Unravelling provenance from Eocene–Oligocene sandstones of the Thrace Basin, North-east Greece

Unravelling provenance from Eocene–Oligocene sandstonesof the Thrace Basin, North-east Greece

LUCA CARACCIOLO*, SALVATORE CRITELLI*, FABRIZIO INNOCENTI� ,NIKO KOLIOS� and PIERO MANETTI§*Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Universita della Calabria, Rende (CS), Italy(E-mail: [email protected])�Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Universita degli Studi di Pisa, Pisa, Italy�Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration (IGME), Thessaloniki, Greece§Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Universita degli Studi di Firenze, Florence, Italy

Associate Editor – Peter Swart

ABSTRACT

New sandstone petrology and petrostratigraphy provide insights on

Palaeogene (Middle Eocene to Oligocene) clastics of the Thrace Basin in

Greece, which developed synchronously with post-Cretaceous collision and

subsequent Tertiary extension. Sandstone petrofacies are used as a tool to

unravel complex geodynamic changes that occurred at the southern

continental margin of the European plate, identifying detrital signals of the

accretionary processes of the Rhodope orogen, as well as subsequent

partitioning related to extension of the Rhodope area, followed by Oligocene

to present Aegean extension and wide magmatic activity starting during the

Early Oligocene. Sandstone detrital modes include three distinctive

petrofacies: quartzolithic, quartzofeldspathic and feldspatholithic. Major

contributions are from metamorphic basement units, represented mostly by

low to medium-grade lithic fragments for the quartzolithic petrofacies and

high-grade metamorphic rock fragments for the quartzofeldspathic petrofacies.

Volcaniclastic sandstones were derived from different volcanic areas, with a

composition varying from dominantly silicic to subordinate intermediate

products (mainly rhyolitic glass, spherulites and felsitic lithics). Evolution of

detrital modes documents contributions from three key source areas

corresponding to the two main crystalline tectonic units: (i) the Variegated

Complex (ultramafic complex), in the initial stage of accretion (quartzolithic

petrofacies); (ii) the Gneiss–Migmatite Complex (quartzofeldspathic

petrofacies); and (iii) the Circum-Rhodope Belt. The volcaniclastic

petrofacies is interbedded with quartzofeldspathic petrofacies, reflecting

superposition of active volcanic activity on regional erosion. The three key

petrofacies reflect complex provenance from different tectonic settings, from

collisional orogenic terranes to local basement uplift and volcanic activity.

The composition and stratigraphic relations of sandstones derived from

erosion of the Rhodope orogenic belt and superposed magmatism after the

extensional phase in northern Greece provide constraints for palaeogeographic

and palaeotectonic models of the Eocene to Oligocene western portions of the

Thrace Basin. Clastic detritus in the following sedimentary assemblages was

derived mainly from provenance terranes of the Palaeozoic section within the

strongly deformed Rhodope Massif of northern Greece and south-east Bulgaria,

from the epimetamorphic units of the Circum-Rhodope Belt and from

superposed Late Eocene to Early Oligocene magmatism related to orogenic

Sedimentology (2011) 58, 1988–2011 doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3091.2011.01248.x

1988 � 2011 The Authors. Journal compilation � 2011 International Association of Sedimentologists

collapse of the Rhodope orogen. The sedimentary provenance of the Rhodope

Palaeogene sandstones documents the changing nature of this orogenic belt

through time, and may contribute to a general understanding of similar

geodynamic settings.

Keywords Eocene–Oligocene, magmatism, North-east Greece, RhodopeMassif, sandstone detrital modes, Thrace Basin.

INTRODUCTION

Detrital sandstones in many sedimentary basinsfrom different geotectonic settings commonlyoriginate from multiple sources showing complexpalaeotectonic and palaeogeographic relation-ships or evidence of basin partitioning (Dickin-son, 1988; Critelli, 1999; Garzanti et al., 2002).Continent–continent collision and related fore-land basins represent a geodynamic setting wherepost-collision processes may reveal complex tec-tonic relationships that may be reflected in thestratigraphy and complex provenance relations.Circum-Mediterranean orogens have experiencedbackarc rifting and plate rearrangement (Doglioniet al., 1997), as exemplified by the Tyrrhenian Seaand the Aegean Sea (two backarc basins generatedby subduction processes; Doglioni et al., 2007)and related to dissection of the Apennine andRhodopian orogenic belts, respectively. In thesekey examples within the Central and EasternMediterranean complex, sand(stone) detritalmodes document deep unroofing of the orogenicwedges; usually, they are also marked by super-position of magmatic activity. Magmatism in theMediterranean region has resulted from variousstages of subduction of diverse Tethyan oceanicrealms, and from extension within the Central(Serri et al., 1993) and Eastern Mediterranean(Agostini et al., 2007). A modern example ofthese complex provenance relations of Mediter-ranean-type orogenic extension is the easternTyrrhenian margin (Critelli & Le Pera, 1995,1998; Le Pera & Critelli, 1997; Critelli, 1999;Garzanti et al., 2002). In the present paper, sand-stone detrital modes are used to decipher thecomplex provenance relations during onset ofextension after orogenic accretion by usingEocene to Oligocene sandstone petrostratigraphyof the western Thrace Basin in Greece (Fig. 1).

In the northern Aegean Sea and continentalGreece and Bulgaria (Rhodopian region), tectonicrelationships have changed rapidly since the LateCretaceous in response to the complex conver-gence between the African and European plates.

The convergence history between Africa andEurope produced progressive closure of diverseoceanic realms of the Tethyan remnant ocean(Vardar, Pindos and Ionian Oceans; Dewey et al.,1973; Boccaletti et al., 1974; Ricou, 1994; Cavazzaet al., 2004) since the Late Jurassic to EarlyCretaceous, as evidenced by emplacement agesof ophiolitic complexes in northern Greece.Remnants of the Maliac-Meliata Oceans islandarc–accretionary sequence related to southwardsubduction under the Vardar ocean/island arc,together with similar units extending fromSamotraki Island to the Chalkidiki Peninsula(the Circum-Rhodope Belt) accreted in the LateCretaceous onto the Rhodopian metamorphicterranes (Bonev & Stampfli, 2003; Bonev et al.,2010). Accretion of the Rhodope orogen occurredin different compressional–extensional phases;it was finally exhumed in the Early Miocenefollowing protracted extension beginning inthe Late Eocene to Early Oligocene (Burchfielet al., 2000; Bonev & Beccaletto, 2007). Thisphase was accompanied by magmatism in thecentral-eastern and southern Rhodopes.

The present study focuses on petrographiccomposition and lithostratigraphy and petrostra-tigraphy of Middle Eocene to Oligocene sand-stones from the westernmost portions of theThrace Basin in Greece (Fig. 1). This article aimsto provide constraints for reconstructing sourcelithology and sediment dispersal pathways dur-ing Rhodopian orogen accretionary processes andsubsequent Aegean extension and magmatism.

GEOLOGICAL SETTING

The studied sedimentary successions are exposedin the north-eastern Hellenic Peninsula along thewestern edge of the Thrace region, where struc-tural relationships among the Serbo-Macedonian-Rhodope (RSM), Circum-Rhodope Belt andoceanic Vardar terranes are expressed (Fig. 1).The RSM is generally considered part of theAlpine orogen resulting from convergence

Detrital modes of Palaeogene sandstones from the western Thrace Basin, North-east Greece 1989

� 2011 The Authors. Journal compilation � 2011 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 58, 1988–2011

between the African and European plates duringclosure of PalaeoTethys. The RSM Massif hasbeen interpreted as a microcontinent formed afterthe break-up of Pangea. From the Palaeozoic untilthe Mesozoic, the northern edge of PalaeoTethysmigrated northward, merging with the Europeanmargin (Stampfli & Bore, 2004) at the end of thePalaeozoic to form the Moesian platform. Closureof a series of oceanic basins, from the Triassic–Jurassic until the Late Eocene, led to developmentof the Rhodope accretionary complex (Barr et al.,1999; Cavazza et al., 2004). The complex wasfinally exhumed during the Miocene, whenseveral sedimentary basins formed. Two maintectono-stratigraphic units have been recognizedwithin the Rhodope Massif s.s.: (i) the Gneiss–

Migmatite Complex; and (ii) the VariegatedComplex. The Rhodope Massif is overlain andbordered to the south-east by a Mesozoic sequ-ence, defined as the Circum-Rhodope Belt.

The Gneiss–Migmatite Complex (GMC) (Koz-houkharov et al., 1988; Haydoutov et al., 2004)includes a series of metamorphic units of conti-nental origin known as the Lower Tectonic Unit(Barr et al., 1999) or the Continental Unit (Ricouet al., 1998). The GMC structurally represents thedeepest level in the metamorphic basement,generally bordered on its top by extensionaldetachment faults and/or mylonitic shear zones.The Complex includes the Kessebir and BialaReka metamorphic domes, both in the southRhodope area (southern Bulgaria; Burg et al.,

Fig. 1. Tectonic setting of RhodopeMassif and the Island of Limnos,Eastern Mediterranean and theNorthern Aegean Sea (modifiedfrom Barr et al., 1999). Upper squarerefers to Rhodope Tertiary basins;lower square refers to the Island ofLimnos.

1990 L. Caracciolo et al.


1996; Ricou et al., 1998; Bonev, 2002, 2006), andthe Kardamos and Kechros complexes (Fig. 2) inGreece (Liati & Gebauer, 1999; Krohe & Mposkos,2002). U-Pb ages on zircons (Peytcheva & vonQuadt, 1995; Carrigan et al., 2003; Ovtcharovaet al., 2003) and Rb/Sr (Mposkos & Wawrzenitz,1995) range from ca 335 to 300 Ma, indicatingthat the complex is Variscan or older continentalbasement (Marchev et al., 2004). Thermochronol-ogy documents cooling (exhumation) between 42and 36 Ma, suggesting that metamorphism oc-curred before the Middle Eocene, between 73 and45 Ma (Mposkos & Wawrzenitz, 1995 Liati et al.,2002; Mukasa et al., 2003).

The Variegated Complex (VC) (Kozhoukharovet al., 1988; Haydoutov et al., 2004) that corre-sponds to the Mixed Unit of Ricou et al. (1998), tothe Upper Tectonic Unit of Barr et al. (1999) andto the Kimi Complex (Fig. 2) in Greece (Mposkos& Krohe, 2000; Krohe & Mposkos, 2002), containsremnants of oceanic and island-arc units. Itconsists of gneiss, amphibolite, marble (Bozdag), metagabbro, pelitic schist and rare quartzite.Small bodies of ultramafic rocks are also present.Granitic bodies, intruding the Variegated Com-plex, have been dated using the U-Pb-zirconmethod at 70 Ma (Marchev et al., 2004). Ar40/Ar39 amphibole and muscovite ages, respectively,of 45 ± 2 Ma and 39 ± 1 Ma (Mukasa et al., 2003)bracket the cooling history from amphibolite togreenschist facies conditions (Bonev, 2006).

The Circum-Rhodope Belt (CRB) borders thesouthern Serbo-Macedonian Rhodope Massif.The CRB consists of Mesozoic low-grade meta-morphic and meta-extrusive units, together withsimilar units extending from Samothraki Islandclose to the Biga Peninsula (Fig. 2). These Meso-zoic rocks commonly overlie the crystallinebasement as a nappe of wide regional extent(Bonev & Stampfli, 2003). The entire sequence isrepresented by a basal greenschist unit overlainby mafic extrusive rocks of the Evros ophiolitecomplex. Apatite fission-track ages on the maficrocks are 161 to 140 Ma (Bonev & Stampfli, 2003).Both crystalline basement and the CRB areoverlain by Middle Eocene to Miocene sedimen-tary strata. The incomplete and dismemberedEvros ophiolite, located in Thrace, NE Greece,belongs to the CRB; its age is considered to beJurassic–Cretaceous (Bonev & Beccaletto, 2007and references therein). In the upper ophioliticsequence, volcanic and pyroclastic rocks of tho-leiitic composition are underlain by massive andpillow lavas with a few tuffaceous rocks and lavabreccia. Rocks of the CRB experienced intense

deformation and low-grade metamorphism. Low-er tholeiites have been affected by greenschistfacies regional metamorphism (lower metavolca-nics), whereas upper lavas were affected byocean-floor metamorphism of phrenite–pumpel-lyite facies (Magganas, 2002).

Tectono-sedimentary evolution of the Rhodoperegion was synchronous with development ofextensional tectonic dissection and onset of aTertiary magmatic orogenic belt bordering thesouthern European continental margin. Remnantsof the magmatic arc extend continuously fromthe Dinarides-Balkan to western Anatolia formore than 2000 km (Yanev et al., 1998). Volcanicactivity in the Rhodope region initiated at 37 Maand migrated south in western Anatolia andthe central Aegean Sea until 15 Ma (Fytikaset al., 1984; Yanev et al., 1998). In the HellenicRhodope Massif and the Circum-Rhodope Belt,Tertiary volcanic rocks can be recognized in threemain volcanic areas: the Koityli area locatednorth of Xanthi, the Kalotycho area near Xanthi,and the Evros area in the eastern part of westernThrace (Eleftheriadis & Lippolt, 1984; Innocentiet al., 1984).

SOURCE-ROCK COMPOSITION

The Southern Rhodope sedimentary basinsystems, formerly the Thrace Basin, are sand-wiched between inferred source terranes, whichcan be restricted to the Rhodope Massif s.s., theCRB and the volcanic areas, which developedfrom the Late Eocene and the Oligocene. The VCof the Rhodope Massif includes an interlayeredsuccession of pelitic schist, quartzofeldspathicand amphibole-bearing gneiss, marble and calc-silicates, amphibolite, meta-gabbro and ultramaficrocks. Garnet-bearing mica schist, with variableamounts of plagioclase, biotite, hornblende, chlo-rite, epidote, kyanite, staurolite, Cr-rich mica,apatite, calcite, rutile, sphene and opaque oxides,is well-represented in the VC (Kozhoukharovet al., 1988; Mposkos & Krohe, 2000; Haydoutovet al., 2004). The lowest unit consists of high-grade orthogneiss and paragneiss, affected byEocene anatectic migmatization (Cherneva &Georgieva, 2005). The GMC of the RhodopeMassif, up to 6 km thick, is composed of ortho-gneiss underlain by porphyroclastic orthogneiss(metagranites) with megacrysts of K-feldspar(Bonev, 2006). Orthogneiss is intercalated withmigmatites and migmatitic gneisses, psammiticparagneiss, metapelite and amphibolite layers at



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different stratigraphic levels. The CRB is mainlyrepresented by actinolite–chlorite and garnet–mica schist and phyllite, with mineral assem-blages consisting of Qtz + Ms + Act ± Chl ± Grt,typical of greenschist facies metamorphism(Bonev & Stampfli, 2003).

The Oligocene volcanic and volcaniclasticrocks are mostly rhyolite (30 to 40%), generallyrepresented by pyroclastic flows, followed byandesite (30 to 35%) and dacite (15 to 20%), bothas lavas and pyroclastic flows (Yanev et al.,1998). Clino-pyroxene and ortho-pyroxene,together with plagioclase (An90-An50), representthe main minerals for intermediate compositions.Dacite and rhyolite consist of plagioclase (An60-An20), sanidine (Or75-65), quartz, biotite and rarehornblende. Mafic rocks are poorly representedand indicate that volcanism developed on thickcontinental crust (Yanev et al., 1998).

STRATIGRAPHIC SETTING OF THETHRACE BASIN

Widespread extension in the Rhodope regionfrom the Late Eocene to the Miocene producedseveral subsiding depocentres. Sedimentary suc-cessions of Southern Rhodopes can be subdi-vided into three main depocentres: Evros andXanthi-Komotini in northern Greece, and theNorth Aegean Basin in the northern Aegean Sea(Fig. 3). The Evros Basin developed on the CRBepimetamorphic units, and is characterized bycoarse siliciclastic deposits of Lutetian age inter-calated, at the top of the succession, with coal-bearing sandstone. The siliciclastic strata areoverlain by shallow-water nummulitic limestoneof variable thickness (up to 100 m) (Caracciolo,2009). During the Late Eocene to the EarlyOligocene, the entire basin system underwent an

Fig. 3. Stratigraphic chart summarizing sedimentary environments, basin evolution and key tectonic events of thewestern Thrace Basin in NE Greece.



increasingly complex tectonic and palaeoenvi-ronmental evolution (Innocenti et al., 1984).Increasing subsidence rates accompanied evolu-tion towards deep water sedimentation and vol-canic activity.

The Xanthi-Komotini Basin developed uponRhodope Massif units, with the onset of sedimen-tation in the Middle Eocene. The sedimentarystrata have the same facies and palaeoenviron-ments as those of the Evros Basin (except for theoccurrence of volcaniclastic strata).

In the northern Aegean Sea (Island of Limnos),a Palaeogene sedimentary sequence is well-preserved and regionally correlated with similarsequences of the Evros Basin (Fig. 4). Most of thePalaeogene sequence on the Island of Limnos isOligocene in age.

The Evros Basin

Representative stratigraphic sections of the EvrosBasin are exposed in the Maronia, Kirki–Esimiand Fere-Souflion-Dadia-Petrota areas, every-where overlying the Makri and the Drimon-Maliametamorphic units of the CRB. In the Maroniasection, coarse-grained Lutetian alluvial sand-stone and conglomerate are overlain by fluvial,deltaic to coastal deposits, with Rupelian lavaflows, pyroclastic flows and volcaniclastic strata.The volcanic series consists of pyroclastic flowsinterbedded with conglomerates at its base,consisting of volcanic layers locally associatedwith lahars (Innocenti et al., 1984). The upperpart of the volcanic succession consists of lavaflows covering an ignimbrite sequence; the lavaflows reach a maximum thickness of 250 m.

In the Kirki–Esimi section, rapid subsidenceoccurred during the Late Eocene to Oligocene,after deposition of Lutetian alluvial–fluvial coarsesandstone and conglomerate. Rapid subsidence isindicated by deposition of marl, mudrock andturbidite sandstone of outer shallow-marine andslope environments passing upward to a deep-marine turbidite succession of Late Eocene toEarly Oligocene age. Lava flows and domesassociated with volcanic agglomerates (Innocentiet al., 1984) are interbedded with Oligocenedeep-marine deposits. According to HellenicInstitute of Geology and Mineral Explorationboreholes, the series is ca 250 m in thickness.

The Kirki–Esimi section represents the base ofthe Evros Basin and includes the older sedimen-tary section in Southern Rhodopes (Fig. 3). Thesedimentary succession reaches a total thicknessof 2000 m. The lower part of the Kirki–Esimi

section (Figs 3 and 5D) can be interpreted as abraided-river–alluvial-fan system. The dominantsandstone facies involves an upward fining trend,which suggests a proximal to distal transition ofalluvial-fan deposits interfingering with fluvial-plain deposits. Conglomerate and sandstone areoverlain by a grey to green silty succession about500 m thick. At the top of the succession, darkgrey siltstone is interbedded with decimetre-thickparallel coal seams, suggesting the onset of amarine environment, characterized by a waningterrigenous supply and low oxygenation. Thesedimentary succession continues with stratifiedcarbonates, 80 to 100 m thick (Figs 3 and 5D).In this section, poorly exposed carbonate strataconsist of mostly limestone with corals, algae andnummulitidae, biocalcarenite and calcirudite.The carbonate section is interpreted here as analgal-coral patch reef. Overlying the carbonatesare 500 m thick slope marls and sandstones, anddeep-marine sand-rich turbidite strata.

The exposed succession is Oligocene in age,and provides a record of volcanic activity startingduring the Early Oligocene. The succession issubdivided into a lower portion, represented by

Fig. 4. General stratigraphic column of Cenozoic sed-imentary strata of the Island of Limnos (modified fromInnocenti et al., 1994).



an alternation of siltstones and sandstones, andan upper portion of a sandy chaotic interval.In the entire succession, primary volcanic andvolcaniclastic layers are common, represented bythin (5 to 20 cm) white clay, sandstone andpyroclastic flows.

The Fere-Souflion-Dadia-Petrota section is themost extensive of the selected areas of the EvrosBasin, and accommodates the greatest subsidence.The Middle to Upper Eocene succession of sand-stone, marl and conglomerate is more than 1000 mthick. It is capped by Oligocene poorly cementedclinostratified shallow-marine silty sandstone andsandstone. Volcanic products mainly consist ofsubaqueous and subaerial pyroclastic flows inter-bedded and overlain by shallow-marine sedi-ments. Numerous ignimbrite units have beenrecognized within the Oligocene series (Innocentiet al., 1984). To the south and south-west, pyro-clastic flows decrease in volume and tend to beassociated with rhyolitic lava flows and domes.

The Xanthi-Komotini Basin

The Xanthi-Komotini Basin is bounded by normalfaults and exhibits a typical graben structure.Basin asymmetry shows a regional south-east-ward deepening related to the Kavala-Xanthi-Komotini fault (Tsokas et al., 1996). The basin isbounded by the Avdira fault to the west and bythe Circum-Rhodope Belt to the east (Fig. 2). Thesedimentary succession of the basin directlyoverlies crystalline basement of the RhodopeMassif, and ranges in age from Middle Eocene(Lutetian) to Neogene (Fig. 3).

Papadopoulos (1982) proposed a Lutetian–Priabonian age for the entire Southern Rhodopesshallow-marine carbonate reef. Fossil assem-blages in mudrock between the continentaldeposits and the shallow-marine carbonates con-sist of nummulites, miliolides, orbitolites and theplanktonic foraminifera Morozovella sp. (LatePalaeocene to Middle Eocene) and Igorina sp.,suggesting a Middle Eocene age for the carbonatereef (Figs 3 and 5A). However, data from ben-thonic foraminifera, on coral reef packstone sam-ples, indicate a Priabonian to Rupelian age, forthe shallow-marine carbonates of the Avdirastratigraphic section, on the southern basin mar-gin (Fig. 2), suggesting that carbonate-reef sedi-mentation was protracted, reaching into the LateEocene or possibly even into the Oligocene.

The most representative stratigraphic section ofthe Xanthi-Komotini Basin has been described inthe vicinity of Iasmos, a village close to Xanthi

(Figs 3, 5A and 5D). In this area, the basalsedimentary succession consists of continentalcoarse-grained sandstone and conglomerate ofLutetian age, overlain by Upper Eocene deep-water deposits capped by Oligocene fluvial con-glomerate. The succession reaches a maximumthickness of 2000 m in the centre of the basin(Tsokas et al., 1996).

Northern Aegean Basin (Island of Limnos)

The sedimentary succession at Limnos (Fig. 4)includes a continuous Middle to Upper Eocenethrough to Lower Miocene succession, overlainand intruded by 21 to 18 Ma volcanic and sub-volcanic bodies (Igneous Complex; Innocentiet al., 1994, 2009). The Fissini-Sardes Unit con-sists of mid-Upper Eocene to Middle Oligocenedeep-marine turbidite deposits, about 300 mthick. The basal Fissini-Sardes Unit consists of achaotic interval, including slump and olisto-strome layers, the latter having 1 to 6 m diameterolistoliths of nummulitic limestone blocks. Thisbasal interval is overlain by a ca 250 m thicksequence of turbidite sandstone and siltstone.In the lower parts of the turbidite sequence, a 6 mthick layer of tuff (Figs 4 and 5E) is interbeddedwith turbidite sandstone (Fig. 5F). According toInnocenti et al. (1994), the faunal associationindicates a Middle Eocene (Lutetian) age.

The Fissini-Sardes Unit is overlain by theIfestia Unit, a 150 m thick marine sandstone,with up to 5 m of interbedded conglomerate andmarl, Middle Oligocene to Lower Miocene in age.An erosional surface separates the Ifestia Unitfrom the Therma Unit. The Therma Unit reflectsan abrupt change from marine to continentalpalaeoenvironments after a deformation and ero-sional phase that affected the turbidite strata.The unit consists of lenticular and channellizedconglomerate strata, interbedded with marl, mud-rock and diatomaceous shale having abundantplant remains. Volcaniclastic sandstone strata areinterbedded within the Therma Unit. Depositionof the Therma Unit pre-dated onset of the mainEarly Miocene volcanic cycle of the IgneousComplex.

SANDSTONE PETROLOGY

Methods

Ninety-three medium to coarse sandstone sampleswere thin-sectioned for point counting, including



the whole succession of the Xanthi-Komotini,Evros and North Aegean (Limnos Island) Basins.An average of 500 points was counted for eachthin section (etched and stained for plagioclaseand potassium feldspars) according to the Gazzi–Dickinson method (Ingersoll et al., 1984; Zuffa,1985, 1987). Point-count results are shown inSupplementary Table DR1 and recalculated inTable 1. Grain parameters and recalculatedparameters are those of Dickinson (1970, 1985),Zuffa (1985) and Critelli & Le Pera (1994). Volca-nic particles were subdivided using textural(Marsaglia, 1992) and temporal (Zuffa, 1987)criteria. Volcanic grains were characterized aspalaeovolcanic or neovolcanic, following the cri-teria of Critelli & Ingersoll (1995) and Critelli et al.(2002). Palaeovolcanic grains, derived from ero-sion of ancient volcanic rocks, are normallyaltered and rounded, with the same grain sizeas non-volcanic detritus. Neovolcanic grains,produced by volcanism contemporary with sedi-mentation, are generally fresh with a larger grainsize when compared with associated terrigenousclasts, and are represented by both lithic frag-ments and single neovolcanic minerals (euhedralplagioclase, sanidine, quartz and mafic minerals).Confidence regions of detrital-mode means havebeen calculated following procedures describedby Aitchison (1997).

Determination of confidence regions (90% and95%) was computed using the log-ratio transfor-mation of compositional data using ‘R’ and itssoftware package called ‘Composition’ (Boogaart& Tolosana-Delgado, 2008). In order to avoidcontrasting methods, as highlighted in Ingersoll &Eastmond (2007), the geometric means were usedand the confidence regions plotted using bothDickinson (1985) and Weltje (2006) provenancefields.

Framework composition

Quartz, the dominant detrital grain type, is char-acterized by variable grain sizes and roundnessindices (between angular and sub-rounded). Somegrains have mineral inclusions, such as rutile,suggesting a metamorphic provenance. The max-

imum concentration (percentages in the paragraphrefer to total count) of metamorphic grains is 31%.Polycrystalline quartz indicates a phyllite andschist provenance (Basu et al., 1975) and occurswith a maximum concentration of 15%. Feldspargenerally is common, with plagioclase dominant,particularly in volcaniclastic sandstone. The K-feldspar generally occurs as microcline and ortho-clase, locally with perthite, with a mean concen-tration of 15%. Sanidine occurs in somevolcaniclastic sandstone. Plagioclase is character-ized by very low sphericity and typically has beenaltered, mostly to sericite. Plagioclase representsthe most common crystal in volcaniclastic sam-ples, where it commonly is the only feldspar type.The crystals are typically euhedral, twinned andzoned. Plagioclase mean concentration is 23%.

Lithic fragmentsSouthern Rhodopes sandstone has diverse apha-nitic lithic grains. These grains are representativeof diverse metamorphic and volcanic sourcerocks, and subordinate plutonic and sedimentary(carbonate) source rocks.

Metamorphic lithic grainsMetamorphic lithic grains have different grades offoliation, recrystallization and schistosity. Thecriteria proposed by Garzanti & Vezzoli (2003)were followed. The most common grains arephyllite [occurring with a maximum concentra-tion of 48% mostly composed of quartz and mica,and diverse schist types (0% to 23%) (muscovite,chlorite and epidote schist)], including quartz,mica and feldspar and, rarely, with garnet,epidote and amphibole (mostly actinolite).

Volcanic lithic grainsVolcanic lithic grains are almost exclusively foundin volcaniclastic sandstone. The volcaniclasticsamples are extremely rich in neovolcanic lithicfragments, showing different textures reflectingdifferent magma compositions. According to Dick-inson (1970), Ingersoll & Cavazza (1991), Marsaglia& Ingersoll (1992), Critelli & Ingersoll (1995) andCritelli et al. (2002), three different volcanic tex-tures have been recognized: (i) microlitic texture is

Fig. 5. Sedimentary features of studied strata. Xanthi-Komotini Basin: (A) Lutetian lower-middle strata with con-tinental-fresh-water clastics overlying amphibolite basement, overlain by shallow-water nummulite-rich carbonatestrata; (B) Upper Eocene deep-water turbidite sandstone; (C) Oligocene braided-river deposits at Avdira (height ofman is 1.8 m). Evros Basin: (D) Lutetian continental strata capped by fresh-water carbonates (Kirki–Esimi). Island ofLimnos: (E) Upper Eocene tuff layer (6 m), within the Fissini-Sardes Unit; (F) Oligocene deep-water turbidites of theFissini-Sardes Unit; (G) Oligocene deep-water turbidites interbedded with volcaniclastic turbidites (Evros Basin).



Table 1. Recalculated modal point-count data of the Eocene–Oligocene sandstones of the Thrace Basin.(See Appendix S1 for explanation of parameters).

QmFLt (%) QtFL (%) QmKP (%) QpLvmLsm (%) LmLvLs (%) RgRvRm (%)

Qm F Lt Qt F L Qm K P Qp Lvm Lsm Lm Lv Ls Rg Rv Rm

Quartzolithic petrofacies05-SC746 61 15 24 75 15 10 80 12 8 57 0 43 100 0 0 27 0 7305-SC747 67 18 15 73 18 9 80 20 0 39 0 61 100 0 0 29 0 7105-CS748 66 18 16 71 18 11 79 21 0 29 0 71 100 0 0 45 0 5505-SC749 65 16 19 73 16 11 81 19 0 43 0 57 100 0 0 10 0 9005-SC750 70 16 14 73 16 11 82 18 0 23 0 77 92 0 8 45 0 5505-SC751 65 15 20 71 15 14 82 18 0 31 0 69 100 0 0 29 0 7105-SC752 49 9 42 74 9 17 84 15 1 61 4 35 89 11 0 23 3 7405-SC753 77 16 7 79 16 5 83 17 0 31 0 69 100 0 0 41 0 5905-SC754 76 13 11 84 13 3 86 14 0 71 0 29 100 0 0 33 0 6705-SC755 76 14 10 81 14 5 85 15 0 50 0 50 100 0 0 26 0 7405-SC756 64 16 20 75 16 9 80 19 1 52 0 48 100 0 0 33 0 6705-SC757 84 5 11 89 5 6 95 5 0 45 0 55 100 0 0 23 0 7705-SC758 74 7 19 84 7 9 91 9 0 55 0 45 100 0 0 32 0 6805-SC790 68 13 19 76 13 11 84 8 8 43 0 57 100 0 0 7 0 9305-SC791 64 16 20 74 16 10 79 6 15 85 0 15 88 0 12 9 0 9105-SC795 57 21 22 68 21 11 74 14 12 47 0 53 72 0 28 43 0 5705-SC812 14 0 86 30 0 70 98 2 0 20 0 80 97 0 3 1 0 9905-SC813 19 23 58 24 23 53 44 7 16 9 0 91 99 0 1 15 0 8505-SC816 68 12 20 71 12 17 84 10 6 14 0 86 100 0 0 5 0 9505-SC817 44 13 43 51 13 36 77 2 21 16 0 84 100 0 0 19 0 81AE 52/90 64 14 22 67 13 20 83 1 16 9 6 85 69 5 26 0 0 100AE 56/90 59 16 25 64 16 20 78 2 20 22 10 68 74 12 14 2 13 86AE 57/90 52 21 27 56 21 23 71 2 27 17 17 66 79 8 13 1 12 87AE 58/90 37 24 39 53 24 23 60 4 36 41 16 43 51 20 29 36 10 54AE 59/90 47 17 36 56 17 27 74 2 24 23 17 60 65 15 20 12 12 75AE 60/90 41 15 44 46 15 39 73 2 25 10 16 74 49 13 38 7 16 77AE 61/90 58 14 28 61 14 25 81 2 17 12 14 74 60 15 25 7 17 76AE 62/90 59 12 29 64 12 24 83 2 15 16 4 80 51 4 45 0 6 94AE 69/90 61 13 26 65 13 22 83 3 14 14 10 76 62 10 28 0 12 88AE 78/90 61 10 29 73 10 17 85 3 12 42 9 49 73 4 23 2 11 87AE 79/90 59 13 28 63 13 24 82 1 17 14 10 76 62 10 28 0 6 94AE 71-90 53 8 39 71 8 21 88 3 9 47 6 47 71 5 24 14 7 79AE 80-90 36 11 53 48 11 41 77 4 19 22 27 51 54 23 23 3 36 61AE 81-90 52 7 41 62 7 31 89 1 10 25 11 64 55 14 31 1 14 85AE 72-90 62 12 22 70 12 18 85 2 13 17 5 78 59 5 36 0 6 94AE 394 43 9 48 55 9 36 83 2 15 25 5 70 73 3 24 5 6 89AE 375 51 10 39 56 10 34 84 2 14 14 7 79 58 6 36 9 9 83

Quartzofeldspathic petrofacies05-SC764 37 52 11 40 52 8 42 23 35 24 76 0 14 54 32 25 47 2805-SC767 45 41 14 44 41 15 52 37 11 7 92 1 2 98 0 24 38 3805-SC771 36 46 18 40 47 13 43 36 21 22 74 4 4 96 0 12 41 4705-SC772 51 37 12 53 37 10 59 15 26 24 0 76 55 0 45 0 0 10005-SC773 54 36 10 59 36 5 60 5 35 57 0 43 44 0 56 0 0 10005-SC774 56 33 11 57 33 10 62 11 27 42 0 58 65 0 35 0 0 10005-SC775 40 48 12 41 48 11 45 11 44 2 0 98 25 0 75 0 0 10005-SC776 38 56 6 40 56 4 40 19 41 28 0 72 100 0 0 16 0 8405-SC777 43 53 4 44 53 3 45 23 32 14 0 86 92 0 8 13 0 8705-SC778 40 49 11 41 49 10 45 22 31 13 0 87 100 0 0 33 0 6705-SC779 55 40 5 58 40 2 60 8 32 47 0 53 100 0 0 2 0 9805-SC780 51 40 9 54 40 6 56 20 24 30 0 70 100 0 0 8 0 9205-SC781 62 30 8 67 30 3 67 8 25 38 0 62 78 0 22 0 0 10005-SC782 51 42 7 53 42 5 55 25 20 22 0 78 100 0 0 18 0 8205-SC783 49 47 4 50 47 3 51 17 32 31 7 62 82 9 9 15 0 8505-SC785 52 37 11 56 37 7 59 9 32 32 0 68 92 0 8 22 0 78



typical of lithic fragments with microlites of plagio-clase, and iron and magnesium-rich minerals (asorthopyroxene and oxides), consistent with andes-itic composition; (ii) vitric texture is typical ofvolcanic lithic fragments consisting of pumice andshards. It includes glasses with silicitization, devit-rification and zeolitization, as described by Dickin-son (1970), Ingersoll & Cavazza (1991) andMarsaglia (1992). In some of the samples, this

texture reaches 60% including a very high contentinpumicesand shards; (iii) felsitic texture isusuallycharacterized by a siliceous groundmass with phe-nocrysts of quartz, plagioclase and sanidine and,rarely, biotiteand hornblende.Two felsitic typesarerecognized (granular and seriate); both are typical ofintermediate to felsic volcanism, from andesite anddacite to rhyolite (Dickinson, 1970; Ingersoll &Cavazza, 1991; Critelli et al., 2002). This texture is

Table 1. (Continued)

QmFLt (%) QtFL (%) QmKP (%) QpLvmLsm (%) LmLvLs (%) RgRvRm (%)

Qm F Lt Qt F L Qm K P Qp Lvm Lsm Lm Lv Ls Rg Rv Rm

05-SC786 54 38 8 55 38 7 59 13 28 11 0 89 100 0 0 4 0 9605-SC787 45 41 14 47 41 12 52 14 34 17 0 83 100 0 0 8 0 9205-SC788 57 33 10 60 33 7 63 14 23 34 0 66 86 0 14 22 0 7805-SC789 48 39 12 50 39 11 55 22 23 7 19 74 70 21 9 40 5 5505-SC793 48 49 3 49 49 2 49 18 33 25 0 75 100 0 0 27 0 7305-SC794 63 28 9 70 28 2 70 15 15 70 0 30 82 0 18 7 0 9305-SC802 17 58 25 19 59 22 22 9 69 15 28 57 41 31 28 5 22 7305-SC803 43 40 17 43 40 17 52 23 25 4 0 96 21 0 79 5 0 9505-SC806 58 27 15 61 27 12 68 6 26 22 0 78 47 0 53 33 0 6705-SC808 42 53 5 45 53 2 45 15 40 45 0 55 100 0 0 6 0 9405-SC809 30 65 5 30 65 5 31 21 48 9 0 91 100 0 0 50 0 5005-SC811 41 37 22 47 37 16 52 8 40 29 0 71 97 0 3 30 0 7005-SC820 48 39 13 51 39 10 55 16 29 25 0 75 98 0 2 43 0 5705-SC821 56 29 15 58 29 13 66 10 24 9 0 91 69 0 31 32 0 6805-SC822 38 51 11 42 51 7 43 19 38 35 0 65 97 0 3 39 0 6105-SC823 39 59 2 40 59 1 40 22 38 43 0 57 100 0 0 61 0 3905-SC824 38 43 19 39 43 18 47 13 40 6 0 94 100 0 0 48 0 5205-SC825 38 60 2 38 60 2 38 19 43 0 0 100 100 0 0 79 0 2105-SC826 48 48 4 51 48 1 50 10 40 79 0 21 100 0 0 75 0 2505-SC827 50 44 6 53 44 3 53 14 33 39 0 61 100 0 0 61 0 3905-SC828 50 42 8 54 42 4 54 12 34 46 0 54 100 0 0 56 0 4405-SC829 50 49 1 50 49 1 50 22 28 29 0 71 83 0 17 27 0 73

Volcaniclastic petrofacies05-SC761 27 28 45 31 28 41 48 29 23 8 74 18 20 80 0 5 76 1905-SC765 20 26 54 20 26 54 43 6 51 1 70 29 30 70 0 2 54 4405-SC766 12 18 70 13 18 69 40 21 39 1 96 3 3 97 0 0 85 1505-SC769 21 52 27 22 52 26 29 15 46 2 79 19 19 81 0 10 46 4405-SC770 23 34 43 24 34 42 41 8 51 3 82 18 17 83 0 8 52 4005-SC796 4 6 90 8 6 86 41 41 18 5 95 0 0 100 0 0 97 305-SC797 7 3 90 7 4 89 67 18 15 1 99 0 0 100 0 0 100 005-SC799 1 37 62 2 37 61 2 3 96 2 54 44 0 55 45 0 100 005-SC800 3 34 63 3 34 63 2 3 95 1 51 48 0 53 47 0 99 105-SC801 2 50 48 4 50 46 3 3 94 3 97 0 0 100 0 2 96 2AE 63-90 2 66 32 2 66 32 3 0 97 0 100 0 0 100 0 0 100 0AE 64-90 3 44 53 4 44 52 7 0 93 1 99 0 0 100 0 0 100 0AE 67-90 8 40 52 10 40 50 16 1 83 5 83 12 11 86 3 2 84 14AE 68-90 33 23 44 37 23 40 58 1 41 8 54 38 30 59 11 3 63 34AE 377 8 21 71 9 21 70 27 5 68 2 98 0 0 100 0 0 100 0AE 378 19 21 60 22 21 57 47 5 48 5 83 12 10 87 3 0 90 10AE 380 7 68 25 8 68 24 10 0 90 3 65 32 16 67 17 3 79 18AE 75-90 9 31 60 14 31 55 22 2 76 9 80 11 12 88 0 11 74 14

Qm, monocrystalline quartz; Qt, total quartz; Qp, policrystalline quartz; F, feldspars; Lt, aphanitic lithic fragment;Lm, aphanitic metamorphic fragment; Lv, aphanitic volcanic fragment; Ls, sedimentary rock fragments; Rg, granitoidrock framents; Rv, volcanic rock fragments; Rm, metamorphic rock fragment.



confined to four samples, where it contributes amaximum of 3% to the total count.

Sedimentary lithic fragmentsThe occurrence of sedimentary lithic grains isnegligible in the analysed arenites. The mostcommon types are extrabasinal carbonate grains,including micritic, sparitic, biosparitic, bio-micritic and foliated limestone (CE; Zuffa,1980). Siltstone and radiolarian chert are minor.

Accessory mineralsA wide range of accessory minerals has beenrecognized. Epidote is the most abundant ofthese, reaching in some samples 4% of the totalframework. Green hornblende, actinolite andclinozoisite are recognized, together with garnet,pyroxene, zircon, rutile and sphene.

Interstitial components

MatrixThe detrital matrix is siliciclastic, usually silty,quartzose and micaceous. The mean concentrationis 8%. In volcanic sandstone, the volcaniclasticmatrix has a maximum concentration of 16%.

CementsDifferent types of cement characterize the analy-sed sandstone. Carbonate cements preferentiallyconcentrate in deep-marine turbidite quartzo-feldspathic sandstone, and rarely in volcaniclas-tic and quartzolithic sandstone. Cements arerepresented by patchy calcite (0 to 30%) orpore-filling calcite (0 to 23%). Phyllosilicatecements are abundant and typical of quartzolithicsandstone (0 to 27%) and could be related toreplacement of altered detrital grains. Kaolinitedominates the phyllosilicate cements, locallyalternating with illite. Siliceous cement is up to16% and is commonly associated with kaolinitecement. Boundaries between quartz grains andquartz overgrowths (0 to 1%) are commonlycharacterized by dust lines. Other rare types ofcements were observed, such as grain coats ofclay minerals (0 to 1Æ5%) and iron-oxide cements(0 to 3%).

PETROFACIES CHARACTERISTICS

Three distinct petrofacies have been defined forsandstones of the Thrace Basin: (i) quartzolithic;(ii) quartzofeldspathic; and (iii) feldspatholithic.The petrofacies are related to basin evolution, and

are representative of changing source areas of theuplifted, eroded and dissected terranes of theRhodope Massif, and volcanic activity.

Quartzolithic petrofacies

The quartzolithic petrofacies is metamorphi-clastic, with Qt66 F14 L20 and Qm58 F14 Lt28

(Fig. 6A). Plagioclase is the dominant feldspar(Qm78 Fk8 Fp14) (Fig. 6B). This petrofacies is richin quartz, both as Qm and Qp with a tectonitefabric (Qp32 Lvm5 Lsm63). Fp and Fk usuallyoccur as single crystals and locally in meta-morphic and plutonic rock fragments. Aphaniticlithic grains consist mostly of low-grade meta-morphic rock fragments (Lm81 Lv5 Ls14) (Figs 6Cand 7A) and subordinately of medium to high-grade metamorphic rock fragments, such asamphibolite (Fig. 7C) and, rarely, serpentinite.Phaneritic rock fragments (Rg17 Rv5 Rm78) areminor compared to aphanitic lithic fragments andmainly consist of medium to high-grade meta-morphic rocks, mostly gneiss and, rarely, ofplutonic rock fragments of Qm, Fk and Fp. Raresedimentary lithic grains consist of extrabasinalcarbonate grains, such as micritic, biomicritic andfoliated limestone.

The oldest sandstone of this petrofacies isLutetian, and represents the beginning of sedi-mentation in the western Thrace region; these areconcentrated in the Kirki–Esimi area and areextremely rich in phyllite (Fig. 7A). Quartzolithicsandstone of the Avdira sequence is rich inplutonic and high-grade metamorphic rock.Lower samples (SC 746 to SC 752) have abundantcarbonate cement that decreases and disappearsupward in the sedimentary succession. Uppersamples (SC 753 to SC 758) are extremely low infeldspars, which show evidence of dissolutionand replacement by kaolinite. Cements are dom-inantly represented by phyllosilicates, particu-larly kaolinite, commonly alternating with illiteand quartz cements.

In the Limnos Basin, the quartzolithicpetrofacies has a wide temporal distribution,from the Middle to Upper Eocene to the LowerMiocene. Sandstone includes abundant quartzand lithic fragments. Lithic fragments consist ofdominantly low to medium-grade metasedimen-tary (phyllite, fine-grained schist and slate), sed-imentary (radiolarian chert, siltstone, shale andextrabasinal carbonate) and ophiolitic (serpenti-nite, serpentinite schist, glaucophane schist,chlorite schist and metabasalt) fragments(Fig. 7B). Minor altered palaeovolcanic fragments



with granular-felsitic and microlitic texturesrelated to dacite and rhyodacite and andesitevolcanic-hypabyssal rocks are also recognized.

Quartzofeldspathic petrofacies

The quartzofeldspathic petrofacies is character-ized by sub-equal quartz and feldspar (Qt48 F46

L6; Qm46 F46 Lt6; Fig. 6A). Quartz occurs as Qmand Qp with a tectonite fabric (Qp31 Lvm6 Lsm63).Quartz is also present in phaneritic rock frag-ments of gneiss (Fig. 7E) and, subordinately, in

plutonic fragments. Feldspars occur both as sin-gle crystals and as crystals in metamorphic andplutonic rock fragments. Plagioclase is dominantcompared with K-feldspars (Qm50 Fk18 Fp32;Fig. 6B). Phaneritic rock fragments (Rg26 Rv0

Rm74) are represented by medium to high-grademetamorphic rocks with Fk and phyllosilicates,epidote-bearing green schist and gneiss. Plutonicrock fragments are minor. Aphanitic lithic grains(Lm76 Lv6 Ls18; Fig. 6C) mainly consist of phyl-lite, chlorite schist, epidote-bearing green schistand mica schist and, rarely, by palaeovolcanic

Fig. 6. Ternary compositional plots with confidence regions (90% and 95%) and geometric means. Qm,monocrystalline quartz; F, feldspars (Fk + Fp); Fk, K-feldspar; Fp, plagioclase; Lt, aphanitic lithic fragments; Lm,aphanitic metamorphic lithic fragments; Lv, aphanitic volcanic lithic fragments; Ls, aphanitic sedimentary lithicfragments. Ternary plots in the left column include confidence regions and means at basinal scale; the block of plotson the right side is representative of the diverse composition of the sub-basins.



lithic fragments with microlitic textures. Carbon-ate grains are rare and mostly consist of mixedsiliciclastic–carbonate grains (Fig. 7D). Sand-

stone in the Esimi–Leptokaria area includesabundant epidote-rich metamorphic rock frag-ments. These fragments commonly consist of

Fig. 7. Photomicrographs of the main lithic fragments for quartzolithic and quartzofeldspathic sandstone petrofaciesderived from the Rhodopian orogenic belt. Quartzolithic petrofacies: (A) low-grade metamorphic lithic fragment(phyllite, Petrota); (B) glaucophane-schist lithic fragment (Limnos Island); (C) amphibolite lithic fragment (Esimi);Quartzofeldspathic petrofacies: (D) silty to arenitic limestone; (E) gneissic rock fragment; (F) epidote-schist lithicfragment including actinolite (Esimi). ‘Lm’, aphanitic metamorphic fragment; ‘Gln’, glaucophane; ‘Gr’, garnet;‘Amph’, amphibole; ‘Rm’, phaneritic metamorphic rock fragment; ‘Fk’, K-feldspar; ‘Ep’, epidote; ‘Act’, actinolite.



epidote and hornblende, which is locally trans-formed into actinolite (Fig. 7F), suggesting aprovenance from high-grade metamorphic proto-liths retrograded to greenschist facies.

Feldspatholithic petrofacies

Deposition of the feldspatholithic petrofacies wassynchronous with active volcanism, as indicatedby the dominance of neovolcanic grains, by thelack of palaeovolcanic grains, and by low quartzand other non-volcanic grains. This petrofacies isdominated by lithic fragments (Qt13 F34 L53; Qm12

F33 Lt55; Fig. 6A). Abundant plagioclase (Qm28 Fk9

Fp63; Fig. 6B) occurs as neovolcanic single crystalsand within neovolcanic lithic fragments. Plagio-clase is mostly sodic (oligoclase and andesine;An45-18), euhedral, zoned and twinned. K-feld-spars are dominantly microcline and orthoclaseand, rarely, sanidine of neovolcanic origin(Fig. 8H). Phaneritic rock fragments consist dom-inantly of volcanic rock fragments (Rg3 Rv82 Rm15)with plagioclase and pyroxene, and minorK-feldspar, quartz and biotite. Some metamorphicrock fragments, such as amphibolite and schist, arerecognized. Aphanitic lithic grains mainly consistof volcanic fragments (Lm10 Lv85 Ls5; Fig. 6C), andsubordinate low-grade metamorphic (phyllite andmica schist) and extrabasinal carbonate fragments.Volcanic lithic grains are dominantly vitric andmicrolitic, with subordinate felsitic and lathworktextures (Lvv67 Lvmi31 Lvl2; Lvv64 Lvf8 Lvml28;Fig. 8A and B).

Feldspatholithic sandstone of the Fere-Souf-lion-Dadia-Petrota section has prominent fluidaltextures, typical of rapidly remobilized pyro-clastic products (Fig. 8E). Although single crys-tals of plagioclase and biotite are common,pumice and shards (Fig. 9A and B) represent themost significant part of the framework. From thebottom to the top of the succession, Q, Fk and Lmincrease and Lvv decreases.

Kirki–Esimi volcaniclastic sandstone is charac-terized by welded glass (ignimbrite), other volca-nic lithic fragments and plagioclase. Plagioclaseis neovolcanic, angular, coarse, euhedral, zonedand twinned. K-feldspar content is variable, butgenerally consists of orthoclase and sanidine.Amphibole is abundant, mostly represented byhornblende (Fig 9C). Granular and seriate felsitictextures are present in all samples, consistentwith a rhyodacitic provenance (Fig. 8G). Micro-litic and lathwork textures increase up section,suggesting an increasing contribution from maficto intermediate sources. Maronia volcaniclastic

sandstone demonstrates mixing with non-volca-nic detritus. Plagioclase occurs both as neovolca-nic and non-volcanic grains, while quartz andK-feldspar are variable. K-feldspar is significantlyhigher compared with other areas, especially withrespect to sanidine (Fig. 8H). Lithic fragments aredominantly felsitic volcanic, consisting of pum-ice and shards of grains (Fig. 8C). Sandstonesfrom this area are often characterized by zeoliti-zation (Fig. 9D and E). Scarce metamorphic frag-ments include amphibolite and coarse schist.

Limnos volcaniclastic sandstone is typical ofthe lower Fissini-Sardes Unit and the ThermaUnit. Sandstone of this petrofacies containsmainly neovolcanic detritus, represented as sin-gle crystals and volcanic lithic fragments havingvitric, microlitic and seriate felsitic textures.Single crystals of unaltered euhedral plagioclaseand brown hornblende, and minor sanidine,clinopyroxene and biotite are interpreted asneovolcanic grains.

DISCUSSION

Interpretation of compositional data

Sandstone detrital modes of the Thrace Basinindicate diverse provenance and multipletectonic settings (Fig. 10). General detrital signa-tures within the Western Thrace and NorthAegean Basins reflect three key sandstone petro-facies characterizing evolution from: (i) unroofingof the upper Rhodopian units (Variegated Com-plex and Circum Rhodopian Belt) involved in theLate Cretaceous to Eocene alpine deformation(quartzolithic petrofacies); (ii) general upliftexposing blocks from the lower crust (Gneiss–Migmatite Complex) (quartzofeldspathic petro-facies), followed by regional extension generatingthe subsiding areas of the Thrace Basin; and (iii)the onset of Early Oligocene calc-alkaline mag-matism (feldspatholithic petrofacies). Each of thethree petrofacies can be divided into sub-petro-facies reflecting contributions from specificsource rocks (Fig. 6). Compositional signatures,combined with basin analysis, constrain palaeo-geographic reconstruction (Fig. 11).

Unroofing of the Rhodopian VariegatedComplex and Circum Rhodopian Belt(quartzolithic petrofacies)

The quartzolithic petrofacies is representative ofthe Middle Eocene initial sedimentary fill of the



Thrace Basin; it is mostly alluvial, fluvial, fluvial-floodplain and coastal coarse sandstone andrelated oligomictic conglomerate. The Evros andXanthi-Komotini sub-basin has two distinct sub-petrofacies, reflecting unroofing of source unitsof the Circum-Rhodope Belt and the RhodopeMassif, respectively (Fig. 6).

Within the Evros Basin, the quartzolithic petro-facies reflects provenance from both the Circum-Rhodope Belt and the Rhodope s.s. Onset ofdeposition of the quartzolithic petrofacies ismarked by abundant low-grade metamorphic detri-tus closely related to the key tectonic units of theCircum-Rhodope Belt, as suggested by typical aph-anitic lithic fragments, such as phyllite and micaschist. In the middle and upper quartzolithic pet-rofacies, increasing gneiss and amphibolite lithicfragments, as well as slowly increasing feldspar,suggests the arrival of detritus from the RhodopeMassif.

Within the Xanthi-Komotini Basin, the quar-tzolithic petrofacies has a higher quartz contentwith respect to the corresponding quartzolithicpetrofacies of the Evros Basin; in the former, itreflects a provenance exclusively from theRhodope s.s. quartzolithic sandstone of theNorth Aegean Basin at Limnos Island reflects aprovenance dominantly of epimetamorphic andophiolite units of the Circum-Rhodope Belt.This sandstone is compositionally similar tothe quartzolithic sandstone of the Evros Basin.The main differences are that the North Aegeansandstone has a higher ophiolite-related con-tent, represented by serpentine-schist, glauco-phane-schist, radiolarian-chert and carbonatelithic fragments.

Unroofing of the Rhodopian Gneiss–MigmatiteComplex (quartzofeldspathic petrofacies)

The quartzofeldspathic petrofacies is characteris-tic of deep-water sandstone turbidites of the Xan-thi-Komotini and Evros Basins. The petrofaciescorresponds to abrupt subsidence rates within

the two basins following the main extensionalevents of the Rhodope orogenic belt following theLate Eocene. The extensional phase produced:(i) abrupt uplift rates of the basin margins, expos-ing large portions of the mid-crustal block of theGneiss–Migmatite Complex; and (ii) emplacementof large intrusive bodies of the Xanthi–Iasmaros–Leptokaria plutons (Early to Middle Oligocene).Erosion of the Rhodope s.s. produced abundantgneissic detritus for the quartzofeldspathic petro-facies. However, within the Evros Basin, mixedprovenance from both the Rhodope s.s. andCircum-Rhodope Belt suggests an unroofing sequ-ence with erosion of the entire structure of theuplifted Rhodopian fold-thrust belt.

Oligocene calc-alkaline volcanism(feldspatholithic petrofacies)

The feldspatholithic petrofacies is interbeddedwith the quartzofeldspathic petrofacies, andreflects initiation of Early Oligocene volcanismin response to extension of the Rhodope region.The calc-alkaline Oligocene magmatism mainlydeveloped in the Kirki–Esimi and Fere areas, withthe emplacement of andesite, high-K andesite andrhyolite, and derivative andesite and rhyolite-richsandstone. Analysed volcaniclastic strata arelimited to the Evros and Limnos Basins. Bothbasins include primary pyroclastic flows andvolcaniclastic turbidites (syneruptive strata ofCritelli & Ingersoll, 1995) alternating with mixedvolcanic/siliciclastic grains reflecting depositionduring inter-eruptive phases. The compositionalsignatures of these two basins are practically thesame, as evidenced by volcanic textures, ternarydiagrams and inferred provenance from theSouthern Rhodopes volcanic areas.

CONCLUSIONS

Exposed western Thrace Basin strata range fromthe Middle Eocene to the Upper Oligocene.

Fig. 8. Main features for volcaniclastic sandstone petrofacies of the Thrace Basin. (A) and (B) Ternary diagrams forvolcanic lithic textures; Lvmi, volcanic lithic fragments with microlitic texture; Lvf, volcanic lithic fragments withfelsitic texture; Lvv, volcanic lithic fragments with vitric texture; Lvl, volcanic lithic fragments with lathwork texture.(C) to (H) Photomicrographs of grain textures in the volcaniclastic feldspatholithic sandstone petrofacies. (C) Pumicefragment (parallel nichols). (D) Silicic spherulitic glass. (E) Fluidal structures in ash-turbidite volcaniclastic sand-stone. (F) Neovolcanic biotite in a recrystallized (zeolites and clay minerals) glass-welded groundmass. (G) Volcaniclithic fragment having granular-felsitic texture. (H) K-feldspar (sanidine) in a glass-welded groundmass. ‘Pum’,pumice; ‘Lvf’, volcanic lithic fragment with felsitic texture; ‘Fp’, plagioclase; ‘Bt’, biotite; ‘Fk’, K-feldspar; ‘Fks’,sanidine.



Fig. 9. Scanning-electron photomicrographs of volcaniclastic sandstone petrofacies: (A) blocky-shard vitric Lvfragment; (B) primary biotite grain; (C) amphibole hack-saw alteration; (D) contact between neovolcanic plagioclaseand Lvv; (E) vitric Lv fragment including zeolites; (F) plagioclase grain having glass and Fe-oxide inclusions,partially replaced by calcite. Sh, shard; Bt, biotite; Amph, amphibole; Pl, plagioclase; Lvv, volcanic lithic grain withvitric texture; Zeo, zeolite; Ox oxide; CaOcm, carbonate cement.



The basin is bounded by strike-slip faults, as aresult of post-orogenic extension after continentalcollision related to closure of the Vardar Oceanin the Late Cretaceous to Early Eocene. Initialsubsidence was localized in small depocentres,during late stage collision. Further subsidenceoccurred over a wider area during Oligocene post-orogenic extension.

The western Thrace Basin, mostly exposed inGreece, is divided into three main depocentres,the Xanthi-Komotini and the Evros Basins onland, and the Limnos Basin in the north AegeanSea. Sedimentation during the Lutetian, withinthe Xanthi-Komotini and Evros Basins, began aseastward prograding proximal coarse-grainedalluvial, distal fluvial-floodplain and fan-deltaicdeposits.

A transgressive phase within the Xanthi-Komo-tini and Evros depocentres is marked bywidespread Priabonian shallow-water carbonatedeposits consisting of nummulite-rich limestoneand coral–algal limestone strata. This shallow-water carbonate deposition signalled initial rapidsubsidence of the basin and a change from colli-sional tectonics to extension. The two main basinsystems experienced a general trend of deepening,which triggered the onset of deep-water turbi-dite sedimentation. Siliciclastic turbidite strata,unconformably overlying shallow-water carbon-

ates, reflect abrupt changes in basin topography.Strata on Limnos Island consist of only deep-water turbidites, which are quite similar to thoseof the Evros Basin.

The extensional phase accompanied magmaticactivity, which was widespread from central-eastern Rhodopes to the north Aegean Sea. Mag-matic activity in the Evros Basin started in theEarly Oligocene.

The Late Cretaceous to Middle Eocene collisionphase caused intense deformation and subsequentuplift of the Rhodope Massif and the Circum-Rhodope Belt. Evolutionary trends in sandstonecomposition for the north-western Thrace Basin inGreece document distinct contributions from theRhodopian Massif and the Circum-Rhodope Belt.Composition of the lower strata (continental suc-cession) reflects unroofing of the upper tectono-stratigraphic terranes (the Variegated Complexand the Circum-Rhodope Belt). Continental sand-stone is quartzolithic, with significant composi-tional differences among the three depocentres.Sandstone of the Xanthi-Komotini Basin wasderived mainly from the Rhodope thrust units(i.e. Variegated Complex and Gneiss–MigmatiteComplex), whereas quartzolithic petrofacies of theEvros and Limnos Basins were derived from theCircum-Rhodope thrust units (i.e. Makri Unit andDrimou-Melia Unit); contributions from the Var-

Fig. 10. Tectonic discriminationplot for Eocene–Oligocene sand-stone of Thrace Basin (from Dickin-son, 1985); CO, collisional orogen;BU, continental block; VA, volcanicarc; UA, undissected arc; TA, tran-sitional arc; DA, dissected arc.Confidence regions (90%) have beencalculated following Aitchison(1997). Light grey dotted lines indi-cate Weltje’s recalculated prove-nance fields.



iegated Complex are minor. The Upper Eocene toOligocene extensional phase generated metamor-phic domes (for example, Kechros and Kardamos)and increasing subsidence rates within the Xan-thi-Komotini and Evros Basins accommodating

deep-water turbidite systems. Deep-waterturbidites are sand-rich and quartzofeldspathic,reflecting gneissic detritus derived from theGneiss–Migmatite Complex. However, withinthe Evros Basin, mixed provenance from both the

Fig. 11. Palaeogeographic sketch map for the Thrace Basin and the Rhodopian region during the Middle Eocene toOligocene. Palaeogeography of north-western Thrace Basin (South Bulgaria) in Rhodope area has been adaptedfollowing Boyanov & Goranov (2001). Volcanoes are named after the principal locations preserving their depositstoday.



Rhodope s.s. and the Circum-Rhodope Beltdocuments an unroofing sequence with erosionof the entire uplifted Rhodopian fold-thrust belt.The extensional phase was accompanied by mag-matic activity, represented by interbedded pri-mary volcanic and volcaniclastic strata andvolcanic-derived feldspatholithic turbidites,within the quartzofeldspathic succession. Thevolcaniclastic feldspatholithic petrofacies reflectsthe intermediate and felsic compositions of activevolcanic sources of the southern Rhodope.

The fact that quartzolithic and volcaniclasticsandstones of the Evros and Limnos Basins haveidentical compositions suggests that these twobasins were part of a larger basin within theCircum-Rhodope Belt which was later dis-membered by interplay of Aegean extensionand development of the Mesohellenic Trough.In conclusion, changing sandstone detritalmodes, as well as stratigraphic relationships forthe Lutetian to Oligocene filling of the ThraceBasin in Greece, reflect key geodynamic changesfollowing the Rhodopian orogen and onset ofextension in the Aegean Sea.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Fabrizio Innocenti spent his last days giving afundamental contribution to the final version ofthis manuscript. It was a great privilege to workwith him. We gratefully acknowledge for fieldactivities and discussions Dr. R. Dominici, andSedimentology reviewers, J. Arribas, E. Garzanti,R. Ingersoll and G.G. Zuffa for careful review,discussion and constructive criticism. Work wassupported by the Italian Ministero dell’Universitae della Ricerca Scientifica (Project, Palaeogeo-graphic and Palaeotectonic evolution of theCircum-Mediterranean Orogenic Belts; (Resp. S.Critelli), and by the Italian National Council ofResearch (Resp. P. Manetti).

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Manuscript received 30 December 2009; revisionaccepted 31 March 2011

SUPPORTING INFORMATION

Additional Supporting Information may be found inthe online version of this article:

Table S1. Point count and petrographic classes for theLimnos basin sandstones. NCE, non-carbonate extra-basinal grains; CE, carbonate extrabasinal grains; CI,carbonate intrabasinal grains; NCI, non-carbonateintrabasinal grains; Mx, matrix; Cm, cements.

Please note: Wiley-Blackwell are not responsible for thecontent or functionality of any supporting materialssupplied by the authors. Any queries (other thanmissing material) should be directed to thecorresponding author for the article.



Unravelling provenance from Eocene–Oligocene sandstones of the Thrace Basin, North-east Greece

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