Untitled - Eco Astronomy Sri Lanka

WILDLANKA Vol.9, No.2, pp. 173 - 300, 2021.

Copyright 2021 Department of Wildlife Conservation, Sri Lanka.

FOSSILS OF SRI LANKA: CHAPTER SABARAGAMUWA BASIN

ARAVINDA RAVIBHANU SUMANARATHNA1*, KAMAL ABEWARDHANA2,

JINADASA KATUPOTHA3 and MAJDAAOUITITEN4

1,2,3,4 Department of Research & Innovation -

South Asian Astrobiology & Earth Sciences Research Unit of Eco Astronomy Sri Lanka. 1,2 United Nations Association of Sri Lanka: 39/1, Cyril Jansz, Mawatha, Panadura.

3 Department of Geography University of Sri Jayewardenepura,

Gangodawila, Nugegoda, 10250, Sri Lanka. 4 Beijing Forestry University School of Ecology and Nature Conservation,

Beijing, China.

*[email protected]

ABSTRACT: The fossils are preserved remains of body parts or traces of ancient organisms. Sri Lanka

is a continental island that evolved via unique geological formations, including fossil remains. This island

represents many fossils belonging to three different geological periods, for instance: the Jurassic period,

Miocene period, and Pleistocene epoch. Most of the Pleistocene fossils were found in terrestrial deposits

(alluvial) from the Sabaragamuwa basin called Ratnapura fauna. Thus, our investigations focused on

documenting samples of fossils gathered, under the project called “The Paleo World of Sabaragamuwa

Basin - Sri Lanka” conducted by Eco Astronomy Inc (Sri Lanka). Considering the geological time scale,

we are looking for reporting samples that approximately belong to the Quaternary period. As we know,

the Quaternary period of the Earth’s geographic history includes two geologic epochs viz., which are:

the Pleistocene (2.58 Myr to 0.0012 Myr), and the Holocene (0.0012 Myr to Present). Both epochs have

changed and divided the fauna’s equilibrium and human’s cultural phases based on climate and sea-

level fluctuations that took place during these periods. Some of the sections in those epochs has occurred

during the last glacial maximum (LGM) and represent the mean sea level was much lower compared

with the present records. Therefore, the quaternary period shows the open accessibility to migration of

mammalian mega faunal species, that lived during the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene

epoch. Most probably, the terrestrial climate change has impacted them and caused the extinction of

those megafaunas. The gathered data details were synchronized via the technical aspect of sampling

photography, toy photography, and virtual reality for analyses and reconstruction purposes.

KEY WORDS: fossils, Ratnapura fauna, paleontology, Sri Lanka, reconstruction.

INTRODUCTION Fossils and Fossilization

Fossils (from Latin word fossils, literally

“digging”) are the preserved pieces of evidence

or traces of fauna, flora, and other organisms

that once lived on Earth. Fossilization is an

exceptionally rare phenomenon that occurred in

specific conditions. The process of fossilization

changes due to the tissue type and external

and environmental conditions. In other words,

fossilization is the process by which a plant or an

animal becomes a fossil, and for that to happen,

the body part needs to pass through crucial

steps of the fossilization process. Prothero

(2013) explained the permineralization,

casts and molds, authigenic mineralization,

replacement and recrystallization and adpression

(compression -impression) by Shute (1987).

As well, others discussed the soft tissue, cell

and molecular preservation (Embery, et al.,

2003; Schweitzer et al., 2014; Zylberberg &

Laurin, 2011), carbonization and coalification

(Prothero, 2013), Bioimmuration (Wilson et al.,

1994; Taylor, 1990).

174 WILDLANKA [Vol. 9 No. 2

Most organic components of the formerly-

living being tend to decompose relatively quickly

following the death of this organize. In order

for an organic organism to be fossilized (Fig.

01), the remains normally need to be covered

by sediment as soon as possible (Sumanarathna,

2020). However, there are exceptions to this,

such as if an organism becomes preserved due to

the amberization (Grimaldi, 2009), or because

the organism become completely frozen, or due

to desiccation, or if the organism was found in

an anoxic environment. Much farther, according

to some interesting scientific papers records,

we have noticed thought some analysis of the

fossils historical data, when it’s a concern of the

process of fossilization, a very small number

or amount of prehistoric organic being got

fossilized. In order for this phenomenon to take

place, conditions had to be exactly favorable.

Generally speaking, studies proved that only the

hard parts of an organism can become fossilized,

such as the teeth, the claws, the shells, and the

bones. In fact, the soft body parts are usually

lost either due to the decomposition process,

except for some specific situation under some

special conditions.

There are many ways for an organism

to get preserved, this document will aim to

explain the general samples preserved, known

as well as fossilized organisms’, we are going

to mention the way in which most fossils used

to be formed and created. Usually, fossils

occur in sedimentary rock, and it is very rare

to encounter such phenomenon in metamorphic

rock (Bucher, 1953; Franz et al., 1991; Hill,

1985; Laborda-López et al., 2015; Wright and

Ghent, 1973). The best scenario for an excellent

fossilization would be under some specific

condition in which an organism get buried at the

bottom of a lake, where it gets then covered by

a lot of sediment.

In this type of environment, the organism

is protected from other animals and natural

elements that would cause the body’s

fragmentation as it gets breakdown. It is crucial

that the body must be in an environmental

condition, that allow the rapid burial processing

mechanisms. The areas in which there is a high

rate of sediment deposition are ideal because

of the presence of minerals that will lead to

the increase of the pressure. Additionally with

some extreme conditions the records have

proved that the ammonites and meta fossils

are recorded which assemblages developed by

metasomatic exchange of silica, sourced from

the matrix with CaO sourced from the calcite

shells. As well, we need to highlight that the

metamorphic transformations, in the particular

reaction of calcite with silica-bearing fluids

attend to form wollastonite and we can notice

the transformation of pyrite to pyrrhotite (Shaw,

2019).

There are other ways of preservation, such

as the petrification phenomenon. In fact, the

petrified wood happens under extreme incident

conditions and parameters. For instance: if for

long time ago, dead logs were washed into a

river and buried in the sand. Water with alkaline

and dissolved silica went down through the

sediments, and get in contact with the logs.

The logs decayed, will release carbon dioxide,

which dissolved in the water and formed

carbonic acid.

The alkaline water will then be neutralized,

and the silica evaporate out of the solution.

Very slowly, the cellulose of the wood will be

replaced, molecule by molecule, by the silica

instead of the cellulose. Eventually, the wood

gets replaced in perfect detailed process by

minerals. If other minerals existed during this

situation, also, the wood could be stained with

pretty colors (Dávid, 2011).

Organisms can also be preserved by

carbonization. If a leaf falls into a stagnant,

oxygen-poor swamp, it may not decay. If it

gets covered in silt and subjected to heat and

pressure, most of the leaf’s organic material is

released as methane, water, and carbon dioxide.

The remainder is a thin film of carbon, showing

the imprint of the leaf. Insects and fish can be

preserved in this way too. (Sumanarathna,

2021).

Paleontology and Paleontologist

After having a brief introduction of fossils

fossilization phenomenon and their different

preservations conditions, let’s see in depth

what is the board disciplines that we going to

June, 2021] FOSSILS OF SRI LANKA: CHAPTER SABARAGAMUWA BASIN 175

FIGURE 01: Project Dynamics of Himachal Pradesh: Upgrading Prometheus of Paleo Himachal

Ammonites fossils from Ladakh high altitude mountains © Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019 (Sumanarathna,

2020).

apply for study fossils. Conducting this type of

research, it is called Paleontology, it is indeed

concerning of conducting scientific studies of

the ancient life form encountered on Earth as

based on fossils formation. Within evolutionary

biology field of researches and studies, the

time parameter has long been considered the

province of the paleontologist. Strictly speaking,

this is not completely true. Time itself could be

considered as it is just as elusive parameter for

the paleontologist, as it is as well for anybody

else.

Paleontologists do not trafic in time

themselves, but rather in events arrayed

in time, in processes occurring over time,

and in techniques for the measurement and

representation of time. That said, paleontology

does have something distinctive to contribute

to our understanding of the deep past, namely

its ability to draw justifiable inferences about

the temporal sequence of events in the history

of life. Although, absolute dating based on

radioactive decay of atomic nuclei and other

physical methods have made it possible to get

better and great estimates of the ages of rocks

and fossils, paleontology throughout its history

has reconstructed the history of life without

explicit consideration of duration (Fig.02),

but rather by using the relative positions and

presumed temporal sequence of fossil bearing

strata, and the biological affinities among

the fossil remains those strata contain.

Despite refinements in absolute dating,

and the introduction of molecular methods, the

fossil and event-based relative timescale have

remained the backbone of the paleontological

conception of time. Time in paleontology

presents a menu of philosophical issues: the

phenomenology of time, the nature of relative

and absolute time, and the epistemic issues

arising out of attempts to reconstruct the past

from its present-day traces. We will begin by

contemplating the phenomenology of time in

the work of the practicing paleontologist. From


FIGURE 02: 145 million years old, world famous - berlin Archaeopteryx second specimen (replica)

at LKCNHM- Singapore. Image © Aravinda Ravibhanu 2017.

research in the psychology of time perception,

we know that our sense of time is event-based

(Resnick et al., 2012).

Thus, our general sense of time arises out

of the first-person perspective we have on our

lived experience, augmented by reflection on

the events of history. Yet these senses of time

are inadequate to paleontology. Consider that

the oldest known fossils on Earth, of anaerobic

bacteria, were found in Australian rocks dated

3.4 billion years before present (Wacey et al.,

2011). The timespan over which the events


studied by paleontologists have occurred is

so vast as to merit its own designation, Deep

Time (McPhee, 1981; Rickles’s Chap. 11 in

this volume). Deep Time dwarfs the timescales

humans are cognitively equipped to deal with. It

is immeasurably long compared to the entire span

of human history. So, the question is whether

anyone can truly grasp Deep Time. Efforts to

do so nearly always make use of appropriately

scaled spatial metaphors. It is a standard part

of the undergraduate training of geologists to

produce some spatially extended model (e.g., a

ruler, a roll of toilet paper, a piano keyboard)

such that the vastness of Deep Time can be

compared to the mere hair’s breadth (or less)

of human history that blemishes the end of it.

Spatializing time serves two roles. Existentially,

the exercise puts us in our place: as a species,

we are a relatively recent addition to Earth’s

biosphere. Cognitively and heuristically, space

often stands in for time itself in the scientific

work of the paleontologist.

GEOLOGY OF SRI LANKA

More than 90% of Sri Lanka’s surface lies

on Precambrian strata, some of it dating back

to two billion years. The granulite facies rocks

of the Highland complex (gneisses, sillimanite-

graphite gneisses, quartzite, marbles, and some

charnockites) make up most of the island, and

the amphibolite facies gneisses, magnetite,

granites, and granitic gneisses of the Vijayan

complex occur in the eastern and southeastern

lowlands. Jurassic sediments are present today

in very few areas near the western coast (Vanni

Complex), and Miocene limestones underlie the

northwestern part of the country and extend to

the south in a relatively narrow belt along the

west coast (Fig. 03A) (Cooray, 1984; Cooray

and Katupotha 1991; Katupotha and Dias 2001).

The metamorphic rock surface was created by

the transformation of ancient sediments under

intense heat and pressure during the mountain-

building processes. The theory of plate tectonics

suggests that these rocks and related rocks

forming most of south India were part of a

single southern landmass called Gondwanaland.

The beginning occurred about 200 million

years ago, the impressive forces within the

earth’s mantle began to separate the lands of

the Southern Hemisphere, and it have been

results in the locomotion of a crustal plate that

supported both India and Sri Lanka which have

caused this plate to move toward the northeast.

About 55 million years ago, the Indian plate

collided with the Asian landmass, that have

promoted the raising of the Himalayas in

northern India area, we need to mention as well

that this phenomenon is continuing to accrue

in an advanced level slowly but surely till the

present time (Fig. 03B).

However, this impressive movement and

relocation of the crustal plate didn’t result

in frequent nature catastrophes in this area,

therefore, Sri Lanka does not experience or

recorded earthquakes or major volcanic eruption

events because it rides located specifically on the

center of the plate. The island contains relatively

limited strata of sedimentation surrounding its

ancient uplands. Aside from recent deposits

along river valleys, only two small fragments

of Jurassic (140 to 190 Myr) sediment occur in

Puttalam District. In contrast, a more extensive

belt of Miocene (5 to 20 Myr) limestone is

found along the northwest coast, overlain in

many areas by Pleistocene deposit (Cooray and

Katupotha 1991; Katupotha and Dias 2001,

Katupotha 2019). The northwest coast is part

of the deep Cauvery (Kaveri) River Basin of

southeast India, which has been collecting

sediments from the highlands of India and Sri

Lanka since the breakup of Gondwanaland.

Quaternary Period in Sri Lanka

Quaternary is the era. which saw the

appearance of mankind. There is disagreement

over the duration, with some Scientists retaining

a short-time scale (600,000 years) while a

majority accepting the long time-scale of 1.8 to

2.0 million years. It comprises two epochs - the

Pleistocene and the Holocene. The Pleistocene

epoch in Sri Lanka has been subdivided based

on different types of fossils. These subdivisions

are useful in the study of paleomagnetic

changes, geological formations and Paleolithic

cultures in Sri Lanka. Radiometric dating of

fossil coral and shells collected from the western

and southern coastal zone suggested mid and


FIGURE 03A: Simplified geological map of Sri Lanka showing the main basement units and major

gem deposits. Adapted from Sajeev and Osanai (2004) and Dissanayake and Chandrajith (1999).


FIGURE 03B: (Left) New juxtaposition of Sri Lanka, the southern tip of India, and Madagascar

(encircled) in Gondwana. (Dissanayake and Chandrajith 1999). (Right) The position of Sri Lanka

in central Gondwana at 200 Ma (Emmel et al., 2012, Katupotha 2020).

late During the Holocene period rerecord have

documented three high sea-level episodes 6,240

yr B.P and 2,270 yr B.P (Fig. 03C).

FIGURE 03C: Eustatic 06 fluctuation in Sri

Lanka since last-Glacial Maximum

(Katupotha 1984 and 1995).

As well, during the early Holocene to LGM

and beyond the sea level found not reach the

Sabaragamuwa Basin, accordingly. However,

during the Holocene high sea level episode

the sea water did not entered to Kalu Ganga

Upper Lowlands, especially in Kuruwita and

Palmadulla basin area, but for the case of the area

covered by the fresh water marshes accordingly,

there is a need for further investigations on the

whole Quaternary period through different

disciplines in order to reveal the nature of

the paleogeography, palaeoclimatology and

paleoecology of Sri Lanka (Katupotha 1994).

The Quaternary period is a part of the

geologic time scale which is helpful to

paleontologists for the description of the timing

and relationships of events in geologic history

(Fig. 04). The Quaternary Period is popular for

the many cycles of glacial and geomorphological

growth and retreat, the extinction of many

species of mega fauna, and the spread of

humans (Table 01 & 02). This period is often

considered the “Age of Humans.” Homo erectus

appeared in Africa at the start of this period, and

as time marched on the hominid line evolved

and characterized of cranial capacity and higher

LP

LP 230,000

Third -

ABSOLUTE PROVISIONAL NORTH ALPS NORTH SRI

DATING NUMERICAL AMERICA EUROPE LANKA

ORDER

Present

H -

10,300

10,300 Main LATE

17,000 Interglacial WISCONSIN Late Wurm

17,000 Last Glaciation MAIN

30,000 WISCONSIN Main Wurm

30,000

50,000

50,000 WISCONSIN Early Wurm Weichselian Normal 6

75,000 Humid 6

67,000 - Last - Sangamanian Uznach Eemian Normal 5

128,000 Interglacial Humid 5

128,000 - Forth Glaciation ILLINOIAN RISS II WARTHE Humid 4

180,000 RISSI SAALE

180,000 Interglacial

Yarmouth Hotting Holstein Normal 3

230,000 Third Glaciation KANSAN MINDAL ELSTER Humid 3

300,000

300,000 Second Aftonian Normal 2

330,000 Interglacial

330,000 Second - NEBRASKAN GUNZ PRE-ELSTER Humid 2

470,000 Glaciation

470,000 Waalian Normal 1

538,000

538,000 First - PRE - DONAU II WEYBOURNE Humid 1

548,000 Glaciation NEBRASCAN

548,000 Tiglian

EP 585.000

585,000 DONAU I RED CRAG

600,000

e 600,000 Villa frannuchian

2,000,000


TABLE 01: Subdivisions of the Quaternary in the Main Glacial Areas.

NOTE: Named interglacials are underlined. Source: Fairbridge 1968; H - Holocene, LP - Late

Pleistocene, MP - Middle Pleistocene, EP - Early Pleistocene

0.01 m.y.

22.5 - 5

m.y.


TABLE 02: Formations and Events in the Cenozoic Era in Sri Lanka

ERA SYSTEM EPOCH EVENT/FORMATION

ERA

P

H

A C

N E

E N

R O

O Z

Z I

I C

C

Holocene Post-glacial sea level rise, drowning of continental shelf.

to Present Younger Group - beach and dune deposits, beachrock,

lagoon and esturine clays, alluvium, burried and emerged

coral reefs, beaches, lagoons formed

Pleistocene Marked sea level fluctuations, submergence canyons cut or

2 m.y. developed. Older Group Red Beds, gravels, raised beach and

dune deposits, laterite, nodular ironstone

Pliocene Uplift and erosion

2 - 5 m.y.

TERTIARY

Miocene Limestone facies on northwest and north; a renaccous facies

on southest. Tectonic control of sedimentation, with step

faulting common, Submergence, separation from India.

Sources : Cooray and Katupotha, 1991; Katupotha, 1988b, c; Swan, 1982

TABLE 03: Approximate Dating and Events of the Quaternary Period.

Blytt-sernander

Classification

Late-Subatlantic -

600 yr B.P.

Present climate -

1,000 yr B.P.

Early-Subatlantic -

1,600 yr B.P.

-2,000 yr B.P.

-2,300 yr B.P.

Late-Subboreal

-3,000 yr B.P.

Early-Subboreal

-4,000 yr B.P.

-4,300 yr B.P.

Main Atlantic -

5,500 yr B.P.

European/ Yr B.P.

alps

Historic <1,000

Viking

1,000-

2,300

Roman

Iron age

2,300-

Bronze age 3,700

3,700-

Neolithic 5,300

5,300-

6,600

Mid-latitude

Temperature

Departures

(C0)

-10

+0.50

+10

-0.50

+10

+10

+20

-0.50

Eustatic

phases and

elevation

(in meter)

E (-2)

S (60cm)

S (-2)

S (1.5-2)

E (-3)

S (+3)

E (-4)

Geological Formation and

archaeological event in

Sri Lanka

Estuarine deposits; Aryan

settlement

Estuarine deposits

Estuarine deposits

Estuarine deposits

Estuarine deposits (inland

fossil corals, coastal swamp

deposits emerged reef

patches)


fossil shells), emerged

beachrock.


fossil shells), coastal

swamp deposits) emerged

beachrock.


fossil shells), emerged

beachrock.


TABLE 03: Contd,

Blytt-sernander

Classification

European/ Yr B.P.

alps

Mid-latitude

Temperature

Departures

(C0)

Eustatic

phases and

elevation

(in meter)



Sri Lanka

-6,500yr B.P.

Early Atlantic -

7,000 yr B.P.

Late Boreal

-7,500 yr B.P.

-8800 yr B.P.

Mesolithic

Meglemose

Meglemose

+2.50

6,600- +10

7,500

+20

7,500 -

8,700 +0.50 +10

S (3-5) Estuarine/Marine deposits

(inland fossil corals, coastal

swamp deposits, emerged

reef patches) +1.5m or

more higher sea-level thant

at present, flourishing of

lateritization.

E (-10) Rising of sea-level,

submergence of near-shore

forests

S Rising of sea-level



WURM FLANDRIAN

Younger Drayas Scandinavian 10,300 - +30

morain 10,900

(W lle)

E(-25) Arod Phase, Balangoda

culture (Neo-lithic 10,000

yr B.P.)*

Alterod mild 10,900 - -20

11,800

Scandinavian 11,800 - -70

Brandenburg 17,500 morain (W llb)

- 17,500

E(-) 32-40

E(-) 45-60

E(-100)

Irananmadu late formation,

Balangoda culture (Late

Palaeolithic)

Palangaturei Arid Phase,

Red beds formation,

Balangoda culture,

Mesolithic*

Late Glacial Maximum,

Palangutrei Arid Phase, Red

bed formation Balangoda

culture, Mesolithic*

(W ll a/b

(W ll a

(W l/ll a

- 28,000

30,000 -

60,000

60,000 -

95,000

S (-) 100-10

S -135

S +3 or 4

Epimonastirium

Palangaturei Arid Phase,

Red beds formation,

Bundala dunes, Bellan-

bendi deposits, Late

Mesolithic*

Ratnapura Climatic Phase

III (Early Palaeolithic

-52,000 yr B.P.)

Ratnapura Climatic Phase

II Pathi-

rajawela deposits, forming

laterite


TABLE 03: Contd,

Blytt-sernander

Classification

European/ Yr B.P.

alps

Mid-latitude

Temperature

Departures

(C0)

Eustatic

phases and

elevation

(in meter)



Sri Lanka

Warthe (W I) 95,000 -

125,000

E -100

(or lower)

Bundala-Levangoda gravel

(75,000-125,000 yr B.P.)

EEMIAN

(R/W)

RISS

SAALE (R)

GREAT

INTER

GLACIAL

G/M

MINDEL -

ELATER

(M)

INTER

GLACIAL

GUNZ

125.000-

235,000

235,000 -

360,000

360,000 -

670,000

670,000 -

780,000

780,000 -

900,000

900,000 - 1,150,000

E +7 or 8

Late Monastirium

E +18 Main

Monastirium

E-200

(or lower)

E +32 Late

Tyrrhenian

E +45 Early

Tyrrhenian

?

E + 60

Milazzaian

Ratnapura Climatic Phase,

Iranamadu early formation?

(140,000-180,000) Neo

tectonics?

Tectonic uplift ? (265,000 -

300,000)

Forming of laterite ?

?

?

INTER

GLACIAL

DONAU

(D)

1150,000 -

1,370,000

1,370,000 -

1,800,000

E + 80 ?

Sicilian

E + 150 ?

Late Calabrian

1,800,000

to

2,300,000 or

2,500,000

S + 180 Early ?

Calabrian

S = Submergence, E= Emergence, * Marine terrraces and sandstone (beachrock) formation

Sources : Deraniyagala, 1976, 1986; Fairbridge, 1968; HOlms, 1966; Katupotha, 1988 a,b; Katupotha

and Fujiwara, 1988; Katupotha and Wijayananda, 1989; Wijesekara, 1959


FIGURE 04: Creative approach on displaying geologic time © Ray Troll

intelligence. The Quaternary is divided into two

epochs: the Pleistocene and the Holocene as

oldest to youngest period (Katupotha 2014).

The Pleistocene Epoch is defined as the time

period that began about 2.6 million years ago

and lasted until about 11,700 years ago. But,

Katupotha expected this period to have lasted

around 10,300 (1988a, 1994, and Table 03).

It is indicated that the most recent Ice Age

occurred then, as glaciers covered huge parts of

the planet Earth. It was followed by the current

stage, called the Holocene Epoch (11,700 to

present day).

Fossils of extinct Pleistocene fauna in Sri

Lanka are mainly found in alluvium deposits

of the Sabaragamuwa area. In additionally

Pleistocene fossils are rarely found in the

Lunugala, Adawatte gem mines near Moneragala

and Badulla, and in the Kalametiya area in

southern Sri Lanka. These Pleistocene faunal

fossils are commonly found in the vicinity of

the Rathnapura region of Sri Lanka. Hence its

name is “Ratnapura Fauna” (Deraniyagala,

1958). Ratnapura deposits have mixed up via

the redeposition mechanism and these deposits

represent specific time spots based on the most


FIGURE 05: The Himalayan system represent Grate Himalaya [> 4500m], Lesser Himalaya

[3500m- 4500m], Shivalik [ 900m 1500m] ©Subratachak web Journal 2017.

abounded faunal index. These three phases

have been named as Ratnapura Phases 01 as

Fossils of Hippopotamus (Lower and Middle

Pleistocene), Phases 02 as fossils of Rhinoceros

kagavena, and Elephas maximus sinhaleyus

(Upper Pleistocene), and Phases 03 as fossils of

faunal that have been extinct even in very earlier

at upper Pleistocene (Deraniyagala, 1958).

This Ratnapura fauna is anatomically

closely related to the Narmada and Shivalik

fossils fauna of India (Fig. 05). The earliest

Indian Shivalik fossils date back to the Miocene.

The Shivalik deposits of the Potwar Plateau and

adjacent areas are outstanding for their entombed

record of Neogene terrestrial vertebrates

of South Asia. Superposed Potwar deposits

contain many successive fossil assemblages

that provide a wealth of palaeobiological data

spanning 18 to 6 Ma, with dating resolved in

most cases to 100,000 years. Strata of the Zinda

Pir Dome to the southwest add complementary

early Miocene assemblages, and deposits east

of the Potwar contain important Pliocene faunas

(Flynn et al., 2016).

Considering few other Pleistocene fossil

deposits around the Asian region is similar to

the Ratnapura fauna. Specially, The Nerbudda

lake deposits of peninsular India that belong

to the middle Pleistocene and similar to the

Irrawaddy deposits of Burma (Falconer, 1859).

Paleo climate of both places are interglacial,

such as the present one, the climate warms and

the tundra recedes poleward following the ice

sheets.

There are many Pleistocene megafauna

that has been found at Kurnool cave a grouping

of caves near Betamcherla, Andhra Pradesh

represent partially similarity to Rathnapura


FIGURE 06: High Sea level fluctuation at Pleistocene and current environment view of

Sabaragamuwa basin from Gampaha, Ragama, Sri Lanka © Aravinda Ravibhanu.

fauna (Deraniyagala, 1958). Kurnool cave is

so significant because they contain teeth and

artifacts of early man. Systematic excavations

revealed a rich fossil assemblage that has

a bearing on past climate, environment,

ecology, and migratory patterns of some of

the mammalian groups. The existence of thick

caves sediments and ideally situated rock

shelters, which are three to four meters above

ground level, suggest that detailed excavation

is likely to yield fossil remains of early man

(Prasad, 1996).

Megafauna bonebed of the Trinil site (Java,

Indonesia) belonged to the Lower/Middle

Pleistocene (Thomas et al., 2014). Considering

the fossils in Palestine called Bethlehem

fauna partially similar to Shivalik deposits.

(Deraniyagala, 1958).

The Ratnapura fossils represent no trace

of Lateritization which occurs under humid

tropical climate conditions. This is a prolonged

process of chemical weathering of rocks leading


FIGURE 07A: Lithological column of an alluvial gem deposit in Rathnapura gravel © Aravinda

Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 07A: [Top] Vertical mining extraction gem pit. [Bottom] Open-pit sapphire mine near

Balangoda, a large one by Sri Lankan standards, had partially filled with water from rains the week

before. Image© Andrew Lucas.


to the formation of soil. It produces a variation

in the thickness, grade, chemistry and ore

mineralogy of the rock creating soil particles.

The arrangement of the same lateralized beds

in the Ratnapura series suggested few climatic

fluctuations like non laterite formation climate

present in Middle and Upper Pleistocene

(Fig. 06). However, redeposited fossils are

derived from beds of non-laterite and occur in

the upper-most or Holo -Pleistocene deposit


Means around the lower Pleistocene, there

are patterns to indicate red residual soil formed by

the leaching of silica and by the enrichment with

aluminum and iron oxides. Also, redeposition

has defiantly mixed up two or more horizons

of different ages which are assignable to the

Middle, Upper and Holo-Pleistocene. A marine

and a non-marine assignable that will form a

tie in have yet to be discovered (Deraniyagala,

1958). Considering the zooarchaeological

pieces of evidence around the last three decades

in Sri Lanka, revealed facts of marine fossils

belong to the lower Pleistocene.

Most of Ratnapura Fauna occurs in

association with a gem stone, dominantly rubies

and sapphires. Over 90% of Sri Lanka’s gem

mining is from secondary placer deposits that

can be classified as sedimentary gem deposits

of residual, eluvial and especially alluvial types

like Rathnapura beds (Fig. 7A & 7B). Primary

or in-situ gem occurrences are located mainly

in contact-metamorphic zones comprising of

skarn and calcium-rich rocks. Gem minerals

that are frequently found in pegmatites include

corundum, zircon, beryl, quartz varieties,

feldspar and chrysoberyl and possible to see

gem gravels at Getaheththa (Disanayake and

Rupasingha 1995).

But rubies and sapphires associated with

Ratnapura faunas are free of their pegmatite’s

matrix. This suggests that the disappearance of

FIGURE 08: Batadomba-lena pre historic cave, view from outside. Image © Aravinda Ravibhanu

2013.


the pegmatites from Sri Lankan Gem stones is

a comparatively recent occurrence while their

deposition apparently occurred together with

a part of Rathnapura Fauna. Uranium analysis

of Hippopotamus and Elephas maximus molar

indicated that redeposition had occurred, mixing

up beds of different ages. Considering, whole

fauna community belongs to Ratnapura fauna

suggests that it inhabited savannah country

possessing extensive bodies of water, while the

mountains probably supported forests that were

no different to present conditions (Roberts et al.,

2015; Sumanarathna et al., 2016; Wedage et al.,

2019).

When Ratnapura fauna dies around the

holocoen and Pleistocene period, most of the

body parts are typically decay completely.

But sometimes, when the conditions are just

right for the fossilization process, preserved

as fossils. Especially animal dies in a watery

environment and is buried in mud and silt like

Ratnapura beds. Soft tissues quickly decompose

leaving the hard bones or shells behind. Water

seeps into the remains, and minerals dissolved

in the water seep into the spaces within the

remains, where they form crystals. Also, the

minerals in groundwater replace the minerals

that make up the bodily remains after the water

completely dissolves the original hard parts

of the organism. A similar incident was easily

identified via fossils flora in the Sabaragamuwa

basin. Considering the Prehistoric Caves in

the Sabaragamuwa basin and the area of a

range of mountains around it, representing one

of the most important fossils belongs to the

Pleistocene and Holocene fauna in Sri Lanka.

Of these, Fahien Cave: 48,000 yrBP, Kuruwita-

Batadomba-lena Cave: 37,000 yrBP, Kitulgala

Beli-lena Cave: 31,000yrBP, Alawala Potgul-

lena Cave: 14,000 yrBP and Bellanbendi

Pelassa, as an open prehistoric human habitat in

Udawalawe: 12,000 yrBP. (Deraniyagala, 1992;

Perera, 2010; Adikari, 1998 and Bandaranayake,

1994; Premathilake & Risberg,2003).

Batadomba-lena Cave (Fig. 08) is very

unique which is located in the front head of the

Sabaragamuwa basin in the southern slop of the

highland mountains range.

The first excavation of Batabomba-lena by

Deraniyagala (P.E.P) was conducted in 1938.

The finds included fragmentary human remains

and stone artifacts. The excavation was of 4 feet

and deraniyagala assigned the assemblage of

stone artifacts, in particular, the association of

microliths and human remains, to the Balangoda

phase. A preliminary examination was made

by Deraniyagala (S.U) in 1979 revealed a rich

occupational deposit. Thereafter, an excavation

of 2.6 m was conducted.

The stratigraphic sequence of seven main

occupational layers and 3 underlying strata

directly above bed rock has been described by

Daraniyagala in 1982. Layers 1 – 3 from the

top downwards were considered to have been

described in recent times by the extraction of

guano fertilizer for village paddy fields, and

leaving of the floor by monks who used to live in

the rock shelter. The occupational deposited in

layer 4 was described as a massive homogenous

stratum with brownish sand and silt containing

stone artifacts and faunal remains. Layers 5

and 6 were considered to be the site’s major

occupational layer 7 contains many stone

artifacts including geometric microliths which

were radiocarbon dated to approx. 30,000 years

BP.

Deraniyagala named the prehistoric man

of Sri Lanka as a new subspecies called Homo

sapiens balangodensis based on the frontal

bone found during the excavation of the Ravana

Falls prehistoric cave in 1945 (Deraniyagala,

1945). He has compiled several dental and

osteological variations of this Homo sapiens

balangodensis subspecies, comparing the skulls

and other skeletal fragments of the Sinhalese

and Tamils as well as the Vedda people living in

this country today (Deraniyagala, 1945).

In additionally other human remains from

caves at Kuruvita and Telulla (Deraniyagala,

1955) and finally from a kitchen midden cum

burial mound at Bellan Biindi Piiliissa which

yielded skeletal remains of ten individuals some

of which were fragmentary. All were in flexed

postures and in association with a wealth of stone,

bone and antler artifacts (Deraniyagala, 1957a

:1957b). This Homo sapiens balangodensis

mentioned by Deraniyagala is known by the


FIGURE 09: (Left) Chopper stone artefacts of Rathnapura culture from Gem pit.

FIGURE 10: (Right): Weathered pitted artefacts of Home sapiens Location-Kuruvita © SMKA.

Image ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2020.

FIGURE 11: Balaingoda point from Balangoda

culture in Sri Lanka | Location -Kuruvita ©

SMKA. Image ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2020.

FIGURE 12: Bone Point with attached

neck surface from Balangoda culture Sri

Lanka | Location -Kuruvita © SMKA. Image

©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2020.


FIGURE 13: A view of Sabaragamuwa basin from “Balana Gala”, technically view point at the

middle of vithanakanda trail to Batadomba-lena Cave. Image ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2013.


FIGURE 14: Modified 3D view of Sabaragamuwa ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2020.


FIGURE 15: The actual land form around the Sabaragamuwa Basin (Specially 10km radius from

Kuruvita) is about 20m-30m below than today, because of land is heavily eroded. This modified 3D

view of Sabaragamuwa Basin which represent current altitude and 2×105 yrBP altitude ©Aravinda

Ravibhanu 2020.


FIGURE 16: Paleo environment reconstruct of Sabaragamuwa basin via synchronizing geo

morphological factors of Shivalik and Ratnapura. ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2020.


FIGURE 17: Elevation topographic map of Sabaragamuwa province © Sachith & Katupotha 2021.

simple common name of Balangoda Man.

According to the research conducted by the

American anthropologist, Professor Kenneth

Kennedy and Dr. Siran Deraniyagala reviled

this human being has been identified as a

modern human and not as another subspecies.

According to the prehistoric excavations

carried out by the Department of Archeology

and the Postgraduate Institute of Archeology

at the University of Kelaniya over the past four

decades, it is clear that the Balangoda human

Era dates back to approximately 40,000 years

ago and 3800 years today (Deraniyagala, 1992;

Perera, 2010).

Balangoda Man is a Homo sapiens which

is dominantly represented the Mesolithic

period via stone tool technology (Fig. 09 – 12).

Information that they lived in Sri Lanka has been

obtained from the prehistoric settlements as

rock shelter and open habitat mentioned above.

These humans made geometric microliths by

applicable quartz (Perera, 2010 and 2011).

The Balangoda man of the Middle Ages

made tools out of animal bones and they were

mostly pointed called bone points. These humans

provided their food by hunting and gathering,

as well as Asian palm civet species, Buffaloes,

grizzled giant squirrel, tortoises, hamburgers,

rabbits, frogs, as well as turtles, pythons, lizards,

wild boars, hawksbills, deer and sambar deer

was added to their diet includes aquatic snails

(Palodomus sp.) and tree snails are also part of

their diet which includes Canarium zeylanicum,

Artocarpus nobilis, Elaeocarpus sp.

It is noteworthy that a large number of fossils

belonging to the Pleistocene period were found

in the vicinity of the Sabaragamuwa Basin (Fig.

13). The Sabaragamuwa Basin extends from

Getahetta to Eheliyagoda, Kuruwita, Ratnapura,

Pelmadulla, Godakawela and Rakwana. Those

fossils can be found in the forest ecosystem as

well as inland wetland and agro-ecosystems in

the Sabaragamuwa Basin (Fig. 14 – 16).

Considering the current climatic conditions

of Ratnapura’s region is classified as tropical.

The rainfall in Ratnapura is significant, with


precipitation even during the driest month which

could be so similar to the highest interglacial

time in the late Pleistocene. The present climate

here is classified as Af by the Köppen-Geiger

system. The average annual temperature in

Ratnapura is 24.3 °C (75.7 °F). The rainfall here

is around 4460 mm (175.6 inches per year).

However, the present river terraces around

the Sabaragamuwa basin, do not provide as

much information as a drier region. Traces of

such terraces are scattered along the Kalani

river as patches of ancient gravelly alluvium

between Kaduwela and Hanvella, Malvana,

Palugama, Mapitigama (Deranigalagala 1958)

excepting few tributary valleys like Puugoda.

Vestigial beds of high-level gravels occur in the

vicinity of Sithawaka.

The old Ratnapura alluvial gravel occurs

belong the gem gravel in the Kuruvita area and

the old lacustrine alluvium occur at 20m to 27m

as bedded clays (Fig. 14 -15), silts, and gravel

(Deraniyagala,1958). However, currently, there

are few records similarity factors that can be

seen unit 50m to 60m includes clear deposition

of fossils which mix-up with the gem gravels

(Fig. 15).

Fossils of Sabaragamuwa Basin – Sri Lanka Family Felidae | Panthera leo sinhaleyus

(extinct)

Panthera leo (the lion) fossils laid upon

the gem field at a depth of 6.5m below the

surface from a gem pit about four miles away at

Pahala Vela, Galadande Mandiya, Gonapitiya,

Kuruwita near the Kuru Ganga. The holotype is

a third lower left carnassial in the Deraniyagala

collection at the British Museum (Deraniyagala,

1958). This race is restricted to Sri Lanka;

originally the lion appears to have inhabited

Sri Lanka and India and was possibly replaced

by the Bengal tiger that invaded India from the

Northeast.

The similarity between the African name

is “Simba” meaning Lion, and the Indian

equivalent Simha suggests that one is derived

from the other. The lack of lion fossils in Africa

suggests that the African is derived from the

Indian Panthera leo sinhaleyus also known as

the Sri Lankan Lion, which was a prehistoric

subspecies of lion, known to be endemic to

Sri Lanka (Fig. 18). It appears to have become

extinct prior to the arrival of the modern human

culture, which was estimated to be around

39,000 years ago.

This lion is only known from two teeth, found

in alluvial deposits at Kuruwita. Deraniyagala

cited fossils of three lion teeth found from the

island; first in 1936, second in 1947 and the third

in 1961. Manamendra-Arachchi et al. (2005)

described that Deraniyagala did not explain

explicitly how he diagnosed the holotype of

this subspecies as belonging to a lion, though he

justified its allocation to a distinct subspecies of

a lion by its being “narrower and more elongate”

than those of recent lions in the British Natural

History Museum collection.

The lion has been one of the most widespread

mammals, having enjoyed a Pleistocene range

that included Africa, Eurasia, North America

and tropical South America, while the fossil

record confirms that the species range in the

Indian subcontinent did extend south to the

21º N and east to 87º E (Pilgrim 1931; Dutta

1976), approximately a line joining Gujurat to

Bengal, but there is no evidence of the existence

of the lion in Asia east of Bengal or anywhere

in peninsular India and Sri Lanka, except for

Panthera leo sinhaleyus. Panthera leo fossilis,

also known as the Early Middle Pleistocene

European cave lion, is an extinct feline of the

Pleistocene epoch.

Family Felidae | Panthera tigris (extinct)

Panthera tigris is a member of the Felidae

family and the largest of four “big cats” in

the genus Panthera. The Panthera tigris tigris

(Bengal tiger) is a tiger subspecies native to

India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan. The

pattern of genetic variation in the Bengal tiger

corresponds to the premise that tigers arrived

in India approximately 12,000 years ago.

Kitchener and Dugmore (2000) considered

that the changing biogeographical range of

the Panthera tigris through the last glacial-

interglacial cycle, based on habitat associations

of modern tiger specimen records, and

environmental reconstructions from the LGM.


These cycles indicate that the numerous

glacial cycles that span the evolutionary history

of the tigers since their appearance in the fossil

record about 2 Myr ago and the oldest tiger

fossils (around 2 Myr old) are from northern

China and Java. The key issue is to determine

the extent to which ancestral populations of the

tiger were geographically isolated. However,

Pleistocene glacial and interglacial fluctuations

and other geological events probably caused

repeated geographic restrictions and expansions

of tigers (Hemmer,1987; Kitchener and

Dugmore, 2000) estimated the most recent

common ancestor for tiger mt DNA haplotypes

was 72,000–108,000 years ago, with a lower

and upper bound of 39,000 years and 157,000

years, respectively.

The recent history of tigers in the Indian

subcontinent is consistent with the lack of tiger

fossils from India prior to the late Pleistocene

and the absence of tigers from Sri Lanka, which

was separated from the subcontinent by rising

sea levels in the early Holocene. However, a

recent study of two independent fossil finds

from Sri Lanka, one dated to approximately

16,500 years ago, tentatively classifies them

as being a tiger (Manamendra-Arachchi et al.,

2005).

However, the discovery of the Ratnapura

tiger in alluvium, together with hippopotamus

and rhinoceros fossils, demonstrates that tigers

did indeed occur on the island. Nine fossils

and sub fossils were identified that belong to

Tiger. Five of the fossils dated among those and

identified 14,000 – 20,000 years old. One fossil

that belonged to Lion was identified. The tiger

was living 17,000 years ago (Manamendra-

Arachchi, 2010). The Holocene range of the

tiger extends to the southernmost tip of the

peninsular of India and to all of the tropical

continental of Asia. The apparent absence of

evidence of tigers in Sri Lanka and Pleistocene

peninsular India has led to the conclusion that

tigers arrived in south India “too late to get into

Ceylon” (Pocock, 1930) as a result of the India-

Sri Lanka land bridge having been submerged

since the Late Pleistocene. Based on the few

known Indian tiger fossils dating back to the

Holocene period and mentioned as well in

the recent literature, the records provide dates

of the arrival of tigers to the Indian peninsula

that have documented to have occurred during

the last glacial maximum, ca. 19,000 years BP

(Sumanarathna et al., 2016) (Fig. 18 – 20).

FIGURE 18: Most probably lower right canine tooth of Panthera leo sinhaleyus | Location:

Galukagama-Maha Ela, Kuruvita | Depth: 45ft © SMKA 2008. Scale = 1cm. Image ©Aravinda

Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 19: Panthera leo sinhaleyus & 3D reconstructed paleo environment of Sabaragamuwa

basin, upper image - partially wet condition and lower image - partially dry conditions ©Aravinda

Ravibhanu, Adeepa Nisal 2019.


FIGURE 19: Panthera tigris & Elephas maximus maximus via 3D reconstructed paleo environment

of Sabaragamuwa basin, |Location: Mere kele close to Boodhimaluwa, Eheliyagoda ©Aravinda

Ravibhanu 2019.


Panthera tigris probably differentiated in

the early Pleistocene (1.806–2.588 Ma ago)

in northcentral and northeastern China. The

earliest forms averaged smaller than those of

later Pleistocene times. Thus, it seems that the

species has reached its maximum size in the

living subspecies P. tigris altaica. The early

Pleistocene species Panthera palaeosinensis,

from northern China, appears to represent

an early tiger or a form ancestral to the tiger

(Mazak, 1981).

Researches on fossil remains have been

conducted by many scientists, for example,

Mazak (1981) summarized the fossils records

in Sri Lanka. Accordingly, fossil remains,

definitely identified as Panthera tigris, are of

lower to upper Pleistocene age and originated

from the Altai caves in central Asia, eastern

and northern China, including Choukoutien

localities, Japan, Jana River in northern Siberia,

the Ljachov Island situated off the northern

coast of Siberia, and from Sumatra and Java.

In addition, several sub-recent tigers remain

were found in the Caucasus region, India, and

Borneo. It is not clear whether the material from

Borneo represents a member of the native late

Pleistocene fauna or a later introduction by

humans (there is no reliable evidence of tigers

on Borneo within historic times). Family Elephantidae | Elephas maximus

sinhaleyus (extinct)

The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is

one of the most seriously endangered species of

large mammals in the world. Given its enormous

size and body mass, it is also one of the few

species of terrestrial mega herbivores that still

exist. Its present geographical distribution

extends from the Indian subcontinent in the west

to Indo-China in the east across 13 countries

including islands such as Sri Lanka, Sumatra

and Borneo. The entire population in the wild

is estimated to be between 35,000 and 55,000.

Even optimistic figures indicate that there are

only about one tenth as many Asian as African

elephants (Hendavitharana et al., 1994).

Deraniyagala found one Fossil and explained

the extinct Sri Lankan elephant as subspecies

of Elephas maximus sinhaleyus (Deraniyagala,

1958; Sumanarathna et al., 2016) (Fig. 23-

46). Deraniyagala explained the tusks are

usually present, molars smaller and mandibular

spout wider than in forma typical. In addition,

he explained that there were three recently

extinct subspecies of Elephas maximusasurus

(Mesopotamia), Elephas maximus eondaicus

(Java) and Elephas maximus rubridens (China).

The extinct elephant species that were

living 100,000 years ago have been reported as

Hypselephas hysudricus sinhaleyus (Fig. 22)

by Deraniyagala (1914, 1937) and as Elephas

hysudricus by Manamendra-Arachchi (2008).

Elephas maximus sinhaleyus was secured in

1947 from a gem pit about four miles away at

Pahala Vela, Galadande Mandiya, Gonapitiiya,

Kuruwita near the Kuru Ganga. The fossils

were laid upon the gem field at a depth of 6.5m

below the surface, and yielded Elephas maximus

sinhaleyus (Deraniyagala, 1958). It frequently

occurs in association with hippopotamus fossils

from Gatahatta as far as Ratnapura, and with

rhinoceros from Gatahatta to Pelmadulla.

The origin of Elephas maximus remained

unknown until 1936, when its fossils were

discovered in Sri Lanka, and even as recently

as 1942 the general opinion was that nothing

was known of its origin except that it appeared

suddenly rather late in the age of man. It is true

that a few isolated fossils proboscidean molars

were assigned to an extinct Japanese race of

this elephant named Elephas maximus buski

(Deraniyagala, 1958), however, those belong

to Palaooloxodon namadicua naumanni and no

Elephas maximus fossils were found in Japan.

In various other countries also isolated and

often fragmentary teeth have been ascribed to

Elephas maximus, but in every instance these

have proved to be either those of the extinct

Palaeoloxodon namadicus (Fig. 21) or the

remains of some subspecies of Elephas maximus

that had become extinct during prehistoric

or historic times. Since its earliest remains

occur only in Sri Lanka, Elephas maximus

apparently evolved from some Plio-Quaternary

proboscidean, which had become isolated here

upon the Island’s separation from Asia. During a

Pleistocene reconnection with India, the Ceylon

animal had invaded the mainland and wandered


FIGURE 21: Palaeoloxodon namadicus sinhaleyus is one of extinct elephant species in Sri Lanka.

Illustrated by: Deraniyagala (1958). Image ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2016.

northwards until it encountered the Himalayan

mass if, whereupon it had spread along its base

eastwards as far as Wallace’s line (Wallace’s

Line is a boundary that separates the eco-

transitional zone between Asia and Australia).

West of the line is found organisms related to

Asiatic species; to the east, a mixture of species

of Asian and Australian origin is present, and

westwards until checked by the Mediterranean

Sea and the deserts of Arabia and North Africa.

Over this vast expanse in a belt stretching from

40 degrees north to 10 degrees south, land

subsidence, changing river systems, deepening

river gorges and expanding deserts, assisted

the mountain ranges as barriers, and resulted

in the evolution of twelve (12) subspecies

(Deraniyagala,1958).


FIGURE 22: Hypselephas hysudricus sinhaleyus is one of extinct elephant species in Sri Lanka.

Illustrated by Deraniyagala (1958). Image ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2016.


FIGURE 23: Palaeoloxodon namadicus sinhaleyus and Crocodylus sinhaleyus 3D reconstructed

paleo environment of Sabaragamuwa basin. | Location: Kahengama- Ovita kubura, Kuruwita.



FIGURE 24: A piece of elephant tooth [Elephas maximus maximus] [vertical braking down via

line of enamel apatite] | Location: Kuruvita | Depth: 50ft © SMKA 2008 Scale = 1cm. Image:



FIGURE 25: A eroded piece of elephant molar tooth [Elephas maximus maximus] | Location:

Kuruvita | Depth: 48ft © SMKA 2010. Scale = 1cm.] Image: ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 26: Eroded and piece of elephant tusk [Elephas maximus maximus] | Location: Kuruvita

| Depth: 55ft. © SMKA 2011. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 27: Molar tooth of elephant tusk [Elephas maximus maximus] | Location: Ma wee

Kubura, Kuruvita | Depth: 60ft. © SMKA 1993. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 28: Piece of elephant molar [Elephas maximus maximus] | Location: Kuruvita | Depth:

40ft. © SMKA 2011. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 29: Elephant upper molar [Elephas maximus maximus] | Location: Kuruvita | Depth: 45ft.

© SMKA 2007. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 30: Elephant molar [Elephas maximus maximus] | Location: Kuruvita | Depth: 65ft. ©

SMKA 2003. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 31: Piece of elephant tooth [Elephas maximus maximus] | Location: Kuruvita | Depth:



FIGURE 32: Piece of elephant molar tooth [Elephas maximus maximus.] | Location: Kahingama,

Kuruvita | Depth: 70ft. © SMKA 1994. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 33: Piece of elephant molar tooth [Elephas sp.] | Location: Kahingama, Kuruvita | Depth:



FIGURE 34: Piece of elephant molar tooth [Elephas maximus maximus] showing digitations on

the 2 to 3 plates | Location: Kuruvita | Depth: 35ft. © SMKA 2000. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda

Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 35: Piece of elephant molar tooth [Elephas sp.] | Location: Kuruvita | Depth: 55ft. ©



FIGURE 38: Piece of elephant molar tooth (plate) and eroded wear enamel figure from anterior

side [Most probably Elephas maximus sinhaleyus or Palaeoloxodon namadicus sinhaleyus] |

Location: Kuruvita | Depth: 60ft. © SMKA 2005. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda Ravibhanu

2019.


FIGURE 39: Piece of elephant molar tooth (plate)with enamel loop from anterior side [Most

probably Palaeoloxodon namadicus sinhaleyus or Hypselephas hysudricus sinhaleyus] | Location:



FIGURE 40: Showing digitations on the 3 plates; of elephant molar tooth [Elephas sp.] | Location:



FIGURE 41: Individual 3 plates as a pieces of elephant molar tooth [Elephas sp.] | Location:



FIGURE 42: Elephant [Elephas sp.] molar tooth | Location: Kuruvita | Depth: 25ft. © SMKA

2010. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 43: Most probably Elephant [Elephas sp.] plate of molar tooth | Location: Kuruvita |

Depth: 45ft. © SMKA 2007. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 44: Most probably Elephant [Elephas sp.] plate of molar tooth | Location: Kuruvita |



FIGURE 45: [Top] 3D reconstructed paleo environment of Sabaragamuwa basin in a wet

conditions includes Hypselephas hysudricus sinhaleyus. [Bottom] 3D reconstructed paleo

environment of Sabaragamuwa basin in a partially dry conditions includes Palaeoloxodon

namadicus sinhaleyus and Hypselephas hysudricus sinhaleyus ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 46: 3D reconstructed paleo environment of Sabaragamuwa basin includes Elephas

maximus maximus ©Aravinda Ravibhanu & Adeepa Nisal 2019.


Family Rhinocerotidae | Rhinoceros

The rhinoceros’ family is characterized

by its large size (one of the largest remaining

megafaunas), with all of the species able to

reach one ton or more in weight; an herbivorous

diet; and a thick protective skin about 1.5–5 cm

thick, formed from layers of collagen positioned

in a lattice structure; relatively small brains for

mammals this size (400–600g); and a large horn.

They generally eat leafy material, although their

ability to ferment food in their hindgut allows

them to subsist on more fibrous plant matter,

if necessary. Unlike other perissodactyls, the

African species of rhinoceros lack teeth at the

front of their mouths, relying instead on their

powerful premolar and molar teeth to grind

up plant food. Both African species and the

Sumatran Rhinoceros have two horns, while the

Indian and Javan Rhinoceros have a single horn.

Rhinoceros was living 80,000 years ago.

The most known fossil remains of

Rhinoceros unicornis are estimated apparently

to be dated to probably middle Pleistocene

period (Fig 47). The direct precursor of the

living Indian rhinoceros was Rhinoceros

unicornis fossilis (synonyms R.sivalensis and

R. palaeindicus), from the upper Shiwalik beds,

within the known historic range of the species.

Rhinoceros from the Narbada or Narmada

beds is probably synonymous with Rhinoceros

unicornis Rhinoceros kendengindicus from Java

was closely related to the present species and

should probably be regarded as a subspecies of

it.

FIGURE 47: Javan and Indian rhino by CGTN Graphic and Rhinoceros unicornis at Kaziranga

National Park, India © EPA-EFE | RE Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019. Javan and Indian rhino by CGTN

Graphic.


Rhinoceros unicornis kendengindicus

occurred in the Djetis and Trinil beds alongside

Rhinoceros sondaicus, but has not been found

in the Upper Pleistocene Ngandong deposits

where the latter is the only rhinoceros. The

various fossils of this genus from China can

be referred to two species: the Pleistocene

Rhinoceros sinensis Owen, which though in

many respects is intermediate between the two

living species, shows progressive characters

linking it to Rhinoceros unicornis and the Upper

Pliocene species Rhinoceros oweni Rmgstrom,

which was placed in a separate genus Sinorhinus

(Tong & Moigne, 2000). (Laurie et al., 1983).

Rhinoceros sinhaleyus and Rhinoceros kaga-

vena (extinct)

The scientific findings recorded about the

extinction rhinoceros in Sri Lanka, indicated

as two species which are as follow: Rhinoceros

sinhaleyus and Rhinoceros kagavena

(Deraniyagala, 1936) (Fig 48-58). Rhinoceros

sinhaleyus (Fig 55) which known to have

squarer and lower teeth shapes compared

with the teeth shape that is found to be more

rectangular-toothed of the Rhinoceros kagavena

use to be encountered in the Ratnapura fauna of

Sri Lanka (Deraniyagala, 1936).

Rhinoceros fossils were found during a gem

digging process that was conducted at the gem

pit from the Kuruwita gem pit, the depth where

this fossil was discovered was estimated to be

around 6.0m beneath from the ground surface at

Hiriliyadda, Talavitiya (Kuruwita), we need to

mention that this site which is undated, probably

belongs to the Middle Pleistocene geological

time scale (Deraniyagala, 1958). This form

provided by this discovered fossil shows few

characters that have leaded us to differentiate

it from those found for the teeth of Rhinoceros

unicornis, and like the Javanese fossil occurs

alongside a race of Rhinoceros unicornis.

Rhinocerotidae of large heavyset

herbivorous perissodactyl mammals of Africa

and Asia that have one or two upright keratinous

horns on the snout and thick gray to brown skin

with little hair. The order Perissodactyla is only

represented in Sri Lanka by the superfamily

Rhinocerotidae.

FIGURE 48: Most probably molar tooth

(lower) Rhinoceros kagavena | Location:

Waladura, Kuruvita | Depth: 40ft. © SMKA

1984. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda

Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 49: Most probably proximal portion of scapula bone of Rhinoceros sp.| Location:

Paradise, Kuruvita | Depth: 55ft. © SMKA 1999. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 50: First upper molar tooth with eroded roots of Rhinoceros sinhaleyus.| Location:

Galukagama maha ela. Kuruvita | Depth: 55ft. © SMKA 1995. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda

Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 51: Lower third molar tooth of Rhinoceros kagavena.| Location: Kahingama west, Kuburu

yaya Kuruvita | Depth: 57ft. © SMKA 1998. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 52: Pieces of molar tooth of Rhinoceros sinhaleyus.| Location: Kuruvita | Depth: 50ft. ©



FIGURE 53: Most probably piece of vestibular of Rhinoceros kagavena.| Location: Kuruvita |



FIGURE 54: Second upper molar tooth of Rhinoceros sinhaleyus | Location:.Kuruvita | Depth:



FIGURE 55: 3D reconstructed paleo environment of Sabaragamuwa basin includes Rhinoceros

sinhaleyus | Location:.Waladura, Kuruvita ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.



sinhaleyus (left) and Rhinoceros kagavena (right) ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 57: Most probably Rhinoceros kagavena molar tooth. | Location:.Ekneligoda, Kuruvita |

Depth: 35ft. © SMKA 1998. Scale = 1cm. Image ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.



kagavena | Location: Paradise, Kuruvita. ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


Family Hippopotamidae | Hexaprotodon

sinhaleyus, (extinct)

The hippopotamus (Hippopotamus

amphibius), or hippo, from the ancient Greek

for “river horse”, is a large, mostly herbivorous

mammal in sub-Saharan Africa, and one of only

two extant species in the family Hippopotamidae,

the other is the Pygmy Hippopotamus. The

earliest known hippopotamus fossils, belonging

to the genus Kenyapotamus in Africa, roughly

16 million to 8 million years ago during

the Miocene epoch. After the elephant, the

hippopotamus is the largest land mammal and

the heaviest extant artiodactyls, despite being

considerably shorter than the giraffe.

The hippopotamus is semi-aquatic,

inhabiting rivers and lakes where territorial

bulls preside over a stretch of river and groups

of 5 to 30 females and young. During the day

they remain cool by staying in the water or mud;

reproduction and childbirth both occur in water.

They emerge at dusk to graze on grass. While

hippopotamus uses rest near each other in the

water, grazing is a solitary activity and hippos

are not territorial on land.

In the ‘Pleistocene of Ceylon’Deraniyagala

(1936, 1939, 1944 and 1958) explains his

findings of Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus and

Hexaprotodon sivalensis sinhaleyus based on

gem pits in the Ratnanapura area about seven

kilometers away at Pahala Vela, Galadande

Mandiya, Gonapitiiya, and Kuruwita near the

Kuru Ganga (Sumanarathna et al., 2016) (Fig

59-67). The fossils were laid at a depth of 6.5m

below the surface. Accordingly, Deraniyagala

revealed the fossilized remains of the lower

jaws and teeth of a Sri Lankan hippopotamus.

The lower jawbone of the hippopotamus reveals

six incisor teeth, whereas the hippopotamus

that survives in Africa has only four incisors.

The extinct Ceylon hippopotamus has been

named the Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus, (Fig 67)

means consisted of six teeth in front includes

six permanent incisors as mentioned. Genera

is classified as an extinct hippopotamus living

in the Pleistocene in Asian regions such as

Sri Lanka, India, Java, Syria and Burma.

Considering the Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus

fossils in Rathnapura beds, dominantly found

molars, incisor canine, premolar, zygomatic

arch, humerus, femur, ribs. Hexaprotodon

sinhaleyus is endemic to Sri Lanka and quite

similar to Hexaprotodon namadicus (extinct)

once lived in the Pleistocene in India. The change

in climate from heavy rainfall that fed numerous

large rivers and lakes to a more moderate

rainfall that reduced the island’s waterbodies

was probably responsible for the extinction of

the world’s second heaviest land mammal on

the island (Deraniyagala, 1958). The extinction

of this animal might have occurred sometime

shortly after the middle Pleistocene times,

since its nearest a relative, the extinct Indian

hippopotamus from former lake beds which

are now traversed by the Nerbudda (Narmada)

River, became extinct in Ionian times.


FIGURE 59: Piece of molar tooth of Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus | Location: Waladura, Kuruvita



FIGURE 60: Piece of molar tooth of Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus | Location: Paradise gem pit,



FIGURE 61: Pieces of lower canine tooth - Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus | Location: Ellawala,

Pahalagama | Depth: 48ft. © SMKA 1994. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 62: Piece of metatarsal - Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus | Location: Ovita Kubura, Kuruvita |



FIGURE 63: Piece of molar tooth - Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus | Location: Eedandawala, Kuruvita |


FIGURE 64: Piece of molar tooth of Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus | Location: Kuruvita | Depth: 65ft.

© SMKA 2000. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 65: Molar tooth of Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus | Location: Kuruvita | Depth: 50ft. © SMKA



FIGURE 66: Pieces of lower canine tooth - Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus | Location: Ellawala,

Pahalagama | Depth: 45ft. © SMKA 1994. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 67: 3D reconstructed paleo environment of Sabaragamuwa basin includes Hexaprotodon

sinhaleyus | Location: Paradise, Kuruvita ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


Family Crocodylidae | Crocodylus sinhaleyus

(extinct)

The extinct crocodile species called

Crocodylus sinhaleyus has been nomenclature

by P.E.P Deraniyagala in 1953. This extinct

crocodilian that probably attained to a length

of 12ft; known from a single tooth, Colombo

National Museums No. F. 28 (Deraniyagala

1958). Considering the dimensions of specimen,

depth of tooth 43mm, diameter of base 19mm,

circumference of base 58mm. The distal

extremely of the pulp cavity is present and when

reconstructed the tooth will probably be about

95mm long (Deraniyagala 1958). This was

discovered on 17th of July 1939 from the gem

sand in a gem pit at tunhiriya vila, Gonavitiya,

Kuruvita from a depth of 12 feet together

with teeth of rhinoceros (Deraniyagala 1958).

Also, Crocodylus porosus minikanna which

is occasionally captured in sabaragamuwa

beds (Kalu gaga- river - near rathnapura)

was the only species around 1940 decades

(Deraniyagala 1953,1958). But currently only

the Crocodylus porosus lives in the Ratnapura

area (Sumanarathna et al., 2016) (Fig 68-69).

FIGURE 68: A tooth of Crocodylus sp. | Location: Kahengama,Ovitakubura, Kuruvita | Depth:



FIGURE 69: 3D reconstructed paleo environment of Sabaragamuwa basin includes Crocodylus

sinhaleyus | Location: Karapincha, Kuruvita ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.

Family Suidae | Sus sinhaleyus (extinct)

First record of the Sus sinhaleyus by

Deraniyagala (P.E.P) who published in Journal

of Royal Asiatic Soc. (Ceylon Br.) in 1947. The

article was based on five teeth that belonged

to different individuals as each was obtained

from a separate gem pit from Potgul _kanda

near Ratnapura. As he mentioned, the heel of

the third molar is less complex and the teeth

are considerably smaller and more brachydont

than in the living Ceylon wild pig. Most

probably this species was about two-thirds the


size of the existing Sus scrofa zeylonicus. Due

to Deraniyagala (P.E.P), please following pre

rescored measurement of Sus sinhaleyus.

Dentition - The molars are sub-brachydont;

the third molar consists of three longitudinal

rows of cusps of which the median row is

reduced and interrupted by the three labial and

three lingual cusps being contiguous mesially.

This tooth possesses two ordinary cusps and

the third enlarged into the posterior talonid. The

anterior talonid is a flat, wide plate formed by

the cingulum.

Type - Colombo Museum No. F. 194, a last

lower right molar with the two anterior cusps

slightly worn. Three median cusps with their

bases hidden by the labia1 and lingual once. The

enamel on the cusps is smooth and uncrenulated.

The cusps are simple, with two median ones

anteriorly, and one median one posteriorly

on the talon, which latter is as long ss the

remainder of the tooth (PI. L). This anterior part

of the fossil tooth is not very different to that

of Sus scrofa zeylonicus but is less hypsodont,

the talon possesses only a single middle cusp

instead of two, and terminates posteriorly in

one strong cusp instead of several small once.

Compare Pl. L with Fig. 1194 in Nich Ison and

Lydekker (1889).

Locality - From the gem sand at Gönäpitiya,

Kuruvita, at a depth of 15 feet below the surface.

Paratype - Colombo Museum No. 174 b,

an unworn last, upper, left molar, from which

the talon area is missing; the width, depth and

shapo of the cusps with uncrenulated enamel

indicate that this tooth is co-specific with the

type. The unworn cusps are less prominent and

1088 differentiated from one another than in Sus

s. zeylonicus and there are fewer accessory ones


Make sure to consider measurement data

mention above is providing to develop 3D

reconstruction application via AR and VR. (As

a source data for VR\AR developers)

TABLE 04: A comparison of the last, lower, right molar of the two species is as follows


Number F 57- 143 – 16

Measurements Sus sihalayus Sus s. zeylonicus

Basal Length 32mm 45mm

Greatest width 15mm 18mm

Depth 12mm 18mm

Length of talon 16mm 21mm

TABLE 05: Locality - From the gem sand at Sannasgama, near Pälmädulla from a depth of 9

feet Tooth were also secured from Gonapitiya near Kuruvita from gem sand at a depth of 15 feet


Measurements Fossil No – F 57 – 154 – 15 Sus s. zeylonicus

Length 21+mm 29mm

Width 19mm 21mm

Depth 12mm 10mm

O O O O O

Specimen Col. Mus.

F174

(Type sp.)

Col. Mus.

F 194

R. Mus. 73 R. Mus.

F 124n

Col. Mus.

F 58.

11.23

Modern

wild boar

Length 23mm 32mm 41mm 40mm 41mm 49mm

Width 20mm 15mm 16mm 16mm 18.5mm 21mm

Depth 13m 12mm 16.5mm 16mm 14 20mm

Talon length 16mm 20

Tooth Upper

molar

M3

O

R

M3

R

M3

R

M3

R

M3

R

M3

Locality S S S S M


TABLE 06: Dimensions

Locality. S = Sabaragamuwa, Palmadulla and M = Muvagama, Ratnapura.

TABLE 07: The bedding of the pits from which they were secured was as follows,

F. 174 F. 194 F. 73 F. 124n F 58-11.23

Humus 1 1/2 Humus 6ft Kuruvita Humus 5ft Humus 3ft

Sandy clay 1ft Clay 4ft Leaf mould 2ft Leaf mould

and clay 8ft

Leaf mould 2ft Leaf mould 5ft Sand 2ft Gem sand 2ft

Sandy clay 1 1/2 Sand 3ft Gem sand 1ft

Sand 1 ft Bluish sand 1ft Micaceous

kaolinized

Gem sand 2ft Gem sand 1ft Bed rock

Locality S S M


FIGURE 70: Lower jaw_ tooth of Sus sinhaleyus | Location: Wakadura, Kuruvita | Depth: 48ft. ©



Family Bovidae | Bibos sinhaleya (extinct)

Considering the current distribution of

Gaur, a wild cattle native to tropical forests of

Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent.

Today, the range of the species is seriously

fragmented, and it is regionally extinct in Sri

Lanka. Frist fossil record (femur) of Bibos

gaurus sinhaleyus in Sri Lanka, discovered

close to Elapatha, Rathnapura (Deraniyagala,

1939,1951,1958). Due to present exploration in

sabaragamuwa beds have identified many parts

of fossils which belong to Bibos sinhaleya as

femurs, vertebrae, premolars, molars, humerus

metacarpals.

“A sort of beast they call Gauvera, so

much resembling a Bull, that I think it one

of that kind. His back stands up with a

sharp ridge; all his four feet white up half his

Legs. I never saw but one, which was kept

among the King’s Creatures”. This is how,

Robert Knox_ express his live scenery

regarding the Bibos sinhaleya in the book

called An Historical Relation of the Island of

Ceylon in the East Indies (Knox, 2016).

FIGURE 71: Most probably vertebra of Bibos sinhaleya | Location: Kahengama west, Kuruvita |



FIGURE 72: Bovine tooth | Location: Moladeniya, Paradise, Kuruvita | Depth: 30ft. © SMKA



FIGURE 73: Bovine upper molar tooth | Location: Gonapitiya, Kuruvita | Depth: 40ft. © SMKA



FIGURE 74: Decay and eroded bone of Metacarpals_ Bibos sinhaleya | Location: Gonapitiya,



FIGURE 75: 3D reconstructed paleo environment of Sabaragamuwa basin includes Bibos sinhaleya

| Location: Bubuladeniya, Kuruvita ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


Family Cervidae | Muva sinhaleya and Rusa

unicolor (extinct)

Cervidae is a family of hoofed ruminant

mammals that belongs to the order of

Artiodactyla. Males are usually available

with horns cores upon the frontal bones and

supporting solid, bony, deciduous antlers that

are generally branched. Considering current

fauna statutes in Sri Lanka, there are four genus

that can be identified, which are documented

to belong to the family Cervidae like Axis

axis, Axis porcinus, Muntiacus muntjak, Rusa

unicolor.

According to Deraniyagala reports which

provided important database for this specie

identification, a small deer (Muntiacus muntjak)

was documented o be known from a single

antler base consisting of the part of the bezel

and a short length of the beam and the brow tine

which is found at the Ratnapura Museum F264.

Furthermore, based on Dr. Deraniyagala

research he have presented the first holotypic

reading of Muva sinhaleya, based on a fossils

samples found at Mimavaladeniya, Gonapitiya,

and at Kuruvita (Deraniyagala, 1958). The

scientific records of the fossils that belongs

to the genus Axis axis and Axis porcinus are

not found to be rare among the fossils of the

family Cervidae that lived previously in the

Pleistocene period that occurred in Sri Lankan

territory. These two species have been present

continuously from the Pleistocene period to the

present geological time scale. In fact, the Rusa

unicolor deer is the largest genus category of

the deer family in Sri Lanka we can found this

specie occupying different habitat at all altitudes

ranges and in all climatic diversified zones.

Still, reports and data have documented that

the fossilized horns, hooves, teeth, mandibles,

etc that belongs to the family Cervidae are

found in the gem mines associated with the

Sabaragamuwa bed (Sumanarathna et al., 2016)

(Fig. 76-81).

Further more, we estimated the encounter

of this fossils specifically at the mining sites

of the Sabaragamuwa bed perhaps due to

the fact that continues digging surveys are

conducted in these gem mines places, as well,

the digging in this gem mines are reaching a

considerable depth in which obviously have

been documented to have important fossils

findings. Based on this valuable research

records we believe that the Sabaragamuwa bed

may have still many valuable fossilized remains

of some of the Sri Lankan unique species.

Based in our interpretation of the data recorded

we have presented a 3D reconstructed paleo

environment (Figure. 81) of Sabaragamuwa

basin that includes Rusa unicolor genus, at

Bubuladeniya, Kuruvita.


FIGURE 76: Mandible of Rusa unicolor | Location: Waladura, Kuruvita | Depth: 25ft. © SMKA



FIGURE 77: Fossil of antler, Rusa unicolor | Location: Paradise, Kuruvita | Depth: 23ft. © SMKA



FIGURE 80: Deer fossil of antler | Location: Paradise, Kuruvita | Depth: 45ft. © SMKA 1996.

Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 81: 3D reconstructed paleo environment of Sabaragamuwa basin includes Rusa unicolor

| Location: Bubuladeniya, Kuruvita ©Aravinda Ravibhanu | Adeepa Nisal 2019.


Fossils and Semi Fossils shells

Paleoecology uses essentially a combination

of geological and biological pieces of evidence

from fossil deposits that will lead to investigate

deeply and to understand clearly the past

occurrence, distribution, and abundance of

different ecological units on a variety of time

scales, which provides scientific evidence for the

present and future research analysis and habitat

reconstruction scenarios. The Sabaragamuwa

Basin, in Sri Lanka provides dominant type

of natural eco-Paleo evidences (Deraniyagala,

1958). The cultural remains of early men of this

area were discovered together with their skeletal

fragments and geometric microliths.

Other detections include various types

of fauna and flora that are thought to have

formed part of the human diet, also the animal

bones, which were fossilized adjoining the

Sabaragamuwa Basin like we discussed (Fig 86-

87). As a result of the paleo-diet of Balangoda

man (Homo sapiens), who lived in the cave of

pre historic site, Batadombalena cave (38,000

BP) which was the proper Harbor life station

(Sumanarathna et al., 2016), accumulated many

snails fossil shells (Acavidae and Pleurocridae

Family), such as Acavus phoenix, Acavus

superbus, Oligospira waltoni, Paludomus

loricate, Paludomus neritoides, Paludomus

sulcatus (Fig. 82-85).

FIGURE 82: Shells of snail fossils via 3rd excavation of “Batadoba-lena Pre Historic Site”

by Dr,Nimal Perera and his team in 2005. Image © Nimal Perera 2005.


FIGURE 83: [Top and Bottom] : Snail fossils_ Oligospira skinneri & Acavus superbus |

Location: Batadomba-lena, Kuruvita | Depth: 10ft. © SMKA 2005. Scale = 1cm. Image:



FIGURE 84: [Top and Bottom] : Snail fossils_ Paludomus sp. | Location: Batadomba-lena,

Kuruvita |Depth: 10ft. © SMKA 2005. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 85: A piece from foot of shell. Most probably typical formation might be a prefect tool

for apply as a fishing hook | Location: Near Booth Ella water fall, Udakada, Kuruvita | Depth: 8ft. ©



Family Cyprinidae | Tor khudree

FIGURE 86: 3D reconstructed paleo environment of Boopath Ella water fall includes Tor khudree

| Location: Kuruvita ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


Family Viverridae

FIGURE 87: [Top and Bottoum] Lowe left canine tooth and a premolar tooth of viverrid |

Location: Ekneligoda, Kuruvita | Depth: 30ft. © SMKA 1987. Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda

Ravibhanu 2019.


Paleobotany

This is the scientific study of paleo flora,

using plant fossils via process of fossilization.

These fossils can be impressions, compressions

a of the plants left on the sedimentary rock’s

surface, or “petrified” objects, such as wood,

which preserve the original plant material

in rocklike form (Fig 88-95). Additionally,

some perversion type in gastrolith can be

contaminate parts of flora seeds. Considering

the Rathnapura flora in Pleistocene Sri

Lanka follow as Alsophila zeylanica (Pini

Baru), Bambusa vulgaris Schard (Bambu),

Ochlandra stridual Thwaites (Bata), Ochlandra

fasciculata Thwaites (Katu Kithul), Caryota

urens Linne (Kithul), Elaeocarpus subvillosus

Arn (Gal Veralu), Myristica dactylodies Caertn

(Malaboda), Canarium zeylanicum (Kekuna),

Coscinium fenestrum Coleber (Veni Val)


The Samples (Fig. 91, Fig. 92, Fig. 94, Fig.

95) deposited in a Sabaragamuwa bed, there

were rivers flowing through it, and on the banks

of those rivers grew plants. When the water

stopped flowing, the river banks were parched

in the sun and any water in the sediments were

drawn out. In the process, minerals such as

calcium became concentrated around the roots

hardening into what is known as ‘Caliche’,

cementing the sands and preserving the form of

the roots.

FIGURE 88: A part of Artocarpus nobilis leaf | Location: Ekneligoda, Kuruvita | Depth: 55ft. ©



FIGURE 90: Most probably, a part of the leaf of Elaeocarpus sp. | Location: Ekneligoda, Kuruvita



FIGURE 91: Rhizoconcretions via silica and calcium carbonate replacement of root | Location:



FIGURE 92: Concrete roots by process of rhizoconcretions. | Location: Bubuladeniya, Kuruvita |



FIGURE 93: Unclassified amber | Location: Vithanakanda, Kuruvita | Depth: 55ft. © SMKA 2003.

Scale = 1cm. Image: ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.


FIGURE 94: Root rhizoconcretions via silica and calcium carbonate replacement | Location:



FIGURE 95: Concrete roots by process of rhizoconcretions. | Location: Gonapitiya, Kuruvita |



Paleoenvironment and Extreme Conditions |

Planetary Geology

Sabaragamuwa basin consisted unique

paleoenvironment that has been preserved in the

fossils and rock record in the quaternary period.

Sometimes it has been represented an extreme

environment which is a habitat that is considered

very hard to survive in due to its considerable

factors, such as temperature, accessibility to

different energy. Even the heavy tectonic actions

such as faulting, tilting, dislocation and block

hosting that occurred during the Pleistocene

caused the present association of fossils of

different ages in the gem sand by breaking down

and redepositing fossiliferous strata of different

ages doubtless affected spaces formation in Sri

Lanka (Deraniyagala, 1958).

Considering the redepositing patterns of

alluvial soil in Sabaragamuwa beds is quite

supportive to make a comparative simulation

on Exo-terrestrial landslides (Scaioni et al.,

2018; Sumanarathna 2019, 2020). Therefore,

strong climatic fluctuation also occurred during

the Pleistocene influences of certain elements

in the fauna of Sri Lanka. The Montane lizard

Cophotis which dies within a day or two

when brought from the cool montane down to

Colombo. (Deraniyagala, 1958).

Whole extreme conditions around the

Pleistocene epoch in Sri Lanka is the perfect

platform to discuss many events corresponding

to Extreme Life formation via researching

Planetary geology and Astrobiology (Fig. 96).

Hence, here we partially discuss fundamentals

analog in extreme and habitable life conditions.

Researchers often approach to debate the

question of how life began on Earth or if it

could be started elsewhere, by focusing their

efforts generally to involve attempts for a clear

understanding on how non-biological molecules

bonded, resulting in an increasingly complex

type of life, which eventually could replicate

and somehow could use sources of energy to

make biological, chemical as well as physical

reactions.

Undeniably, for life mechanism processing

in our cosmos, we needed both parameters,

which are biomass as well as energy. Scientists

have considered studying and understanding

this complex life process. Furthermore, some

have sought to make synthetic life out of both

selected components and energy. Incredible

achievements have been realized for both of

these endeavors, still many mysteries of life

concepts remain unexplained.

That what makes the origin of life on Earth

difficult to be fully understood. To

complicate the picture, the history of early Earth

documents a period of extreme heat caused

by meteorite bombardment, without

forgetting the most important event, which

is the enormous impact that happened around

4.5 billion years ago on the Mars-sized planet

that became our moon. In conclusion, many

early researchers think that our planet was

uninhabitable until about 4 billion years ago.

In fact, some researchers argue the fact that

signs of Earth life were detected in the rocks

record around 3.8 billion years ago, which

makes them suggest that life forms were indeed

present since 3.5 billion years ago on Earth.

Considering the early evolution, our planet

Earth supported only a single-cell form of

life estimated to be for several billion years

before multicellular life emerged and evolved.

However, researchers are skeptical about the

likelihood of DNA-based on life evolving

and the relatively short period between when

Earth became cool enough to support life and

the earliest evidence of actual life recorded

(Sumanarathna 2020a, 2020b) (Fig. 97). In

another hand, theories invoke panspermia and

the mechanism of life spreading via meteorites

in some cases delivered through comets around

the cosmos. Based on what we discussed till

now, an ultimate question needs to be debated,

which is whether Earth has been seeded by early

Extraterrestrial life.

Theories about the possibility of life

development in the red planet Mars become

now accepted by some scientists, some

speculate that Mars was habitable in its early

period than Earth. But panspermia inherently

could go the other way as well, or possibly even

around our solar system. Furthermore, multiple

deep questions rise in this debate. Could science

explain the process that made life been created

from non-life? Based on a concept such as Eco-


FIGURE 96: 3D reconstructed_ alluvial pan of the paleo environment in Sabaragamuwa basin |

Location: Hidurangala, Eheliyagoda ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2019.

Astronomy research on extreme environmental

conditions that affect the Harbor life creation

cycle.

A science concept is now being forged

within the Union of the General Theory of

Eco Astronomy Mechanics and Concept. This

concept is all about studies that documented

the extreme conditions that synchronize with

evolutionary theory and the adaptational cases

through quantitative methods (Relevant to

Paleontology and Petrology) using the energetic

organism-machine analogy as a guideline.

Which seeks to reduce the complex form to

fewer generating factors and causal influences

cases.

If a function will be postulated for a structure,

then its optimum stat form, or paradigm can be

specified on mechanical grounds corresponding

to an extreme environment. The approach

about a structure to its paradigm provides the


FIGURE 97: 3D reconstructed_ alluvial pan of the Coprates chasma, Mars | © Giulia Magnarini/

NASA.

elusive criterion, relative efficiency that any

science of adaptation and evolution requires.

Physical laws and forces also specify that form

is adapted to the requirements of space. When

we cannot establish paradigms on deductive

criteria, an experimental approach to form is

appropriate. Idealized models are favored over

actual specimens because they can be built to

test predetermined factors.

Eco Astronomy needs to be based not

solely on descriptive science made through

observational methods but may as well adopt

the experimental techniques of explanatory

procedures filled. It is inconceivable that

each aspect of a complex form of life is an

obvious direct product of individual energetic

instruction. We can simplify the process, and

thereby understand, the extreme conditions

in which results in apparent complexity by

recognizing that physical forces directly

influence, the shape of substrates that circulate

energy and that a few simple rules can fashion

some very intricate final products.

These same rules can be programmed;

computers have simulated structures that bear

remarkable correspondence to actual forms; the

extreme condition for the harboring condition

of life need to be no more complex. Also,

these rules can be used to generate a range of

potential evolutional forms available to match

with Homo sapiens structure. The actual forms

we know fill specifically a part of the total

spectrum; their basic adaptation may be grasped

when we notice why unoccupied areas are not

used.

Among inductive studies done about harbor

life, univariate techniques display trends and

rates of change for single characters; they

have been applied to the periodic growth

lines of fossil shells, providing thereby a

paleontological input to geophysics as a

multidisciplinary interpretation stage. Anyhow,

part of synchronizing factors are relatives to the

ongoing science. Considering some properly

applied methodology used during the separation

of species and sexual dimorphs case; it’s become


a standard tool of quantitative description

process of classification. In fact, multivariate

methods are based on the more satisfactory

premise that an organism grows and evolves

as a set of interacting parts all together; these

interactions should be considered together, not

abstracted as pairs and do not consider how

energy has sleeted exact harbor niche.

In the Energy transaction mood, the

detection of interrelated character clusters,

reduces the high dimensionality of a system

to few interpretable directions of variation,

and eliminates redundant variables. In energy

stabilizing mood, they provide an objective

picture of phenetic differences among samples

and specify how the measured characters

produce these differences. In a dimensional

state, it is represented by some identical

factors from paleontology and petrology.

The importance of the energetic flow can be

gauged by its impact on ideas of life’s history

and it correspondence to extreme condition.

A functional and quantitative science of form

suggests that parallelism and convergence are

dominant well observed phenomena, not mere

taxonomic nuisances.

Fossils Reconstruction and Virtual reality

It is widely believed that fossils are

fundamentally important in the understanding

of a specific habitat and the environmental

based on the reconstructing scenarios via

different valuable methodologies. for example,

some researchers argued that fossils provide the

soundest basis for evolutionary classification.

Although the virtual reality and the 3D printing

of our groups of fossils have been reconstructed

based on using morphological or chemical

characters of extant Sri Lankan organisms

alone, it is often noted that fossils would have

been of great use in clarifying relationships

between population of some extinct species

and that type of conclusions are impressively

tenuous in their absence. Therefore, to ensure

the understanding of the relationship that this

extant organism use to have in their habitat

we are trying to introduce some technological

applications which support the development

actions of the 3D reconstruction of fossils.

Digitalization of Fossils

Digitalization of fossils means creating

a computer-understandable version of them.

In technical terms, it’s called 3D modeling.

During the past decade, a number of innovative

applications of 3D technology in multiple

domains have immerged. A case study from

“Frammix” is presented here to apply the state-

of-the-art computer and 3D technology for the

multidisciplinary field of paleontology.

Frammix is a technology solution provider

based in Sri Lanka who carries out research

and development on merging cutting-edge

computer technology for real-world cases. They

have developed a 3D scanning, 3D printing,

and 3D visualization technique for the field of

paleontology with the purpose of supporting

scientific research, formal education, and

informal outreach in this domain. Depending on

the application, different techniques are utilized

to create 3D models of physical fossils and they

can be categorized as follows.

Manual 3D Modeling

This is a simple and low-cost technique. The

3D model is created based on the measurements

and the scaled drawings of the physical object

or the fossil. 3D designing software is used to

create the 3D model manually based on the

measurements. This is a time and labor-intensive

process but no special equipment is needed.

The objects with complex shapes require a lot

of time and effort in order to create 3D models

using this technique (Fig. 98).

The surface scan of fossils is an easy and

relatively faster method of creating 3D models

of physical objects. This technique uses a light

beam projected on the surface of the object for

scanning. Mostly laser or LED light beam is

used as the light source. As in fig 98, a camera

or a sensor monitors how the light beam bends

according to the shape of the surface and

generates the 3D model using the software. The

software output the 3D model in .obj or .fbx

format.


FIGURE 98: Surface scanning© Amodth Jayawardhana 2021.

Photogrammetry

Photogrammetry encompasses multiple

methods to digitally reconstruct a physical

object as a 3D model by analyzing and stitching

a series of 2D images. As in fig 2, it takes

photos of the object from multiple angles and

stitches them together to generate the 3D model.

The photos are taken using a camera with

specific camera settings, while the stitching of

those photos is done by special software. The

software identifies pixels that correspond to the

same physical point and brings pictures together

accordingly (Fig. 99-101).

FIGURE 99: Photogrammetry scanning process © Amodth Jayawardhana 2021


FIGURE 100: (A) An image of the actual fossil. (B). Orientations and the number of the images

taken of the fossil (C) A photo of the 3D model generated using photogrammetry© Michael

Ziegler 2020.

FIGURE 101: Photogrammetry processing for physical object (Left) for 3D modeling item (Right)

© Amodth Jayawardhana 2021.


Another unique benefit of Photogrammetry

is its capability of creating 3D models of objects

on a different scale. This becomes really useful

because objects ranging from micro-level,

like microfossils which are only visible under

electron microscope up to entire geologic

locations, can be digitalized based on this

technique. Because it uses photos of the object

to create the 3D model.

Figure 101 shows a 3D model generated

based on the Photogrammetry technique for a

fossil and Fig.4 shows a 3D model generated for

a physical replica of the lion statue in Yapahuwa

using the same technique.

Digital Fossil Repositories

Once the 3D models are created, they can be

made available for digital download through the

internet. That enables researchers all around the

world to get easy access to these digital versions

of fossils to carry out their studies. There are

online repositories where these 3D models are

digitally available. MorphoSource, Sketchfab,

myFOSSIL are few examples of online 3D

repositories.

Make Use of Digital Fossils

Once the fossils are digitized, they can

be easily shared digitally with anyone from

anywhere in the world. There are multiple ways

to make use of these digital fossils and they are

discussed in the following section.

3D printing

Having a physical replica of the fossil may

be beneficial sometimes for some studies than

the digital one. 3D printing is advantageous

for paleontologists who wish to replicate and

modify fossils. Specifically, printing enables

investigators to remove and reform fossils

from their matrix and permits the manipulation

of taphonomically distorted specimens.

Additionally, the ability to alter existing taxa or

create new, hypothetical forms allows the study

of non-existent morphologies, optimization,

and evolutionary constraint (Fig 102).

3D printing is the process of making three-

dimensional solid objects from a digital file. The

creation of a 3D printed object is achieved using

additive processes, where the object is created

by laying down successive layers of material

until the object is created. Each of these layers

can be seen as a thinly sliced cross-section of the

object. 3D printing is the opposite of subtractive

manufacturing which is cutting out / hollowing

out a piece of metal or plastic with for instance

a milling machine. This enables the production

of complex shapes using less material than

traditional manufacturing methods.

Once the model is ready for 3D printing, a

printing material must be chosen. There are a

variety of materials available for 3D printing

including plastics, steel, aluminum, sandstone,

thermoplastic polyurethane, photopolymer

resin, and composite powders. A special

machine is used for 3D printing.

Immersive technology is a state-of-the-art

computer technology which generates a distinct

experience by merging the physical world

with digital or simulated reality. As in fig 6.

Augmented Reality (AR), Virtual Reality (VR),

and Mixed Reality (MR) are the three main

Immersive Technologies (Fig 103).

Augmented Reality blends computer-

generated digital information into the user’s

real environment and enhances it. Whereas in

Virtual Reality, the user’s real environment gets

completely replaced with a simulated world.

Mixed Reality is quite similar to AR where it

also blends computer-generated information

onto the real-user environment, but the real-

user environment changes depending on user

interaction with the virtual objects. These

three realities together are called immersive

technologies.


FIGURE 102: 3D printed model of T. rex | Eco Astronomy Inc- Reconstruction program in China.

Image © Majda Aouititen 2021.

Visualize with the use of Immersive Technologies

FIGURE 103: Immersive Technologies © Amodth Jayawardhana 2021.

Augmented Reality for Fossil Visualization

Frammix is carrying out research to find

the possibility of merging the immersive

technology with multiple domains. Based on

the findings of this research, an Augmented

Reality platform for Paleontology is developed.

It allows virtually the place and visualization

of real scale digitized 3D fossils in the real

environment using smartphones (Fig 104 -109).

As shown in Fig 104, digitized 3D fossils

can be virtually placed in real space and interact

with them through smartphones. This allows

paleontologists to study fossils as they are in

their own space.


FIGURE 104: Visualization of 3D models of dinosaur skeletons placed in the real environment

with use of AR technology © Amodth Jayawardhana 2021.

Teleport with Virtual Reality

The Augmented reality supplements the

real world with computer-generated contents to

create what we call a virtual environment that

we can navigate through. In this case, Virtual

Reality completely replaces the real world with

a simulated world based on two different tasks:

first “the cognitive process of determining

a path based on visual cues, knowledge of

the environment, and aids such as maps or

compasses”, and the second task is “the control

of the user’s viewpoint motion in the three-

dimensional environment” (Bowman et al.,

1998).

Unlike watching a video on a 2D screen,

with virtual reality, the viewer can be completely

teleported to a different environment while

providing an immersive experience. Travel is

“one of the most basic and universal interactions

found in VE applications”, so it received

considerable attention since the ‘90s (Bowman

et al., 1998; Slater et al., 1995; Bowman et al.,

1997; Templeman et al., 1999).

To achieve this task, a special device called

a VR headset or closed head-mounted display

needs to be used. Recently, new virtual reality

(VR) head-mounted displays (HMDs) for

consumers have been released, and different

authors started to study travel using these new

HMDs (Christou et al., 2017; Frommel et al.,

2017; Hashemian et al., 2017; Kitson et al.,

2017; Langbehn et al., 2018).

The advantage of teleport extends the

results found that showed a better performance

of teleport over visiting or watching the real

place or subject. Interestingly, by using this

technology we can both gain time and the high-

quality knowledge we are processing during the


experience we are conducting using Teleported

Virtual Reality.

Much more, using this technology will help

in the conservation process of the subject we

are proposing for our audience to discovered

through these devices, either we are representing

fossils in a virtual reality; or by making our

audience visit virtually the escalation place and

processing.

We are planning in the upcoming future

to use the Virtual Reality (VR) in our projects

of education (Fig. 105, Fig. 106, Fig. 107,

Fig. 108, Fig. 109) concerning specifically of

highlighting the Sri Lankan fossils. We estimate

that by using this technology, we can give the

opportunity for all those who are interested

to discover the Sri Lankan unique fossils,

nationally and internationally speaking. As well

by using the VR we will be sure that our fossils

will not be damaged during the lectures or

visits. That because we are presenting a virtual

version of these fossils that we have scanned

and reconstructed them in an augmented virtual

reality.

FIGURE 105: A virtual reality demo at the Communic Asia show at Marina Bay Sands on May 23.

Image © Desmond Koh.


FIGURE 106: Spinosaurus sp. | Synchronizing and floating trail of Augmented reality in Sri Lanka.

| Location: CCC | Image ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2021.


FIGURE 107: Tyrannosaurus rex. | Synchronizing and floating trail of Augmented reality in Sri

Lanka. | Location: CCC | Image ©Aravinda Ravibhanu 2021.


FIGURE 108: Dinosaur fighting. | Synchronizing and floating trail of Augmented reality in Sri



FIGURE 108: Paluxysaurus sp | Synchronizing and floating trail of Augmented reality in Sri



DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The last ice age ended about 12,500 to

10,300 years ago as it was reported by many

research papers based on strong facts and

evidence. However, the occurrence of these

changes cannot be certainly correlated in a way

or another with the Earth axis movements or

was related to the Earth’s precession. In fact, we

find it important to mention that the Earth’s axis

rotates (called processes) could be described

just as the rotation of a spinning top which has

the period of one complete cycle of precession

which is about 26,000 years, which means

approximately 1° every 72 years. Therefore,

geographically speaking the North Celestial

Pole will not always be pointing towards the

same star field, this precession is caused by the

gravitational pull of the Sun and the Moon on

the Earth axis. As a result, the earth’s precession

tends to stimulate the massive variables in

abiotic factors, especially during the period

of the LGM. Last Glacial Maximum (LGM)

coverage was between 26,500 and dominated

20,000-19,000 years ago. The sea level then fell

slowly until 21,000 and 16,000 yr B.P reaching

a maximum depth of about -130m (Katupotha et

al., 2021). According to our last study, sea-level

variations occurred mainly between 12,500 ±

1,500 YBP to 11,000± 1,500 YBP, indicating

that 25m ± 5m recorded to be the lower sea level

documented than the current sea level found

around the South Asian region. (Sumanarathna

et al., 2021).

Even in the paleoenvironment of the

Sabaragamuwa basin, it has been found to

support intensive habitation around 18ka and

12ka periods. The environmental fluctuations

in 18ka might be caused by the last glacial

maximum (LGM); in fact, during the12ka it

was partially affected by younger drya’s impact.

Hence, all of these events can open the doors

for extreme environmental conditions that could

trigger the extinction of many vulnerable species

that couldn’t adapt to these extreme conditions.

Hence, during the quaternary period, climate

changes resulted in the extinction of several

animals that have been proved through the

study of some fossils of this period that have

been fossilized in the alluvial beds. Much more,

this extinction wave did not stop at the end of

the Pleistocene, because the records show that

this extinction phenomenon has continued

due to the sea-level fluctuations, especially on

isolated islands in the Holocene epoch. Also,

the excavation data records of Batadomba-

lena (1982/2005) documents the existence of

the forager occupation of the rainforests of Sri

Lanka from around 40000 years ago until the

late Holocene. However, based on our records

(Fig. 92, Fig. 94, Fig. 95) of concrete roots by

the process of Rhizoconcretions were found

to represent a drought climate around a depth

of 60ft to 80ft from the current surface of the

Sabaragamuwa beds.

During our surveys, we have noticed

that the fossils abundance depth found in the

Sabaragamuwa bed is around 30ft to 200ft, and

we are currently working on a different set of

depts such as SEC -A: 20ft to 70ft, SEC -B: 70ft

to 120ft, SEC -C:120ft to 170ft, SEC -D: 170ft

to 220ft.

The continental drift theory explained that

during the Late Jurassic Period accrued Sri

Lanka was positioned within 67oS - 65oS and

32oE - 36oE in the southern hemisphere and

by the end of the Miocene Period Sri Lanka

location has changed to be between 4oN -

8oN and 77oE - 79oE situated in the northern

hemisphere (Katupotha, 2013 and 2020).

Due to these impressive facts, we found

that the Jurassic and the Miocene fossils from

Sri Lanka are very significant to be compared

with other fossils from different locations of the

world, and these types of fossils are very useful

to conduct studies of the evolutionary stages

through the climate changes of Sri Lanka.

Accordingly, we need to mention as well

that Sri Lanka has been subjected to Quaternary

glacial cycles due to the advancing and

retreating continental glaciers movements; due

as well to the warmer, the cooler, and the dry

climatic conditions; the evolution of hominids

and associated cultures was indeed part of

these cycles, and also the extinction of the

megafauna; the deposition of terrestrial and

marine sediments, and the development of soil

conditions (Sumanarathna et al., 2017).


Due to this evolutionary process, some

species’ ancestors of former geologic periods

were extinct, some were adapted and others

were newly evolved after an important nature

selection phenomenon.

The eminent groups of paleontologists,

zoologists, and also artists, such as Deraniyagala

P.E.P and Deraniyagala S.U that have

specialized in fauna and human fossils was been

the first scientists to study and document and to

represent the Indian subcontinent. They have

provided great data that we are using nowadays

to develop our knowledge based on their work

as they have discovered many unique fossils.

Considering as well the primary data

collected and recorded by our Research Unite Eco

Astronomy Inc and © SMKA, which presented

important details about the faunal habitat (with

human attachment) in Sabaragamuwa bed,

we found that the habitat fauna in this area

belongs to the families and species mentioned

as follow: Acavidae family, Pleuroceridae

family, Freshwater crabs (Prebrinckia sp. and

Ceylonthelphusa sp.), Cyprinidea family,

Bagridae family, Siluridea family, Clariidae

family, Heteropneustidae family, Channidea

family, Angulillidea family, Bufonidae family,

Trionychidae family, Geoemydidae family,

Testudinae family, Varanidae family, Agamidae

family, Gekkonodea family, Scincidae family,

Boidea family, Viperidea family, Phasianidea

family, Cercopithecidea family, Lorisidae

family, Pteropodidae family, Hipposiderdae

family, Pteromyidae family, Hystricidae family,

Muridae family, Leporidea family, Soricidea

family, Manidae family, Herpestidae family,

Mustelifae family, Viverridae family, Felidae

family,Canidae family, Ursidae family, Suidae

family, Ehephantidae family, Bovidae family,

Cervidae family, Tragulidae family (Perera,

2010 and 2011).

Due to our analysis of cross sections in a few

gem pits of Sabaragamuwa basin have shown,

the actual land form around the region is about

20m-30m below than today. Because the land is

heavily eroded, affected by extreme geological

and environmental conditions. Hence proper

survey via soil carbon or carbon sequestration

analysis will provide more informative data of

Sabaragamuwa-paleoenvironment. As a part of

studying the extreme environmental conditions

in SL, we are working on a few projects

regarding the Digital Conservation of samples

of fossils via AR\VR. Upgrading further

explorations and research in Sabaragamuwa

beds will provide a much more sustainable point

of view in conservation of Ratnapura fauna.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our special thanks

of gratitude to Ms. Uma Savindini Dissanayake

(Undergraduate at Physical Education, SUSL)

for assisting to develop the draft and documents.

As well as very special thanks to Mr. Adeepa

Nisal (Undergraduate at NSBM - Plymouth

University) and Mr. Prasanna Jayathilaka

(Research assistant at Eco Astronomy Inc) for

the outstanding support via reconstructing 3D

environments. Secondly, we would also like to

thank Mr Amodth Jayawardhana and Madura

Dissanayaka whom are AR\VR engineers at

Frammix for providing data for develop the

section Fossils Reconstruction and Virtual

reality.

Abbreviations used: ©SMKA – SM Kamal

Abyewardhana’s collection (1985- 2020).

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Received Date : 12th March 2021

Accepted Date : 20th May 2021

Cite this article as

Suamanarathna, A. R., Abewardhana, K.,

Katupotha, J., & Aouititen, M. (2021).

FOSSILS OF SRI LANKA: CHAPTER SABARAGAMUWA BASIN. Journal of

Wild Lanka, 09(02), 173–300.

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