum;

Later on, the pre-service teachers were encouraged to observe and analyze the second video lesson taking

the instructor’s analysis report as a reference. Among 19 groups submitting reports, it was found that 16 groups

were able to express their viewpoints in very coherent way in each dimension of the five-dimensional

framework. For example, CG (Clover-Four Group) generalized the following six viewpoints in the dimension

of teachers’ roles: (1) helping students go over the previous knowledge; (2) instructing how to prove the two

lines perpendicular; (3) guiding students’ thinking to grasp the concept of the analytical method; (4) helping

students to find out the logical starting point of a proof; (5) paying close attention to the students’ feeling; and

(6) summarizing the proof method. Not only were the viewpoints generated well and truly, but also they were

illustrated by the specific scenarios from the lesson. For instance, the third viewpoint was illustrated by the

learning process of example one which was demonstrated by the photograph of blackboard-writing in the

lesson and described by text referring to the black-writing photograph (see Figure 1). In addition, two groups

did not complete their reports in very serious way. They simply mentioned some facts from the lesson in their

reports without analysis of thinking inclusion. And one group did not submit the report.

Figure 1. The report segment of CG.

Overall, from stage one to stage two, the pre-service teachers were able to observe and analyze the lessons

from the focus on the superficial features to an understanding of pedagogical content knowledge with the

five-dimensional framework.

Dimension Two: The Shift From Illogical Statement to Structured Analysis

It was found that the reports of classroom observation at stage one mainly demonstrated illogical feature in

the viewpoints expression. Only one of the 19 group reports had sub-titles in the statement of observation.

Three of them stated their viewpoints in only one paragraph containing multi-dimensional viewpoints at


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random, such as the report of the ZG (Zhuo Group) (see Figure 2). In the report, we can see that the viewpoints

were disorganized based on the emerging codes pattern-mathematical task, teachers’ roles, classroom culture,

teachers’ roles, teachers’ roles, mathematical task, accessibility, and teachers’ roles, in one paragraph. Four

groups paragraphed their statements based on group members’ comments, and five paragraphed their

statements based on the following two dimensions: merits and demerits, such as the report of the LG (Life

Group) (see Figure 3). In the report, the viewpoints were organized into merits and demerits paragraph. Each

paragraph generally mentioned multi-dimensional viewpoints. For example, the merits paragraph contained the

following messages: detailed explanation (teachers’ roles), multi-consideration of students’ situation (teachers’

roles), proper organization and linkage of classroom activities (teachers’ roles), interaction with students

(classroom culture), and going over the previous knowledge to deepen students’ memory at early stage of the

lesson (teachers’ roles).

Figure 2. The report and coding of the ZG.

Figure 3. The report of the LG.


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At stage two, when the groups re-observed and re-analyzed the first lesson, it was found that 16 of 17

groups used the five-dimensional analysis framework to organize their reports (Note: Two groups did not

submit their reports). However, seven groups thereof directly adopted the table and its features of the

five-dimensional analysis framework to state their comments, such as the report of Lu Group (see Figure 4). It

was not difficult to find out that the group tended to fill out the features of each dimension in the table by the

general facts abstracted from the lesson. Therefore, to a great extent, such usage of the analysis framework as

filling out the table limited pre-service teachers’ thinking in the analysis of the lesson. The other nine groups

were able to elaborate their viewpoints and link them to the specific instances collected from the lesson under

the five-dimensions of the analysis framework.

Figure 4. The report of the Lu Group.

More importantly, when the groups observed and analyzed the second video lesson under the instructor’s

guidance, 16 of 19 groups substantially improved the capacities of generalizing and expressing their viewpoints

when they used the five-dimensional framework as the analysis tool. For example, in the report of AG (see

Figure 5), each dimension led a paragraph and each paragraph discussed one topic that related to the dimension

of the analysis framework. Therefore, the analysis framework facilitated the groups to clear up their viewpoints

that came out during the lesson observation and analysis. Meanwhile, the analysis framework was able to

stimulate the groups to deepen their concepts on the dimensions. For example, as for the dimension of tools, the

groups not only discussed the obvious material objects, such as mini blackboard, ruler, and compasses, but also

recognized the role of the soft tools. For example, CG considered the role of underscoring the keywords by

colored chalk in helping the students understand the problems’ structures. And the EG (E Group) insightfully

recognized the role of the flow charts used in the explanation of problem-solving process in helping the

students construct a clear train of thought.

Overall, from stage one to stage two, the pre-service teachers were able to demonstrate their viewpoints

from illogical statement to structured analysis based on the five-dimensional framework.


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Figure 5. The report of the AG (Ao G.roup).

Dimension Three: The Shift From the Skilled Video Analysis to the Valued Beliefs on Mathematics

Teaching

At stage three, based on the two previous learning stages, the participants were asked to reflect the whole

process of the video analysis activity with the intention to refine the method of analyzing a classroom teaching

in the form of exam. Therefore, the collected answering sheets showed the participants’ independent thinking

results. Thus, to some extent, it is possible to examine the individual involvement in the previous learning

activities through the statements in the answering sheet.

On one hand, it was found that 84.2% participants had set the mind upon applying the five-dimensional

framework (including the other created proper frameworks) to analyze a lesson, even 15.8% participants

thereof could not completely apply it (see Figure 6). This meant they were capable to refine the analysis

method of the classroom teaching from the video lesson analysis process.

For example, Miss Xu offered the answer in the following way (see Figure 7): Level one“If we want to

analyze a classroom teaching, we should firstly understand the teaching content and its key points”The

dimension of mathematical task was taken as a tool to observe a classroom teaching; Level two“For example,

when I observed the first video lesson, it was found that the teaching content-analytical method and synthesized

method were clearly wrote down on the blackboard”The facts were selected from previous observation

activities to support the dimension; and Level three“It was very useful to stimulate students to realize the

lesson focusThe application of the two methods in the proof problems, which definitely would mobilize their

thinking”The comments based on the facts that were able to indicate the significances of the dimension as a

tool to observe a lesson. With such statement pattern, she discussed the other four dimensions of the

five-dimensional framework. It was reasonable to confirm that pre-service teacher Xu was able to apply the

five-dimensional framework in the methodological perspective and refine the analysis method from the

previous activities as the commentsthe clear analysis framework and the exact cases in pointoffered from

the instructor at the top of the sheet and her own summarizations in the front of her answeringfrom


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disorganization to proper organized and multi-dimensional framework in the analysis (see Figure 7).

34.2 34.2

15.8 15.8

0

10

20

30

40

90-100 80-90 70-80 60-70

Percentage of People

Number

Score Interval Figure 6. The reflection scores.

Figure 7. The report of the pre-service teacher Xu.

The reflection not only facilitated pre-service teachers to refine the method of observing and analysing a

lesson, but also deepened their views on the lesson plan, the students’ cognition, the interaction between

teacher and students, and even the career as a mathematics teacher. For example, as for the lesson plan, Mr. Jin

believed that a teacher should consider the selected examples in variation theory at the lesson plan stage and

Miss Yang stated that a teacher should fully prepare himself for a lesson before it started in terms of the

teaching content, the predicable students’ difficulties, and the full mind state. As for the students’ cognition, Mr.

Sun suggested that teaching was to help students find out the solution when they confronted a new problem, not

only impart to them the new concept or problem-solving skill. And Miss Li further indicated that a teacher

should pay close attention to not only the students’ cognitive situation but psychological health as well. For

example, if a student could not answer a question, the teacher should encourage the student to further his/her

thinking by offering some prompts, which was able to build the student’s confidence. Likewise, Mr. Ye

mentioned that an active interaction between teacher and students would exalt students’ learning interests.

More importantly, as for the teachers’ career, 98% pre-service teachers in their reflections stated that being a


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mathematics teacher was not easy and should pay close attention to a lot of things, because even a very tiny

detail could greatly influence students’ thinking, sentiment, and psychology. Moreover, they were going to do

their best to promote their professional levels.

Conclusions

We contend that the video lesson analysis based on the authentic classroom teaching has a great potential

to support pre-service teachers’ professional learning with the five-dimensional framework.

Firstly, learning how to analyze a classroom teaching:

Knowing how to analyze a classroom teaching was not only indicated from the reports of the pre-service

teachers, but also reflected from their concepts on the classroom teaching. For example, in the reflection, Miss

Qian stated that:

I, who never paid attention to how teacher instruct and how he or she select examples, began to critically and analytically look at a mathematical classroom teaching. This was a big change for me.

Liu said:

Firstly, what I have learned was four Ws: how-how to analyze; what-what would be analyzed; where-where would start from; and why-why we can analyze like this; and Secondly, before as a good teacher, knowing how to observe a lesson was crucial to matter in terms of a higher start point we could stand.

Cheng summarized such detailed facts as:

Initiatively, I thought observing a classroom teaching was nothing but to talk about personal ideas. However, from the instructor’s review of our group report, we found there were so many mistakes made even in a very short context, such as inappropriate title, the disorder context arrangement, the missing citation, and so on. More importantly, the alacritous analysis framework as a useful too was learned to apply during the review process. The impressed scenario was the instructor classified our reports of applying the analysis framework to observe the lessons into such categories as appropriate application, ill-application, and abused application and explained every report in terms of the role of the analysis framework.

And he further summarized that:

Overall, from the review process, I knew what was appropriate and what should be improved.

Secondly, understanding the pedagogical knowledge:

Through the video lesson analysis process, the pre-service teachers were able to understand the

pedagogical knowledge in the lesson context. For example, in the reflection, Mr. Yan realized that:

Qualification of being a teacher firstly helps students understand the taught content in their acceptable ways as the case teachers have done in the lessons. The case teacher could figure out the difficulties and misunderstandings of students confronting to the new knowledge and stimulate students’ thinking to overcome them from the students’ perspective.

In addition, Mr. Yan made it clear that:

Teaching was not a person matter, but a communication between teacher and students that tender not only students to concentrate on the learning activities, but also teacher to know well students’ participation and understanding.

While Miss Gan mentioned that:

What made me deeply impressed were the examples selected in the lessons. There were only three examples in a


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lesson, but it took the case teacher a lot of time, energies, and thinking to arrange them in terms of their construction, knowledge covering, the question style, and so on.

Mr. Nan draw a conclusion that:

Such analysis activities make us realize that providing a good classroom teaching needs to embody a lot of such characteristics as favorable thinking, active students’ participation, powerful personalities, and strong articulation, which we should pursue in our current learning, or even long-life learning.

Thirdly, making the connection between theory and practice:

In addition to the positive reaction to the application of the five-dimensional framework, the pre-service

teachers were able to examine the specific scenarios from the theories that they have learned before the sessions.

For example, in the reflection, Miss Yang said:

I knew better about Freudenthal’s thought of mathematics education and Polya’s conception on problem-solving. Before I did not understand their significances very well. However, through these analysis activities, I could understand them in the lesson situation. For instance, I understood the function that the case teacher did not adopt the direct instruction but piloted students to solving the problems by themselves was to provide students more creation space in terms of Freudenthal’s re-creation thought.

Miss Dai added that:

The active learning in Polya’s conception on problem-solving was performed by such facts as students’ independently thinking and discussion with classmates in the lessons. Teaching was not a matter of imparting.

Mr. Chen summarized that:

The theories in the practices were easy to understand and apply them, but we owned such few chances that we always understand them from textbooks. However, this time, our instructor provided us with such chances by encouraging and guiding us to analyze the video lessons.

Fourthly, valuing the beliefs of being a teacher:

The pre-service teachers not only realized the challenges but also orientate the process of being a

successful mathematics teacher. For example, Mr. Jin noted that:

In the analysis activities, I really experienced that a classroom teaching needs to go through so many complexities. Meanwhile, I realized my insufficient knowledge and unsophisticated thinking to be a qualified teacher. So, these analysis activities directed our way to be a qualified teacher.

Miss Xu offered a detailed experience that:

Before I only knew teaching was to completely impart teacher’s knowledge to students. However, now I realized it was not so simple. Teaching was a process. While teacher played a crucial role in the process. Such matters as instructing methods, students’ participation, and students’ performances, and so on, were the key indicators of valuing the classroom teaching effects. For per-service teachers, learning from the analysis of experienced teachers’ authentic lessons was essential to deeply understand the meaning of being a teacher.

Nevertheless, the online forum did not substantially stimulate students’ group discussion. After submitted

the group reports, the whole group did not give any substantial feedback to other groups’ reports. Therefore, we

still find it necessary to explore how to more effectively implement the video case analysis in pre-service

teachers’ professional learning than before in the future researches.


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Goodlad, J. I. (1990). Teachers for our nation’s schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Hiebert, J., Carpenter, T. P., Fennema, E., Fuson, K. C., Wearne, D., & Murray, H. (1997). Making sense: Teaching and learning

mathematics with understanding. Portsmouth, N. H.: Heinemann.

Huang, H. (2012). The cultivation of pre-serive teachersA case from the major of Mathematics and Applied Mathematics

(teacher-training) in Shanghai Normal University (Unpublished master’s thesis, Shanghai Normal University). Huling, L. (1998). Early field experiences in teacher education. Washington, D. C.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and

Teacher Education. Koc, Y., Peker, D., & Osmanoglu, A. (2009). Supporting teacher professional development through online video case study

discussions: An assemblage of pre-service and in-service teachers and the case teacher. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(8), 1158-1168.

Lundeberg, M. A., Levin, B. B., & Harrington, H. L. (1999). Who learns what from cases and how? The research base for teaching and learning with cases. Mahwah, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A Nation at risk: The imperative for education reform. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Department of Education.

Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. Thousand Oaks, C. A.: Sage Publications. Santagata, R., Zannoni, C., & Stigler, W. J. (2007). The role of lesson analysis in pre-service teacher education: An empirical

investigation of teacher learning from a virtual video-based field experience. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 10(2), 123-140.


An Investigation of How Lecturers’ Teaching Strategies Promote

Productive Classroom Interaction

Helena Hing Wa Sit

Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia

Both the Mainland and Hong Kong have witnessed the trend of educational internationalisation since the handover.

The recruitment of non-local students is regarded as an important strategy to internalise universities in Hong Kong.

Within Hong Kong’s western-style educational setting, an increasing number of Mainland students attracted by the

English-medium education and widely adopted western-oriented pedagogy have become the majority non-local

students. Studies explored the adjustment experiences of Mainland students to study in Hong Kong and found

evidence that the adjustment of the host group was as difficult as the sojourning group did in classroom interaction.

Nevertheless, limited research examines the role of teachers in promoting interaction between diverse learners from

pedagogical perspective. Effective teaching strategies can enhance positive classroom interaction. There is

substantial literature within disciplines, such as healthcare, economics, and teacher education, but there is little

investigation of effective strategies in English that studies as a discipline, particularly, in the new context of the

HKSAR (Hong Kong Special Administrative Region), PRC (People’s Republic of China). This paper attempted to

investigate how lecturers’ teaching strategies promoted productive interaction through surveys in the discipline of

English. The results should have implications for other worldwide institutions other than Hong Kong involved in

enhancing quality teaching and learning in higher education.

Keywords: higher education, teaching strategies, cross-cultural teaching and learning, English studies

Context of the Study

Having had British colonial regime for over a century, Hong Kong as a special administrative region was

reunited with the PRC (People’s Republic of China) in 1997. Due to the closer relationship between Hong

Kong and Mainland China, a set of strategic collaborative programs across all fronts including education as one

of the main public services have been broadened and deepened. In particular, the UGC (University Grants

Committee) (2011), a local funding body that sponsors the Hong Kong public-funded institutions and offers

expert advice to the government on higher education has set up the goal of attracting and retaining high quality

of non-local students to study and live in Hong Kong to further internationalize its higher education sector.

In terms of the student resources of Hong Kong’s higher education, a significant change has also occurred.

Hong Kong attempts to do whatever the government could to link with the Mainland including education. In

the late 1990s, only several hundred talented Mainland Chinese undergraduates on scholarship were brought

into Hong Kong’s universities to study (Shive, 2005). From then on, more Mainland students were recruited by

many local graduate programs. So far the non-local student quota for publicly-funded programs has been raised

Helena Hing Wa Sit, lecturer, Ph.D., Learning and Teaching Centre, Macquarie University.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

LECTURERS’ TEACHING STRATEGIES, PRODUCTIVE CLASSROOM INTERACTION

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from 10% to 20%. Currently, the Mainland Chinese students have become the majority of non-local students in

Hong Kong higher education (UGC, 2011). Other non-local students are from South-Asian countries (e.g.,

Indonesia, Japan, and Malaysia), European countries (e.g., UK, Italy, and Spain), North America, and Australia.

In the academic year of 2010/2011, 8,713 full-time Mainland Chinese (out of 10,074 non-local students)

accounted for approximately 90% of the total student population. As a result, how to enhance quality teaching

and learning has drawn academics’ attention when facing students’ diversity and cultural inclusivity. To

implement the project in a manageable way, this study only focused on the Mainland students as the largest

non-local student source.

Previous cross-cultural teaching and learning studies conducted in Hong Kong can be generally classified

as two main research streams. The one is concerned with Hong Kong Chinese background students. For

example, Watkins and Biggs (2001) examined the Hong Kong students’ learning approaches and challenged

the paradox of “Chinese surface learning”; Kember (2001) learned the process of teaching and learning as a

factor in Hong Kong students’ adjusting to study in higher education. The other focuses more with newly

arrived Mainland Chinese background students. For instance, recent research studied Mainland Chinese

students’ acculturation experiences (Zeng, 2006) and their shifts in English learning strategy use in the host

university in Hong Kong (Gao, 2007). Only a few studies have drawn attention on both groups of students. As

a result, another new research stream is become available. Examples can be seen from the research that

compared learning approach use between Hong Kong and Mainland construction engineering students in Hong

Kong and Mainland China (Leung, Li, Fang, X. H. Lu, & M. Lu, 2006), but it did not discuss these samples’

learning situations in the same context of Hong Kong. When the adjustment experiences of a group of

Mainland undergraduate students from the first cohort to study in a university of Hong Kong in 1999, Lam

(2006) unexpectedly found evidence that the adjustment of the host group was as difficult as the adjustment of

the sojourning group due to their different social, cultural, and educational experiences. However, the study did

not examine the role of a teacher in promoting positive interaction between diverse learners from pedagogical

point of view.

This study reported an investigation of the lecturers’ preferences for teaching strategies at universities in

Hong Kong and how these strategies promoted productive classroom interaction. To date, there is a small body

of research which deals with teaching strategies for advanced learners of English in Hong Kong’s universities

although methods of teaching English have been repeatedly discussed in language education in Hong Kong.

This study focused on teaching strategies that promoted interactions between Mainland Chinese students and

local Hong Kong students at the senior level of learning disciplines in English.

Research Methods

The taxonomy of teaching strategies proposed by Killen (1998) was used as the framework design for the

study. In general, the seven commonly used teaching strategies in western contexts: DI (direct instruction), CD

(classroom discussion), SGW (small group work), CL (cooperative learning), PS (problem-solving), SR

(student research), and PA (performance activities) are described to effectively facilitate students to learn and to

interact. A study conducted by Sit (2012) has identified that their existence and frequency of use in the

discipline of English in Hong Kong’s universities. Following this trend, this study aimed to find evidence on

the effectiveness of these strategies for enhancing classroom interaction within the learning environment of

Hong Kong.


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To gain an understanding of lecturers’ attitudes towards teaching diverse advanced English students, a

survey as quantitative data collection procedure was designed to identify teachers’ preferences for strategies and

examining the effectiveness of these strategies for promoting classroom interaction. Survey research can help

the researcher to generalize a numeric description of a specific sample, characteristics, attitudes, perceptions, or

opinions on a particular issue to the wider population. There is an “economy of the design and the rapid

turnaround in data collection” (Creswell, 2009, p. 146) and the ability to “tap the subjective feelings of the

public” (Fowler, 2002, p. 2).

This study was conducted in the English departments, the HKU (University of Hong Kong) and HKIEd

(Hong Kong Institute of Education). HKU is a leading comprehensive university while HKIEd is an inclusive

educational institution focusing on teacher training and development. Both the two universities have an

increasing number of local and Mainland students applying for first-year-first-degree places (EDBThe

Education Bureau, 2007). Two sets of data will allow a comparative analysis.

Table 1

HKU Participants Surveyed

No. Gender Level of course Years of teaching Role in the course English native speaker

1 Female Year 2 and 3 More than 10 years Lecturing No

2 Female Year 2 and 3 1−3 years Coordinating and lecturing Yes

3 Male Year 2 More than 10 years Lecturing Yes

4 Male Year 2 and 3 More than 10 years Coordinating and lecturing No

5 Male Year 2 and 3 More than 10 years Lecturing No

6 Male Year 1 and 2 4−6 years Lecturing and tutoring No

7 Female Year 1 4−6 years Lecturing and tutoring No

8 Female Year 2 1−3 years Lecturing No

9 Female Year 1 1−3 years Lecturing Yes

10 Female Year 1 4−6 years Lecturing No

11 Female Year 1 4−6 years Lecturing and tutoring Yes

Table 2

HKIEd Teachers Surveyed

No. Gender Level of course Years of teaching Role in the course English native speaker

12 Male Year 2 More than 10 years Lecturing and tutoring No

13 Male Year 1 1−3 years Lecturing and tutoring Yes

14 Male Year 2 and 3 More than 10 years Coordinating, lecturing, and tutoring Yes

15 Male Year 1 More than 10 years Lecturing and tutoring No

16 Male Year 1 4−6 years Coordinating, lecturing, and tutoring No

17 Male Year 1 1−3 years Lecturing and tutoring No

18 Female Year 1 1−3 years Coordinating, lecturing, and tutoring Yes

19 Female Year 2 4−6 years Lecturing and tutoring No

20 Female Year 2 and 3 More than 10 years Lecturing No

21 Female Year 1 and 2 More than 10 years Lecturing and tutoring Yes

22 Female Year 2 More than 10 years Coordinating, lecturing, and tutoring No

The participants were teachers who were teaching an undergraduate course in the English Departments of

HKU and HKIEd. Of the total 36 academics sampled, 22 (11 at HKU and 11 at HKIEd) completed the

questionnaires posted to them and the response rate was 61%. The researcher was aware of the limitation of


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survey for a small number of subjects. Since the data collected in a small sample size, any results must be

accepted with a caution. Tables 1 and 2 summarize background information of the subjects.

Tables 1 and 2 show that each institution consisted of 36% of the subjects speaking English as their

mother-tongue. They were from English-speaking or European countries while the remainders were from Hong

Kong or Mainland China. Ten (out of 22) academics were experienced lecturers, because they had already

gained more than 10 years of lecturing and tutoring experience. The rest were either novice teachers or

short-term contract teaching fellows.

Study Results

All the participants responded to the questionnaire that was designed to scrutinize the seven teaching

strategies identified by Killen (1998), so that teachers’ preferences for these strategies could be revealed. With

a purpose to check students’ interaction from the eyes of lecturers, the other section of the survey was

concerned with classroom interaction and teaching strategies that promoted communication between these two

groups of students. The data were processed by SPSS (Statistical Program for Social Sciences) software to

generate means and SD (standard deviations). T-tests were conducted to look for differences in response

between the institutions. With regard to gender, educational backgrounds, and teaching experience, the

quantitative statistical results could not provide much significant or valuable evidence because of the limited

number of subjects.

Preferences to Use Teaching Strategies

This section of questionnaire was designed to investigate the teaching strategies preferred by the teachers.

Table 1 summarizes the responses from the participants in terms of their preferences for each teaching strategy.

The question includes statements in relation to seven individual strategies and requires participants to give their

opinions by indicating their agreement or disagreement on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (“Strongly disagree”)

to 5 (“Strongly agree”). These items and relevant indicators are listed below:

(1) DII prefer direct instruction because it is very effective for teaching fundamental concepts or knowledge of the

subject. It allows me to convey a large amount of information in a relatively short time;

(2) CDI prefer classroom discussion because it can involve students in learning actively, motivate them to express

ideas, and help enhance their social communication means, such as listening, speaking politely, and respecting others’ views;

(3) SGWI prefer small group work because it can help students exchange ideas from diverse perspectives, deepen

their understanding of course content, improve their communication skills, and increase their active participation in learning;

(4) CLI prefer cooperative learning because it can encourage students to achieve a desired task cooperatively. It not

only helps students to share responsibilities for their own learning, but it also enhances the learning of other group members;

(5) PSI prefer problem-solving because it helps develop students’ critical thinking skills, resourcefulness,

independence, and self-confidence and their ability to apply knowledge to some real-world situations;

(6) SRI prefer student research because it can enable students to develop a deep understanding of the subject and

develop their organizational and time-management skills;

(7) PAI prefer performance activity because it can engage students in learning activities and provide them with

opportunities to develop their communication skills.

The above items and statements were used as indicators of preference and reasons for preference. The use

of a 5-point Likert scale resulted in statistically comparable results (see Table 3).


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Table 3

Preferences to Use Teaching Strategies at HKU and HKIEd

Preferences for teaching strategies

HKU (n = 11) HKIEd (n = 11) T-test (Sig.) Mean SD Mean SD

DI 3.81 0.75 3.54 1.04 ns CD 4.27 0.47 4.18 0.87 ns SGW 3.63 0.92 4.27 0.47 ns CL 3.82 0.75 4.18 0.60 ns PS 4.18 0.60 3.55 1.04 ns SR 4.27 0.65 3.27 1.27 t = 2.32* PA 3.45 0.69 3.82 0.75 ns

Notes. * p < 0.05; ns = non-significant.

On the HKU site, preferences for SR (4.27) and CD (4.27) were rated as the highest. Preference for PS

(4.18) was also high but PA (3.45) was the lowest. On the HKIEd site, the results showed that SGW (4.27), CD

(4.18), and CL (4.18) were highly rated, but SR (3.27) gained the lowest rate. The t-values of preferences for

most teaching strategies except for SR were more than 0.05. No major differences were found between the two

institutions. However, preference for SR was estimated as t = 2.32, p < 0.05. This showed that there was a

significant gap between the two research sites. The HKU group was more enthusiastic on SR than the HKIEd

group.

Classroom InteractionHow Classes Are Conducted

A question surveyed the participants’ responses on classroom interaction. They needed to consider how

they conducted their classes to promote interaction between Mainland and Hong Kong students and rate the

items on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (“Strongly disagree”) to 5 (“Strongly agree”). Five items are listed as:

(1) LecturingLecturing is used as a major means of communication with students in my classroom;

(2) Students with different cultural backgrounds working togetherStudents with different cultural backgrounds are

encouraged to work together to generate ideas or opinions;

(3) Mainland and Hong Kong students participate in classBoth Mainland students and Hong Kong students

participate in class activities by raising questions and expressing their ideas;

(4) Mainland and Hong Kong students cooperate in classMainland students and Hong Kong students interact and

cooperate well in most collaborative classroom activities;

(5) Mainland and Hong Kong students have troubles in interactionWhen Mainland students and Hong Kong

students meet each other in class, they communicate less than when they are with other Mainland or Hong Kong students.

Table 4 shows the overall picture of students’ interaction.

Table 4

Classroom Interaction Between Mainland and Hong Kong Students

Classroom interaction between Mainland and Hong Kong studentsHKU (n = 11) HKIEd (n = 11)

T-test (Sig.) Mean SD Mean SD

Lecturing 3.18 1.17 3.27 1.01 ns

Students with different cultural backgrounds working together 3.73 0.65 3.82 1.08 ns

Mainland and Hong Kong students participate in class 2.91 1.38 3.81 0.75 ns

Mainland and Hong Kong students cooperate in class 3.64 0.67 3.09 0.83 ns

Mainland and Hong Kong students have troubles in interaction 2.90 0.74 3.73 0.90 t = -2.31*



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The numbers displayed in the table indicated that there was no striking difference between the HKU and

HKIEd groups with respect to the first four items. The first item about encouraging Mainland and Hong Kong

student to work together by the HKU group (3.73) and the HKIEd group (3.82) was the strongest response.

There was an obvious gap between HKU (2.90) and HKIEd (3.73) in terms of the last item indicating Mainland

and Hong Kong students had troubles in interaction. The t-value (t = -2.31, p < 0.05) provided sufficient

evidence that the HKIEd group of teachers found more problems in relation to the interaction between

Mainland and Hong Kong students than the HKU group did. The rate of agreement on cooperation between

Mainland and Hong Kong students in class at HKIEd (3.09) was also statistically lower than that of HKU

(3.64).

However, not many written responses were added to the open space of the question. Only one teacher at

HKIEd expanded the reason pertaining to the problems with Mainland and Hong Kong students’ interaction. It

was reflected that this might depend on the student composition of the two groups of students because one

teacher reported that if there were fewer Mainland students in class, they would mix more with the local

students.

Classroom Interaction-Effective Strategies to Promote Interaction

The participants answered a question which required them to report what teaching strategies should be

effective for promoting productive classroom interaction. Again, their responses varied on a 5-point Likert

scale from 1 (“Strongly disagree”) to 5 (“Strongly agree”). Table 5 shows their ratings.

Table 5

Effective Strategies to Promote Interaction

Effective teaching strategies

HKU (n = 11) HKIEd (n = 11) T-test (Sig.)

Mean SD Mean SD

DI 3.45 1.29 3.00 1.26 ns

CD 4.36 0.50 4.18 0.40 ns

SGW 3.73 0.65 4.27 0.47 t = -2.27*

CL 3.73 0.65 4.09 0.83 ns

PS 3.91 0.54 3.91 0.54 ns

SR 3.64 0.67 3.91 0.70 ns

PA 4.00 0.63 3.82 0.98 ns


In general, the participants at HKU and HKIEd found that teaching strategies including CD, SWG, CL, PS,

SR, and PA were more effective than DI to promote classroom interaction. Particularly, CD (4.36), PA (4.00),

and PS (3.91) got the first three high ranks at HKU. SWG (4.27), CD (4.18), and CL (4.09) ranked highly at

HKIEd. Except for SGW (t = -2.27, p < 0.05), t-tests found no significant difference between the two

institutions for other strategies. This gap showed that the HKIEd favored SGW than the HKU group. As to the

reasons behind this gap, analysis would be made in the discussion section.

Four lecturers from HKIEd wrote down their additional opinions about effective teaching strategies to

enhance productive classroom interaction. Other helpful strategies, such as “weekly feedback online” and

“biographical sharing” were recommended to give students an opportunity to ask questions, which is not

always possible in or after class. These comments seemed to illustrate that teachers at HKIEd were more

enthusiastic in considering more effective strategies beyond those “seven” checked in this study.


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Discussion

On the whole, all the participants were keen to use these seven strategies. The majority had greater

preferences for student-centred teaching strategies including CD, SGW, CL, PS, SR, and PA. This tendency

might derive from their educational backgrounds and qualifications. Most teachers in this current study were

academics trained internationally and received their Ph.D. degrees in western countries where student-centred

teaching practices are widely used and emphasised. Most teachers in this study may expect students to

construct knowledge by themselves rather than rely on teachers’ transmissive knowledge. Therefore, students’

acquisition of independent study skills was more valued. Westwood (2008) claimed that student-centred

teaching strategies are necessary to empower learners with great autonomy and to establish collaborative work

with others. The statistics showed that whether the participants were English native speakers or not, they had

been strongly influenced by the rationales of student-centred approaches. Teachers tended to expect students to

learn through their firsthand experience. This was also consistent with Hong Kong’s western style higher

education sector that emphasizes on autonomous learning and independent thinking. As such, the frequencies of

using student-centred strategies at the two institutions were higher than “direct instruction” which is more

teacher-centred.

In addition, the quantitative data indicated that the two groups of participants had different preferences for

some specific student-centred teaching strategies. For example, the HKU group was keen on “SR” while the

HKIEd group favoured “SGW” more. Context of teaching and learning might account for differences between

the two sites. In the highly research-orientated environment of HKU, research capability and academic insights

are particularly valued (School of English-HKU, 2009). The teachers at HKU tended to emphasize the

scholarship of subject matter in English studies. The written response from the HKU group stated explicitly that

analyzing data as a research activity was also used as an alternative strategy. By contrast, the teachers at HKIEd

were inclined to pay more attention to the professional development of students since their main responsibility

is preparing new teachers for the workforce. Teaching competence is a major concern in teacher training

institutions because teachers are playing a role model for students. Most HKIEd teachers hold a teaching

qualification in addition to an academic higher degree. They have been trained in how to use various teaching

strategies effectively apart from a command of academic side of subject matter. Their written response could be

a good reflection of this point. Providing class time for “SGW” may have provided students with opportunities

to use this teaching strategy and to understand the value of the student-centred approach. As a result, the

contexts of teaching and learning in the two research sites are different. The institutional culture and the

composition of the teachers with various academic and teaching qualifications could be the contributing factors

to the preference of using some specific teaching strategies.

The other noteworthy point was related to classroom interaction, especially the communication between

Mainland and Hong Kong students through the teachers’ eyes. The interaction difficulties raised by the HKIEd

participants were bigger than the HKU teachers. To some extent, this could be linked with student minority

status or majority status in class. Liu (2002) concluded that Mainland students with their minority status in

American classrooms were inclined to keep silence as a means of self-protection or as a sign to express their

agreement and harmony with the majority of local students. During classroom communication and interaction,

it was natural for them to work as a subordinate group when interacting with the dominant social group usually

enjoying more power over the minority groups. Similarly, student composition of Mainland and Hong Kong


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students at HKU and HKIEd might be a factor that affects their interaction. The confident Hong Kong students

with higher self-esteem tended to place themselves in a more favourable position in terms of the power

relations with Mainland students.

Although HKU is one of the most prestigious comprehensive institutions, attracting the largest population

of Mainland students (UGC, 2011), it had relatively less Mainland students studying in the Department of

English. In the observed lessons for this study, only a few had some Mainland students. For example, 16 out of

117 students in a mass lecture were from the Mainland and accounted for 13% of the total class population.

Major selection could be considered as a reason behind this. In accordance with the employment statistics in

Hong Kong, more than 50% of Mainland university graduates worked in Hong Kong in 2009 and the financial

services industry were their largest employer (EIC, 2010). It would be easier for most Mainland students to

choose careers, such as business, medicine, information technology, and media in Hong Kong (Qiu & Lin,

2010). One of the HKU teachers also noticed that the degree of interaction between Mainland and Hong Kong

students seemed to depend on the number of Mainland students among the host students. If there were fewer of

them, they needed to mix more with local students. Due to their minority status, Mainland students tended to

follow the mainstream in class activities. Furthermore, their presence often drew little attention from the

majority, namely, large numbers of Hong Kong students. In this sense, conflicts between students might be

invisible.

By contrast, the Department of English at HKIEd recruited a large number of Mainland students. In the

recent academic years, over 57% of the student intake in the department was Mainland undergraduates studying

English language teacher education programs (Gao & Trent, 2009). The majority of the visited classes were

predominantly Mainland Chinese (with Hong Kong students becoming minority) and some comprised half

Mainland and half Hong Kong students. This kind of student body indicated that the English language teaching

profession was also highly attractive to a great number of Mainland and Hong Kong students. Employment

may direct such a choice. Both research sites may compete not only academically, but also in graduate

employment.

Teaching is a highly respectable profession in traditional Chinese culture and English language teaching is

today considered a prestigious occupation. In 2005, teaching was rated as the third most desirable profession by

Hong Kong local secondary school students among 20 careers (Lai et al., 2005). To most Mainland students

who want to work in or migrate to Hong Kong, studying a four-year-language education program can be

helpful, because the immigration policy requires them to spend at least seven years on permanent residency,

with monthly starting salary no lower than HK$11,000 (EIC, 2010). Statistics show that HKIEd graduates

excelled and achieved full employment at 100% in 2009, earning an average monthly salary of HK$18,014

(HKIEd, 2010). As a result, more and more Mainland and Hong Kong students tend to choose language

education, because it can not only improve their English competence, but also help them to get a job easily.

As such, both majority and minority should have an impact on student’s interaction. Mainland students

had become a majority group in class. In other words, they could also exercise power over subordinate groups

and form their own mainstream of learning and communication. Some lecturers from both research sites found

that getting Mainland and Hong Kong students to interact was hard because seldom did they talk with each

other until it was required. The two groups of students preferred to stick to their own groups. However, the

more the two groups of students worked separately, the less Mainland and Hong Kong mixed groups would be


170

formed and therefore less interaction would occur. Strategies should be made on how to improve interaction

between diverse learners.

As recommendations written by five lecturers, consciously mixing Hong Kong and Mainland students

when assigning small group tasks or group projects should be helpful to positive interaction. Such mandatory

mixed grouping could be done randomly in a non-face-threatening manner, e.g., assigning a number (of 1, 2,

3…10) to each student, and let all students with the same number get together in groups. Two lecturers

suggested that an effort should be made to inspire the groups to realise that they shared a lot in common and

they could learn many things from each other by positive interaction. In this sense, lecturers should not form

any stereotypes nor show any prejudice towards either Mainland or Hong Kong students. Rather, they should

try to avoid any judgemental remarks on cultures of the Mainland and Hong Kong. Consequently, it would be

helpful for teachers to take a Confucian point of view: Harmony in diversity or unity with variation (合而不同)

to teach their culturally mixed classes.

Conclusions and Implications

In conclusion, several points could be drawn from the survey findings. First, two important facts revealed

were “lectures at HKU used more ‘CD’ than those at HKIEd” and “the HKU group was more enthusiastic

about SR than the HKIEd group”. There was significant evidence for a conclusion that research-orientated

HKU stressed on the importance of using student-centered teaching strategies while HKIEd, as a teaching

training institution, emphasized on a variety of teaching strategies. This conclusion was further supported by

the finding that “the teachers surveyed at HKIEd were more inclined to use more sorts of teaching strategies

than HKU”. There was a significant gap between the two research sites. Regardless of the gap, the small-scale

quantitative data also demonstrated a common feature of the two research sites: The majority of participants

preferred teaching strategies that were more student-centred.

Second, in terms of interaction, “the HKIEd group found more problems in relation to the interaction

between Mainland and Hong Kong students than the HKU group did”. “The rate of agreement on cooperation

between Mainland and Hong Kong students in class at HKIEd was also statistically lower than that of HKU”

left a doubtful contributing factor: the student composition. In this study, analysis indicated that student

numbers in each group would affect their interaction patterns. The number of students’ enrolment in the

different institutions might be a cause of the difference. Not much conclusion could be made at this stage, but it

did raise a good point for a future study. Although difficulties concerned with communication between

Mainland and Hong Kong students were raised, several participants suggested using mixed group work to get

students speak up. These strategies also need to be further investigated to see whether mixing students up

would be incorporated in the classrooms and how effective it would be through other research methods, such as

on-site classroom observation and in-depth follow-up interview.

Lastly, the study was limited to a relatively small number of subjects, but the statistical evidence should

provide a general picture of teachers’ perceptions and preferences for strategy use in their teaching. Overall, the

survey should cover a wide range of teachers who were responsible for a variety of disciplines of English

Studies though the study only involved two higher education institutions in Hong Kong. The results may have

implications for other worldwide institutions other than Hong Kong involved in enhancing quality teaching and

learning in higher education.


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May 2, 2008, from http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/EN/Content_927/legco%20brief-e.pdf EIC. (2010). Employment rate in Hong Kong: Most of mainland students’ ideal careers in Hong Kong. Retrieved June 2, 2010,

from http://news.eic.org.cn/News.aspx?id=8150 Fowler, F. J. (2002). Survey research method (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, C.A.: Sage Publications. Gao, X. (2007). Language learning experiences and learning strategy research: Voices of a mainland Chinese student in Hong

Kong. Innovations in Language Learning and Teaching, 1(2), 193-207. Gao, X., & Trent, J. (2009). Understanding mainland Chinese students’ motivations for choosing teacher education programmes

in Hong Kong. Journal of Education for Teaching, 35(2), 145-159. Gieve, S., & Clark, R. (2005). The Chinese approach to learning: Cultural trait or situated response? System, 33(2), 261-276. HKIEd (Hong Kong Institute of Education). (2010). Press release: HKIEd graduates excel in job hunt; First early childhood

graduates all employed. Retrieve August 16, 2010, from http://www.ied.edu.hk/web/news.php?id=20100519 Kember, D. (2001). Beliefs about knowledge and the process of teaching and learning as a factor in adjusting to study. Higher

Education, 26(2), 205-21. Killen, R. (1998). Effective teaching strategies: Lessons from research and practice (2nd ed.). Katoomba, N. S. W.: Social

Science Press. Lai, K., Chan, K., Ko, K., & So, K. (2005). Teaching as a career: A perspective from Hong Kong senior secondary students.

Journal of Education for Teaching, 31, 153-168. Lam, M. H. (2006). Reciprocal adjustment by host and sojourning groups: Mainland Chinese students in Hong Kong. In M.

Byram, & A. W. Feng. (Eds.), Living and studying aboard: Research and practice (pp. 91-108). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Leung, M. Y., Li, J. Y., Fang, Z., Lu, X. H., & Lu, M. (2006). Learning approaches of construction engineering students: A comparative study between Hong Kong and Mainland China. Journal for Education in the Built Environment, 1(1), 112-131.

Qiu, L. Y., & Lin, J. (2010). Business largely attracts Mainland students coming to Hong Kong for employment or education. In China News. Retrieved June 3, 2009, from http://news.jyb.cn/china/gat/201002/t20100203_339279.html

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Shive, G. (2005). Hong Kong universities welcoming Mainland students. International Educator, 14(5), 12-16. Sit, H. W. (2012). Teaching strategies for enhancing peer interaction among diverse learners. Higher Education Studies, 2(4),

31-39. UGC (University Grants Committee). (2011). Figures: Non-local student enrolment (headcount) of UGC-funded programmes by

institution, level of study, place of origin and mode of study. University Grants Committee. Watkins, D. A., & Biggs, J. B. (Eds.). (2001). Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives. Hong

Kong/Melbourne: CERC & ACER. Westwood, P. (2008). What teachers need to know about teaching methods. Camberwell, Vic.: ACER Press. Zeng, M. (2006). The adaptation of Mainland Chinese research postgraduates to the University of Hong Kong (Unpublished

doctoral dissertation, The University of Hong Kong).


Science Education and the Challenges Facing Its Integration Into

the 21st Century School System in a Globalized World: A Case

of Igbo Nation

Ezeudu F. O., Nkokelonye C. U., Ezeudu S. A.

University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

This paper is a study of historical foundations of science education in Igboland, its nature and scope as well as the

challenges facing its integration into the 21st century school system in a globalized world. The authors found that

there were many scientific activities in Igbo culture, but many problems hinder their integration into the basic needs

of modern society. For instance, imposing the needs of a globalized world of the 21st century on modernized

African (Igbo) science is like imposing industrial chemistry on non-industrialized society. Implications of the

findings were discussed in this paper.

Keywords: science education, globalization, Igboland, Igbo culture, Igbo metaphysics, Igbo science, indigenous

Igbo ideologies, western education in Igbo land

The Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to identify scientific activities in pre-colonial Igbo society and show how

these could be integrated into the school system. The paper also explored/examined the extent these indigenous

science process skills can be harnessed to meet the challenges of globalization.

Specifically, the study shall be investigating the following:

(1) History of education in pre-colonial Igbo society in order to dig up the root of Igbo science process

skills;

(2) The advent of western education among the Igbos and establishment of schools;

(3) The scientific process skills in Igbo culture;

(4) Globalization and science education;

(5) Issues, implications, and challenges of globalization in Igbo nation;

(6) Summary;

(7) Recommendations.

History of Education in Pre-colonial Igbo Society

Education in pre-colonial Igbo society was merely a process of enculturation through instructional agents.

Ezeudu F. O., Ph.D., Department of Science Education, University of Nigeria. Nkokelonye C. U., Ph.D., professor, Department of Education Foundation, University of Nigeria. Ezeudu S. A., Ph.D., professor, Department of Social Science Education, University of Nigeria.

DAVID PUBLISHING

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SCIENCE EDUCATION AND THE CHALLENGES FACING ITS INTEGRATION

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Indigenous people have culture. Colonial masters did not recognize this fact. It was believed that Africa, south

of Sahara, and north of the River Limpopo (the heartland of Igbo nation), was one universal den of waste,

misery, and desolation. They had no system of ethics and no principles of conduct (Otonti, 1964, p. 36). This

Eurocentric version of history notwithstanding, there were systems of ethics and principles of conduct which

formed the foundation of Igbo culture and civilization. Out of this matrix, Igbo traditional education developed

its objectives which gave rise to indigenous Igbo ideologies, namely:

(1) Communalism (Igbo socialism/extended family system);

(2) Utilitarianism (functional education);

(3) Conservatism (conservative socializing agencies/perennialism);

(4) Pragmatism (role preparation/skill acquisition);

(5) Totalitarianism (children learnt everything/i.e., holistic education).

Communalism

This is Igbo socialism/extended family system (“Be your brother’s keeper”). To be your brother’s keeper

is a basic norm in Igbo society. Extended family system is the authentic Igbo socialism not Russian socialism

or Chinese type. Igbo socialism is opposed to capitalism (Ejiofor, 2000, pp. 100-105). Some refer to Igbo

socialism as proto-socialism or proto-type of communism.

The purpose of capitalism is to create a happy society through exploitation, subjugation, and alienation.

Capitalist’s attitude infiltrated into Igbo society through colonialism.

Collective responsibility is a manifestation of Igbo socialism. Education is for the good of the community.

Riches and wealth are acquired for the good of all. Collective responsibility as opposed to the “rugged

individualism” of the Whiteman was Igbo tradition. “Espirit de corps” was cherished. No man was

self-sufficient. No man was an island. Every blood relation is a brother or sister. The idea of nephew or niece,

half-brother or half-sister is strange. The idea of grandmother or grandfather is basic in Igbo culture. This is

Igbo socialism, which needless to say is distributive, not acquisitive (Ejiofor, 2000, pp. 100-107). Wealth is

acquired to give help to less privileged relatives. It is strange to amass wealth in order to build personal political

or economic empire. Nobody wanted wealth in order to hand it over to others or gain political power. A rich

man acquired wealth in order to serve his brothers and sisters. The man who used his wealth to intimidate,

dominate, or subdue his relatives is despised. Education for the good of the community produced

public-spirited citizens of transparency and honesty.

Utilitarianism

Functional education or education for use not for ornamentation was upheld. There was no unemployment.

Vocationalization gave Igbo education job orientation. Apprenticeship system was another term for Igbo

education system.

Conservatism

This is education for promotion of cultural heritage. Eternal values were conserved. The family and elders

of the land were conservative socializing agencies. These were Igbo perennialists who viewed the unwritten

(hidden) curriculum as a package consisting of permanent studies which included spiritual values, human

values, and material values. They saw knowledge as fixed and permanent.

Induction into the society was by indoctrination. Desirable status quo was conserved. Ideological


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conformity was achieved.

Pragmatism

Role preparation through skill acquisition for successful adult life was a cultural universal in Igboland.

Practical training for adult life was cherished. Children were trained for future roles. Boy-child trained as future

father. Girl-child trained as future mother. Mother-craft was part of skill acquisition.

Ability to perform productive tasks was valued more than producing a bookful blockhead with loads of

learned lumber in his head (described as a spurious inheritance of pure intellectualism).

Totalitarianism

Children learnt everything. Some Igbos called it Pan-Sophism. Others felt it was Holisticism (Nebonta,

2009, pp. 43-50; Ochitti, 2007, pp. 59-61). It was education for all-round efficiencymoral, spiritual, physical,

mental, economic, and political efficiency. No choice of subjects was allowed. However, elements of culture

were not lacking, viz.:

(1) Cultural universals: Core values (marriage, language, festivals, and ceremonies) were retained;

(2) Cultural specialties: These were professions like carving and smithery. Religions groups, priests, and

diviners specialize in fortune-telling. There were trading oligarchies. The Aros and Nri constitute the two

hegemonies in Igbolandthe Aro trading oligarchy and Nri ritual hegemony. Nri dominance and hegemony

was founded on the control of Igbo calendar, ritual and agricultural cycle. Nri is the centre of Igbo culture and

the cultural metropolis of Igboland. All Igbo culture came from Nri and Aro hegemony was based on

long-distance tradethe slaving oligarchy (1807–1927), bolstered up by a widely recognized Aro

oracleChukwu-Ibini-Ukpabi, and strong alliance with warlike neighbours with martial tradition, viz., Abam

Ohafia and Edda. With these warmongers, the Aro maintained commercial oligarchy and dominance in the

economic life of the Igbo and their neighbours. The blow-up and military overthrow of Chukwu-Ibini-Ukpabi

in the Aro expedition of 1901–1902 brought Aro hegemony to an end, even though the Aro struggled hard to

retain their hegemony long after the famous Aro expedition (up to 1927);

(3) Cultural alternatives: There were likes and dislikes, fashions and fads, choice of diet, and alternative

ways of doing things.

The above five ideologies were rooted in three Igbo philosophies of lifemetaphysics, epistemology, and

axiology.

Igbo Metaphysics

Belief in life after death, Igbos are very religious. Ancestor worship is basic in Igbo cosmological

education. All the three aspect of metaphysics form part of the cosmological education, namely:

(1) Ontology: Belief in Supreme Being, God, the creator, or almighty god and pantheon of gods and

goddesses or minor gods/deities. They believe in reincarnation, witches, and wizards;

(2) Cosmology: Origin of the universe richly found in Igbo mythical charter was preserved in Nri corpus

of myths. Origin of Igbo market days and certain food crops constitute Igbo cosmology and worldview;

(3) Causality: Cause and effect relationship were amply elaborated. Nemesis, Karmic laws (retributive

justice) was taught through oral literaturefolktales, myths, and legends.

Epistemology

Igbo oral tradition/oral literature was the main source of knowledge. Oral literature could be divided into


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three:

(1) Mythsconcerned with superhuman elementsactivities of gods and goddesses in human affairs;

(2) Legends: concerned with human elementsactivities of human heroescultural heroes and warlords;

(3) Folktale/folklore: concerned with ballads, proverbs, riddles, and poems.

Axiology

This is taught by presenting Igbo ethics, aesthetics, and political philosophy.

(1) Igbo ethics: Concerned with moral content of Igbo civilization. It is the Igbo moral philosophycode

of conduct and social norms. Three types of norms in Igbo culture:

(a) Folkwayssocial convention;

(b) Morestaboos;

(c) Lawlegal codes, rules, and regulations;

(2) Aesthetics: Concerned with principles of beauty and ugliness. Lay emphasis on Igbo arts and crafts,

rules of hygiene, use of cosmetics, cultural refinement, and general aesthetic awareness;

(3) Political philosophydemocratic gerontocracy.

The above is a basic outline on which Igbo pre-colonial education was made to revolve. It was on this

outline that Igbo science was rooted.

Igbo Science

Science is knowledge obtained by observation and testing of facts. It is empirical or sensory information

about the behaviour of natural and physical world-based on facts and figures which can be proved by

experiment. Igbo cosmological experience is filled with scientific knowledge as can be seen in the inventory of

Igbo science processes.

The above was the state of the art before the introduction of western education in Igboland on July 26,

1857, by Samuel Adjai Crowther, Simon Jonas, and Christopher Taylor of the CMS (Church Missionary

Society) Niger Mission.

The Advent of Western Education and Establishment of Schools

Igboland is found on both banks of the River Niger between Lokoja in the north and Bonny-Opobo in the

Niger Delta. Majority of Igbo people are living towards the east of the great River in Anambra, Imo, Abia,

Enugu, Ebonyi, and parts of Rivers State. These are the people of eastern Igboland. Igbos inhabiting the

western bank of the River Niger is called western Igbos or Ika Igbos. Cross River Igbos are the Aros and their

neighbours. Among the Igbos of southeast Nigeria, western education came along with the Niger Mission of

1857.

Specifically, the Niger Mission was launched from three axis (Afigbo, 1981, p. 338): the River Niger

Front, Bonny-Opobo axis, and the Cross River axis.

The River Niger Front

The Niger Mission dated back to July 26, 1857 when Dr. Baike, Bishop Adjai Crowther, and John

Christopher Taylor arrived at the palace of Obi Akazua of Onitsha for courtesy call and formal introduction.

Dr. Baike requested to open up a trading station. Bishop Adjai Crowther asked for a piece of land to

establish a mission station. The king welcomed them and granted their request. The agreement was sealed the

following day with gun salute. A piece of land few kilometers from Onitsha waterside known as slave market


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or slave beach was given to them to open up mission station.

The CMS Niger Mission took off in earnest. The first primary school in Onitsha was opened on Monday

November 15, 1858, with 14 girls between 10 to 16 years of age. All were naked. Taylor gave them clothes.

Boys showed no interest at all. Both day and night schools were opened by Taylor in 1864 for young slaves

who became the school pioneers. Day school had 50 pupils and night school had 70 pupils on roll. Boarding

house was maintained with funds from overseas charitable organizations. The most popular was “Coral Fund”

sponsored by Miss Barber Brighton of England (Ekechi, 1971, pp. 6-8, 17). The aim of the fund was to enable

the infant mission to maintain boarders at three pounds per child per year.

By 1864, attendance was 42 adults. In 1864, roll calls increased to 120fruit of six years labour. By 1867

after labouring for ten years, attendance jumped to 310.

The Niger Mission was reinforced on December 5, 1885, when two Holy Ghost MissionariesFather

Joseph Lutz and the newly-ordained Father Horne and brothers Hermas and JeanGotto arrived at Onitsha

waterside (Slave Beach). They were the pioneer Catholic Missionary team that comes to Onitsha to be ready to

work in Igboland on the eastern side of the Niger. Trade disputes and internecine rivalries had been in existence

between French and British nationals operating on the Niger. This Anglo-French rivalry made it suspicious and

unsafe for any French man to be found on British area of influence.

It must be noted that on their way to the Lower Niger, they came across a kind-hearted protestant factory

agent at Brass by name Charles Townsend who brought them in his own motor boat to Onitsha. The small boat

was too small to take the four missionaries and their 70 pieces of luggage. For this reason, they hurriedly

presented themselves to the King of Onitsha Obi Anazonwu and they went back to Brass to collect the two

brothers and their luggage. On December 29, 1885, the four missionaries arrived safely at Onitsha.

In January 1886, the Fathers met the King and requested for a piece of land near Nkisi stream. This land

had already been given to Anglican Bishop Adjai Crowther. The King sent the missionaries to meet Bishop

Adjai Crowther who willingly surrendered the land to them:

“I acquired this piece of land for God’s cause. Take it”. This is the present site of Holy Trinity Cathedral

Onitsha, about 20 hectares of land as they requested.

This marked the climax of the Holy Ghost Missionary enterprise in the Lower Niger. With Holy Trinity as

the centre and node of diffusion and influence planting of Catholic Church in Igboland started. By 1889, Obosi,

Ossomari, Nsugbe, Umuoji, Atani, Odekpe, and Nkwelle had received pastoral visit. Chief Nwanne

Onyekomeli Idigo of Aguleri invited the missionaries to visit him. The RCM (Roman Catholic Mission)

favoured expansion before consolidation unlike the CMS which wanted consolidation before expansion.

Bonny-Opodo and Cross River Axes

On these two fronts, the missionaries ran into a belt of Izon (Ijo) and Efik-Ibibio peoples who presented

barriers, opposition, and obstacles. They had to contend and conquer their souls before achieving the purpose of

going into Igbo heartland. With passage of time, Igbo attitude to missionaries changed due to tragic clashes

with political and military agents of imperialism. Peaceful penetration through these two coastal areas had to

wait military action and conquest of the natives.

After the Aro expedition of 1901/1902 which destroyed the Long Juju of Arochukwu, the government

invited all mission on the Niger to move in and establish their churches in the conquered territories. There was

conversion explosion. From Bonny-Opobo, CMS spread to Umuahia, Ndoku, and Owerri.


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Table 1

Inventory of Igbo Science and Skills Involved in Their Application (Ngoka, n. d.) Inventory of Igbo science processes Skills required in their application

1 Industrial chemistry: Fermentation of substances for brewing: Soap manufacture, dyes, and ointments

Identification of substances, sorting, classifying, mixing, testing, tasting, inhaling, and preserving.

2

MedicinePsychiatric treatment (voodoo: therapeutic practice using sympathetic magic and witchcraft). Clinical treatment using roots and herbs bark of trees: for bone-setting. Medical experts use healing properties of leaves, herbs, and bark of trees to cure diseases. Preventive medicine: Use of: (1) ClairvoyanceBi- location, predictive validity/predictive ability, ability to see the future, or communicate with the dead or people who are far away; (2) TelepathyCommunicating with one another without print or non-print media or any other normal method of mass communication; and (3) SorceryWitchcraft.

Medicine men and diviners select medicinal plants and animals based on resemblance with the sickness/disease (Parrinder, 1949, pp. 16-17). Vitilago or leucoderma or spotted skin is treated using a plant with spotted leaf. Sharp quill feather was used to treat spiritual problem. This Igbo practice is called sympathetic magic. Sympathetic magic works on scientific principle of “like poles repel, unlike poles attract”,and “like produces like”. Medical skills include proper identification of herbs, preparation of extracts, mixing, administering treatment, and packaging.

3 PharmaceuticsManufacture of extracts, drugs, drug components, and preservation.

Identification of medicinal plants, useful plants, processing, grinding, grating, and squeezing.

4 EngineeringMetal work black smithing, iron smithing, brass work, and gold smithing.

Identification of metal type, cutting, melting, shaping, casting, and finishing.

5 ConstructionBrick making, ceramics pottery, thatched roof making, and construction of silos.

Identification of appropriate raw materials, excavating raw materials. Treatment of raw materials, measurement, mixing, laying, moulding, drying, roasting, and storage.

6 Wood workCarving and joinery (making of tools and implements with wood).

Measuring, cutting shaping, identification filing, painting, and polishing.

7 Agriculture and industry (crop cultivation).

Sowing yam seed, yam seed should not be buried too deep or too shallow in the ridge to facilitate germination mechanism. Cassava stem should not be turned downwards while sowing, otherwise germination will be hampered (Ukeje, 1966, pp. 19-23). Bush burning: For successful bush burning, farmer picked up a leaf, raise it up to know wind direction. Leaf turns forward or backward; indicating wind direction; thereby showing how to set fire to the farm (Fafunwa, 1991, pp. 31-34).

8 Soil sciencePlanting of shallow feeders and deep feeders.

Identification of fertile soil suitable for cereals and tubers in scientific skill. Push cutlass deep into the soil. If the cutlass jammed a stone in the subsoil, it shows the soil is not good for deep feeders like yam. Only cereals which are shallow feeders can thrive in the soil.

9 Seed germinationCondition for seed germination

Two tests were usually conducted to predict viable and non-viable seeds (Ukeje, 1966, pp. 19-23). First test: Soaking methodSeeds were immersed in a trough of water. Seeds that sank to the bottom of the trough were viable. Seeds floating on the surface of the water were non-viable. Second methodThe experimental method. Seeds were planted in good soil. Early germination and growth showed viable seeds. Poor growth and etiology (pale colour) showed that the seeds were not viable (Fafunwa, 1991).

10 Salt industryIt was found in Uburn, Okposi, and Abiriba. These areas had brine lakes.

Only women were allowed to fetch the brine in pots. The brine was evaporated using smouldering fire under low temperature in special pots called “earthen jars”. The jars were filled to the brim with solid salt. The grains were so large that a pinch or two could season a pot of soup (Afigbo, 1981, pp. 31-33).

Science process skills in Igbo culture. Rich inventory of Igbo science and the science skills involved in

their application have been documented in this study. As shown in Table 1, Ogundijo (1970), an authority on

indigenous education and Afigbo (1981) identified three basic economic activities in Igbolandagriculture,

trade, and industry (Ogundijo, 1970, pp. 11-24; Afigbo, 1981, pp. 124-139). Out of these, the researchers


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distilled 10 economic activities and science process skills involved in their application as a platform to establish

science process skills in Igbo culture (Afigbo, 1981, pp. 7-10).

Globalization and Science Education

Globalization: It refers to fast shrinkage of the world due to global system of mass communication,

Internet technology, or digital revolution. The present challenge facing Igbo nation is how to relate Igbo

scientific culture to life in a globalized world. Igbos in Nigeria have started to experience digital revolution. But

the average Igbo youths lack basic mechanical orientation necessary for survival in an age of high information

technology and technological culture. No one can afford to use yesterday tools to do today’s business and hope

to be in business tomorrow (Muogbo, Aiyesimi, & Okoli, 2006, pp. 22-26). Old order “changeth” must yield

places to the new. God fulfills himself in many ways lest one good custom corrupts the world”.

As days roll by, new skills are acquired and dire need for up-skilling and de-skilling arises. It becomes

necessary to teach new skills from generation to generation. Informal education (indigenous education) is no

more adequate. Semi-formal education is obsolete. Formal and non-formal education now take the centre stage.

The very defect, weaknesses, and short-coming in Igbo scientific culture is that right from July 26, 1857,

when the CMS (Anglican) Niger Mission arrived at Onitsha Water side, the entire education offered to the

Igbos by the agents of imperialism was geared towards aping the British classical tradition. The system was

entirely divorced from the life and culture of the people. Education was the acquisition of inert knowledge.

Such knowledge remained only in its “ivory tower” (Ukeje, 1966, pp. 78-82). Schools existed to impart

knowledge with little reflection. Ukeje (1966) continued to lament“Schools taught children what to think not

how to think. Children learnt to memorize but not to digest; and to adopt not to adapt. Children could solve

problems with memorized formula but could not solve simpler ones without formula” (p. 79).

Considering Igbo inventiveness and creativity, intelligence and business acumen, the Igbo is an asset and a

special gift to Nigeria. The Igbos possessed a stuff great civilization harnessed for their greatness.

Biafran/Nigerian war of 1967-1970 brought conviction to all friends and detractors about technical ingenuity

which produced a landmine called OGBUNIGWE (Igbo constructed rocket which is also a mass destroyer).

This was a demonstration of dynamic explosive superhuman dynamite. This landmine was produced with

empty tins of milk. Time and scope do not permit us to delve into another Biafran prodigy known as “do it

yourself oil refinery” at Azia (a town in Igbo land), and of course Uli (a town in Igbo land) international airport

which were killed with Biafra. Philip Emeagwali, an Igbo Computer prodigy, now the best computer scientist

globally acknowledged is an Igbo from Ogbaru few kilometers from Onitsha. He schooled at Christ the King

College Onitsha and he has made Igbo history a world history in computer science and technology.

Igbo nation, a nation in the making, with wonderful possibilities for technological breakthrough and

industrialization has many jungles to clear, impediments to remove, and challenges to address. With the present

global changes in science and technology, Igbo education system must change to be in keeping with the

ongoing digital revolution across the globe. Integration of Igbo scientific culture into a globalized world will

begin with science in primary schools.

The very need is inculcation of scientific attitude and science process skills in children quite early in life.

Ignorance and superstition must be removed early in life and be replaced with scientific attitude and behaviour

(Ukeje, 1966, p. 137). Primary school must infuse in children the habit of curiosity searching and testing. Top

priority must be given to science. Science, according to experts at primary school level, is not teaching


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chemistry physics and biology. Rather it is making children become aware of daily occurrence around them.

This implies making children begin to ask questions, such as:

(1) Where do babies come from?

(2) Why is mummy’s Tommy swollen?

(3) What is inside your big belly, mummy?

(4) How does water enter into this coconut?

Science skills here are merely helping children appreciate natural phenomenon and the world around. The

aim of primary science is to make the child be conscious of the world around him and create a sense of

curiosity (Ukeje, 1966, pp. 135-136). Inquisitiveness and curiosity are among the innate propensities in man

which can be exploited in developing scientific attitude to life. Children should be guided to find answers to

their inquisitiveness and curiosity. School should develop in children early in life an idea of cause and effect

relationship, attitude of searching, testing, analyzing, making inferences, and drawing conclusions (Ukeje, 1966,

p. 135).

Educators should not lose sight of the history of primary science. Poor sense of history among educators

should not be encouraged. Elementary science education started in Nsukka, Igboland in 1963 (Fafunwa, 1991,

p. 189). This scientific reawakening started with launching of Russian Sputnik in 1957. Science became the

desire of all nations. America launched elementary science in its primary schools. With this Nigeria captured

the zeal as championed by Nsukka, followed by Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council

(Former NERC). Later, Ministry of Education stepped in. At this stage, emphasis was on local materials and

improvisation. One would have thought that Igbo science and technology should take the pride of place. Years

of brainwashing and colonial mis-education wrecked havoc on this expectation. However, the use of bamboo

microscopes and bamboo cages became an innovative technique in modern science delivery. Early Igbo

scientists remained silent over the revival of the numerous Igbo scientific culture. Oddly enough, they pursued

new developments in science and mathematics led by American EDC (Educational Development Centre) in

Newton, Massachusetts in 1962. The EDC organized series of workshops between 1962 and 1967 resulting in

curriculum innovation culminating in the launching of Entebbe mathematics. Nigeria played a leading role in

the popularization of new mathematics popularly known as modern mathematics.

No Igbo scientist championed the cause of revamping Igbo science culture. Britain did not leave American

innovation to go unchallenged. Nuffield mathematics was launched by United Kingdom and was marketed in

Igbo secondary schools. Igbo science was neglected. There is need for a re-discovery of Igbo cultural heritage.

Western education contributed immensely to the atrophisation of Igbo scientific culture. Igbo parents educated

their children before the coming of the Whiteman. Indigenous education is not dying; instead it is growing and

flourishing. A concerned academic historian was once quoted as asking the following questions:

(1) How long shall western education and indigenous education work at cross purposes (working in

isolation)?

(2) What aspects of indigenous education can be integrated with western education?

(3) What would have been the fate of Igbo science if western education had not been superimposed on it?

(Ukeje, 1966, pp. 118-146).

It is not only the primary science discussed above that can play a role in the work of integration of Igbo

science into the globalized world of 21st century. All hands must be on deck. Secondary education and the

scientific culture imparts must be involved. It must be concerned with issues of this day and computer age.


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Indigenous science will not be allowed to suffer atrophy. Secondary level of education should champion the

reconstruction of indigenous scientific culture. It is not expected to be a conduit for transportation of

neo-colonial education. The issue is not the neo-colonial curriculum of today.

The important thing is the “use to whatever knowledge acquired from whatever curriculum is put” (Ukeje,

1966, pp. 118-146). Everyone knows that education is not an end in itself. It is a means to an end. The end in

this context is the use one makes of acquired knowledge for scientific revolution. What is desired is that the

knowledge gained should be put into use (transfer of learning). It is not knowledge for ornamentationwearing

all that weight of learning lightly like a flower.

It is believed that a course of study in ancient and medieval history or Graeco-Roman literature is not a

waste as some ill-fated critics of European history would want us to believe. If the knowledge acquired from

this foreign culture and tradition is used to address similar problems in our own education system then this goes

down in history as progressive education:

(1) How can the knowledge of Graeco-Roman literature and its scientific culture make Igbo indigenous

science meaningful and relevant in a globalized world of digital revolution?

(2) How can this knowledge give sense and direction, meaning, and realism to Igbo scientific culture

vis-a-vis the challenges of globalization?

Challenges of Globalization

Many challenges can be envisaged:

Research is needed to find out industrial possibilities of local scientific activities. For instance, the

industrial production of “garri” and manufacture of diesel oil from palm oil is desirable in achieving global

recognition (Ukeje, 1966, p. 23).

Igbos have professional and supportive staff here and there but painfully lacks a “core staff” who can

render selfless service without the dreaded double standard of ethics and morality. The actual need to take Igbo

science across the globe is the development of people with high sense of patriotism able to serve “prodei et

patria” (for God and Fatherland). Development of people with a sense of public obligation and willing to

perform public service with humility, integrity, and honesty is a serious challenge. Many highly-talented Igbo

youths in Diaspora are the bedrock of foreign economy; whereas their talents and expertise are badly needed at

home.

There is need for integration of traditional elements into new production techniquesbuilding on the old

and reflecting global changes (harmonious blending of the old and the new).

Teaching of machine habit and machine orientation (Ukeje, 1966) must be intensified. If Igbo science will

be integrated into the present needs of globalized world. There is need for sufficient production of lime and

artificial aids for increased food production and productivity in order to meet the challenges of globalized

world.

Moreover, to integrate Igbo science into the globalized world of the 21st century, science curriculum

should be flexible. This will enable students to internalize scientific attitude of life. Science schools should give

students basic concepts, abilities, and skills, they need for entering into the global system of mobile

communication.

A lot of barriers to ICT (information communication technology)-based interventions exist. The barriers

constitute hindrances to technology integration. Digital “divide” problemdifferences in provision of Internet


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facilities to students and teachers are real. Limited funds for establishing Internet institutions are a serious

setback. Cost of a typical multimedia personal computer is great. It is beyond the reach of average teacher in

Nigeria. Poverty level is high. Connecting individuals to global village is expensive. Microwave telephony or

other alternatives are also expensive for an income earner.

Availability of electricity and telephone is a serious barrier to ICT-based intervention. Power supply in

Nigeria is epileptic and very unreliable. Power is available one hour a week in lucky districts. Majority of the

areas remain in total darkness or blackout for months. Generating capacity of 11 power stations in Nigeria is

6900 MW. The power stations include: Afam, Delta, Egbin, Gerugu, Ijora, Jebba, Kainji, Olorun sogo,

Omotosho, Sapele, and Shiroro.

Out of the expected 6,900 MW, a generating capacity of 3,500 MW is available. But South Africa with a

population of 49 million people generates 42,000 MW of electricity. Nigeria with a population of 150 millions

generates 3,500 MW.

The National Planning Commission stated that Nigeria’s energy requirement as at December 2010 was

20,000 MW. It is clear that Nigeria cannot give the citizen adequate power supply in a foreseeable future. How

can science and technology in Nigeria meet the challenges of a globalized world under the present power

situation? (Dipo, 2011, pp. 1-4).

Implications

From the above analysis, it is clear that many teachers and learners cannot access information from

Internet. Teleconferencing or computer conferencing which reduces travel risk and expenses by making

teachers in distant place talk face to face ever television linkup is not available in Nigeria. This ICT approach

cannot be used in Nigeria.

World knowledge base doubles every two years at least. Advancement in ICT opened new trends and

approaches in teaching and learning. No one can afford to use yesterday’s tools to do today’s business and hope

to be in business tomorrow. Teachers all over the world are re-engineering their classroom operations to meet

the challenges posed by ICT so as to remain relevant in the labor market (Muogbo, Aiyesimi, & Okoli, 2006,

pp. 22-26).

The era of teachers without ICT skills is gone. Knowledge without Internet is poor and unacceptable today.

Everyone is adjusting to fit into the new information superhighway and be relevant in the global trend.

Anybody not part of the global trend is left behind. Everyone has to adjust to a world that has become science

and technology driven.

ICT approach, therefore, has implication for human resource development and technological gap

management.

Summary

This study focused on historical foundation of science education in Igbo society as well as the challenges

facing its integration into a globalized world of digital revolution and Internet technology.

ICT has revolutionized the way people think, live, teach, and work together. Traditional method of

teaching and learning has given way to virtual classroom where ICT skills are used, so as to fit into globalized

world of information superhighway.

New technologies are introduced almost on daily basis. The challenge is how to catch up with these


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developments and keep up with the pace of development/globalization. World knowledge base doubles every

two years. Changes in science teaching and learning process must follow to prepare students for information

and technology based society. Another challenge is how to change teaching and learning process to give

students skills that will help them operate in a dynamic information rich continuously changing environment.

This calls for training and retraining as well as continuous human resource development and capacity building

efforts.

Recommendations

Science teachers have to develop innovative approaches to ensure continuous re-tooling and

re-engineering of science teaching and learning as well as capacity building of teachers so that they can operate

at the cutting edge of science and technology.

Traditional method of teaching and learning has to give way to e-learning platform where ICT skills and

technologies are used. Functional Internet facilities must be installed, so that teachers and learners should be

able to access information from other parts of the world.

Internet must be cheap and accessible. Collaborative research has to be encouraged as recommended in the

conference communiqué of science educators (Ijah, 2006, pp. 19-23). Individual research effort should be

discouraged as this does not promote fast development. Nigeria must wake up from slumber of years and

embark upon adequate power supply.

There must be e-learning readiness in science institutions in Igboland. There is need to develop a flexible

NQF (National Qualifications Framework) to address the issue of rapidly changing continuous demand for new

skills (up-skilling and de-skilling).

References Afigbo, A. E. (1981). Ropes of sand. Nsukka, Nigeria: University of Nigeria Press. Dipo, F. (2011). Joint action front (JAF). Nigeria: Lagos. Ejiofor, L. U. (2000). Nigeria: Preface to ideology. Abakaliki, Abonyi State, Nigeria: Willy Rose and Appleseed Publishing

Company. Ekechi, F. K. (1972). Missionary enterprise and rivalry in Igboland 1857-1914. London: Frank Cass. Fafunwa, A. B. (1991). History of education in Nigeria. Ibadan, Nigeria: NPS Education Publisher. Ijah, U. J. J. (2006). Conference communiqué. In I. N. Muogbo, Y. Aiyesimi, & G. A. Okoli (Eds.), Book of readings (pp. 19-23).

Minna, Nigeria: Federal University of Technology. Isichei, E. (1976). A history of the Igbo people. London and Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd.. Muogbo, I. N., Aiyesimi, Y., & Okoli, G. A. (2006). Book of readings. Minna, Nigeria: Federal University of Technology. Nduka, O. (1964). Western education and the Nigerian cultural background. Ibadan, Nigeria: Oxford University Press. Nebonta. (2009). African traditional education: A study of Umuneke Udi of Enugu State. In C. U. Nkokelonye (Ed.),

Pre-European education in Africa: A reflection of indigenous African ideology. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 2(1), 43-50.

Ngoka, G. N. (n. d.). Igbo science and skills (Unpublished research notes, University of Nigeria, Nsukka). Ochitti, J. P. (1974). An introduction to indigenous education in east Africa. Bonn: German Adult Education Association (DVV). Ochitti, J. P. (2007). In C. U. Nkokelonye (Ed.), African indigenous education as practiced by Acholli of Uganda (Vol. 1, pp.

59-61). Nsukka, Nigeria: Great Express Publishers. Ogundijo, M. I. (1970). Indigenous education in Ejigbo district of Oshun division in pre colonial days and the coming of

missionaries (pp. 11-24) (Unpublished Bachalor of Arts’s thesis, University of Ife, Nigeria). Parrinder, G. (1949). West African religion. London: Epworth Press. Ukeje, B. O. (1966). Education for social reconstruction. Ibadan and Basingstoke: Macmillan Publisher.


New Method of the Earth Mineral Resources Study at Ilia State

University, Georgia

Avtandil Okrostsvaridze

Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

At Ilia State University and in the Georgian Republic as whole, there is obvious disbalance among the number

students of liberal arts, law, economic, and engineering profiles. The latter is chosen for considerably smaller

number of students, whereas without the engineering profile personnel, it is impossible to lead the developing

country from economic crisis end out to overcome increasing ecological problems. To solve the problem, we decide

to propose geology and mineral resource studies in an interesting anglethe first-year students, who have not

chosen their future profession yet, for the spring term of 2012. The lecture course is interdisciplinary with the title:

“Mineral Resources of the Earth Modern Civilization: Progress and Challenges”. In the course of these lectures, the

history of the Earth civilization, its geology, natural resource characteristic, and the history of their assimilation are

synthesized. In this course, it is shown that natural resources and histories of civilizations are closely connected and

how the amount of used natural resource assimilation with the humanity progress was increasing, causing

significant deficit of natural resources together with ecological problems. The innovation provoked great interest in

students and they are mastering this course with enthusiasm, arranging, interesting, presentations, etc.. After

completing this course, many of the students who intended to choose philosophy, psychology, or biology, decided

to acquire a profession of a geologist.

Keywords: the Earth mineral resources, modern civilization, geology

Introduction

Due to the rapid pace of our planet recent industrialization and permanent increasing of population, the

world modern civilization faces an apparent deficit of natural resources and global ecological problems as well.

If we do not use them with optimal effectiveness and sparingly, according to prediction of the majority of

scientists, the Earth crust will not satisfy modern world’s increasing demands for natural resource and energy in

the nearest 20−25 years (Barber, 2011). Though there also exists contradictory attitude, according to which

deficit of mineral resources is not expected in the nearest future, as market demands and technical progress

favours constant development of mining industry (Carter, 2011).

In this critical moment of our civilization developments (Dong, 2012), the role and responsibility of

geosciences is to watch, control, and give right direction to the mining and using of natural resources in order

to avoid their global deficit and ecological crisis (disaster), as natural resources and healthy environment are

Acknowledgments: The author expresses the gratitude to the administration of the Ilia State University, which gave him a chance to deliver the reviewed course, as well as to his students for the enthusiasms which they show acquiring the course.

Avtandil Okrostsvaridze, Ph.D., professor, Institute of Earth Sciences, Ilia State University.

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the precondition for the existence of our civilization and its sustainable development. Realization of this

issue is impossible without preparing young personnel of geoscientists. Their training is impeded by less

attention and meager financing of this science in the whole world. It is common knowledge that developed

countries spend much more on the investigation of the other planets than the planet on which our civilization

has formed and was developing. This circumstance naturally caused decrease of specialist inflow into

geosciences, which has been revealed in mineral resource investigations, their wrong extraction and creation

of ecological problems.

The duty of lecturers is to involve as many students as possible to study the Earth sciences to improve this

disbalance purpose, we offered the first-year students of the Ilia State University who have not yet chosen their

future profession, classical geology from the other more interesting side. Namely, the course of lectures:

“Mineral Resources of the Earth Modern Civilization: Progress and Challenges”, turned out to be obviously

successful. In summer term of 2012, this course was chosen by 152 students out of 900 (among 17 subjects)

and in autumn term of 2012, out of 2,000 students, 320 expressed their wish to complete this course. It should

be mentioned that in the past years when in a similar situation, we offered students the classical form of study

of geology and mineral recourses, only few of them chose it. Of course, not all of them will become a geologist

and explorer of natural resources, but they will have certain knowledge of the history, structure of their planet

and geological processes occurring in it, as well as its fragile ecological balance. That is guarantee that they

will be more concerned for the Earth mineral resources, use them economically, and treat the environment with

greater concern.

Ilia State University: The Way to European Education

Ilia State University (Retrieved from http://www.Iliauni.edu.ge) was founded in 2006 on the basis of

several higher educational and research institutes. Its foundation was stipulated (conditioned) by the reform of

the former Soviet educational and scientific system that became essential after restoration of independence of

Georgia. The university was named in honour of the eminent Georgian thinker, educator, and statesman Ilia

Chavchavadze, who founded spiritual, scientific, and political European orientation of modern Georgia.

Introduction and implementation of these values are the basic vocation of the Ilia State University. To achieve

his goal, the university strives into European higher educational area, and in this way, it is the absolute leader in

Georgia.

At present, Ilia State University is the union of students and professorsa multifunctional, educational, and

scientific institution, which through a cooperation of students, professors, teachers, and researchers, created

an integrated academic and professional space for education and research. According to the data of September 15,

2012, up to 10,000 students study at the Ilia State University and their education is supervised by 190 professors

and 110 researchers. The personnel are mainly recruited by the leading young professionals of the former

institutes of the Georgian Academy of Sciences who got or improved education at the universities in Europe and

the USA.

The university, having six research institutes, has close scientific links with the world leading scientific

centers. Among them is the Institute of Earth Sciences with three departments: geological, geophysical, and

geographical. All of them have got Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Doctor’s (Ph.D.) programs. Besides, these

departments are actively involved both in national and international projects and perform significant scientific

researches.


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Besides, the researchers of this department deliver lectures for the university students, among them is

above-mentioned course of the lectures: “Mineral Resources of the Earth Modern Civilization: Progress and

Challenges”, which is delivered as an introductory subject for the first-year students.

The Course Object

Course objective to its complex and interdisciplinary structure is multilateral and aims to: (1) synthetically

familiarize the students with the history of the Earth formation (creation) and development, conditions of mineral

resource formation in this process of development, the histories of various civilizations, and natural resources

used by these civilizations; and (2) show them that civilizations would not have developed without appropriate

natural resources on Earth, the progress achieved by man as a result of using natural resources and significant

challenges of our civilization. Sparing natural resources and their rational use is essential in order to maintain

their reserves and do not disturb ecological balance of the environment.

Course Scope and Structure

The course comprises 48 hours in whole, therefore, there are 11 three-hour lectures, two three-hour

presentations, two three-hour colloquiums, and one three-hour final evaluation.

The first lecture is dedicated to the Earth formation, age, and its evolution in the solar system. The

second lecture is dedicated to the basic structures of our planet: the Earth core, mantle, and lithosphere. In

the third lecture, the Earth crust and recent geological processes are described. This lecture arises big interest

in the students, modern geological theories are considered in it, such as plate global tectonics and

convections of mantle plumes (Okrostsvaridze, 2011). It is revealed in these theories that the Earth crust in

constant dynamics and in its formation the main role belongs to the processes taking place in mantle. In the

fourth lecture, the Earth modern civilization desalination areas are reviewedcontinents and mechanisms of

their formation and evolution. In addition, in this lecture the fact that the Earth crust is the unique body of

solar system and just its occurrence enables the formation and development of our civilization is emphasized,

as it regulates magnetic field and temperature of the Earth. At the same time, continental crust as compared

with oceanic crust is located in the upper part of lithosphere due to its light composition, for this reason, it is

spread above the sea level (Taylor & McLennan, 1985). In spite of such interesting issue this lecture attracted

considerably less interest than the previous one, the students excepted the discussion about the Earth’s

different civilizations with great enthusiasm (the fifth lecture), as well as the description of natural resources

used by them and the reasons of their progress and degradation. In this lecture, it is shown that civilization

histories and the use of natural recourses are closely interrelated and that in certain cases improper use of

natural resources plays fatal role in the life of certain civilizations. The highest interest among the students

was caused by the sixth lecture concerning the water, as essential and absolute, recourse of evolution,

existence, and development of the Earth bio-system and civilization, the author led in this lecture with

Antoine de Saint-Exupery’s words: “Water you have neither taste nor smell, therefore, people do not know

your value”. Standpoint of this great writer was shared by all students and almost all of them tried to

represent topic of water at presentation. It should be mentioned that though they live in Georgia, the country

which is rich in fresh water, all of them have realized fresh water problem of the world (Galloway, 2010). In

the seventh lecture, one of the most significant recourse of our civilization-hydrocarbon (oil, gas, and coal) is

reviewed, giving 85% of the energy of modern civilizations (Britt, 2009). The students showed big interest in


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this issue and they especially got interested in their genesis, being very complicated geological problem as

well as their reserves, that is so vital for our civilization.

In the eighth lecture, the world’s renewable, alternative, and nuclear energy resources are considered.

Atomic capabilities of thorium caused a special interest in students, which is considered to be the basic power

recourse of our civilization in the third millennium (Gosen, Gillerman, & Armbrustmacher, 2009). It is worth to

be mentioned that its reserves in the Earth crust five times exceed uranium reserves, produces 200 times more

energy than uranium, and what’s more, it does not leave radioactive waste unlike uranium. In the ninth lecture,

the Earth natural building resources and the history of their use are reviewed. The types and reserves of

building resources existing in the Earth crust are characterized as well, and in the 10th lecture, metallic

resources of our civilization are considered (Harald, 2010). Geological conditions of metal formation,

interesting histories of starting their mining, peculiarities, and reserves are described. During the discussion,

special interest in students was causes by gold genesis, ways of its mining and reserves. In the final 11th lecture,

ecological problems caused by mineral resource extraction and development and the ways of solving this

problem are reviewed.

Discussion

In this course, the Earth mineral resources and their development are reviewed in historical context and it

is shown that various civilizations used more or less different mineral resources and the scopes of their

development and technologies were diverse. No doubt, development of mineral resources offered the society

the possibility of technological progress, but developed society used more mineral resources, and at the same

time, it caused originating of technological innovations and this, on its part, required development of mineral

resources. This brief discussion shows that there exists direct connection between society progress and mineral

resource development, which eventually causes the deficit of the latter, and frequently environment pollution

and ecological problems as well.

Interference of man in natural systems was always and will be one of the basic concerns of the society and

the sphere of investigation of geoscientists. Due to the rapid development of our civilization, the demand for

mineral resources will be constantly increasing, especially it refers to energy resources and pure drinking water.

These are the main challenges rising before the geoscientists in the 21st century. We must be prepared for these

challenges and first of all bring up the high-skilled young geoscientists.

Conclusion

Thus, it can be concluded that at the university, the study of the Earth and its natural resources as

introductory subject using interdisciplinary approach, based on the background of civilization history, is

undoubtedly justified, as it much more interest and consequently big enthusiasm in students. In the Ilia State

University, this course met our expectations and the science of geology has been chosen by more students than

in the past years, that is the only way for the improving of the disbalance existing between geosciences and

liberal arts, and in this critical moment of our civilization development, the role of geosciences is more

increasing as it is necessary to plan and control correct extraction of natural resources and their use, in order to

avoid their global deficit and ecological disbalance. As natural resources and healthy environment is

precondition existence for our civilization and sustainable development.


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References Barber, N. (2011). The future of the geosciences. Episodes, 34(2), 82-85. Britt, P. F. (2009). Hydrocarbon resources. Gordon Research Conference, January 11-16, 2009, Ventura Beach Marriot, Ventura,

C. A.. Carter, W. A. (2011). Treadding lightly on shift ground: The direction and motivation of future geological research. Episodes,

34(2), 78-81. Dong, Z. (2012). Modern civilization, modern people, and modern diseases. Retrieved April 15, 2012, from http://www.

theepochtimes.com/ Galloway, D. L. (2010). The complex future of hydrogeology. Hydrogeology Journal, 18(4), 807-810.

Gosen, B. V., Gillerman, V. S., & Armbrustmacher, T. J. (2009). Thorium deposit of the United StatesEnergy resources for the

future? (p. 21). U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1336. Harald, D. G. (2010). “The chessboard” classification scheme of mineral deposits: Mineralogy and geology from aluminum to

zirconium. Earth-Science Reviews, 100(1-4), 1-420. Kesler, S. K., & Wilkinson, H. (2010). Global gold recourses for the next millennium: Society of economic geologists (Vol. 15, pp.

5-18). Special Publication. Okrostsvaridze, A. V. (2011). Mantle plume conception: A new geological paradigm? (p. 40). Tbilisi, “Intellect”. Taylor, S. R., & McLennan, S. M. (1985). The continental crust: Its evolution and composition (p. 312). London: Blackwell.


Home-School Collaboration in Sweden and China

Margaretha Kristoffersson, Limin Gu

Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden

Yan Zhang

Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

This article is a working paper presenting a network building cooperative project between Umeå University in

Sweden and Zhejiang University in China. The project focuses on parents’ involvement and home-school

collaboration in Sweden and China and has an ambition to entail a set of empirical objectives: (1) to map and

compare the systems, policies, curricula, and resources dealing with home-school collaboration in Sweden and

China at the national level; (2) to identify and analyze the similarities and differences in the definitions, foci,

models, practices, and perspectives on home-school collaboration in the two countries at the local level; and (3) to

identify and seek out good examples and models from both countries for communication and interaction among

teachers, parents, and students. Following an introduction to the project design where a comparative case-study

approach is presented, this article reviews policies and researches concerning home-school collaboration in

Swedish and Chinese contexts. Cases from both countries are selected, described, and discussed. Relative issues for

further study are suggested.

Keywords: home-school collaboration, parental involvement, comparative case studies, Sweden, China

Introduction

Ever since compulsory schooling was introduced, ideas and opinions about collaboration between home

and school have been examined from different political and societal interests with a number of objectives

(OCED (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development), 2006). This field has been given

increased emphasis in Sweden during recent decades. Changes in educational policies have provided and

extended the opportunities and rights for parents to be involved in and have influence on education and school

arrangements. It is argued that one of the fundamental conditions improving the quality of education should be

home-school collaboration, which is based on the democratic values of the society. The Swedish National

Agency stresses the importance of parents’ participation in decision-making concerning their children and

school management, as well as their role as resource persons in school (Lpo. 94, 1994; Lgr. 11, 2011).

In China, collaboration between home and school has been emphasized recently, and it is regarded as a

difficult but an important task. Historically, there had been a long tradition based on the Confucian idea of

respect for teachers, which used to be expressed in the absolute power of teachers not only over pupils, but also

over parents. Today, however, this tradition has been influenced by the market-oriented economy and modern

western culture. There is a growing tendency for parents’ and pupils’ democratic consciousness to be reinforced

and collaboration between home and school to be promoted. For instance, some organizations, such as parents

The project is financed by STINT, the Swedish Foundation for International Cooperation in Research and Higher Education.

Margaretha Kristoffersson, Ph.D., senior lecturer, Department of Education, Umeå University. Limin Gu, Ph.D., senior lecturer, Department of Education, Umeå University. Yan Zhang, Ph.D., associated professor, City College, Zhejiang University.

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committees and parent schools have been set up in recent years.

Internationally, previous researches have provided evidence of the positive correlations between parents’

active engagement in their children’s schooling and better outcomes and behavior of their children in school

(Cooper, Robinson, & Patall, 2006; Epstein, 2001; Erikson, 2009; Högdin, 2006; Ravn, 2005). They found that

parental involvement has a positive effect on children who take more pleasure in school activities, and a more

positive climate results in the classroom with a higher level of interest and approval of work done by the

students. Better academic results are achieved when there are open channels between home and school.

Although home-school partnership is the intended image from a political perspective, teachers in schools

are uncertain of their roles, perhaps seeing a changed role as a threat to their professional status. At the same

time, there has been official apprehension about the role of parents in school improvement. Parents are not a

homogenous group, and their activities are influenced by their social, cultural, and economic circumstances that

could be a challenge for home-school collaboration (David, 2003; Ravn, 2005). From this point of view, the

democratic role of schooling could be undermined by the inclusion and exclusion of parents.

Home-school collaboration is an important but complex issue that needs to be investigated and

comprehended both broadly and in-depth by setting it into different contexts as well as from various

perspectives. A cross-cultural comparative study in this field could contribute to identifying and analyzing the

similarities and/or differences in policies and practices, and to discussing the possibilities, difficulties, and

strategies for policy implementation and strategies concerning home-school collaboration at the local level,

school level as well as individual level. Sweden and China have different traditions, social systems, and values

that have had an impact on policy and school practices for home-school collaboration. Investigations and policy

measures from these two different cultural contexts could offer valuable lessons and experiences to each other.

It could establish indicators for appropriate home-school collaboration and a set of best practices for guidance

for both countries.

The Home-School Collaboration Project

This network building cooperative project between Umeå University in Sweden and Zhejiang University

in China focuses on parents’ involvement and home-school collaboration in Sweden and China. The main aim

of this project is to build up a research network between two universities to promote internationalization of

higher education in both countries1. A number of researchers from each university are involved in the network

research group.

Objectives of the Project

As related to the main aim, the project has also an ambition to entail a set of empirical objectives: (1) to

map and compare the systems, policies, curricula, and resources dealing with home-school collaboration in

Sweden and China at the national level; (2) to identify and analyze the similarities and differences in the

definitions, foci, models, practices, and perspectives on home-school collaboration in the two countries at the

local level; and (3) to identify and seek out good examples and models from both countries for communication

and interaction among teachers, parents, and students. The project started in October 2010 and will continue

until June 2013. This article describes how far the process has come right now and should be seen as a

contribution to the future development of the project. In the following, we are going to present the preliminary

1 The project is financed by STINT, the Swedish Foundation for International Cooperation in Research and Higher Education.


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findings with a focus on national policies on home-school collaboration in Sweden and China; research on

home-school collaboration practice in both countries; and the cases from Sweden and China that are chosen for

discussion.

Design of the Project

The project builds on a structure designed to select samples for a multiple comparative case study (Yin,

1993) where analyses and comparisons among the selected cases in Sweden and China are carried out. The

structure, which is adapted from the model described in Agency for School Improvement (2008), comprises

two dimensions. One is focusing on the individual students. It could be formal, such as an individual plan, or

informal, such as a dialogue. The other is the collective, where the parents are in the focus. It could be formal,

such as parent meetings and the local school board; or informal, such as parent support for children’s learning.

Figure 1 shows the four quadrant structure of home-school collaboration for Swedish and Chinese school

contexts, which was used to select cases for this project. The Swedish cases feature parents and the local school

board as supports in children’s learning and schooling, which represents the collective formal respective

collective informal quadrants; the Chinese cases provide examples of family education and parent

representatives that could be positioned in the collective formal quadrant. The selected cases within the project

will be presented in later section of this article.

Figure 1. Home-school collaboration (adapted from Agency for School Improvement, 2008, authors’ translation). Two dimensions of home-school collaboration used for selecting cases.

National Policies on Home-School Collaboration in Sweden and China

Policies in Sweden

The current national curriculum for compulsory education in Sweden has been in effect since 1994 (Lpo. 94,

1994). A new curriculum for the compulsory school, the pre-school class, and the leisure-time center was issued

in 2011 (Lgr. 11, 2011). Both curricula provide a statement of educational fundamental values, basic objectives,

and guidelines. According to the curricula, the school has two missions: one is to promote learning by

stimulating the individual to acquire knowledge; the other in partnership with the home, is to promote the

Individual

Collective

Individual plans Development conversation Documentation Action plans

Dialog Treatment Attitude Invited climate Confidential relationships

Formal Informal

Parent meetings Weekly/month letters IT (information

technology)-based information

Parental committee Local school board

Excursions/parent dinners/café meetings Study circles with parents Parents as support in children’s learning Parent representatives


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development of students into responsible persons and members of society. In a deeper sense, education and

upbringing, hand in hand, seek to transfer values, traditions, language, and knowledge from one generation to

the next. In line with government regulations, the school has a responsibility for students’ knowledge and social

development that require real functioned collaboration between school and home, a need that is clearly stated in

national curriculum documents (Lpo. 94, 1994; Lgr. 11, 2011).

School activity shall be developed in correspondence with the goals that have been set out in the law and

the curriculum. School principals have a clear responsibility in this respect. They are responsible to ensure that

collaboration between home and school is well organized and developed and that parents receive information

on the school’s goals, working methods, and the range of choice that exists. Teachers are expected to work

together with the parents and continuously provide them with information concerning the students’ school

situation, well-being, and acquisition of knowledge. This daily pedagogical leadership and professional

responsibility for teachers are necessary conditions for the quality development of the school. They call for a

constant examination of learning goals, follow-up and evaluation of results, as well as testing and developing of

new methods. This kind of work has to be carried out in active collaboration between staff and students and in

close contact with the home and the local community. Twice a year, the school has an obligation to invite all

parents and students to an “individual development dialogue” where they meet with teachers to discuss

students’ academic progress, experiences of school life in general, and their own schooling in particular, as well

as plan regarding how best to meet students’ individual study needs (Lpo. 94, 1994; Lgr. 11, 2011).

The opportunities and scope for parents to influence education shall be real. Consequently, these

opportunities are required both at the political level (state and municipality) and at the local school level (Ds,

2009:25). The national policy is supported by the school law which expresses students’ right to influence their

school work. For parents, however, there is no clear statement in the school law. Instead, parents’ influence is

limited to the obligation for the principal to inform and consult as stated in the school regulations. This means

that the formal opportunity for parental influence is only to choose a school they prefera small freedom of

choice that exists only in the lager municipalities that can offer this kind of alternatives. At present, a general

legal provision about parents’ influence in education is provided in the new curriculum effective since 2011,

which states that teachers have the responsibility to plan, implement, and evaluate education along with the

students. The opportunity for students and parents to influence education and a forum for consultation shall be

implemented at each preschool and school, although schools that are governed by a board with student and

parent representatives are not obliged to also have a forum for consultation. The new school law requires that a

school with a local school board shall have equal numbers of students and parents members on the board,

which means a change from earlier when parents were the majority on the local school board (Ds, 2009:25;

School Law, 2010:800).

Policies in China

Research on home-school collaboration in China started relatively recently. Under the influence of western

countries, home education has become a hot issue of educational reform studies. Issued in 2001 by the State

Council of the People’s Republic of China, the “Decision on the Reform and Development of Elementary

Education” clearly stipulates that school education should put morality education at a primary position in

quality education, arming people with scientific theories, guiding them with lofty spirits, inspiring them with

fine works, thus, setting up schools as an important position of civilization construction. Prominence is given to


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home education. School should build a stable connection with parents by family visit and strengthen instruction

home education, helping parents to form the correct educational concepts for the purpose of creating an

appropriate family environment for children’s growth.

The 2004 statement “Some Suggestions on Further Strengthening and Improving Minors’ Ideological and

Moral Construction” by the State Council of the People’s Republic of China (2004), again, emphasizes the

importance of collaboration between home education and school education by stressing that home education

plays a specially important role in minors’ ideological and moral construction. Home education should

integrate with school education and societal education. Women’s federations at all levels, education

administration departments, as well as primary and secondary schools should take the responsibility of

instructing and promoting home education. They should collaborate with communities, establish parent schools,

and spread knowledge about home education and successful experiences with it. Various kinds of

home-education academic communities should be brought into full use. They should launch research aiming at

the existing problems in home education and provide theoretical support and a decision basis in guiding the

work of home education.

Research on Home-School Collaboration in Sweden

In recent decades, several researchers have become interested in investigating the status quo of

home-school collaboration as practiced in the Swedish context, trying to understand this phenomenon from

different actors’ perspectives, such as those of teachers’, students’, and parents’. For instance, a study about

teachers’ contacts with parents was conducted by Erikson (2009) who was interested in finding out what

teachers actually think and do when they establish a confidential relationship with parents. A total of 1,336

teachers in Swedish compulsory schools participated in two surveys. The major result of the study was that

teachers had positive attitudes towards home-school collaboration, though there were differences in how

teachers experienced, understood, established, and developed the contact with the parents across teacher

categories, such as Grades 1−3 teachers, Grades 4−6 teachers, and Grades 7−9 teachers. First, although all

teachers took initiatives to contact parents, the ways they did so varied between the teachers in lower grades

and those in higher grades. Teachers in lower grades contacted parents more often and spontaneously in

face-to-face meetings, while teachers in higher grades preferred to use telephone or e-mail to contact parents.

Second, teachers in Grades 7−9 experienced parental contact as more “demanding” or “stressful” than the

teachers in Grades 1−6 did. Partly, this was because face-to-face contact might have contributed to a better

understanding and relationship between teachers and parents. Another reason could be that the formal

assessment and marking system applied in Grades 7−9 caused the teachers to experience much more pressure

from parents. Third, regarding teachers’ expectations of parents’ responsibility for their children’s schooling,

more teachers in Grades 7−9 than in other categories would like to see more active engagement of parents in

their children’s schooling than it is the situation today. Briefly, it seems that teachers in lower grades have more

positive experiences of parental contact than teachers in higher grades, and physical contact (face-to-face) is

reported as being more effective than in other ways. However, Erikson (2009) argued that the different

experiences among teachers in lower grades and higher grades could also be explained as a result of changed

conditions in home-school collaboration, such as the development of autonomy of the children with respect to

the relationship with their parents.

The experiences of parents concerning home-school collaboration were examined by Andersson (2004),


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based on interviews with 40 parents of 11−12 years old children. The research focused on parents’ experience

of their children’s school situation and collaboration with teachers, and how the child’s school situation

influences their home situation. Her findings indicated that there were both positive and negative experiences

among the parents. Usually, when things were going well with the child in school the parent was more positive.

The positive experiences were related to well-established communication and contact with the teachers who

were characterized by “having time”, “being open and honest”, and the parent felt respected. The negative

aspects were often related to the situation when things were not going well with the child in school. These

could be for example a delay in contact from the school regarding the child’s social difficulties; and child’s

learning difficulties were ignored/neglected in school, etc.. It is also reported that the parents had limited

influence, and the prestige and defensiveness of the teacher could be a factor as well. The study concluded that,

for parents, to be informed in time, respected, and listened to by teachers were important conditions for their

active participation and engagement in children’s schooling, as well as for an effective home-school

collaboration.

As Swedish society becomes more multicultural, the education system is facing extensive challenges. It is

argued that school has not been able to cope with all aspects of equality. Most exposed are the students with a

foreign background. Generally, their parents have lower educational level, lower income, and less opportunity of

contact with the labor market than families with both parents born in Sweden. Segregation, decentralization,

diversification, and individualization are pointed out as four possible factors that together may explain why

Swedish students have a lower ranking in international comparisons now than during the early 1990s (Skolverket,

2009). Support from home has become more important for students’ potential to achieve good results, because

the school has not been able to compensate for students’ social background and different conditions (Skolverket,

2009). With this background in mind, researchers observed that political decisions play an important role in

influencing the equality and quality of education (Johansson, Paci, & Hovdenak, 2004; Johansson, 2007).

In Johansson’s (2007) study on parental involvement in Sámi schools, the invisible existence of

cultural-based school practice and curriculum texts, as well as the lack of contact among homes, schools, and

community culture was obvious. She argued that this was an issue not only for Sámi schools, but also for state

schools because of the growth of a multicultural society in Sweden (Johansson, 2009). In the same direction,

Bouakaz (2007) has studied how parents of Arabic ethnic background and the students’ teachers view parental

involvement in school. The result revealed that these parents had limited knowledge of the Swedish school

system but did show an interest and would like to draw closer to the school. Barriers, such as language, cultural,

and religious factors were mentioned by the teachers. Efforts to involve parents, according to Bouakaz, are thus

facing problems in terms of power, class, ethics, and institutional differences. Bouakaz (2007) remarked that

not much of what children did at home or the values from their own culture had been considered to be of

importance at school. The result of his study indicated that home culture and school culture were two different

worlds that should both be considered when working with parental involvement.

Research on Home-School Collaboration in China

Research studies on the current situation and practices of home-school collaboration in China are

numerous. They mainly focus on studying the specific forms of collaboration, such as establishing parent

schools, parent reception days, parent-teacher associations, and regular home visit. In their paper “Constructing

Morality Education Overpasses”, Yang, Feng, and Li (2001) proposed two ways to realize home-school


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collaboration: establishing parent schools and setting up parent committees. Researchers provide a more

specific introduction to the practices of home-school collaboration. First, by establishing parent schools,

schools could teach parents scientific education concepts and common skills in education regularly; Second,

teachers should visit those students who have family problems to bring more harmony to their family

relationships, uniting the forces of school education and home education; Third, schools should be open to

parents regularly for them to better know their children’s performances in school and thus carry out more

directed education; and Fourth, students and parents should learn together and help each other, aiming at

constructing a family learning environment (Gao & Li, 2007; Li, S. Wang, & X. Wang, 2001; Pan, 2001; Shi,

2001; Zhang, 2001; Zhang & Wang, 2002). Chen and Li (2003) stated that school education and home

education were indivisibly connected to each other and school-based management could effectively combine

school education and home education.

In another paper, Yan and Qian (2006) gave a specific description of how to carry out school-based

management. The main focus was on carrying out a series of programs and activities to get parents involved in

students’ learning and in school management. The home-school network mainly functioned by collecting and

analyzing students’ home information and school information, studying the school’s and the home’s role in

coordinating ideological and moral education, studying the effect of students’ self-education and interaction

with partners in morality education, and probing paradigms and cases of family education.

Cases of Sweden

Homework

In Sweden, homework is one area that has been emphasized in order to closely study parents’ involvement

in their children’s schooling. Parents’ engagement and support are regarded as being crucial for their children’s

academic outcomes and behavior in school. However, during the past several years, there has been increased

discussion and reflection on the negative consequences attributed to homework in Swedish debates on

education, where it is argued that homework has caused stress of students, tensions, and conflicts between

students and their parents, and probably, extended the gaps among students’ performance because of their

different family backgrounds in terms of class, gender, ethnicity, and school culture, etc. (Gu & Kristoffersson,

2010). There is an absence of reflection from teachers on whether and in what way the existing homework

practice in Swedish schools improves children’s learning and embodies the desired social implications. The

study also indicated that many teachers had high expectations of parent’ engagement and support in homework;

but it also reported that it was difficult to realize in practice, due to parents’ limited knowledge, competence,

and time, as well as other obstacles, such as lack of communication concerning homework between teachers

and parents (Gu & Kristoffersson, 2012). Recently, there has been a dramatic increase in the number of private

companies who provide homework assistance for families, and this could be a new research field for further

investigation in terms of the inequality of education.

Local School Board

Local school boards of compulsory schools in Sweden are another area of concern for home-school

collaboration and parental involvement. The government has endeavored to increase parental influence in

schools by passing a resolution establishing a pilot scheme entitled “Local School Boards with an Elected

Parent Majority in Compulsory School and Compulsory Special Schools”. The trial period started July 15, 1996


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and ran until June 30, 2001. This has been extended four times: 2003, 2007, 2008, and 2009. Since 2011, it has

been up to each school to decide whether a school will to permanent a local school board or not. However, it

was argued that implementing local school boards in Sweden and many other countries was problematic. This

could be seen in terms of the generally weak interest in boards and in the top-down rather than bottom-up

character of this state initiative. For instance, many parents reported that they had no spare time to serve on

boards and that, furthermore, they had insufficient influence on the work of the boards (Kristoffersson, 2008).

The implementation of a board with parental involvement was designed to have a positive effect on local

democracy, but some studies have revealed many problems in relation to the boards (Kristoffersson, 2002;

2005; 2007). One problem related to communication between the parents on the boards and parents who were

not members of the boards. Another problem was that the schools had “contact parents” in each group of

students but their role lacked clarity. Likewise, students on the board had difficulty in taking part in the work of

boards. Furthermore, communication between the board, the school, and the parents outside the board was

complex. Another general issue was that different constituencies on the board were not, in many cases,

satisfactory balanced. While neoliberal tendencies regarded parents as the most important constituency on a

board, it was difficult to reconcile the interests of individual parents and the collective interest of all parents.

Accordingly, there was a built-in complexity which allowed individual interests to predominate. While parents

as board members could influence decisions, their responsibilities and rights on the board were not clearly

specified. Parent representatives felt uncertain in their decision-making.

Cases of China

There are two levels of home-school collaboration in Hangzhou, China. Hangzhou is the capital city of

Zhejiang Province, which is located in the south eastern China. It takes the leading role in home-school

collaboration in the province. The collaboration system focuses on two initiatives: the Headquarter Campus of

Hangzhou Educational Bureau Parent School, which was founded by the Hangzhou Educational Bureau, and a

semi-official organization and the practice of schools in Hangzhou city, focusing on a junior high school in

Grades 7−9.

Headquarter Campus of Hangzhou Educational Bureau Parent School

The Headquarter Campus of Hangzhou Educational Bureau Parent School is located in Hangzhou Xuejun

Senior High School, which is one of the top three secondary schools in Hangzhou. Campus was set up on June

16, 2000, by the Hangzhou Educational Bureau as a special organization to take charge of the instruction of

family-school education (Han, 2005). For 12 years now, the school has operated efficiently in this field of

instruction and practice through the following six initiatives according to Han (2006).

Three-level instruction network. To make the instruction of family-school education more scientific and

standardized, and at the same time reflect the individuation of different districts and different schools, the

school education system of Hangzhou built a three-level instruction network: the “city headquarter campus”,

the “district/county(city) branch campus”, and the “school instruction station”. All levels have unified principle

requirements as well as individual features. They work independently at their own levels and cooperate

effectively at unified levels.

Teachers group. The family education instruction teachers group consists of special staff from the

Hangzhou Education Science Research Centre. These are experienced teachers who are keen on the research


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and practice of family education instruction for schools and excellent parents. The teachers group is in charge

of the training of teachers for parent schools, consultation service to parents, and compilation of teaching and

reading materials for parent schools.

“Dior” family education instruction hotline 88825885. Setting up by the Hangzhou Education Science

Research Centre Institute on June 16, 2004. The “Dior” family education instruction hotline 88825885 is

another public welfare consultation hotline similar to the “students’ mental health hotline 87025885”. The

hotline works from 6 p.m. to 9 p.m. from Monday to Friday, with members of the family education instruction

teachers group as being the consultants.

Hot issues research team. To acquire timely knowledge of parents’ needs, the headquarter campus has a

research team consisting of head teachers, teacher trainers, students, and professional scientific researchers to

study hot issues and problems in family education and family education instruction. For example, it has

conducted the studies: “Research of the family education situation of excellent students”, “Family

communication research”, “Research on parent resources for youths’ sexual health”, and so on.

Wise parents classes. To inform parents of their children’s development at different stages, the

headquarter campus set up the “wise parents” classes and “green apple” classes, which have specific course

series and are taught by special teachers. The “wise parents” classes mainly teach knowledge about psychology

and pedagogy while the “green apple” classes teach mainly about sexual health in youth.

Hangzhou family education Website. The Hangzhou Family Education Society launched the Hangzhou

family education Website (Retrieved from http://www.cnjztd.com) on June 16, 2006. The Headquarter Campus

of Hangzhou Educational Bureau Parent School hosts six features: “Mrs. Han’s mailbox”, parents salon, hotline

memoir, wise classes, video school, and Sifang forum. The parent school’s work has received support from

school teachers and expressions of trust from many parents. It was named the “National Family Education

Experiment and Research Base” by Chinese Family Education Committee.

“Parents’ Spokesman” System in Hangzhou

Under the recent “open-door” model of running schools, a continuing research project has been on how to

improve the quality and level of schools and create the best learning environment for students’ development

with the help of parents. Based on this model, Hangzhou Zhaohui Middle School, together with the parents’

committee, was the first to put forward the “parents’ spokesman” system in March 2004. As we know, a

spokesman is a person who speaks on behalf of a certain social class or group. So, a “parents’ spokesman” is

someone who, on behalf of all the parents of a class, speaks directly with the school. Any parents in the group

can reflect problems or put forward suggestions to the school through the parents’ spokesman without worrying

that the school may think badly of them since the spokesman would strictly observe the discipline of

confidentiality (Report of Hangzhou Zhaohui Middle School, 2010).

Operating mode of the “parents’ spokesman” system. The school has tentatively developed an

operating mode of the “parents’ spokesman” system, that is, at standard process involving the “democratic

election of the spokesman‘sincere talk’ between the school and the spokesman, teachers’ visit to the

spokesman’s home, attendance of the spokesman at classes, and democratic discussion about the spokesman”.

The objective of this process is to further improve the communication between the school and parents as well as

improve the operation of school administration. The stages are as follows:

(1) Democratic election of the spokesman. The school has made every September the “democratic election


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of the spokesman month” since 2005. At the very beginning of every school year, the school informs every

parent that those who would like to volunteer to apply to the school to be the “parents’ spokesman” should

make a candidate a speech, after which the official spokesman would be elected by a democratic vote of the

parents;

(2) Regular sincere talks between the school and the spokesman. During the sincere talks, school leaders

introduce the spokesman to the emphasis of recent work and main activities of the school as well as listening to

the spokesman’s useful advice. Through these activities, the aim is to build a bridge of home-school

collaboration and achieve consistency in home-school education;

(3) Visit to the spokesman’s home. At weekends and during their spare time, a core team of teachers led

by head teacher visits the spokesman’s home. They discuss with him/her about his/her child’s performance at

school, ask him/her about the child’s performance and ideological situation at home; they also ask him/her

advice for their teaching and instruct him/her how to conduct family education;

(4) Attendance of the spokesman at classes. The spokesman has the right to know about school education.

He/she can attend any class on any school day without informing the teacher in advance. He/she can also write

his opinion in the “attending class feedback form”, thus, practicing this new form of parent-school interaction;

(5) Democratic discussion about the spokesman. After the spokesman has performed his/her work for a

period of time, the school and the other parents will hold a discussion about his/her work; the purpose of this is

to oversee his/her work, letting him/her represent other parents, better perform his/her duty, and enhance

communication between school and parents.

Rights and obligations of the parents’ spokesman. After the spokesman for every class has been elected,

they share certain rights and obligations:

(1) Each spokesman should read out his/her obligations and the strict code of confidentiality at a school

parents’ meeting. He/she should also provide his/her postal address and cell phone number to all parents;

(2) When any parent has suggestions for the school or the teachers but does not want to speak to them

directly, the parent and student may refer to the parents’ spokesman and he/she will speak directly to the school

or the teachers;

(3) The spokesman is responsible for collecting and providing information about educational resources

from and to parents, as well as helping and supervising the standard running of the school;

(4) There are many ways for the spokesman to reflect problems to the school, such as making phone calls,

sending e-mails, filling in opinion and suggestion cards and putting them into the headmaster’s mailbox, or

directly talking with the school or teachers.

Education is not only the concern of schools and teachers, but also the concern of parents. Making full use

of the parents’ spokesman resource could enable the integration of various activities of social power into school

education. It could thus be a good way to improve the quality and level of running schools. The result is that

parents become the administrators of schools and students feel that “school is more like home”. The parents’

spokesman system enables the spokesmen to involve themselves in the administration of schools on behalf of

all the parents. It could be more powerful than the force of individual parents acting alone and enables the

school administration to better realize student-orientation.

Conclusion and Discussion

Comparing the Swedish and Chinese cases selected in this project, there are some interesting and


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important aspects that are highlighted and need to be further studied. On policy level, both countries emphasize

and demand parental involvement in education and home-school collaboration. The school law and the national

curriculum are the important policy documents for Swedish education system which guarantee the democratic

processes. Active parental participation in these processes is regulated and required by the policy documents in

which the democratic values are stressed (Lpo. 94, 1994; Lgr. 11, 2011; School Law, 2010:800). In one sense,

home-school collaboration is encouraged and implemented in two-way directions based on a sense of equality

between home and school. The Chinese policies focus on the important role of school-home collaboration for

the morality development of students. Home education and parent schools are encouraged that put schools and

educators into a leading position in guiding parents to create an appropriate family environment for children’s

growth (The State Council of the People’s Republic of China, 2001; 2004). In both countries, despite the

difficulties and obstacles in practice, the ideology regarding home-school collaboration is that parents should

not be considered as a pedagogical problem but to be regarded as valuable resources for the school to be able to

carry out its commission to bring up students to be democratic and moral citizens.

In Swedish context, the majority of teachers and parents have a positive attitude toward polices and

strategies of home-school collaboration. Previous researches indicate that there are many good examples and

experiences that provide evidence for the importance and advantages of home-school collaboration.

Information, respect, and understanding are crucial aspects for a well-functioning collaboration between home

and school (Andersson, 2004; Erikson, 2009). However, research also indicates that in some cases the schools

have not been able to cope with all aspects of the democratic process and the schools have not worked sufficiently

with the issue of equality. Parental contact seems to decrease with age of the students (Andersson, 2004).

Furthermore, not many of parents’ and students’ cultural values from home are considered to be important for

school. Home and school cultures are increasingly different worlds. Segregation, decentralization, diversification,

and individualization are pointed out as areas of concern. Parents, students, and teachers should work in a

context of knowledge and cultural heritage and look upon diversity in education as a rich resource (Johansson,

2009).

In a more critical sense, the case of implementation of local school boards with parents in the majority in

Sweden has not met with any major success (Kristoffersson, 2008). Parents experience that they do not have as

much influence as they assumed. There are decisions that are not implemented or followed up. The work of the

school board is demanding of time, and parents find that they often do not have that time. In order to reach out

to other parents across the whole school there must be good communication between board and parents outside

the board. Since 2011, schools have been able to choose whether or not to have a local board, but it is

obligatory that all schools have parent councils. More research looking into the process and consequences of

the new policy and its implementation is needed.

The “parents’ spokesman” system in China infuses new blood into school educational reform. This is an

interesting actor in the school system which is not observable in Sweden. The spokesmen come from various

fields, such as hospitals, banks, universities, etc.. They actively try to put forward suggestions for school

education, thus becoming fresh activists of school education. Spokesmen have bridged the platform between

parents and schools as well as teachers. As a system to communicate parents’ aspirations, the parents’

spokesman protects some of the personal information about the parents, thus, allaying parents’ fears that their

opinions and suggestions might adversely influence their children’s education, while also encouraging more

parents to put forward more issues to discuss with the school and the teachers, thus overall playing an effective


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promotional role in education. The system has eliminated the formalization disadvantages of parent committees

and let the parents really become involved in school administration, thus, adding the wisdom of parents to the

administration of the school. Finally, the “parents’ spokesman” system has also enlarged the teaching resources

for school education.

However, in Chinese context, previous research also reports that there are many common deficiencies in

the personality development of students in primary and secondary schools such as frailty, lack of independence,

and social responsibility. Disparity between school education goals and family training orientation is an

important cause of this phenomenon (Gu & Zhu, 2004). Hopefully, home-school collaboration could not just

promote the physical and mental health of students, but also need to help parents receive lifelong education and

help educators to know students better. The development of collaboration between home and school toward the

integration of home, school, and society, from parental involvement in school education to social involvement

in school education and from the cultivation of cooperative consciousness to the establishment of a cooperative

system will ultimately facilitate the birth of an “education society”.

The issues surrounding the relationship between home and school are complex and not a neutral enterprise.

Looking ahead, there are many questions remaining to be studied within this project. Among these, an

important area for future study is the viewpoint of parents on the matter of parent councils in Sweden and the

parents’ experiences of parental involvement initiatives in China. Students’, teachers’, and parents’

perspectives on homework in relation to parents’ involvement and home-school collaboration constitute another

area demanding attention and study in both countries. More cases that present other areas in the four-quadrant

structure of home-school collaboration (see Figure 1) could be necessary for further study. The model itself

should also be reflected, adjusted, and developed under the changed social, cultural, technological, and

educational conditions where new forms of home-school collaboration activities emerge, for example, the

Web-based assessment system of “Unikom” in Swedish schools. Another central issue is the importance of

listening to students’ own voices as co-creators of the social context where they live and act regarding the issue

and activities of home-school relationship and collaboration. In discussions about home-school collaboration,

even though children are critical actors in such activities, their own voices are often unheard. How to prepare

students in teacher education programs to work with collaboration between home and school in their future

careers is also an important theme to be investigated and discussed.

The significance and prospect of the Swedish and Chinese case study for further comparison is learning

from examples and each other. Given the tendency toward critical thinking and the current globalisation trends,

it is crucial that more investigations and understanding of issues of home-school collaboration should be set

into cross-cultural contexts. This project is hopefully to contribute knowledge in this field, as well as to

promote the democratic process of education in both countries.

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Finnish Sauna Behaviors, Dirty or Decent

Riitta Parvia

Lieksa, Finland

Behavior in the Finnish sauna is governed by certain implicit rules. When foreigners exhibit sauna behaviors which

break the rules, the rules become explicit for the Finns. Behaviors, such as screaming and shouting, running in and

out from the sauna, chasing each other, throwing water around, pouring beer on the hot stones of the sauna oven, or

displaying sex behaviors are felt by the Finns like an offence against the decency of their sauna. How do the Finns

behave themselves in the sauna?

Keywords: sauna, old traditions, implicit rules, new inventions

There are but a very few descriptions of the social behavior in sauna. Sauna literature abounds of accounts

of how to build a sauna, and what kinds of materials are used, what temperatures or humidity to prefer, how to

wash, or what to drink after the bathing is done. The author will here try to describe some aspects of Finnish

sauna behaviors from the Finn’s point of view.

But first, with a glance into sauna itself, sauna is not Finnish invention, many peoples of this world have

their heat baths, such as the Amerindian sweat log, the Turkish steam bath, or the Japanese hot tub, Mushi-Buro.

However, the Finns have developed their sauna over the centuries to meet their needs at any time (Visanti, 1975;

Laurila, 1981).

The first timber buildings long ago were nothing but log cabins without chimneys. They were nothing else

than smoke saunas where people lived (Hakamies, 1981) (see Figure 1). Later, the saunas were separated from

the living quarters and they became independent buildings (see Figure 2). The first saunas were sweat logs, and

only later has water been used for cleaning purposes. Basically, three types of Finnish saunas exist: smoke

sauna, steam sauna, and dry sauna. A private sauna in the countryside is usually built of timber (Patoharju &

Tolonen, 1981). The timber when heated radiates the heat evenly in the sauna room. The private sauna is

ideally situated in a peaceful place, by a farm house, or by a lake or river (Visanti, 1975) (see Figures 3−6).

Saunas are also built in city apartments (see Figure 7), not forgetting schools, hotels, and conference sites. The

Finnish Parliament has its sauna. Old sauna buildings are found in remote places for hunters and fishermen to

sleep overnight (Paulaharju, 1982). In these saunas, you usually find fuel, salt, and bread left there for an

unknown wanderer’s survival. Sometimes, you may find only a heap of stones on the ground, surrounded by a

frame, on which you can throw a canvas so as to create a simple sauna (see Figures 8−9). There is a sauna in

Finland today for every third person.

Riitta Parvia, RDMP (registered dance movement psychotherapist), ADMP (association dance movement psychotherapy).

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

FINNISH SAUNA BEHAVIORS, DIRTY OR DECENT

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Figure 1. Parvia: Old smoke sauna.

Figure 2. Parvia: Smoke cabin.

Figure 3. Parvia: Countryside saunas.

It is a common misconception that men and women bath together. Who bathes with whom depends on the

situation? Traditionally, men bathe together after a heavy day’s work in the newly heated sauna. After they

have left, women and children enter to enjoy the milder heat of the sauna. Couples and families with their

children commonly bathe together.


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Figure 4. Parvia: A kota, shelter for heating water.



In addition to cleaning purposes, saunas have traditionally been connected with important social events,

and with healing practices (Hakamies, 1983). A family’s Christmas celebration, for example, usually begins by

the family taking a sauna.


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In the author’s family, certain sauna sentiments stay in the author’s memory: A traditional healer and

midwife sometimes came to treat the author’s grandmother in the sauna. The event was surrounded by a certain

mystery, and the children understood that there was no way to go even near the sauna when Manta from the

mountain had taken hold on the sauna, and the author’s grandmother within her care.

Figure 7. Parvia: The author’s city sauna.

Figure 8. Parvia: Frames for camp saunas.

Figure 9. Parvia: Frames for camp saunas.


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When the author went to see, the author’s grandmother introduced the author’s fiancé to her, she showed

her acceptance of him by heating the sauna. While the sauna was getting heated she went into the wood and

made a bath whisk. By giving the whisk to him, she invited him to the sauna. The heating of the sauna is a

common way to welcome guests, but the author’s grandmother’s special mood, when she prepared the sauna

made the author realize, but only years later, that it was a ritual to her.

When the author’s daughter was only two weeks old, the author took her into the sauna. She seemed to

enjoy her little self in the warm and wet environment. Traditionally, only after the baby’s first sauna bath was

he/she considered a social person within the family and society.

It is another common misconception that children were born in saunas. Children were born in different

places, but after the birth the mother went into the sauna to have a rest there. However, difficult births were

administrated by the midwife in a sauna. The midwife’s main functions were ritual. She consecrated the ritual

space of the sauna by walking around the building three times. She bathed the newborn to make him/her a

social person. She welcomed women visitors who came with their gifts, but she made sure no man entered the

space. When the mother was ready to enter her normal family duties, the baby was presented for the father. By

taking the baby into his lap, or knee, he acknowledged the child as his child. Perhaps, it is due to this tradition,

the father taking the child on his knee, that the word for generation is called “knee” in Finnish.

When passing a sauna building in the countryside, you may hear rhythmic beating from inside the sauna.

What you hear is men beating themselves with bath whisks. The whisk is made of birch twigs, and occasionally

of rowan or even juniper.

When writing this, the world championship in sauna bathing was going on in Finland. Six men were

competing with each other about who could endure the extreme heat and humidity of the sauna for the longest

period of time. The temperature in the sauna was 110 degrees C and water was poured on the stones. As the

heat rose higher, four of the men gave up, but two of the men stayed, a Russian 62-year-old man and a

40-year-old Finn. After six minutes, both men collapsed and were carried out of the sauna. The Russian died,

the Finn survived, but 70% of his skin was burned off. Also his bronchus were burned. After four months in

coma he woke up, but he is still in critical condition and his destiny remains unclear (Autio, 2010).

The ideal sauna conditions, the desired temperature or humidity of the air, or the radiated heat of the sauna

are not the same for everybody. But it seems generally beneficial to an individual to sweat and to raise his/her

body temperature once or twice a week above the point where he/she must sweat adequately. The best sauna is

the one which provides the desired conditions for bathing for the individual (Tuomola, 1969).

If the sauna is situated by a lake, people like to swim in the lake after the sauna bath during the summer,

and even during the winter when the lake is frozen. A hole is then cut in the ice (see Figure 10). Or they may

just roll in the snow (see Figure 11). A man told that: If you see a naked woman outdoors you, indeed, look at

her, but if she is coming from sauna you turn your eyes away. A new addition to sauna bathing is an outdoor

bubble bath to be used during summer and winter (see Figure 12).

The sauna is a place of renewal of body and spirit, a place of relaxation, recreation, and enjoyment (see

Figures 13−17). A traditional sauna has a little hatch on the wall (see Figure 18). If you ask a Finn about the

hatch, he/she explains it in rational terms; it is for good ventilation that is to secure the circulation of fresh air in

sauna. But this hatch is not only for fresh air to enter, it has a spiritual meaning as well. You may feel it when

bathing in a sauna where the hatch is missing. The steam in the sauna is called löyly, the word meaning spirit

originally (Visanti, 1975). The hatch has something to do with the spirit. The spirit of the sauna or the spirit of


207

the human being has to be free to enter or to leave. This idea of the free spirit is something implicit in the

culture, something you may feel but do not talk about.

Figure 10. Eronen: Ice bathing.

Figure 11. Parvia: Rolling in the snow.


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Figure 12. Parvia: Outdoor bubble bath.

Figure 13. Eronen: Imaginative saunas.



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Figure 18. Parvia: A hatch.

Much of what is connected with sauna is deeply cultural for Finns. Behavior in the sauna follows certain

rules. The knowledge about these rules is tacit knowledge, no special education is needed here, and a child

learns how to behave accordingly by seeing how others behave. When a foreigner breaks these rules, they

suddenly become explicit to the Finns. The rules concern who bathes with whom, and how people behave. No

screaming or shouting in sauna, and no alcohol or glass bottles are brought into the sauna. There are more

convenient places for sex than a hot sauna. What people talk about in the sauna is usually peaceful small talk.

Women may talk about health concerns and other casual and familiar things. When the author asked him what

men talk about in the sauna, a man laughingly said: “We talk about women”. A Finnish president was known

for his successful political negotiations in the sauna.

One may sum up by repeating that sauna is for the Finnish people a place for everyday activities, for

cleaning, health, recreation, and enjoyment, and even for business or political negotiations. Even though

sauna’s ritual practices and holiness seem forgotten, it is still a place which is used to highlight many important


211

social events in life. It is as if special events call for ritual cleaning before they can take place. And, indeed,

sauna bathing can be a ritual in itself.

References Autio, S. (2010). Minuutti ennen kuolemaa (pp. 2-3). Helsinki: Ilta-Sanomat. Eronen, P. (2007). Photos. In The bathers. Helsinki: Maahenki OY. Hakamies, P. (1981). The origins of Finnish sauna (pp. 5-8). In Sauna (No. 1). Helsinki: Suomen Sauna-Seura r.y. Hakamies, P. (1983). Sauna and folkhealthcare (pp. 275-280). In Kansa parantaa. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura r.y. Laurila, O. (1981). The medical past of sauna (pp. 14-17). In Sauna (No. 1). Helsinki: Suomen Sauna-Seura r.y. Parvia, R. (2010). Photos. Lieksa Museum and Muurame Sauna Museum. Patoharju, O., & Tolonen, J. (1981). Timber was what was chosen (pp. 9-12). In Sauna (No. 1). Helsinki: Suomen

Sauna-Seura r.y. Paulaharju, S. (1982). Carelian sauna (pp. 27-33). Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura r.y. Tuomola, T. (1969). What is a genuine Finnish sauna? (pp. 1-12). Helsinki: Suomen Sauna-Seura r.y.. Visanti, I. (1975). Sauna book (pp. 9-11, 12, 30-32). Helsinki: Tammi.

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