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UNITED NATIONS GENERAL

E/CN.4/Sub.1/156 . · .. 2 .Ot;to'Qer 195,1 ' ... ·. ,, :" , __ .. -,.

·-~ORIGINAL: . ENGLISH

co:;;:rSSION ON HUMAN BIGHTS Sub-Commission on Freedom of Information

and of.the Press Fifth Session

RADIO AND FREF~OM OF INFORMATION

(Ref, item 6 of the programme of work and. priorities for the three-year period. of the life of the SubCommission (E/CN .4/sub .l/80 and. Corr .1))

SUt.fW{!

1L,/

The purpose of this paper which was prepared. by Dr. Arno Ruth, a Consultant

to the United. Netions, is to call attention to radio problems and. developments

which affect the safeguarding and. promotion of freedom of information, and. which

require detailed. study and. consideration. It does not cover the problems of

telecommunications and. purely technical questions, which have been discussed in

a preqious report!! and are of primary concern to the International

Telecommunication Union and. UNESCO; it does not attempt either to analyze all

aspects of radio-communications and. broadcasting.

The issues involved have been divided. into four major groups;

(1) Organization and. control of radio;

(2) International information by radio;

(3) Distribution and reception of information;

(4) The impact of new technological developments.

Many of these problems are closely interrelated, Their solution also

largely depends upon political, economic and social factors.

In addition, the study deals with some special problems resulting from the

relationship of radio with other media of communications; from the present

deficiency of basic data which are indispensable for future communication

!/ See Memorandum on "International Communications and the Freedom of Informa-t;ion" E/Conf.6/29

51-16720 /tmd radio E/CN.4/Sub.l/156

E/CN.4/Sub.l/156 Pa.ge 2

.. ' \ . ~. . ; : ' ; ! .. ' ' . :. . :· . . ' •. ' ·f

and radio reeen~h; and traa thf,:nttea.:.n>r:·at~tter training of radio personne~; in . . i .. : ; ·,·-.' .·. ···:''.''~

particular of international broed.&asters ~ . , .. ! .. ~

The. las~ part of the paper ~ncl~des· .a. series' 6f t~plde. :fo~ study aiui research

This "catalogue" sLUlliilarizes t;he ~onclusians of .·the previous chapters and

emphasizes the fact that the proP2.:·:~;;::.~ r~:;1c:~1ng to radio ~nd freedom of information

are numerous and that, at the saiD£J t1me 1 most of them have nbt yet been explored. ::·1 ·, .

The topics have been arranged not in an order of priority but according ~o the

sequence of the problems discussed in the study. No att-empt has .peen made to

suggest the ways and means by which the United Nati?ns or any other organization

should undertake further studies or action in this field.

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E/CN ~4/Sul>,l/156

INTRODOOtriON ···········~···,,~~···~~·······················

I. LEGAL AND A!MINIST:F.fNJ:IYE PROBLEMS -Organization.and control of radio ......... •· ..... .

1. Radio rules and practices affecting freedom of infol:'lllB.tion .•.••.. , .•.•••.•••..••••••••••••.••.•

2. Official and private control of radiooomtn'Q.Ilicat-iqns .. •.•• , , ••••. • ••. ~ .... ~ ... ~ ! •••• ! •

International organtzat;ion of l,"aq . .io :::. . international agreements and recommendations

4. Financing of radio operatione ••••••••• , ••••••••••

II • PROBLEM3 OF PROGRAMMING -Internat;tonal.~nformation by ra~io ·······~··•••••

1. International broadcasting . ..................... . 2. The international exchange of radio programmes

and radio personnel •••••••••••••••••••••••••• , •

3. Educational broadcasting and international understanding ••••••••••••••••••·····~·•••••••••

4. Radio in less-developed areas ••••••••••••••••••••

III. D!BTRIBtJIIION AND RECEPriON OF INFORMATION •••• ••,., • •••

1. Problems of radio reception ••••••••••••••••••••••

Wire broadcasting - ita development and significance •••••••••••••••····••••••••••••••••

IV, TEE IMPACT OF NEW' TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS • •• ••• ,. •.

1. Shortwave broadcasting ·•·························

2. Tropical broadcasting ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

3. Yreque~7 modulation·····~·······················

4. Facsimile broadcasting ···············•••••••·•···

5.. Televie ion •......••.•.•.•.....••....•.. , ..•...... /V.

5

10

10

13

16

24

34

39

43

46

47

52

54

55

58

61

64

68 SPECIAL

E/CN .4/S'Ub .i/l;;f/

v. S.P:ECI.AI.. PROB~ ••••••••••••••••••• ; •• ~ •••••••••••••••

1. Relationship between press and radio •••••••••••••

2.

Training for international broadeasting ••••••••••

4. Bibliography of rad.ip .. ~ •· ................ •.• ....... . CONCLUSIONS -

TOi?ICS FOR STtJDY AriD RESEARCH •••••••••••••••••••••••••

APmriDIC"ES •••••.• ~ ~ ••.• .' ~ .' •· ~ ~ •· ~ • .' • ... -. .'. • • ." ~·: ."' •. ~ •·• • • • • • • • • • •

I.

II.

Definitions • • !' •••• ·~·. ~·· •••.•• " ••••••••••• •,• •.•••••.•

Resolutions and recommendations. of Internationa~ Conferences 'c6ncern:i.ng the use of broadcasting in the cause of peace, freedom of information,. and the.interna~i~al exchange of radio prograllllllee ................................. · •• ~ ••••• ·

/Il~TRODUCTION

~ 72

73

76

77

79

80

101

102

105

--

. E/CN~o4/S~b-.l/15~6 ., · ·

INTRODIDTION

. . r.t'h~. im~~rta~ce and! infl~~noe 61-'tidr~'i~s ~··me~tis of co~~~ication and as a

... cli~~~i; or infd~atiori ariti '~~o~~sand.a· are:·con8tantiyf:ifncre~~in£U '·ihroushout ·the

.:.~:~6r1A;· ;.aJib fatd.liti~s ·are b~ln~ improved ·'and ··~xj;>et1dea;· · rad.io trdndettctn ~re n&.r:e~tering re~f~s 'wh~~e other ~anS' ~f conmi.unicat16n a6 ;n~t e±ist' \'3~nd ·~re reaching millions of people who· cannot be. ~ached by ~ither the pr~~s 6~ filins. The ~(l.v~nt ,dt·:televi.sion1 . rapidly apreadtng:from countrJ· to countrY;·. fur~her

> • ' '- I ' : , " : ' -- . ~ . , ' , . ' ·. _. _, . • .,,.. . -- -- ,

increases .radio's impact and consequence. · , . ·

r:- l' :But' W.hiie the probiede of freaabm ~f' the pres a, of newspapers:: and ·.or news . . -- ' ~' -- _,_- '

agenci~e ha.ve been continuously studied, the problems of international and

radiocommufticationa and broadcasting, of' facainrlle and telErV'lsion a'ie·almost

unexplored- despite the fact that ~n a great numberof cou.ntries''nitao':t..:i'tha

'•Otil,y' channel remaining ~pen for the tm~~iaaion of int~rnat1onal.infb:tmait1bn~ . .

Feeedom or control of radio, government or private operation 6! brbadcaa'ting

~~d.' television ~tat inn~, monopoly or muJ.tiple ownerohip, the ·rlghta'··a.na:"

obllgatl.bils ''of ·broadcasters and listeners, and, in ·particular,' the·· free(};otrfto': •.,' ..

infonri'and to be informed, to gather, select and transmit information 'by ·raa1o, ' :. ' '·.. . " ' :, • - - ;- .. :--· . . • _,!_\ ._· .

and to seek and receive broadcast information, have become highly controv~rsial

and wldely discussed issues. TWo basic questions are in the· foreground of the

deb~te: nr_ro .. whom do th~-~ waves bel~?" and "Shall ra.dio have thE!_~~ ri3hts

and obligat,ions as the pre~?" The answers given to these questidna · a're of primar;

i~portance, espeCially witli regard to freedom of information ana· the I'reedofu to

listen. ' '· ·

. The thesis that th~ radio waves belong to the people inspired:' the'': commun1cation laws of the Unt ted s tatee I which are bas~d 'on tiiJ' prenffiif:Vitihat •rthe

' . - -_:- ._ 1 #< •• - ,- • ·-~- ·:: .: ' : --· .'1 > •• t ft

radio channels are 'public property. Licences for the constrtiction artd'··operation •. ' - - . - • ,. • ' 't• • I<' .. i .

of radio atatidns .are granted, for s-hort periods' "'if public. int~re,s:t,', aonvenienC(.

ap.Q..ne.caf!s~_ty w.Jl.l be ~er,vj:!d. py t}'}e construction of the station~'.~/ · . - ; . ;_ ~ ; - ~ ' - .' . .. : . . - - :- ~ ' . ' \ " . - -. . . - . ,- . ' . . - . ' '

The same policy has been adopted in Canada •. _T:Oe Handboo)c .on P9li't,i.cal and ~ ' ', . "' ·;;t \. -,- , -; .:_ ·:--_:; ': . ,;·-:: ;'. ~ :':' >:-'·

Cont.X,'Over~?iall3roadcasting isall,ed by .tl}e Canadia11- Broa.dcastil}S Corpqre,t;.~,on, · .- ' .,'' ' • ,. .... :' '--'''!:.- .t".··.:·-.:._ -~~ :· '{- • : _: ,.: :.~---,, t-_, .• ':t .. ·~--:·. ·'•'. -~-_:·:!_,,,·--·,·

states:, '~The air b~lobgs· tQ :the,peopl.iil,: whQ .a;!'\7 entitl:ed ,to hE!r;~.r.: tht? :p;z:fncipal

points of view on all questions fYf importanc~u ~·· and adns: ,;''Thilf:'iif.r· 'mu~t· not fall

under the control of any individuals or groups influential by reason of their --~ ~ ~ .--~- ~ ' -"~- -.:; .

=g u.s. Communications Act of 1934 Section 3Q7(a) • .::c't. '·:Ff'~~a~'n/J} ·~'1i6rmatton .. ·:··.'t . A com.ptblation. Vol. II,; page 1.G.o. United Nations Publications 1950 XIV, 1.

/wealth

E/CN .4/Sub ,/l/156

wealth or special position".,

Some proponents of this ~r1nc1pl~ conglude that, logically, the radio waves : . , · _ - ~ . . . '; "r . .·. . . . _ ,.

belong to~ peoples 1 and that their use by different countries, _by official and . . - . ..-. '\ .. .

private enterprises, can only be temporary ~nd in accordance with 1ntel!'f18t1ona.l

agreements. The "Difuso~s del UrugJll3.y11, in a c.ommunication addressed to the

Sub-commission on Freedom of Information, declared:

"',rhe waves are public property and as euch lie outside the concept of sovereignty; this being the casal there should be recognition not of the right of. o.wn .. ership but onl~ of administration, in accordance with the Atlantic City Convention" \i.e. the International Telecommunication Convention, 1947). gj

An opposite position is taken. by ma1~ European countries and also by

Colombia where Article 1 of the Decree No. 1966 (of 1946) to regulate

Radiocommunication Servic(!ls stipulates: "All frequencies capable of being used.

for radiocommunicatione belong to the State".

According to some experts, the allocation of the radio waves ·to countries . ' .

should be limited in the same way as licences to radio stations, in order to

allow for a regular review of the use which has been made of this international

trust; the United Nations should, in their opinion, act ao licensing authority

and to empowered to cancel a licence in case of abuse.

Likewise, opinions are widely divergent with regard to the rights of the

press and the radio which, in fact, are subject to completely different rules

and regulations. This issue, which has always been of concern to legislators

as well as to broadcasters, has suddenly become a burning one, and has even

been brought be.fore an international forum. The Fourth Inter-American Radio ' .. '

Collf&renoe in Washington D.C. (1949), after lengthy debate, reconmended:

"that the American Governments promulgate the necessar<J measures· to give the expression of thought on the radio the same effective guarantees of freedom aE! the press enjoys" (see Appendix II).

On the basis of a detailed study, tne above-mentioned communication from

the Difuaoras del Uruguay concluded:

".Radio is merely a new mediwn. of information and 'as such, irt order fully to accomplish its mission, must have .the same safeguards, rights, duties and.. respons.ibilities as the press."

gj cf •. E/CN .,4/Sub .1/137.

/On the other

E/CN.4/Su"p~l/l56. Page-7· · ' ·· !' ·

... On the ot~er 1Ja9d,. the ~Pil?.~ettr o~ .t)le Tl:'13.nepo~ and Coilllllunications , .. . ,_, • 4 . - ' . •. ' ~:· : .• ; . ' 'J :. •' . -~. '

Co~~ttee of -t.he. Brazil,.ian Cqngress (Deputy Pe.droso, Jr.) took position against ' • ' • ' • I ~- ·, ,' • ' .. '~ • f • > •,· ~ ' ~- ' • •• - ' ' •

an equality of the radio and the pre~s 1 and against the claims of broadcasters to

the same degre~ of independence ~ith:r~gard ·to infoootion ~a~ that enjoyed by . ' ; ' . . . " . ,, ,· .

newspaper publishers. If the press _acts to the detriment of the national ·interest . . . ',· . . . . . . . . . .

· i.te- cJ1"9u,l,.~tion can be subjected to reetri_ctions; this would be difficillt in • - ·.,; c,.: . .

broadcasting which can reach all listeners iilllllediately and simultaneously and,

therefore, ~n his opinion, needs to be controlled.J./ · · ·

Tyro well-known specialiets, Herbert Bl'.'Uck~r and Jacques Bourquin~ suggest

the.t a more. clear distinction be made between ''Fre~dom of the Press", related

exclusively to newspapers a~d magazines, and "Freedom of Information" coverilnS

all media of mass communications, films~ radio_and_television as well as t~e

,press. The first asks tor recognition of radio and television, in the belief . ' .

that the new techn~ues expanding the range of our eyes and ears ,.,111 itnprove

jour:naliem's work; the second apparently favours the press and would give it a

privileged' position, arguing that the reader remains lna.ster of his reactions'·

,.,hereas the listener,·. and still more the v~ev.·er 1 is passive and "disarmed;, .2/ One conclusion emerges_ from public and parliamentary debates·, arid. 'from the

many articles,. studies and voluminous publications on this subjecy: the need

for clarifiqatioJ'l, which is particularly felt by t:'le legislator now wrid.n.g' new

laws for press and radio •

Rad_io cannot be. eD;tirely free and. has 1 .in fact, never beeri (mtirei.y free

from rules and .. regul.t\~.i~ns. The propagation of re:dio waves. b~yond ~tio~l frontiers and ~till more the i:imit~ed number dr frequencies available for ' ·'

broadcasting IllB-ke the licensing of stations and the COntrol Of their technical ,~ ' ' . " ' '

opere:tion imperative - but ·in m.Ost. cases the control ~xterids to programme

eervice.s and progr~ content; The need for considerable caiHtai' inve:atment

and the high c~st .of radio operation~ n~cessarily restrict•tb.e 'fiumber of: station

owners - but the .desire _to ~ttain the obj~~ttves of the enterprlae frequently

. :J cf. Minute~ Of the ·Na:tt~al Cbfls,I'eSB of Brazil, ·':ei& de \Te:n~iro; 19 'August 194

page 5968;..69) ~and "Braznt s 'Legislnt19n on l3roadaaatj.~". by Julise }mt9nio ·~. C}?.aves, 1Bu1l.et1n1 EUJ;'Q:f.lea.n Broadcasting Union, Vol. II. No. 5 ofl5 .January 195:

!z1 cf. "Freed~m ~f Info~tion" ·by :a. Brucker, ·N~~ ;cork,: ,The Ma~Dihi!'-n Cbmpany, 1949. ' .. '· .. ' ','.. .

'2/ of .•. "!a Liberte de la Presse" by J. Bourquin, Lausanne: Payot, 1950.

/leads to a

E/CN .4/Sub·.l/156 ·

leads to a conceritratioh Of· ownership and OGD.trol1 if not to .~opoly O~eration.

Econom.to dif'ficulties -and .the shortaBe of', radio .facilities 1 .which are almost

·general und are particularly serious in l~se developed areas J limit -both the.

transmission and reosption of radio programmes •. In many countries -there is but

one national :prcgra.'11:r.s arid on~y part of the day; t-he l.,istener, :depending mainly

on the nearest local station, has thus little progralllme choice,. unless lle tunes

in to·foreign ata~ionq.

Nowhere in lFd5.o ~-s cot:rplete freedom, eve:ywhere soti'le .kind of' obstacle

opposes the f'~e f.:Lo•; of information. S.ome ot these obstacles 1 howe.ver 1 could

easily be :removed or 0ot:J.d. at lca.et. ·be redtmed.. This would result in an ~diate

and considerable increase in both the guo.nt::.ty and the divel"sity of information

being transmUted by :.."edio, and received by listeners throughout the world .•

The problem of f:;."ee'dom of broadcast :i.nfo~tion is· of particular ~portance

as radio, contrary to the opinion of many people 1 is more . than simply a channel

for political propaganda. It is a moat valuable tool in education, an instrument

of technical assistance· and economic development, and an ideal means of cultural

exchange and intellectual co-operation.

Two tendencies are apparent: one, to restrict freeclom of inj'ormation,

through censorship ai:ld all kinds of controls both at the transmitting and

receiving points, which in the extreme may lead to the supp~ssion of foreign

news and to the jamming of foreign broa.dcast stations; and on the other ai.de, to

strengthen and expand the international co-o:pex-ation of broadcasters, to reach

beyond the national frontiers 1 ·primarily by means of· internatiQnal relays and

exchanges of programmes and programme material, of correspondents~ artiste and

specialized radio personnel.

Even a superficial analysis of the present situation discloses that in radio

broadcasting there are mo1-e and greater obstacles to freedom of infol'IIlation than

in any other f'ield of mass communicatibn. In most countries of the world, radio -

contrary to the pre~s- is controlled by governments and/or political parties.

Moreover, radio law and radio practice are not always concurrent; there are in

practice many more restrictions and controls than rules and regulations wou~d

ever reveal. Economic and social conditions 1 8:nd the deficiency of equipment

· and of trained radio persotmel, :further aggravate the pl;"obleme and make their

'solution extremely difficult.· ·

/However,

E/CN .• 4/Su.b .,l/156 !_,. {/'

f:.=·; '

However, the obstacles to the transmission and reception of information by

radio, or at least some of them, have to be overcome if freedom of information is

to prevail. There cannot .be freedo~ of information in the world ~s long as

radio - the most powerful of the mass media and the medium which reaches further

and reaches more people than print or film - is restricted to the extent it is

today. The necessity for taking constructive measures increases in the same

proportion as the :range of radio broadcasts, now calling to tens of millionS of

illiterates as well as literates, and penetrating interior regions as well as

the urban centres of the countries /J The urgency of the problem is further

exemplified by the advent of television, in view particularly of its impact and

far-reaching influence.

§} A characteristic· example is the recent development of broadcasting in Brozil. Wbereas radio ood ·been confined, until 1945, to mel'61y a few cities and t:.o four ot tlle twenty states, it .. 1a now F;pr€adir.:'8 throughout the countr-y and to the 'hinterland' where hundreds of stations were established in 1949 and 1950 -Cf. "Radio and Television in E-ra.z11." b;y: Arno Hqth, International Public Opinion Research 1 Inc. 1 New tc:: 'L:k 7 1951 (in preparation). .

· /I • LEGAL AND

. E /aN~~ /sub .J;/156 ' ,·, .. ,

I. LEGAL AND A 'DMOUSTFATIVE PROBLEMS . " ' ' J: .' - .. '-\ ' ' ·.Organization and. control of radio

The fitet group of radio problema affecting :freeddln·:.of Information oOnaiete

.. pri;narily of legal and admini~trative questions. Most· of thek are ;relate:d to ,_, ~ ' '

the .organization, regulation, ownership and control or' radio operatiOns:·

1.· .·:Radio. rules and practi~es affectlp.g:i'reedom of information : . ' · - "i ,.\ I , : · '~ ' · · • ' • '· •

4'

•·. Many. COUl),tries have specific radio laws' regulating the establishment. ()f '· ' ... ' • ';, ' 1 .;,

e.tationa and the. use of frequencies for :radiocO!Iliil,unic~tions in general and .radio . -. '~ . ·.• ~ ~ . ' \

broadcasting .in :P~rricular.. They .oonta1n deta.ll.ed provi'3ions conce~ing the

ownership and operation of these stations, thc.iJ:• o'b1 tc;c:.~i.o~3 1 aLd their cont,rol -# r"" ,. ' ' - ' •·

and the extent of control * by covernment a.utho . .:-:'!.t.lf:s ,..L.i !•lost ;::.::.d.lo laws

establish or confirm a state t:r.onvpoly of rad::c·:;vwc:.;;cnlcat;l.::rGa 1 cccilsionally

enabling the government to grant private perconr; o:c ente::"'-rL36:1 p~n-mil:3sion to

operate radio stations, U..."1C..er ce:r~fJa.in condit1 c:.l.:< and. for a li::r::;.tr;}d. pe:dod of

time. However, contra:"Y to the r-egulations gc-rernlr;g proGs a:~d fUm enterprises,

the decrees relating to r11d.!o se.Ulom include an"J d!rec~;t(lns con~>7:.ming the

gathering, selection and t2:-ausmis8ion of inform·'1tio11 o:.t• ti'Je co:ltrol and

censorship of news prcg:;."aJ'nmad. 'J.*here are som.e exce:Jp":.Lons, in Sweden and

Switzerland for inf:ii.:ietnce, but they 1-e. t.her l'".'O\'e the rule.

In re.C..io as well aa in t:he press, S:2Df~'.~:?:~':E ts a question of great concern.

Rules and practices vary consid.e:;:a'bly ir:. d.sg:~.:;;l::l and l1m1 t: in one country, the

law prevents the government from exerc:sl~g any kind of censorship, in another,

the government in cha.rge of radio operations .• distributes only information t-rhich

it considers adequatl::l; here restrictive provisions may never be used, there,

censorship is strictly applied.

Information relating to radio ceneorsMp is scarce. The replies of

governments to the Request for Information, provide, however, examples of the

approach to this problem in various countries.

1f · Information ·conct.;trning radio law~. in varique· qquntrtes · is bontained in· Freedom of !Dfo~t1on •.. A Gomptiation •. Vol, ~; Chapters II and VI. \nited Nations. ;J?ub11oat16n6. l:950 .xry 1 1~· ''voi~r:-r of the. pub~.tcatibn 'in.<?'ludea radio .+egialation ot. Aut;tralia, Belgia.n Qongc), co1?l!lb~~ .Df3nm:d.~k, ·France, India, Sweden, Swi t zer~~rid ,. Turkey 1 United ltip.gdom· of . Gf66. t?·· · Bri ta'in and-. Northern Ireland and United states of Amerioa. ·See also doel..ln:Wnta E/CN .4/Sub .1/107 & Addenda. /In the United

F}j Cf. FreE;;dom of Information, Vol, I, Chapter VI.

E/CN.4/Sub.l/156

In the United States of America, the Communications Act of 1934 (Section

326) provides that "nothing in this Act shall be understood or construed to give

the Commission {i.e. the Federal Communications Commission) the power of

censorship: lover the ·ra:diocomunica tiona or s igna.ls transmitted. by any . radio

station", and that "no regulation or condition shall be promulgated or fixed by

the Commission which shall interfere with the right of free speech by means of

radio communication." The Chairman of the Federal Communications CoimJJ:ission,

established by the CoimJJ:unications Act, declared with regard to its application

that "the tremendous mechanism of radio broadcasting (in the United States)

consisting now of 3,000 aural stations and 100 television stations, wiLl not

· realize its potential as a real instrument of democracy unless we are zealous in

assuring that all sides of controversial issues are fully and fairly

represented. n2/ Many countries abolished censorship after World War II. Several governments

stated in their replies to the Request for Information that there was no

censoi:'ahip whatsoever in peacetime. In some countries, such as Australia, the

Philippines and the United Kingdom the law confers on the Government the ~ight to

censor radio programmes, but this right - the Governments stated - ha~ not been · 10 1

enforced.~ · .

Other governments gave information concerning existing censorship. Radio

broadcasts in the Netherlands, for example, "are subject to repressive

supervision; the Government Commissioner may temporarily deprive speakers, who

·have exceeded the bounds, of the right to speak before the micriphone." W In

the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan "censorship. is practised under the Defence

Regulations, 1939. It is still in force on outgoing foreign press cables and on

incoming foreign news and publications".W The Government of Iraq declared:

"The Directorate-General of Propaganda receive the telegrammas of foreign news

from the various world news agencies against a yearly subscription rate, censor

2./ Cf. Report of a meeting on "Trends in Censorahip11, sponsored by the National

Council of Freedom from Censorship, American Civil Liberties Union, in New York City, May 1951. Broadcasting Magazine, Washington, D.C •. 14 M,ay 1951. page 29. ' "·

Cf •. FreeQ.om of Information. Vol. I, Chapter VI, pages 129; 134 and 136. • • "> • • ..

.!lli·, page 134.

Cf. Doc~nt E/CN .4/Sub .l/107/Add.3 of 15 June 1950 (page 5). /them, distribute

E/CN.4/Sub.l/156 Fa~ 12

them, distribUte. \-lpat is a?-equ~~e. :to the daily .Papers or bro~dcast thell;l. from the

broadcasting stati~n~- w~~ch t.a.·~~tached ~o it."W

, . In pract.ice, and in a great number of c?untriea, var,ious obstacl.es obstruct

m0re or less. seriously .the free flow of infoJ:.'l;llB.tion by. means of ra.dio broadc~sts,

The. operation of stations, and the gathering, selection and transmission ?f _news

are very often closely cont):"'lled and subject to restrictlona • . '·.• .. '.

~ikewise, rules and regulations concerning the import and export of radio \ . '

material, althpugh ratner precise, do not give all the details, or at least need . . close examina:tion as to their practical effects. High tariff's 1 sales taxes 1 '1

.,, ·'·

quotas and our:rency res.trict1ons make these rules more stringent than tpey may

at first a.pp. ear. , 141pa.rticular. ly ::.!1 in countries where imports are dependent upon

special licences.

An incre.~sing number of.governmente realize.the urgent need to simplify

and to rewrite their national radio laws and to give radio a new statute

. covering all ser"i.ces and taking into account the new techniques of word and

image transmission as well as recent international conventions and agreement,~.

A comprehensive study of the many and complex problema involved~E2fand of theL

. impact on ~reedo~ of information, would thus be of great assistance to all

concerned with the organization and regulation of radioconmunioations., and would

fl:leo be :.of im.ediate practical value and oonsAquence. l '

. In eYery .c~se rules and Practices ne.ed. t,o be considered together since only ' . ~ ! ' . . . •

an enquiry into the written as well as the u;n\·Tritten law will provide a clear ' ' • • ' ' • ~ • • • t .

picture of the degree of freedom or the degree of restriction of information ', • • I , • ' • ~-~ ' , ,"}· ', ' • '

:transmitted and receive~ by radio •

.. ·' ., '

Cf •. Freedom of Infq~tion. Val.~~ Chapter VI., page 133.. ,

Cf. "TraO,e Barrie'rs to, Know;t~~·. A MEmtial 6f ·regUlations afrec ting. · educational, soient1f'1o and culturd.l materiuls", UNIDCO 1 Paris· 1951 •.

See "T'opios for Study and Research1.' belbw',· pagel:r B5 .. 103.

/2. O~ficial and

2. Official and private control of mdiocommunication

E/CN~4/sub·a/156

The problem of control, ownership and operation of radio facilities and

services is of decialve importance· since the orcanizational structure does not

only airect the internal administratiOn but every phase of planning and operation

from the decision where to locate rievr radio stations to progra.tll!lle policy, and

to 'the attitude of the broadcaster t6wards his audience. In fact, the principle

of organization, the "system"' determine's the development and the pr~eent'

situation oi broad.casting in every country~ Moreover, it has a .direct bearing

on the handling of' all problems cOnnected with the gathering, the selection and

presentatiori, the transmission ·and d1et:r·1but1ob.' of news •

. The development of radio broadcasting· has led to the evolution of three main

·principles of organization;·

1; Private ownership and operation • by individual broadcasterfi and

commercial enterprises, or by educational institutions, religious

associations and other bodies;

2. ~tate ownership and operation - by an official broadcasting

company, a government department or agency, primarily the

Administration of Posts, Telegraphs ~nd Telephones or the

Ministry (service) of Information; ·

3. Ownership and operation by a ~bli~!itl COrPOration placed

under government supervisiOn but enjoying a certain autonom;y in

ita adniinist!J1ation 'and prograi!liile services }i.l Although vridely differing in their:radio system, most countries have adopten one

or the othor of these principles. Some have combined different elements, i.e •

. private and official operation of radio stations, or have divided the·

responsibility for technical and prog~ services between a government··

depS:rtment, prefe.rably the postal· administration,. and broadcasting companies

either of an official or semi-official nature. There are also several special

regimes, such as the operation of commercial stations arid networks by a

government agency, or the operation of programme· services by listener aa€Jociations

moat of which have political or religious aims.

Cf. "La structure de la. Badiodiffua1on" by Arno Buth, Jo~rnal des. Telecommunications, ITU, :Berne, April and June to September 1940; ''RadioB.eute und Morgen" by Arno Huth, Zurich: Europa Verla~, 1944; and Memord.ndum

. on "Radio Broadcasting and Freedom of Infonnationn, E{Conf .6/30.

/Broadcasting

E /C'it.4/Suh.i/rj6

Broadcasting orga1li~u~~bn~ · c,a'Q.~+:B~Q .\l~Jp::_ottp~l}CC_om+na~:~o:· the:. crlteria of

single or mu)-tiple owners}1ip1 -~.e., th_e op_eratton of ra.d~o ste.tions. by an . . . ' . . ' .. . . ' ' . . .· ' ; ' . ~-

.. enterp.rise entrusted. with a m~opoly 1 o.r the op~ra tton by d;l.fferent,. and frequent

corn1)etitiv:e se,rvices .W ·Whil~ multipl~ ent~~:ris.es ar~·-·~rimarily ~rivate, some ~. ' . '' ~ " . .. .. . ·'. . .

countries, ~~;~. for e)Cample, Conada, Austr.a,lia ~nd Brazll have both private and ' . ~ . . . . ' . .' . . . . .

official-stations. While monopoly opo.r,e.tion is particularly characteristic of ' • :< I - >• '

coverpment~owned services, monopoly rights are in.several countries exercised by ' . . . . . . . . ' . :

. public utility c.orpo:ratione1 and even .. private br<:>adcas.tlng compani~s •. .. '' '· . . ·'" . . . . . . ,. ~. ' . . . . ' . . ' .

In. t:J.ddi tion to the_ domestic: brOf;l.~casting services there are a ~reat ma1;1y

international broadca~ting ae:t..rices,· di~fe!'9nt in their.a.paracte:r, thei.r purpose

·.-~and policy,. Their activities are not aimed at the.listeners of. the country in ' • ' • • , I· ' , I, ,

which the stations are located but at listeners abroad. An.increasing n~ber

of national broadcasting orga:nizations have today 1mport3,nt foreign divisions . ' ..... .. .. '. . ·." . . ordepartments, in CMrge of. programmes to foreign.countries .and generally under

' ·. ... . . "

gavei"llliiBnt control; occasionally 1 as _for example, in th~ case, of .the "Voice of

America" 1 .the .government. itself direci;J,y opera tefi! this. se.rvice .using it as an ' . . . .~ ·, ·... . . . .

instrum.entof ;foreign policy. There.a;re also several special ser.vices, the

principal. of, which are the. United Nati~:>ns. Radio, operat~d by a Division of the

Department of Public Infonnation, and "Radio Vatica.na", the .voice, of the Vatican. ' . , ~ ..

The question of.monopoly is one of the most important w~i;rh respect to . . . ' . .

freedom. of lnfonnation, all. the more a~ monopoly of ope.ration, w:hether private

or official, frequently means, .as an en~ resuJ,.t, mopopply o~.information. In

the cas~ of an offi(}ial station, the c:ent.rol. is exercised .by the government. agency

l_'eSP,ons i ble for radiocommunica tiona and b~oadcaetlrl{3 or, in .the l13.st, iasu_e,. by

the parlia.me"P,t granting· the .credits required for -the oper.ation of ~he e,e:rv~ce.

In case of private stations, ·thG con~ro.l is exercised mo.inly by :the lic.et¥Jing

authorities, for example the. Federal Cpmmunications Commission, .of the .~itod

States ·or the Department of Pof!tB and. ~elegraphs of Braail, and by the, investors

of capita.l who • according ·to the freqt.~eiltlyt;eatab.lished principle of "money

.. means control" supervise .and eventually see,k. to influence the selectiqn .·

Cf. "Droit de l'Infonnation'1 by Femand Terrou and Lucicm Solal, Publication No. 607.

~. ~ ~. ; ! .

tJNESCO

/of news

of news programmes and material~ ·

E/CN .. 4/Sub.l/156 ·

An important factor in the evolution towards centralized control ia the

multiple. ownership of diff.erent media of communication, press and radio, films

and · tel0vision. Hundreds of stations in the United States and a considerable

number of stations 1n Canada and Latin America are owned and operated by

newspapers or newspaper chains. Motion picture companies have become .increasing]J

interested in broadcasting and television operations, as exemplified by the

proposed merger of the American Broadcasting Company, operating a network'with

289 affiliated radio stations and 63 television stations, and the United

Paramount Theaters In:c. controlling 650 cinemas in the United States. The

influence and participation of motion picture enterprises in radio will become

more and more manifest ~~i th the advent of television; already, many television

stations are ~torking in close relationship with film producing companies • .!§/ Another typical example of multiple ownership is the operation Of radio. and ·.•

television stations,. motion picture studios and theatres by the leading· Mexican

broadcaster, or the opera.tion of twenty-eight newspapers, five magazines and a

press agency, of the main radio network ( 17 stations with 24 trenami ttere) and

two television stations by the principal publisher in Brazil.

It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss the B.dvantagea: and . '

disadvantages of monopoly operation of broadcasting. Its effect on freedom of

information frequently depends upon l!li:lny other factors such as, for example, the

political and lntellec:tual. maturity of listeners and the ecOnomic and social

development of a given country or area.' The influence of th'e different systems

Ori the international transmission and reception of intorma.tion has, as ·far as

we know, never been studied ·1ri detail.W"

According to a recent survey by Jerry Falrbanks, Inc .• the video film · industry is producing 100 hours more films a year ~or televi~ion than is now made for the theatrical motion picture industry. Twenty-seven programmes are photographed especially for television and shown weekly on the te.leviaior~ stations in the United States, 1.e; a total of 19 ]lours of f11J:D. produ,e,ed each wee~~ Cf. Radio Daily, New York, 25 May 1951. . ··

. ' '

Two reports, however, should be mentioned here: 11Government and: .Mass Communications" by Zechariah Chafee, Jr. (Reports from the Cotnmission on Freedom of the Preas, Chicago: The University of Chicago Preas, 1947) and "British Broadcasting: A Study in Monopoly*' by R.H. Coaae, (The London School of Econom.1.cs and Political Science, thiversity of London, Longmans, Green and Co., London and Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., l950). Both, however, examine only the situation in a particul.ar country, the United States and the United Kingdom respectively.

/3. In~emttonal

. .. ' .. ~ " ~ . ' .. ~.... .

E/cN.lt/sub.l/156

" ••' ~ . ~ . . Internat1onal-oma'I\1~a-pion ot :radto_,.·- int~~tional f'-gree~nts .and recommendations ' · · ·

The trans~ss~on and:rec~ption or, info~~ion, and ~he interchange of

broo.dcaer~. progrannnea 1 i,a largely -4-etermi-p.ed 1>3: the 1nt_erna.tional dietributi~ of .· ~ ~ ' . ' ; : ,,

radio freqllenci~a:and, in particuJ.a:r;,_the numbt3?; of frequencies available for

broadCHi~ting,. The a~ortage of h~gh- f~q!Janc ie~ {short waves) anQ. the failu~ .• . . . . '.. . .. ;_ .. ·. . . ' ~-- .~· ·.': t: ..

-j~;f. efforts to establish a world p;tan for high freq.uency broadcasting seriously . ' . . . ~ ·" ;-• . .

affect .. the free- flow of 1nformati9f1 •. The chaos wh:lch presently exists in . . . ' ' . . . . . ' . '': . . ~ . ' .

international, .broadcast t~nsmissiona, . and _wJ;lich. becomes aGgravated every day, ' ~ ,. . ·. . . ' . ' ' 't . "' .. . •. • ' ·. . • ·. • . ·: . " ·.:·; .•

prevents a great, many prog~s from reaching their destinati~ 1 and PrE?Vents

rdlli;IU:! of people f~~m, ~ceiVinS·. t}le ~~a~ions .th~y Wi~h to lfst~n tc/~ : ' . ·. •. . The eol.ution of thi~, probl~m- -. ~~9cesafully. atteiilpted by three;

Int~rp.ati?nal High Frequen<?Y. B~casting Conf'e~nces~ and. by p~olonged · . . . . .,.·.. ....... ·. .

.,meetings of tecJ;mical oxpe~a - is of vital 1m.portance for both. national and

intematio~l b~adcaating services, ~~ of. whic~· ~re equaily interested· in . ' . ' ~ . ~ ,.

the use o~ short wa~es, i.e .• the wavelexl.gtha moat suitable :for long~·:diata'nce

tranami-~aio~.W __ Dii'ficult pol~t:i.cal, .economic arid social problema, in addition • • . • ,t • '. ; ••

to technical and legal_ ones,_ a~ related to· the problem of frequency allocations.

They are all tlw more .. complex aa abort waves, which know no boimdartes, are

channels of internatl~nal lnfoJ:W3.tion and: propaganda; thelr 11 possess1on"·~ · · therefore, at~hens t_he inte:r.nati~l .infl~ence a'n~ P?~itlon of an,y country •

0n th~ other }lanQ., the _allocation and use of either a la~ger or smaller number

of h.tgh fr~quenciea for the broadcasting of inte~ti~al prog~a wili promote

or limit ·the i~ternational tre:ns~ission of new~. The adoption-of a shortwave '' .

'· . ,' :·~ . ' .· .· . ' .... ·. ·: .,,

broadcasting plan - which, due to the propagation of short waves, should

necessarily be a worl_d plan • and its administration on behalf and in the- ·

·, ~intere.at ~i ali n~tion8 ~ot+].d ~t}:y .~dve.~c~ 'the ii1t~rcl;lange or: inf~imtiOti and

· programm.ea·, ·and :thus 'the internationaF·c'O~operation of broodcaat~rs •. ·· ~--. .. '.~· . "' - :"

•'

?Jl/ Atlantic City, ·1947; Mexico Clty, ··1948-9-;-. and Florence -:. Rapallo, 1950. w . See': :Chapter IV, section -on Shortwave-. (High F:requenc~) Jlrqa.Q.cast'ing,.

pages 67 . .;.70 ~ ·' · ·- · . . ~ · · · , .· . , : · . . . . ·

gy ;sea .also Doc~~t E/C~ .~/su~_.l/Uo. · '.:r

;.,~ 'j~ib_ ·· .. :~:.

. E/CN ~4 /Sub'. '1/156 ·

·· '.Radio oOnimtinl'cttt:L·on& ave~)=resu~.ted\~at ... present· by ·a e.eriea of intemat.ional

agreemelri.tei ana··regulatib ;w-ht:Oh·:p,rimrily: aoncem the allocation and the. use of

frequencies. At the :present t!me; broadcasting and television are governed by

the.fciilawing treaties·~· · .·>· 1

,,. L The Intaniational Teleeo~ica~ion::Conventton; Atlantic City , ... l:-947, considered as the "Charter' of inte1national radiooommub.ioations!

2.. The Radi.o Regillationa'annexe.d to the Intemationat-. Telecommunication Convention (1947);

3. The Inter-Amer1can.Radiocommunicat1ons Convention, Havana, 1937, which shall be replaced by .the Convention .. of Rio de. Janeiro·, 1945, when a sufficient number or countries have ratified the document;

4.. The Inter .. Amer1can Radio Agreement, Washington, D.C., 1949;

5. The European Broadcasting·Convention, Copenhagen, 1948, wh.ich entered .into force on 15 March 1950; ·

6. The North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement (NARBA), Havana, 1937, to be replaced by the new agreement signed in Wash).ngton, D.C. 1 1950; .

7. Several regional agreements, such as those c6ncluded between the South American countries or between the countries of Central America. ggj

The International High Frequency Broadcasting Agree~nt was adopted in

April 1949 in Mexico City by 51 countries. However, neither the u.s.A. nor the

U.S.S.R. signed the document, and the: conference at Florence-RapaLlo, intended

to supplement the basic frequency all~ation ~lan by other (seasonal) plans for

the distribution of shortwaves failed to reach an agreement.

Besides the International TelecOD'IllUnication Union (ITU), which. a~nisters

· ·the Atlantic City Convention and is responsible for radiocomrnunicatiqns as well

as for' telegraphy and telephony, several inteinationa~ broadcasting: ~r.ganizations/ :- '1 .•

are playlng an important role in radio develo~nt. This app:J..,iee no.t_,onJ.y to -.

-the organizations .composed of a large number of m tiona).; bro13-doasyl~ !3ervices

but also to the aaa'ociations, institutions and groupe interested 1~ specific

aspects of broadcasting a:ctivit1ea such as 'scientific research, rt;tdio law and

regullltio~s '· · radt6' jbum1iltS:tti/"rel\1gtous: programmes,, or ~le!Jsion·, developments .. i._.. ' ~ . . . • : . . ,· ' .. _. ;i

ggj See also Document E/CN.4/Sub.l/110,.

/All of these

E}cN .4·/Su'b •·l/i56 ·

All o~ these organizations have, to a greater or lesser extent, contributed to

tbe ~tudy of the _many and complex radio problems, to the 1mprov~nt of " . .

professional standards, and to the implementation of internatiorn;U. and regiQnal

. ar.:;~eements. Most important is the fact that they are:working infavour of . . . internat.ional co-operation: sl,hd of an international exchange of information and .... :;; ,

exp_erience •

There 9.re, at present, three international organizations of broadcf.l.sters and

broadcasting services, one in the Western Hemisphere and tW'o in• Europe:

· ]nter-Amartcan Association qf Broadcaetere~Havf:ma tAssociacion Inter-Americana de ~diodifusior, .. ..H..IR) comprising twenty associations of private broadcaste-rs in North; Central and South. America;

Inte,rnational BroadcastinG Organizat,iOJ:!1 ITague torgani&ation Internationals de Radiod1ffusion - OIR) compris,1ns the broadcasting services of Eastern Europe j

Europe~n :B~adc:asting Union, Geneva (Union Europeenne de Radiodiffusion - UER) comprising the broadcasting services of western Europe ·.bf North Africa and the Near East .. ,,·

and five services

• Among the me:ny organizations representing special interests, particular

. men~ion should be made of the International Radio Scientlfic Uniqn 1, ~hich t . .. • ~

endeavott.ra to advance fundamental scientific k11owledge; the Com1terlnt~xnational . ~ ' '

de -la Radio-Electric ita, primarily concerned with the legal aspects of ra.dio . . . . . - ' • ~ • i, c • '

broadcasting; the Federation Internationals des Joumalistes Rad1opl1on1qp.es,

wbich comp:risee newscasters ·and ·radio conunenta tors; the As soc ia,tion C,atholig,ue

Internationals dela Radiodiffttsion, devoted to the promotion of religious and ~ ·. . ' • ' - . , tl ;

pal;"ticula:rly Catholic broadCasting; and the Comite International de Television,

~etablished by a group of eminent television experts. There is 1 :fjurther, an

i,m.portant international organization interested in amateur activities and which \_ " ' . "::• · .. ·~· , ?· ' I • • , • .

has many pioneer~ng experiments to its credit: the International Ama.teur Radio

UniOn, a federation riomi)osed ·of radio clubs and associations from 37 countries

and grouping about·· one huhdreci thousand members·. I~ •

,: . • • ' ~' f •·•. :- • '\,

The role and influence of these' 'and other international organiza~iona having t - '. .,

related interests in radiocommunications and broadcasting, and in particular

/their activity

the1~·~ctiv1ty with regai'-d to·· freedoti(O:f'1ilrorma't1<>n and to t~· intel"'natt<ma+,;-:

exchange of progl"8lD1Jl8s and informa.tiorl, certainly deserve attention. · :-tl.<'

Any stu~ of the."radtb'. pj.-oblems affecting fteedom: of information mus.t e.laa

considert·he mo~ than t.wo ~~ :mw;t1i~tera1 and'bilatel:'Sl agreements.

concernine culturai ~ia~i~s and ·esl)ecially those 'Concerning the OO·d~l$tion qf ))~dc~ting services. .it should further cons;ide:r. the vart6us reeolut'ions

. Jl;fld ~COtzmendatione urging the removal of the Obstacles to th~1o/~e· ffoif' i)i> ·:~.!·:· . '~nro:rma.tion and the premoti.on of tntemationa:l programma ex.cha~s~, ,·Vi.ltch :a.re':'.~

ip.cluded in intemat;~·:ma.~ tele~~tae.t10n and radio ooD.entians 'and' ·agreemehts. . . ' '

.. , , .... " .. ~1fteen y~ars ago, tw,o important 1nternat1onal' conferences became··t!:i!a::tmea'

~;y t'he mi.suse of re.diofo~ liOlltU• propaganda, and called on gove~rits tci·lise · ..... neW'. ·. .. · · . .. . . tQ.~/me.dium. as an instrument or international und.erstand1ng and peace. ·Tlie'':ffrat

~ttem~t, and stnJ. the most impo~t one, 1n this direction is the Intema:Bfbna.l

C~nvent1on Co~cemins the Use or !readoaat1ss tn the Cau~e of Peace, adoptait; te ·:·' ~neve on 23 s~~~~~e;: l/)36.@ T~ ~ame year, in Buenos Aires, the Ihtf}~~ \:(r

, -:~'·American Conferepce, for ~he Maintenance of Peace adopted a .resolution· re6o~dim .,.~that the Gove~nts of America ••• shall e~d~avou~ to encourage, in raaioJ.,}~; . -~~adcaetins,. the in~lua.ion of themes relative to the benefits of 'peabe· ana' 'the

• :t, ·"r' ,, '

pe~ceful settl~ment of. international controversies, the scientific, intell~t~al \•• anQ... material progress of Nations and the promotion of a' spirit of mt.itUal . '-r .\

.. hund.erstanding and mo~l disarmament. of-.p~~ples'1 ; it also recommended the .,,,; .... ,

elimination of broadcasts "that may dist~rb the peaceful relations between ·. ;.;,

peoples or wound national sens1b1l1tiee of ·listeners in a.nqthe.r couritcy".

(See Appendtx· !I). .. ; : ; · .:c.''':.

The hope that the 1war of waves' could be halted and be~ter internatibnal

relatiOns prOJilOted by_.mea.n,s Of a c·onatructive use of radto 'and the 'close co~ "' • --· • ~- 1 ~ • • ,"' • • • • :~,. : .• • _:

operation of broadcasters has never been abandoned ,;. at least nev~r. :by the. . . . ,, .. ·;, . .. .

broadcasters themselves. ·Although consid-ered by many and even b;r some of its

original sponsors. a,s obsolete, the GeneVa. B~6[J.d:6-ast1ng Convention:has in fact

not been abrogated. The Ag~ment- of.l4.J~~:·.l9~1 bet~cm the Oro~ anc1 the

Swedish Broa:d.caating Corpo:ratitn:f 6i>. BrOa.acaet _ProgreJmD.1rl.g ·ev&n contains a special " "~ •;·\ . .: :.·I • • ~ ·. . , .~.

~ Cf. League of Nations Treaty Series, Vol. CLXXXVI page 301 ff. and Docum.ent '':i · · .. E/CN~4/pub.J./l~ of l March 19501 which reproduces the complete text.

/paragraph

E/CW~4/Sub .1/156

I

) ....... ' ' J. .

~graph providi~ for the strict observance of t~e matn provisions or the

Convention:

, Art. 1 (5) "The :Broadcasting Corporation shall conform strictly to the provisions of Articles 1 to 5 of the International Convention of 23 September 1936 concerning the use of broadcasting in the cause of peace. For this purpose the Broadcasting Corporation snall keep i tee 1f informed of the States to which the said Convention applies."

The Geneva Convention also continues to inspire similar proposals, such as the

Re.solutione submitted by UNESCO to the International High Frequency Broadcasting

gonre.renoe (Mexico City 1948-9) and to the Fourth Inter-American Radio

'conference which was combined: with the ITU - :Region 2 Radio Conference (Washington,

D.C. 1949). The first, adopted with 51 votes against one and with 9 abstentions,

recommends "that the frequencies to be assigned by the Conference should not be

used for purposes contrary to mutual understanding and tolerance" and "that all

appropriate steps should be taken to the end that this resolution be followed

· by practical measures on the part of the Governments concel:ned", The. ~eeS)nd ..

proposal, adopted unanimousl:r, ·recommends :'that radio and especially broadcasting

services be uti~.ised in the interests of paace, in order to increase inte~t~onal

co-operation and mutual understanding among peoples." (See Appendix II). These

resolutions co~ld serve as a starting point for a revision of the Geneva

Convention or a new International :Radio Convention which broadcasters in many

countries hope the United Na tiona and UNESCO will take the ini tia ti ve to prepare

and to propose without further delay.

Freedom of information has since long been a major concern to the American

nations. In March 1945, in Mexico City, the Inter-American Conference on

Pr.obleme of War and Peace 1 reconmended:

''1. That the American Republics recognize their essential obligation to guarantee to their peoples free and impartial access to sources of information.

"2 • That, having this guarantee in view 1 they undertake, upon the conclusion of the war, the earliest possible abandonment of those measures of censorship,· and of control over the ser~ices of press, motion picture and r~dio, which have been necessary in wartime to combat the subversive political tactics and espioriage activities of the AXis states.

!' •. ' .. /"? .· . That the

.. -_

.. ' E /CI\!' •. 4/sub'..l/156

"3. Tl1at the Govern:ll!:'Jlrts of the America.."l. Republics taka measures, iudividually and in co~operation witQ 70nB anoth~r, to. promote a free e::x:ctange ·of ir...fonna tiori among their· peoples.

"4. That t.he American Re:p1.ibl:i..ce, having e.ocapted 'the principle of free t:,ccaes to infcn"Jation for all, me.lre every effort to the end that when a judicial o:r.dor in the world is assured, th~re my be established the prinGiple of free transmission a::ld reception Of. info:rn.a.tion, oral or wri·t;ten, published in books or by the press,

· broadcast by radio or dif!seminated by any other means, UJ.11.er proper responsibility and without need ·of pre.vious censorship, as is the case with private corree:rponc.a:;:J.qe by letter, te legra.m, · or any other· means in time of peace • 11

Referring to these decisions the Fourth Inter-American Rad:lo Confere+:lc.e

in Washington, 1949, approved a "~acomm~~~:_FelatipS to Freedom of Ir.formation

in Radiocommuntcatic:u." which, as mentioned above 1 proposed that "the American ~ .. ----- ' ·.

Governments promulgate the necessary meast~ee to give the e~pression of thought

on the· radio the same effective guarantee of freedom ~a the press en.joys" and ,-- '

that they "adopt the measures necessary for lo1tering the cost of eery-ices to

radio bro~dcasting stations ~ria. of radio transmitting and receivi~ equipment.,. . .

and especially the elimination of fiscal charges which burden the developn:!l9nt

a;d use of these facilities for the expression of thought".

: Th~ Assotribly ·.also· approveC. a Resolution . cc;mcerning .Freedom o:f

Bfitiiocommu.-lkatioh, 'basad on a similar te::x:t in. t.ne Inter .. American Ra.dto Agreement, -- - . - .-•''' '

Santiago de Chile, ig4o;. to ~trees its importance ~d impact, the. Assembly ' !'•• . . • • . • '

decided to give it the for ofa"Declaration", of a statement of. pr:j.noiple, al;ld to

place it ahead of all other resolutions and roco~endations included in the · . ' . . . .. ' . . ~ ' .

Intor-American Radio Agreement, 1949. Declll.r.ing "that the American cotu1triea ••••

affirm the prinCiple of freedom of radiocom.munication, particularly in those.

services connected with the dlssem.i,nation of information to the public"' it: . . . :' ~- : . . ' - .

urges that each of them "should take such steps to put into effect and apply !'" • • • • ·- • ~ •• ' ,\. ' • ' .

this principle in practice as 1Ilf!J:Y be practicable and consistent with its internal

lega.l. provisions and the applica~le international agreements." (See A~pendlx 'tr.) An efficiont means to promote freedom of infpr.tllfition is the interchange of

' ' . ' . ~

r~io progre~~· Both the Second In~er-Ame.rican Radio Conference in

Santfago de Chil~, .J940 1 ~d the . Inte:r,-Ame;rican Te lecommunc ia tion Conference in

Rio de Janeiro, 1945, ad<:>pwd specific reco~n.dations to .thi~. efff}'ct.24/

• • • •• ' ' • ~ • ' • ' : ; ' • .• • _i •.

':::·4/ Recomendation IV in the Santiago Agr~·ement, and. Article. 25 in the .Convention ·of Rio de Janeiro. . · .· ' ·

;\.fi th reference

f<" ! .. ,..,~ 4· /o, .. lb 1/.1."'.1 ·6 :'i'f~\vJ..•*:. l~.~ . • ·' _, .. PagE=i ·22 : . · · .

. . . • .\.. ' ...

With referenc~ ·to these;:provisione.and..: a~ that ~liey hS:Ya. on~:,.~r~,;~lly been implemented, .'the .wae}tlDgt,op cbP:f''iteD:~~ .. ; 1949, ·~p~~~lyed. to ~};·:~:·:~sent appeal. to . ~e ~~~~·i~tra :tions. and br9a~cast1ng,"orsa.niza;ttons of th& !'American

~·· • ' ' . • • . • • ~ ' 1, . • '. . ·:

na tioil.s. 1n:,0 ()~de,~. ~ •• that thay should· adopt the necessary lin~ appro:priEJ-1:.~·+ measures. ~·~to 'fi?-~ens~ry as sotin as\,ciafiibl~ ~t~e· interch~~:·:9f·p~oe;~; and

. ' ' ' ' ... ' ' ' ' '· . . ' ' . . ' '~ . •' '·' . '. . '. ', '· cultural. ";)roadcal;'fting mteriai of l:lrtistic ,· educational:, acientff1c' historical

and int6fmtivc diara.C.ter,· ai·'tiati6~i ~~d ~nternatio.~l ,i;nte~at, .f~r the f , ' I • • "; ; ,,; • ' ' ' ' '~ '' ' ~ .,

re-tranem~ssi® ·thoraor'.• · fSee Ap.~ndix II.)

Many cultural agreemor:te conta~n reference.s to . the media, :O,f ipfo,~.;~ion and

to ·the oxohange of :tnf'ol'l:lla.tfdn throtigh,presa, films and racii.q broadcasts .... J.i<?t:e

· specific;: and.' thus. trequeritly of greater tn'actlc~l effect, '~e-. th~ biiataral . • ' • >· --. ;

!!!:SI'~Inents l:ied~·a'~n_broadcastirig service~ which have. be~n cpncluded, during rec~nt ·y~ars-1.n ari iricrefising number of-. courit:des, ~a~cie:ily ·in Eastern. Europe •.

Whereas hi 191}7 there were only a few '*co~~perati~e Agreeme~t13"",, ~here are t- . ! • • ' ···" _.,· :•.-·

todey uearly .thir~1 .BOil'lS Of~Whi.ch .have. ·SUbsequently been-·~iden,e_d in their.

scope~'§_/. These· 8:sroe~nts, cbn:taininei~st <1:eta:i1~·d prov~si~~~~ .. ra~e:, l?.id 1• '' " --- • ~ ''' • • - . . . ¥ • • • • • •' ... , ~ -~ ., • " • \,. - •

dmm a le'gal baS'is ·tor· an elaborate system of continuo'\ls O.I19- . re,€5-u,}Sl-r .internatione • ~ • • j .. , ' • .: • ••• J • • ~ ! ' : • ' -... .

exchanges o:: broadcast programr:Jiis arid procramme material,' wrti,c~l:arJ.y trl .the

field of inforiila!tion.and c~ltti;.JY'arfai~a· .. Fr~qu~ntl~, thq.;tal~~·c~ll f,o~ tho

exchange ·of pubiicatlone issued: by. the broadca~ti~ ~~e~;ic~s: ·~~~ the .exchq.nge

of books, :rna,gazixies "am· ~w~Pa.Pif-'c~~ttdies .of. ~eneral inte~~at;· ;o~f~cyins "' ' • ' •• -~ "!' >' • ... -, '· '. • • '_" '- ' • : ,r·-··-:::· ;:.; '

tho political, aociel and cultural life ·of the signatory states. ,They even

provide for art ex6lia.bge· of arti~ts and ra~fo ~rso~l, and :tnc;tude approp:riat.~ · ,;t;J::nancfe;l'·:ar.Carigomenta''ai~d:~t fitdidinii any cm~~cy exchan'ges·. These ,.

. .. . . . • . r • . '.. • . ·, ' . :! . .':. : , ·.. . . ' . . . ~ ·•. . • r.. '. ,. ·. . agreollienta ha:ve iillii!.ediatoly been followed by action, with t,he result that the. offorinae :ofinan~f tiat:tonalbroadcast:l.ng' ~tations a:re ,·b~i~ e.~·iched. by .. .

eelootea· prbgra.llillt)a tr6111. tibroa/I.SE./ Lilcewise, t~~ ~~~dc~~~ins :s.~~;i~e·s of th.e . .;. ' .,~ :• • . ~:,_.:!,r." .~~ . .[:i ... -· .. ~··':t'' · " --·· -·· ··•;-. L'::i·,_;- .. ~. ·:. ~·-~ -:· ' • .'., ____ ...__ .... "

' W. A- .n\llliPor,,.of· tb.ese agreemsn'ts· IlJi.e~.usted :6r:th'e'',·uo(niln~nt cjcrL4/Sub .1/105. ·The tJNE8C9 ha~ colleP;t,ed. AJ19. .. w;J,ll, pub:Ush, ~;~~q,r~y:. ,the .textt .. o:r :sotne 220 bila:to.ra.l aild mul t1lateral cultUral conventions' (poe.' 90 /J?Rg/19 ), •

Follo-Wing tho Agre,ements donclliciea··~~~t~~e~' P~la!c~~ Rad.lo an~ ~~ar Jrdzpo!lti Hirad() '· R:t. , the. Polish btoad1:a'S.lting .. sta:tlbne re-layed 1 dur'ing the period 1 ME.rch-30 April 1951, ~n:tY;:-1-iY.~. ,,p,r.ogra~s froro.~a:~...sary .and,·the HungariaH stations, thirty-one from· Polerid.': · ~According to the Bulletin of the Polish radio (March 1950) thirty-one staff members of the broadcasting e~rvtces·of Bulga:r:1a, C~echoslo'VE'.ki~, De~;rlc, :J!'.inlan,d,, ·,France11.: G:3:nna..nYJ and Hung&:Wy '. · came to :fio1fmcf.1n i9h9, while ·Polekie Radio sent twelve ataf.f members·. to Bulgaria, C.zechoslovakia, Finland and Hungary,

' :·'' . . /Scandinavian

E/crN.4/Sub .1/156 Page,.23

Scandinavian countries have bee%1 co-o~rati:Dg closely am for almost twenty

yearsJ they :b.a~ n6t bl:lly·exchaDged pro~s bu'\; ... have also plalll:lf?d and .produced .... ., ... Y """'o-"'....,.....,., ... · in ·c··o---. · §1./ ' . . . .. · . .· . wu..u. .t-"' Q•~D ~v .... •· - , .. ~ . . ,,.,· · .. ~·-. -,~ : . ·.-·· -.. · ~ ~-:_ . ·

:. • · 1 .··'l'he :go~q~Lo.!_!p,_oi!, has 1 si:tice the ·.t'irst.sessio:;.l of its· Asse~bl3:1~, . ,

August1 19491 been ava..."'e of tlle ]?Otehtia;l.ities of radio as a maans .of p'\.llllie. , . ;. -· ' .. _, --·-,' _. . '

information. A Co%lllllit-tee of E:r,fl6rts was formed l;Uld entrusted w:J.th the st;udy .

ot cultural pl'Obla:ms. In No·vemoor, 19501 tlle o~ttee of Min:~s~ers ado~ted .. tbd:tr propdsala i"eco:m:m:mdi.!l.g

.... that Mem'ber states be in:vH.ed to encourag3 the greatest possible use, qf . ' : na:t1onal broadcasting systems !qr the propegatio:n' of 1tti.'or:aat:ton on ' .. .

European problems· and,. in particular; to xa.q.uast ·them to devote a ra'gular · pla~e in, their in:f'on:a9:tion pro~s to these p~blems.; · . . : . } ·.·

that Gov·ermnents be i:avtted to bring to ·the attention of broade~sti:b.g ·· · .... <or(!Jl.nization..c: the ililPol"'t&J.Ce of educat1oml and .oJ;:;her specia)L .t>:t"vadeasts

as a ~a1~ qf making. yoUJ:l8· people 'Qet'ljer acquain~~ Vi t]l the ot,her c::ountrie~ of Emiy·pe. . . . . · · . . · · ' · · · '

More~ver, t.he Assembly prolJ()sed to study t~ problem of ''Radio Eur6pe)'; · • "' '< I ' ' t ' J' ' ' :· ' '· . ' ' ' ' • . ' • ~ -'

.which ~hpuld be solved _eithe'r by the establishment of a broadcaSting staf:ton . . ~ ' ) . ' ~ .

bear1n8 this nan:e or by making SPeClal arm:Dgemen~· with 'the existing.

bro~~casting stations~ It adopted ·~imously a recomm.endatiori that'··•~t-fem~r · 7 ' ' ·. ·,, ' . : • . • . . - • ' •. 't_ .- . . •

States should be invited to ·,allot ten minutes everj week either to national ·

proS!:BlllillF'S ~n the European id~a ~r to prosranur.es relayed by wire from 'tm

studios ~i t~e; Council ~f Eur;pe in strasbourg - these programmes to be 'kilow as. '~he Voice .. of "E~rope 11 . and be introduc~d by the .· soooo call-sign."?-.§./· · · :

It is certainly encouraging that~ simultaneously ~ith' the grOWing.

i,nternatione.l. ~~1~ ~· ~th.the b~dc~st~g of ·political and frequentiy

hostile, radio pl"'pagaDqa opposi:Dg om country to ~ther, an iilcreasitig'' :b.uniber

of s~t10D$, in t,Ul increasinS 'number of c~~ntries, are aztdous to; establish

aDd to ~tre~n,friendly reJitions 1 to intensify the inte~tioil£il ~XC~ . ' ' ' -. ; - ~- ' '; ' '. ; - .., . . . . . . ' .,_ . ' - - ,• ·, . ; . . "" .- ·• .. ' .,.

of progra~s and radio personnel am to dissemiriate info:riuation and progre.mtnes ' , ' ·~ . .'

a:cd pro~s designed to promote better understa.nd.ing'.

?if. seETa:lso Chapter II, seetion on''Inter.catioml' P:togramme Exchanges, pages 43...47 •' ' .. Cf. Report by Paul M .. G. !13vy 1 Press and Information Director of the Council of' Europe. Docll!llentat:J,on and In:f'ortnation Bulletin of tJ:la European Broadcasting Ur.don, 15 January, '1951 (Vol .. 2 No~ 5h 'pages 41 .. 44.

'fit would

"• ... ·~ \. . ·' '

. . ~ . ..: " .

. ~ • I

it would be of great Va.iue and interest to. study ln more detail the

international radio conventions and agreements now in force, and to exa.m:trie

to what extent ·the pertinent provisions, and the resolutions and J::'lecommendatt::me

have 'been implemented.

4. Finane!~ of radio_Qperations

Rad!io 'broadcasting; whether unde:t private or official regimes, has

attained great econom~.c power. Every day, millions of dollars are earned and

spent' by radio. stations,· adyertise:r-s ·and l~ete;r;_ers; the ~api tal il_lvest~d in· thE! radio industry,. the .. value of radto ,equipm0nt manufacture¢!. and retailed,

a ttaine astronomic figures. In 1950, the revebue of the radio· stations and

networks in the United.States ·totalled $447,700,000; the ,opera:tion of the

tele'Vision statio:w brought an additional $lo5·,8oo,ooo. But the expenditures, ' - .. ; ' . .· ' . .

too, were extrezr.ely hle;h: · $376,8oo,;ooo for radio - not .including abol.-lt 100

million dollars paid by advertisers.for :talent- a.nd$1131700,000 :J::or television

which, despite a 300% increase of r~_venue. :in 1950, is still losing money. The

total revenue from rad-io. advertising il113raz:.n anpunted. to 378,619,989 Cruzeiros.

in 1949,W with one. station, "Radio N.aciona,.l de Riode_Ja.rteiro", earning ae

much as Cr$ 41,3531 531 in 1949 and Cr$ 52,312,765 ·in 1950, but ·spending.also

Cr$ 36,19~~:f9 and Cr$_45,929,665respe~tively)0/ on.1;he other.hand_, British

listor..ers/ v1owere are w-;ri~. r. 13,500,op0 tn ~ual licence fe.es_; including

B 1,600 ,noo for the ~qmbined. :t;adio-televi~ion ,licences; French listeners .. t " ' • ,, - --- ,. . - . -.

7 ,ooo,ooo,ooo Franca, Garman listeners nearly 300,000,000 Marks, and Russian .. ' . . ... ,_' . . . . .

radio .. -ow.nors and, .. ~ubacrib,ers to relay exchanges; certainly over 500 million.· ,. . , ·' , . - ' --," .- r ·' . I,. - - , . . .

Roubles.. The 14 .lll11on radio receivers manW:aotureQ. in the United. States in . . . . . ' - . . " . ' .

1950 ~present, according t() o •. ~.· _C~l.~vr,ell., a ~9tal value .of :$650~000,000, and the 7 mUlion ~levisi?n. rece,ivers & re.:\4il.value or $2,14g,.oop,ooo, while the.

lister.>sre and viewers spent $380,ooo,.ooo for. elEtQtricity apd batteriee needed ~

to operate t~eir ~adio a!'!:~ television; seifs .~ . ;au~, :W,i th: the exception of a few.

countries with large-scale radio operations and a great number of listeners,

supporting the stations either directly by pa.y"ing·a·licerice fee or indirectly

by buying the products advertised in the programmes, the situation of radio '. . . ~ - . ',;.

'?:2./ Anuario de ·Publicid~d.e-.,. Rio de. 'Janeilio; O.ctober 1950.

J2.l Cf. Diario de Noticias, Rio de Janeiro, 26 Ja.."'lllary 1951.

J1} Cf. 'S'tatistics ;published by Dr. O.R. Caldwell in "Tele-Tech", New York, Ja,.,.J.uary 1951.

/services

E /CN .4 /Sub .1/156

services ts rather preoarioua., .. ·.ln 'View particularly of the fact that they

seldom r<."i?C~vc the:.., total 1noomo from licences or advertising, but are subje_c:t · .·.

·to h(/lVY' taxos and other lovie.s •. - ,

~- mthods used to· finance radio operations determine, to a large exte-:tlt:):

proc,iamme policy and structure. Consequently, economic problems are of

·--~cons-iderable importanco, and it would be a serious error to under-estimate

. their impact, and in particular their influence on freedom of information •.

t····· . ·''·

In most ca(Joa, the broadcaster selects his source of revenue aocordioo :tQ.

the form of organization; advcrtisem:~nts, the "aale of tine" for the transmi·s~io:

of commercial progrB.IIlllll3s, is the private stations' main support; licence fees;,,_:

paid ty· the owners of radio sets, ta::se and .charges of all kinds, provide- the

·.funds for moat official or cemi-official stations. Subscriptions, freque~tly .·. ·

:including ranting of loudspeakers or headphones, d:'inance the operatipn of wi~.

broadoasting service~. Voluntary contributions help run a few radio service~s ~~-.

and cover the programme costs, mainly of religious stations; for fi:t:~en year&,,

Dutch· listeners defrayed the expenses of "their" stations. Occasicr.e.lly, , ,- , ·

revenuo is increased by the proceeds of th_e sale of programme magazines, of: .

yearbooks and pamphlets, or by ~ublic performances of radio orchestras or oti~r

radio onsembloa. . .. :·

Tbe gathering of news is a costly procedure and, like most newspapers;.

broadcasting stations generally depend upon press agencies, both national

and· -inhrnational, in particular th() Associated Press, the United Press and the

International News Service, Reuters, Franci3·Presse and Tass, which dominate-·

the info~;tion markei0 Financial reasons prevent many broadcastine services

from subscJ"i bing to more than one or two wire ee.rvioes and from sending special

correspondents abroad, even in cas~ of tmportant events or important

international meetings. Thora is no doubt that most. of ·them would prefer a

direct oo~erage of major ovents and inter.Dational developments ·by their

correapondentl! and reporters who are writing and speaking a "radio style", who·

lmmr how to use a tapo recorder, and are familiar with the interests of their ..

national and local audiencas.Jg/ · ·

32/ In ~~e rep~ to the Request for ~ormation ~sa~ed by the Secretary•General of the United Nations the French Govarnmant declared: "The development of the system of radio correspondents is, of .oour.s~,. dependent upon the French Broadcasting Company's forei61l crurrency availabilities." Cf. Freedom of Information, A Compilation, Vol. I, page 122, United Nations Publications 1950, XIV, 1.

/If budgetary

E /eN. 4 /sub .l/156

If bud.gotary 11mi tationa were riot an obstacle 1 programme and neve services

could be greatly expa.nd(jd and improved. Som& 1'14tiobe.1 broadcasting

oraanizations which now offer only one programma to the audience are planning to

introduce a second. progra.Dmle in the near future 1 and ma.ny others would be willing

to add al terna ti ve programmes if they could do so. However 1 an;v increase in

programme number and ttme causes a corresponding increase inOXpP~ituras, due to

the nood 'fbr additional transmitting facilities and for an expansion of tb9 staff.

International programme exchanges would multiply if such excr ,,, . .,s did not

require consiti-,rable expense for re~ facilities and cable connexi::r.e and cl.id

not involve currency transfer'.

Economic difficulties are particularly serious in less-developed countries

which, mainly for this reason, cannot set up efficient broadcasting services, and

suffor from the lack of both radio .stations and radio receivers. Ilm.'Bver, it ·is

in those areas that radio is most needed., as an essential aid for conveying vital

information. If only a small. part of the money available for economic developmanJ ..

were devoted to the tmprovement of radiocommun1cat1ons and to the establishment

of an effective broadcasting servia&, vast area& could be opened up and

information could reach populations wb.ioh \1a'btl tltiW have been isolated. The

recent expansion of broadcasting in Brazil and in India for example, clearly

proves how much can be done and how remote regions can be lin.kad to the

industrial and cultural centres of a country 1 and subsequently to the world~

Where broadcasting 6perations are financed by advertising, programmes must

necesaar,ily be aimed at a mass audience; unless they reach the masses, the

sponsor's message is lost. This may induce broadcasters to neglect programme

material and to withhold news and oonmJents which, in their opinion, appeal "Only

to "minor!~' listener groups or which may irritate the majority of the audience.

The negative offset of this policy, which is regrettable but perfectly logical

and understandable, is somewhat compensated by the marked trend to "specialise"

the proS:rammea of independent stations, and thus to meet the preferences and

interests of smaller audiences. In :man;y countries where radio is operated

commercially there are also official or private educational stations which

broadcast information and programmes otherwise not available.

'Where broadcast ~perations are financed by licence fees, the operators of

radio stations are fir.anc.in.lly more or less independent from audience ree.ctione;

/listeners

E /fJN .4 /Sub .1/156

lis toners haYo to pay the tax whether thoy like the progra.m.tllee or not, vihe ~!:er

they listen to national or to foreign stations. Hm-rever, if the number of radio

>'imers is small) a~1d. if liconcrp fees constitute tho only source of revenue, the

income of radio ~orviees is frequently insufficient to meet ever-increasing

operation cost.s. Government subsidies must then be gra..""l.ted, a practice W.ich·

may load to a..;_ increased and direct control over radio operations by the politica1

party in pO'\vE:!r.

Frciquontly, an iri:porta.nt fraction of the revenua from licence fees is not

usod for progra.:mtJ.O services but t'or administrative and technical services e.nd.,

frequently also, f"or different. go-v'9rn.'llent agex1oios and institutions or simply

turned over to the Trco.sury. In Aue.tria the Ad:ainistration of Posts, Telegraphs

and Telephones rota:l.ns 26.9~ of the income from licence feeA, in Switzerland

31}% and in Sweden e.s mu.ch as 50.E\i. Tho BBC rQcaives 92.5% of" the fees collected

from liceuces, but has to pay 15~G of its reven'-'<1 to the Treasury; the private

broc.dcasting company in Luxembourg is entirely dependent upon radio advertising

since it doo~ not rocoive any revenue from the licence fees collected by the

Government )'l/ It would undoubtedly be possible to incr~ase both the quantity

and tho quality of radi? procrrammeo if the $Dt~ amo~it collected from the

li!!toners couJ.d be C:evoted to radio which, at :present, is baing done only in a

fE:>w countries.

The economics of" Radio aro an almost u:nknovm fiold of study and resea:::-cb.

?rivate broadcastors, advertisers and advsrtisil~ ag9nciee have maie a few

inquiries in this rcspoct, but broadcasters generally ignore :methods of f"inancing

tric<l out in other coUl1tries and which might be adapted to their 0\\'!1.

"Difficult economic conditions" is the customary reply whenever radio

lteteners ask for additional services, for better news coverage or for mere

comprohensi vo reports from abroad. Consequently, a survey and expert analysis

of the economic situation of radio organizations in the diff"erent countries,

examining also the diffe~ent (but obviously little known or ex~lored) sources

of" rowmue, may contribute to the solution of the financial problema and taus

facilitate an expansion of information programmes.

Cf. DIJcUI:J.entation and Information Bulletin, Eu.ropsan Broadcasting Union, Vol. I, No. 4, page 341, and Vol. II, l'Jo. 6, page 136. See also "Lea droits d !er;oute dans le monde" by Aruo l:lu~;h, in Copyright, Amsterdam, April-June 1939 a.nd. thfl Journal dee Te'la'co:mmunoations, ITU, Berne, November and. Decem'ber 1939. /II· PROBLEMS

~ 1 C .. J. 4 jsu b.l/156 fege 28

The second group of radio problema affecting f1~edom of information is

intimately lir.ked with the planning, preparation and production of programt:l6s ..

It is also related to the deYelopment of international broaclco.sting which, due

to restrictions on the entry of newspapers and DaWsreels into foreign countries,

has become increasingly important as an inatrt.Uilent of international infol."!Jlation.

/1. International

1. International bl:?~dcast~

E/CN,4/Sub.l/156 !r

Intense eff'orta :ar.e bai:Jg made· to disseminate :!.nfor.mation by radio, to

reach audiences 1.'1: fo:ra:lgn countries a:."ld to interest them in nat:tonal :policies

as well as in i."lternational affai-rs, in :POlitical and econoraic as well as in

social· and cu.J:.,ural dev·elop.ments., · Al::.. media of collllll.unication· he.:re been mobilizefl

for this pur);lOse, but none as extensively as radio. Indeed.,. :political parties, '

governments and national and int~rnational organizations are making incl~asing

use of radio to influe1we public opinion, and. to stimulate decisions and actions.

This is :particularly true fOl"' international broadcasting, the only ch.a.nnel of'

international information which still remains OlJGil.1 even in cotmtries which have

erected. high barriers against the entry of foreign news~ Despite the fact that

1llllDY radio seta are not capable of receiving foreign stations, despite the

difficulties of l~ception of long~istance transmissions ~- even des:pite the

'barrage of violent jammine1 international broad.casta can be heard, and are being heard, throughout the world.

Consequently, the control and operation of international broadcasting

services bas been one of the .ma.jor pr0bl.oms e.ff•ot1Jl{) freedom of information.

This is aJ.l the more true as international broadcasts offer unique potentialitie£

for. ~ins or disturbing internatiop,al relations, for spreading factual and.

objective information or faJ.se or distorted nows 1 for the enlightenment or the

confusion of 'i'Jm's mind.s. NCJ.-7here is it more xwcesaary to combine freed.om with

l"esponsibil1ty 1 or more urgent to at:l:eca the moral responsibilities of those who

are in control of tha stations and of those whO s:peak to the people of the

world.

The magnitude of the :problem ia reflected by the scope of present

international broadcastiner activities. Hund.rec.s of J:?OWerful stations are

broadcasti:ag progremmss bea.rr.ed to audiences ;tn foreign countries, to nationals

living abroad, to soldiers and sailors away from thoir homeland, and, above all,

to millions of foreign listeners. Besides the principal international

broadcasting services - the BBC Overseas Services, Radio Moscow, and the '~oice

of America" .. offer1l18 respectively 5701 567 and 342 hours of' :programmes pel:'

week, in 44, 34 eina. 45 la:Dg~lages, there are scores of othe;tt services which

broadcast international programmes for many hours of the day, in their national

/as well as

·t; /~.~. 4/&ub .1/156 .

as well as in foreign languagesQ And this activity is constantly expanding;

every month, new international broadcasting stations are being 1na.u.gurated 1 and

new progt•aJl'lll)9s in additional la-oguagea introduced... Many stations ha.ve dou.blec.

and tripled the ntunber and the t:!me of their inter.ow.tional broadcasts during the

last years; Illfl1'lY and even ema.ll countries have recently entered the contest fOl"'

111an's minds and emotionao

Information services (or offices) establisl.~ed. in foreign countries

contribute to tho distribution and international exchange of information.

Fre~uently1 they are not only concerned. with pres~ information but also with

radio programmes; ao111a have their own radio directors whose principal task is

liasonwith local stations and ~tworke which are willing to use and to

rebroadcast forei&"l programmes and pro~ material. The promotion of the

free flow of information through such contacts is exemplified by the Information

Service of tho United States, which mi.titains 134 centres in more than sixty

countrieaE/, and by the activities of foreign govermoonts which operate ·

information services in the United States, many of which are also active in

the field of radio and television. In addition, the British Broadcasting

Corporation and the French Broadcaatine System. have :perrna:nent represer.~.tatives,

offices and studio facilities in New York, distributing programmes recorded in

London or in Paris but also reporting and explaining the American scene to

lioteners in Europe. The BBC has similar offices in different parts of the

world~' one each in Canada, Australia, France and German,y 1 four in Latin America.,

one in the Middle East and tln·ee in the Far East. Likewise, the nineteen

United Nations Information Centres are primar.y sources of information to press

agencies and newspapers, film enterprises and. radi:> stations as well ae to

govel"lllllSnts, national organizations and thousands o:f individuals, thus promoting

the cause of the United Nations and ita Specialized. Agencies.

Much of the information transmitted is intended. to serve the political and

economic interests of the country which originates· the programme 1 or of the

governmonte or national orcan1zations which control the service. It could be

:J::./ Cf, "Telling America's Story Abroad .• The State Department's Information a.nr Educational Exchange Program," Departtaant of State Publication 4075 Hashington; U.S. Gover.Il1Il6nt Printing Office, 1951.

/clearly

~/CN.4/SUb.l/156

clearly labelled as ":Propaganda" and. frequently takes the fori!l. and tons of

hostile propagar..da or even of psychological warfare. However, a large amount

of the il'lformat;ion broadcast is friendly 1 and is 't-iholemartedly welcomed by the

peoples to 't'lhich it is directed - information which may create a better·

l.U1.0ersta.nding of world affairs, of national foreign po,licies1 of economic and

social conditions, or of the cultural traditions and aspirations of the peoples.

Froedom of information, and in particular the freedom to receive such 1nfo1~tion

is thus of great importance both in the intellectual developmant of listeners ana. their attitut'tes towards other nations. This applies in particular to the

progr~s produ~ed and broadcast by the United Nations and the specialized

agencies, serving not one but all peoples.

Much could be gained for the cause of freedom of information if it ivere

possible to increase the quantity and the quality of Hnon-political" Pl'Ogra:mmes,

to offer the people tho information they ~ed. and want, and if cletermir..ed efforts

were made to reduce the present overload. of propaganda 1n international

broadcasts, or at least to eliminate verbal warfare.. News a.."ld. idee.s \·louJ.d then

be freely exchanged. even among countries whose e:;ovormn.::mts .now rather discourage

the reception of fore,isn broadcasts. A great deal of the opposition to thu

.free flow of information stems from the fact that the news is not accurate and

that the comments are frequently unfriendly towards the countr.y of reception

or its govornJ.:OOnt. On the otil·9r hand, it has been proven that programmes

conceived in the spirit of international co.operation are welcome, ana. nany

countries have acreed to have them rebroadcast over local stations' in order to

make them available to the masses of the' population.

A study and analysis of international progra:Ill1D3s _and their content, as well

as of_. the selection, presentation and interpretation of news in international

broadcasts is certainly as tmportant us it is urgent. +t may lead to a·better

understanding of the d.ifficul ties to be overcome and 'l11B::f lead_ to a new approach

to these problems; it 7:!JilY even show ways and mans to eaae the present

interne.tional tensions, greatly fanned by the use of radio for psychological

wsrfan>, and to promote freedom of information through legislative as lT.ell as

practical measures.

Tl::le United . .Nations could play a decisive part in such a developwnt. It

/could tn£diate

• J • ,_ '

,~...". ·;0d.t.l,l:;..u

could. mediate between the opposing groupe a:ncl could :point -to its own :programiOOs

~~hich are rebroad.cast by IlJal.lY radio stations in a great many countries, freely

listened to by all peoples and considered as a model of reporting tho news

obJectively.

Established in 1946, the United Hat1ons Radio has becoii16 an important

international broadcastinG service, despite the lack of its own transmitters,

and despite a small staff end l:!ndted funds - so limited that most national

organizations would have been discouraged to start with. At present, United.

Nations progra:mmas are broadcast io. twenty-three languages, for ten hours every

day.. In addition, tho proceedings of importal.lt sessions at United Nations

Heaclquarters are relayed in full, giving listeners throughout the wol~ld en

opportunity to "attend" these meetings~ Finally, aJ.l facilities are pu.t at

the d.isposal of the accredited radio correspondents, who thus supplement the

official progr6l!IZ)'les by tbe.ir reports •.

The Ra(Uo Division, one of the. main branches of the Department of Public

In.foma tion, sueaeetwd in constantly expanding its activities 1 sup1Jorted by 1 and

working in, close co-operation with the national broadcasting services of the

majority of tho Member States. Today, the United Nations literally "calls the

reoples of the world", over :powerful shortwave transmitters leased to the

Organization ancl located in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, France

Tangier, Honolulu, Manila and Australia; in addition, hundreds of local stations

carry the United Nations news and program:nes.. More and more these broadcasts

have ·become an essential source of infor.oation to governments, press agencies,

newspapers, radio stations and especially 1 radio listeners. This success is

largely due to the progralil'IJ).9 policy, i.e., to transmit only objective a:o4

factual :l.nfo!'IIlntion about the a:hns and. activities of the United. nations a.nll

its Specialized A3encies.

A sure yardstick of the interest aroused by those b:roadcasts is the

increasing number of radio. stations i-lhich rebroadcast United Nations programmes

and .fo:rm. a symbolical "Network of Peace 111 which use and. ask for special progr~

material, or send their correspondents to United Nations Reao_quarters.£7 ·

J.d./ Further details on the information services of the United !'lations is contained in an article by i·Talter Harris entitled "Informing the '\1orld about the United Nations" and. included in a symposium, Education for a 1-lorld Society editeit by Christian o. Arndt and Samuel Everett, Ne-w York, Harper & Brothers 1 1951.

/CertM.nly,

E /CN. 4 /Sub.~ 1/156 Pege 33 ·

Ceruainl.7, much more needs to be done 1 in ,:view, particularly of the ~m:mdously • ~ ( ' " -. -·'; "' - '• -" ' 1- - ' • • - • • ' ·.- ' •

ilJ.ff1cult task. of keeping all Melll.Oer;S·ta-res·inf'ormed abllut .Unite.d Na·Hona. . · - - · :, _ ·_ · _ i i ~ : .:. · . -- · · r -· . · .. · ·

activities at Headquarters and in Lla."\Y parts .of the_ world. But. alrec.dy ~o;:.y ,

the world.-wide a~ceptanca· of. ·ne,~s pro~ided by the United Na~ions arul the

sl,"Jecialized c.gencies ··claa;rly proves that info:rnthtion of this kind is needQd, ano "< . '\ '. j '-· ~ • • ' ·- • . '' • :. ' ' • • • • • ' ' ~ i ' . '

-vantea; it also provea that tho selection o~· the newaJ the objQotiVG. prcsenta,~ion .. . .. . - ' .. ..-.. -, . ._ ..

of different sides. of an isst;e 1 is a decisive factor in gettinB such. inforznation ' :·· .', : , . . . . ...

universally accepted, even if it !'tealo w:l th highly :political u.nd e:xpl,oaive.

matters. •• 4- • . - . • • • '

Radio, as a channel arat carrier of inter-~~tional information~ .has an • - • . ' . • . :_ - . -•• t! '.: .

impor~nt part to' play in :intemational relations. The freE)dqm of internatiopal. ~ . ' . . .... '.

broadcaati~t:; !3-nd the use of this powerful inatrumont for the promotion of llllJ."t1ual f . ' . . ~

u.nd.ers tanding and for the cause of peace 1s1 therefore, of primary concern to ' . ' . . j ••

~11 governrnsntal and non-governmental organizations and, in particular, to

the united Nati~ns.

/2. The Internntional

2. The interna,:ti~l excha;menoj" n:tdi~1 Ptpptam:tlles, .. apd radio ;pe,l:'sonnel

Intel:'l'lational. orge.niza1:'d:omi and ·m"qernatio:nal radio oonferencea ·have

repeatedly ·called for close co-operetidn of broadcasting services - e.nd

broadcasters, all over the' world_, ha'V'~ ·wholelieattedl.J" responded to this appeal ..

Their co-:o:peration has made ·it pcaeiible to solve many problems \fhioh are of

CQiiJI!lon. interest to all countries, and 'to develop a system of continuous and ' ' .

re~ar exohan&~e of radio programmes and radio personnel.

International relays, :Initiated in 1924 and constantly expanded, have

stimulated and. accelerated the growth o'Z interna:tional broadcasting. ·Hi thin a

few years, from .1930 to 1937, their number increased from 447 to 2,737, not

1nell;ld1ng the tt.ousa.."'lds of programmes broadcast from the United States to

Ca.nada and from .Erlgland. to all. parts of the Bri tieh Co!llmOmzeal th.l§J As early

as 1930, the leading American networks, Columbia Broadcasting System and National

Broadcfi~:sting Company 1 appointe(!. permanent correspond.ents and representatives in

Europe .. ''Radio Ambassadors" "i'1ho 1 covering all pol1 tical and cultural events

and. arrancing scores of relays and special progranuoos, r.ave endeavoured to

establish and to strengthen frieru:Uy relations between Europe anit America. In

1938, the 't:Mo networks relayed 296 and 596 programmes reslJectivoly, originating

in 49 different countrieeo~1/ Some of the prog~s produced in common by

different broad.casting services and relayed by the stations of all participating

countries, have made radio history, such as the greetings and good wishes on

Christmas Eve and on New Year's Day 1 or a special programme "Youth Sings over the

l•'rontiers" {La Jeunesse Cha:nte au d.elh dee Frontieres) 1 the most iln.pressive

manifestation of international friendship in which children's choruses in five

conttnents1 fram 31 different countries, participated (27 October l935).

The war has changed the character of these activities but has never halted

the flow of ra(tio programmes across borders a:nd. oceans. On the contrary, it has

stimulated news coverage and has led to a considerable inctt:lase in i:nfonmtion

programmes. In 1939, the National Broadcasting Company1 for example, relayed

;&/ Cf. 11Badio Today; The Present State of Broadcasting" by Arno Ruth (page 50), Geneva Studies Vol. XII No. 6, Geneva Research Center, July 1942.

IJ.l ~·

/no fewer

E/ON~4/BU.b:.l/156 .

no fewer than 4j579 progrilmmea from.~~ope. ]Jll9.lf.21 .the British Broadcasting . ' . . ' ~ : ... . ·. ·'· . . Corporation relayed five times as zp.aey prQar.~a :from toreign countries as in.

" " : " ~ . • ·~ I ' ' : . " :, ' .. ~- '' . , ',. . ~ !. • ' , - . •

peacetime, 2~900 as compared with 57_1 in ~9~9;. si:multaneously., the B~C tranamitte

2,170 progral:am~s to other broadcasting a~~ice~)§/ . . .. · . " . . ' ' .~ ' ' . . ' ' ' l . '

Intel"''li:l.tional relays and rebroadcasts have grown.ajnce .atld ma:ny contacts, ... ' . . . . ' j . • .. ·. '

which had to cease temporarilY, during the war 1 hav:e .been resl.UOOd·. ·Following

sucgestidna of UNESCO ana the Intern'ational Broadcaatipg OrQan1<1ation., more,·Jhan ' '. ' . - -· .

twenty "Co-oi)erative Ac:reements 11 have been conclud.~?.9. petween diffe~nt European

broadcasting services ain~e 1947, provi~ing the l~gal. andorganizational.frameworh ' . ,, ,. ' . '

for the exc~.nge. of radio progrwmn.es and radio personnel •.. These agreen~ents have • t .- ;. •• • ., •

beon fully :implemented, if not always between the countries of \!estern and.

Eastern Eu..iope 1 then between the countries belonging to. one or tluLother group. · I . •

Hhile most of. these exchlinges conce~ .mtWical and dramatic programmes, they also

freque;.1.t;ly irt~iud.e talks and commentaries, sc~ipts ~d pub~ications., Characte:dstic of the present scope of inte:mational programma exchanges is the.

activity or' the. broadcasting services of France a...~ Czechoslovakia. . In 19501

the French Br~ad.casting System ( ''Radiodi~fuaion Jl'ran~aiae n): tl~anamitted a total

of 2 1 042 procr8liUiles t~ statio~ in 18 foreign co~t;ies., fo~ a .. total tin:e of

l 1 074 hours arut 30 minutes 1 ·~ relw-ed 11 647 pr0{3I'-S from abroad1, for u77

hours and 25 minutes. In addi tipn, 51 735 recorded progra:mt:I'es, for a total time

of 1,528 hours and 35 minutes were shipped to radio services in 37 countries anti

terri tcrie s ( includi~ 526 :procr8Ililles for Gel'!!JlUlY 1 5.02 for Haiti, 426 for Greece

and 320 i'or the United s·tates); _stations .in 43 C(?Ul1tries l1e:re offered· regul:ar ~ ' < • ' •

reviei-78 of Fr~:'lCh activities, prepared .ana written by prominent peraonalit1ea

but read anei. adapted. 'locally. · Tpe f:38llle year, the Cze,choslovak ~adio ·,

( "Ceskoslovenslcy Roz.hlas'i} :sent 590.· pleys and compositions, specially written . ' ,· . . . ' '

for radio, as' well as ~lka a¢ lectu~~, to. the bro~dcasting aerv~ce of :the·

U3SR;·'38 ra.dib.pJAys 1 compositi~na and iectures to B~lg~ia, 22 to Eastern

Ge:rmany 1 · 41 to H~ary, 3~ t~ ~~lmm ana 39 to ~ouma.."lia.; in addition, it . . , \ ' . ' .

offered the· .. soviet Radio 113 musical progremmes 1 and the broadcasting services I ' •','

38/ Cf .. 11Radio-Heuts u:nd Morgen" by ~o H~th (J.Jage 74}. Zurich@ew . .York:: . Europa Verlag, 1944. · · · · ·· ·

.. ..

'l ..

< /of Bulgaria . ' . . . . .

E/CN.4/Sub.l/156

of Bulgaria 21,. Ge:rtila.ey 10, Rung~ 21, Poland 34 and Rouma.nia 24. In turn,

broadcasting etatior..s of Cze~hoelovakia received 134 radio plays and

compositions, 'and 524 zr1usical progrrunrnas from the t:I&SR; 188 talks a~

lectures, radio :plays and col.ll:pos:itions and 25 musical programnes from Bulgaria;

4 plays ana one musical programme from Gel."'llll3.ey; 43 playa, compositions and

lectures as ~ell as 31 musical programmes from Hungary; 75 radio plays,

oomp~siti~ns and talks and 38 musical programmes f~om Poland; 98 radio pL<:1.ys

and compos it ions and 36 musical progl~B frt?m RoUllllmia.W

Related to international prog1·~m:na exchanges, but not neoe~f.l-G:rily rn

"exohal:lge" properly speak.ing7 are the. daily b:.roadoasts or rebroadcasts of foreicn

programmes over national facilities.. In, 1950, t1le BBC Tra.TlScription .Sel'V'ice . . .. '

recorded 1 1 590 procre.J:l:DllSs and desi?atched ;.{5 1000 pressinga· to all _parts of the

world. Broadcasting stations in the United. States of. America carrieCl. British . . 40/ . . . pro&ra.mmas _for a total of. 2,800 hours.- French. progt:"OJ!m)S in English, recordec1.

in Paris, are shipped to New York and rebroadcast throue;hol,tt the country by 350 . . '

stations most of which take 2 to 5 progra:mmea per weeka l4aey American stations

also twe programmes and programme material offered by or through the inte~~di~J

of the New York offices of1 for example, the Australian, Netherlands and Israeli

Gove!'Illl:lents. In turn, one of the networks of the French Broadcasting System

rebroadcasts daily a liB.lf-hour progra:mme of' the ''Voice of' .A.roor!ca"; likewise,

stations in Italy,· in Greece 1 in Hestern Germ.any and Austria relay Air.e:c1can

progratlli±tes every day,. As stated above, another example is afforded by the

United Nations Radio whose prograrames al"e relayeq_, entirely or partly, by

stations in almost every Member State. The 'iUNESCO \lorld Radio Review 11, a

15-minute weekly ~radio script including information on ne'lv d.evelopments in

education, science and culture, is currently distributed to 603 radio

stations arid used in 80 countries and territories.!!:!/ International progr8llliOO

excha:nges novl extend to the field of television, with films and kinescope 42/ recordings sent._ overseas and. broad.cast over local television stations.-

YJ./ 40/

41/ -

See also f'ootnote 311 on page 24. Cf. BBO Yearbook 19511 pases 120 and 156-157. Cf. Report of the Director-General of UNESCO, Doc. 6c/3, Paris, May 19511

page 88. See Part IV, 5 Chapter on Television, pages 81.85,

/It is obvious

E/ON ~4/Sub.l/156 lege 37

It is obvious that these activities contribute to the interchange of

jnform.ation and. help to break down the ba...">"Tiers of ignorance and· suspicion, and

to foster better relations between the countrios and peoples. There is no doubt

that these exchanees .. welcorJed equally by broadcasters and listeners - can and.

sho•.1ld be multiplied and expanded, not only with regard to the number of atat1on.'3

and. countries accepting foreign program:oos for reley, "!>ut also with regard to the

procramme mateJ."'ial wM.ch is being transmitted from one country to another.

However, '\'1hile these exchanges have been !-i1dely publ:..c,ized and have found

widespread interest, :many details needed for tl1s evaJu.at:i.o:: of th:~:.tr effects are

missing: While 'We know the ntmiber of program::..·Da exchru1&,re:i h@:;ween various

countl"ies, we do not kr .. o't-7 enoueh about their con·:.:;en·t; '\vhile ·He ttOi'l that such

exchanges are generally highly appreciated by a areat many listeners, especially . if they deal with cultural matters, we. frequently igr~ol'C ths difficulties

encountered in relaying foreign p1·o~s and tl.te reactions of the au<Uence.

A detailed study of international prosremme e;r..cha.nges end an a.nalys:J.a ,of the

problema involved could serve as·a basis !or future activities and. could be

instru.mental in the develo:;;u:oent of inte:t-nati.:mel Wormation progrannnea which,

of all ty:pea of prog:t:aillmes1 face probablY' ·t.bs sreateet obstacles.

·The exchange of radio :persOJ."'lllel is another :lmportant element in a:ny effort

for the promotion of better internatione.l relations ana. of freedom of information

·rhe professional broadcaster, working temporarily abroad, serves as ·a

representative of his country, the aims and activities of which are familiar to

him; he will certainly not fail to study and to be interested in the structure 1

the policy and the culture of the host country, ani!. will benefit in his reeearch

of the resources and facilities of the host broadcasting service, that is a given

centre of information and documentation. Going one step further, the Co-operative

Agreement be~ween the French and Czechoslovak radio organizations (concluded in

1947) prov1d.ed for the mutual exchange of the entire units in charge of the French

broadcasts in Czecl1oslovak and of the Czechoslovak: broadcasts in French, and

for their temporary integration into the staff of the other oreanization.

:Particular mention should also be made of the ar:ra.tl6emente between the radio

services of Czechoslovakia and Poland (and subsequently also of other countries),

providing for free vacations of an equal number of staff 100mbers as guests in the

/other signatory

E/CN .4/Subl.l/156

other signatory state, with an aim to making them better acquainted with the dail;:,

life of the heat cou.ntl"Y' 1 and to establishill8 direct personal relations among

the professior~l broadcasters.~/ The exchange of radio personnel, which is definitely an asset for any

broad.castine ser:vice, will prove. most valuable for radio stations in less

developed countries. The training and experience which broadcasters acquire

abroad could. be applied immediately upon their return; on the other hancl,

broadcasters in· the host countries would become more aware ~f the needs and

problems in those areas. Likewise, educational missions of radio specialists

''1111 also play a :part in improvine; radio serv·ic.ea.. The first step in the right

direction has already been undertaken; following the request of the Turkish

Ministry of Eoucation to UNESCO, a sound ent;ineer and a rad.io producer of' the 11Radiodiffuaion Francaiae 11 ·uent to Ankara and Ol~ganized. there 1 in co-operation

with the Turkish Rad.io, training courses for staff members and interested . 44' . .. .. ~ ... - ·--··· ~-- .. -··- --- --· ......... . students.:::.:::.~

It is to be hoped that the exc~ of qualified radio personnel and visits

of ractio experts will be intensified, and will be extended to more and :more

countries; traininG facilities should be provided, in particular, for those who

are 1."'1. cha.r13e of international broadcasts and are thus entrusted with a

pa:."'t:tcu~ar re e p:>ns ib 111 ty.

~ See also footnote 311 page 24.

~ Of. Report of the Director-General, lJlJESCO Doc. 6c/3, Paris, May 1951, page 83.

/3· Educational

3. Educat~nal broadcaRti~ and -international unda.r~~inS.

Abuses of t.!la mass media should· ncft illd\.\1,;1e us to der...:r ·th~i:r val~ and

potentialit-ies,. Rad.i.o &'11:1 1'elevision,,' -aild :'.n pa.rtt.::}P.::.flr eC.uoa.t,ional proGTammes,

are impertant tools L"l fighting icnora.uce, fai:ilr a.J.l.~ p:.:.;:~,_:.J..l.r.e, uud in promoting

interwtior.:al underste.nd~ng - tlk1.t th.-,y u.re !'l'Y'.i R.:;..:~".:.:~! ~~::;·-;~'- fo:::' -:~r>is :r:m":poae·,

does not af'fec t the :princ :.t:p1e,. Jl.ft.nl t ).!s ten:-··:rf. <t~.: c1e~.' ">J't6 --;";r.-:,.1 i:::o.ve proven

lliany times tr.at they o.re eaeir a:nii.. "'l :111..:'(3 ":.·) ::.6v.,....C:l; ,(J.:: ·f;.·;: r 'tt. he :r.'q~_·a 1gn

,696 for

elementary in:~t:i..'l.!.ct-1or.. 011 ae.~:·:tcuJ.-;;t.::,l.J. <::Hn:5•J:t~, ::?.:L.-.2?5 :~c:r c;o1;r:s.3s on radio

t hniq Y"> ~ "'t r) 2f"';•""' "f.1' ._,.. ... ~J:- ~~ .. ~ ,_ ... -.,-~ ~: ..... ..; ·~ - 11'<o,- ~r ;• · -., ·· '"l.::::io...,. •• • .,., .., %' ~ '4·'::....1 ec ue, .. a_ .. o. .,.c.., -.. tc.. ... ere Ji<:~..._..,lr .... ~ ..... "'·'-' ... ~,.<~~·~·u-;;:.;l .. u!.J..""...-.rJ,t:;l ... J.c'-',-

Czechoalovek liE'tttnera ratet'l (in ::..: ... 4C:.) -:a:.;,j,.;:a .. :.. t~Lks &eco,'lil a::.-.d tallts ·about

geography s-eventh among forty .. six typea -:;f. }.r.~·0c~u.:;.:7s. l'ol.:..J'lg 11::tenera have

always been o:pen to new id.eas 1 end oolou .. 't."t~ J;N""CS:"<'l:'llr.leB e.· .. >Ou.t other countries

e.nil. the lj.v-es of other :peop:.ea have al"Jn..-p t'o~md t.:.1air int.t:rest.

Experj.ence in the past haa beea ~ ~lai~.re.. Lis·eeners from all over

the world have res:poruled favourably to broeil:casts of the ~~ro.J.?!:i Radio Universit~ ---.-... .........-.,~ --· t'o1.1nded in Boston in 1935 by Halters. Lemmon, a. radio er.g~.r....,., .. ::_ .. , in co-operat:to;

-v1ith six of the leading American colleges and uni't"'arsities; by 1939, ita statio:.

WRUL Boston .:. was broadcasting in 24 languages to 11stal'l8-m in 31 countries,

many of "dhom ware enrolled in 1 ts CO'-+t'sea and sent in stv.d.iea and :papers for

correction and revision. The Horl.O. 111de Broadcasting Foundation, now or:erating

a gl:'aup of short-wave transmi ttera _, plans to resU!Ile full-scale interne tional

educ.atione.l. activities in the near future. Likewise, the "School of the Air"

organized tty the Columbia Broadcasting System, and. the "University of the Air"

esta.blishecL by the National Broadcasting Com:pa.ny, appealed to millions of

listeners, not only in schools and universities, and not only in the United

States. Fc1r several years, almost all .American countries participated in this

venture, contributing special Pl'osrrumr.es and relaying the broad.oasta.,

1!2,./ Cf. "Badio - Haute und Morg~!! by Arno Ruth (rage 64). Zurich/New York; Europa Verla31 1944.

/Post-war

Post-war ex:periences, in Europe as well as in America, have been as

encouraging. The ~University of the Air", organized in 1949 by the Polish

Radio, is further comrincing proof of the need for instruction and or the role

radio can play in mae education. lfhile 81 000 listeners, mostly teachers, took

part in the first course, there were (according to official information)

2001000 enrolled. for the courses in 1950·1951. In addition to students and

teachers, the audience of these pro~s, serving both educational and

political goals, is stated to comprise no~ members of all professional

associations, workers em fa.rmers, :tllalJy of ~1hom aro learning together,. in

listener 11circles 11• Already in 1950, more than four thousand groups with

551 000 members, registered for the programme of the radio university which is

supported by educational institutions thl'Oughout the country. Although on a

hish academic level, the scientific lectures of the "International Universitl of

~he Air" (Universite .Radiophonique Internationale) estaP.li~hed in 1948 by the.

French Broadcasting System in co-operation with other radio serviceo, has found

considerable interest in France and 1n 13lallY European countries. OutstaJ.J.ding

scientists, including eminent Alllerican scholars, have participated 1n ·chase

courses devoted primarily to the study of philosophy, of natural and social

sciences, of :medicine 1 arts and letters. They are broadcast weelcly ove1· French,

Belgian and. Swiss stations; 1n addition, the texts are being used by stations in

Greoce 1 Hungary, Italy, Luxembourg, the l'fetherl8lld.s and Trieste.

It is also quite characteristic that the moat successful international

progra.nme is an educational one ... ''English by Radio", broadcast by the BBC for

more t:r.an eight years. The tirst programme of this kind was an experimental

five minute transmission for Continental listeners who wanted to brush up their

English. Today, over 200 planned lessone are broadcast every weak, in 25 of the

BBC Overseas Services and. addressed_ to the non .. Engl.ish S]9aking world}:.§/ There

e.re lessons fo.r listeners at different stages of progress, not only in English

but also in 24 foreign la.ngue.ges 1n order to telp those who need an explanation

in their own la:ogu.age. Recorded lessons, sent out together with the script o:f

!:§./ Cf. ''Teaching the Horld English" b;r R.J. Quinault, The BBC Quarterly, London, Spring 1951.

/a commentary

E/CN.~/Sllb,l/156 Pege 41 · J

a oon.mantary in the appropriate language 1 suppleme~t .the di:fect transmissions to • ' • ' ~ '. •• ~... ,J ' 1 ' • •

suit local requirements. In addition to the Xnowledgo of the language itself, ' . . . .

the programnee appealing t? an ev:er-srow1ng audie~ee ;.. 1n Ylef3tern Europe alone

to over l,ooo,ooo listeners ~ aim. to :promote an und.ersta.nd1ll8 of the life an.o. ~

ways of the people who speak Enslish. These lesso.na ~ ext~mely popular end I ... - ' ',,

have proven to be a decisive factor in audience-building for international

b~oasting; furthermore,· tlleY convey . .111formation, and create goodwill.

Ailother symptom of the inte:r;est in .t?ducationa.l broadcasting as weuiae 1n

1nternatio~l information ie the. exc~ of achool,bl;'Oa.dcaets, 1n:ltiated by the

pioneering 'efforts of the Canadian Broadcastipg Corporation and how carried out

by an increasipg nl.Ullber of coUntriea.'!l./ These broadcasts, ltJaJ.'zy af which are ·

specially conc'eived and produced, offer valuable information to E;nglish-speakfug , .'••. r, • - ' ,

listeners in foreign countries and ailn at fo~ter~. o. better international

. .un<l;e:tstandins. The Ca.nad.ian ~adio1 which ~evotes .. :mtmY. domestic school·

broadcasts to. teaching about foreisn peoples and their wa:y of life, 1e nO'W

exchanginiprosrammes w~th the United Kingdom with.:Australia and New Zeala.P.d~ It has also co'-o:Pera~d with the Unit!3d Nations Radio Division in the production

of broadcasts about the United Nations at :the. ele.men~ry. school levei. Moreover, .. - --. -. . .- ' ,,

the CBC International Service~ has s~e. 1946 been supplying several European ..

countries with transcribed prosra,mmes .about Canada. ~.has sent a aeries of.

specially p~e~d school broadc~sta ~ foreian _lo.nguae~s to Gartila.ri.Y, to the

Scandinavian countries to G~ece and Poland. Likewise, the British Broadcasting

Corporation has made important contributions towards the promotion of

international education and is now offering ever,y year, at the request of

British Dominions and several foreign countries, about 25 reconled progrBlliOOs

selected from those lihich have been broadcast to British schools; they are at

present heard 1n Australia, Canada, Ind.ia, Uew Zealand, the Union of South

Africa and 1n TJJlmY non .. self -governing terri tortes and in non...English speaking

countries such as Auetr·1a, Den:mark, Norway and Sweden• A special service

supplies Latin "tmarica, providing for Spanish tranolattons and special versions

of British school broadcasts. Finally, the school broadcasting organizations

A ••. ,

/of' the

E/CN.4/Sub.l/156 :Eege 42 .

of t:OO British Commonweal~ aie · ~xcl)a.nging :progra.DUlle material of all kinds 1

which 'J:IJB.y be locally a.dapt.eQ.~,.a.nd. used by the recipient country 1n its own

broadcasts. This1 as well ae .an e:x:cbta.nge of educatio:oal broadcasts between

Chile and Brazil, between Sweden and other Scandinavian countries or between

.American and Europef;Ul schools 1 ·is· ·the begimtlng of a: most va.J.uable a.ctivf ty.

If' this activity were e;x.tended to a greater number of countries and account taken

of the experience gained .. experience which reveals the great difficulties to be

overcome in this field but also its potentialities - it could be of primfl.ry

importance in the transmission of information from peo'ple to people.

UNESCO, too, has been very active in educational· and. international

broadcaatin8• In 1'.150/51, it hae produced 439 programmes in 26 languages and

distributed 3,494 recorded eop~e of these programmes to radio organizations

in 83 col.mtries and te:rr1to;r1es; 1n addition to a number of feature programmes,

dealing with h\UllSll rights, these included talks, interviews and coUIIISntaries.~ 'I'he success of these 4aff'orts and experinenta clearly proves that

international broadcasting, if only it were more widely used til the cause of

international education, . could greatly promote the freedom of information,;

Ideas and. information could b.e excha.ngeo between different countries;

information about the e.:lms and activities of the United Nations and the

specialized e.ge~ies, in particular 1 could be brought to the home, tbe

classroom, the meettns places of study and discussion groupe.

!§_/ Cf. Report of the Director-General of UNESCO (Document 6c/3) ~aria, May 1951, page 88.

4. Radio

E/CN ~.4/Sub .l/1';6 Page '43 '

4. Radio in less•develowa ·areas · ·. ·

The shortage of radio facilities in many parts of the world has been one of the major obstacles to the free flow of ·:1nforxnat1on,; all the more as ·it

affects most seriously those countries which are in greatel9·t need· ot il:itol'Jm-tion.

Practicalmasures could be taken i:rmnediately ·to re:roody thiS'· situaMon: Plami

for the. improvement of radiocommtinicat.ions could be included as an ·integral

part· iD. the J?roJects for economic development; special; prog:r8llizoo material,

contafuing vital information and taking into consideration the particular needs .

of listeners in those. areas, coUld be prepared BDd· offered i"ree to the stations;

those·, who are in charge of broadcasting could be· inVited to visit more highly

developed countries iii order to receive inatruction a.nd infbl"'!lEltion, preferablY

in ·special courses organized for their benefit·.

- .. The ·first step, which already would be of great coris:aquence and would - . ~

increase the flow of information. considerably; ·should be a planned expansion

of co:umunication facilities, based on fact-finding survoys unnertaken by .

specia3.tsts in international .radiocOlli!J.Unications; and· on an expert analysis of

efforts made in different. regions·, in order t6 eo'lve organizational, economic

and social problem ·of .rad:iocommunicationS faced by all less-developed cmmtries.

In every caSe, plans for the deve.lopXOOnt of I'Bdio transmission and radio receptio:

should be :co-ordinated arid adapted to: local cohditions in coruiu-ltation with

the locaLauthoritiee and with international radio ·specialis'ts, taking the

needs- of 'the audience ·as a basis for prograzmi!e planning.

Few of tbe less-developed· countries have the means to prepare and tO produce

a sufficient number of high·4,uality progra.nmies to bring the people the

information 'and instruction· ne·eded. This :ta ·a challenge to international

co-operation, ·and action should be taken to assist authorftiee and' broadcaaters

in less-developed areaz. · International organizationa 1 in particu.lar1 could help

· in the !'r9para tion of edu.ca tioiUil. prosrai!lU!Be 1 eapec ially school ·and. · chil.d..r6n' s

broadcasts, based on interr..ational documentation and· scientific ·rese,arch but

produced in the language of the countries concerned, and_ <>Ii the ·intellectual;

level of the locttl audience~ 'Moreover, a large amount of scripta:, covermg

dif'feient aspects of life· and learning:, coUld be put at the disposal of radio ,

stationa m' lees-developed countries 1 including spac'ial progr:amm.:HJ abou-t the a:lms

/and activities

and activities of the United Nations and,. more partic\llarly,. about the Universa,l ~- ' : ' < .t "

Declaration of HUllJ.8,ll.Rights.

A WEial th of; excellent pro~. -~terial is buried 1n the arehives of . .: .. . , ...... '. .. '

broa9:ca~t;t.ng prganizations ·all over the. world.. If adequate arrangements could be

ar~ived. at; t~se to.rgo~ten: ,fi!cr:i.ptS aria. progra~e could be. made available to •• ·' ' '4 .. ,.·. • '• : • • ...

broaaca~te~a· in ieee-developed areas~, Much of it may no.t be appropriate :aim.·. ' . •. ~ ' . l . ,,.., • .

might hB.ve. to be discarded,. _either-because it has. been designed for national·

audience~ ~;clusivei; or beca~e' the fnto~tion .coptained is outdated, but:rnuch

ma1;eriai c~uia easily be ELdapted ~ be .used. again. ·With the help ~i' an · in~:n:~B,.:ti~XW:J. o~ga.nization ~ til COmJultation with btoB.d.castere. of the dot1nt~les . ·. ' . ' ' ' .

concern:aa, it would 'certainly be possible to select old and new. progrru1unee frdm

all-~ver the ~·orld ~-to offer.ea~h co~try !Ji. naed of broadcast:mfiterial severn: '· ·. - .

hundred hours of reco~ed programmes, of scripts 8nd ideas. It is Unnecessar,Y to

stress the potenti~lities of ill~rnational infoJ1nat1on fun und.erataDding which .

such an action tmplies • .;• ' ~

. . .

Anothe:t:'. tmportan:jj step - one never ~ertaken yet and \leeful also for 'highly ' /- . . .

devels>ped cotmtri~s • would be "ed\lcation f~r liste~ihg" •. People.: learn tb read

and ~rite but'• D.e~er to- iisten. br to dock •. The . result is mieUDderstand.illg of

the inf~rmatio~ tr~m1tted in radio broadcas.ta, ·:in :news~els and televleioD.

progr~sj distorted. reportirig and dissemiruitinS of news. and comme*ts; leek

of co~centration during the t;~~mi~sion; and. incapacity for evaluati~n ·ana: critical a;praioal ~f program:oos. It. ·ma; be dff'ficult w'· :persucd.e people in a

-:

highly civilized country to "study" r'~dio listening although it would be .as ~ ' '· . . :' .

necessary for them as for others;. but ,such ed.ucation ~ould certainly be given

in eV'ery area opened up to radio and for the benefit of' populations whidh had

no1 or almost no, previous contact with the med.ia of communication. Buch an \. . . . . . .. . -

~~per~~t, if well planned and e:x:e~uwd, would. certai.nlY lead to a IllOre \

ini;e~ligent consumption of .information., .

However, l'a.dio in .lese-developed areas could end. shoulcl be more than ari ·

inat:rume~t of ~ducati<;m.·. It couid .be a. tool for econoni.ic developroont ·~ s.ooiul . ' i .. ' . . ~. ' ' ~. l . ·. ' .

progress,_ parti,cular;Ly if ~ed as a ~ana pf. P\lblic ~nfo:rmation~ Special

pro~emmes could. be. designed to :p:re:pare :p~blic opinion for teclmical assistance • .• f ·' "• ... • •

l?l"Ojecta, toi pfODlOte the SUp:port and, ,CO•O:Pero.tion Oi' the :t:eOple .for theSe .:pliJ.nSj '. ~ -~'

/tr~ broa~casting

E/CN :·4/SulY~l/156 Page 4; . ·

the broadcasting of rej3Ular progress re]?orta to the ·:nation il:lform~ it of the

results so far achieved, would help to arouse wide interest in such projects,

to mobiliZ.rJ public OJ?inion behind them., and to cz:eate goodwill for the ynited

Natioru;~ and other inte~tional organizations, with tl1e help of which these

projects are being carried out. ·.As Mr. Trygve Lie said at the openiDB session

of the General Confer..ence of UNESCO in June 1951:

"I believe tllat the whole technical assistance prograJlliOO will depend to a great extent for its lasting success on the degree of confidence and support that it can command at the local ·community level and its ability to stimulate local ootion ••• "

If it were possible to remedy 1 at least to some degree 1 the J?resent

deficiencies ~ ineg,uities in the distribution of radio facilities and to_

establish adequate progr81l:ltlle and info:t"'llation services in less-develo;Q6d ctrgf.S1

freedom. of information could be promoted almost over-night, and information

could reach regions and peoples it had nevel1 reached before.

Enquiries into the possibility of undertaking constructive action in the

different fields of radiocommunications1 co-ordination of communication proJects

and thoir integration into the plans for economic development, would enable

less-developed countries to benefit from international experience and to solve

many problems now considered insoluble.

IlL DJSTRIBtJrlON

E/CN.4/~b.l/156 · · · · .

. III~- D·JBTRIBUTION AND RECEPrl:ON OF 1N.FOH4A.TION

· A great number: of radio problema affecting freedom of information. are related,~to the diatrioution mid reception of progreJ:Jml6s •. Conaeq~ently-; th~ solution :·of these problems - which,· unfortl.Ulii-tkly; depends t~ a large extent on· . . .. , ' ~

economic condi tiona • would greatly promote tlie free flow of in:t:'ormaM,on.

The size· and composition of the .. aud,ie.nce, .'.the di;f'fe~"ent metbod.s 'or_ rece~!.on, the right& .~d ob];igationa. of the listeners, and other rela~d.

questior.s are discus sen. in -detail in th6 memorandum 11Froedom to· Li~tenti . (Document E/CN:..4/sub.J./l55}. It is therefore ·a'Uf:hcient to outline hGre briefly -a~ of tl:lfr main 'problei!lS and devel~plilents which dlrectly affect freedom

i

of infor.mation. ·.

/

1. Problems

' ' '

1. Problems pf radio rece;ption ·:

Different mthods of' transmission and. reception are uaM. in different

countries and by different groups of bro,ulcasters and listeners. This has a

direct bearing on freedom of information and on the a.vailebilitY .o.f .l1nformat1on

to the ra.d.:to aud.ience.

In the case of diN'ot transmission and reception, i.e., direct from the

station to any receiver tuned to i·bs particular wavelengths, the listener may . .

select the proSrani:oo he pre:rers, chosen from the otferings of all local, ;

regional, national and foreiBJ.:1 stations which are within the reach of h:ts · ·

receiver. (The fact that the majority of the listeners do not talte. full·

advantage•· ~i this op:r;:ortunity and. that :m.any sets are not capable of reooiving

distant stations,·· does not alter the principle.)

. fh thai, case of indirect tronsmission tmd reception, i.e., through ·an·' ' ; 'iriterrnf3dfute recei~ing system .. which~ be a highly develo-ped receiviriB' .

(

,$futioh .. oi- sil!(ply a central receiver combined. with ·an amplifier • betWeen· the

ordaac~t station or studio and the wired loud:epeakers, the listener has orily

no choi~~· at ·all. ·In r:my case 1 the program:me or prosrOli!IOOs are pre •ae·lectea by

a.' ''third :Peredrt'' and n6 information l-1111 reach the listener which ·'the· government

6r 'ttv:;; party in powE:fr cl.oes not approve.

It is further of e;reat :tm.portance whether radio prosramnee ·are ·listened to

in the· privacy of the·' home and by a few :persons only,. or at work, recreation or

assembly places, and in groups where reception of e:pecif1c pr6grwzmes c~m be

Pl.a:nnea in advance and where listener reactions can be observed. and coJt't#Olled.

llhiie private and individual reception generally prevails, collective lis'oo:r;dng

has :made considerable progress due to the shortage or the high cost of

·~ceive-1-& and due al~o to the promotion of. c.ollective 'reception.by :so'V'~~nt .. authorities. It has been proven that 1nfo:t'IJ1El,tion conveyed to groupe of

' listeners 1 .Srul SUbSequentlj diSCUSSed. under the direction Of' a quali:fi~d ..

d1seuss:io):1 l.$.ader, is meet valuable and· ~r ~as~ing efi'eetvsroup:list&nins :t~ ~refore pl'\')ferred for the reception of e.aucational broadcuats eitner 'ln schools ' ' ' • • • •• .. ,_: . 1 #> ••• •• ,

·or·: ili:study ~d.. discussion· ~oups •. Th1~ .t()rm.~r reception· has :il.l:so b~en ·

· enooUx-aged by po~i tical leaders ~&ek:tng t,~:·.;tzti.luence, .a 11captive · audience 11 ~ as

. /for· example : ·

E/CN •• /.Sub.l/156 . .

for example in factories where work baa been halted during important poiitica:-1

broadcasts, in the club houses or in offices of political parties and

associations.

Local reception conditions as well as the type and the quality of the

receiving facilities used, the age and location of the set, are of great

influence, particularly in areas whenr static or electrical interferences hamper

the reception of radio signa.le as in moat large cities, in mountainous and in

tropical regionse Sometimsa, the listener's cbciice is, against his will and

despite the use of a good set, l1mited to a few nearby stations; elsewhere, he

cun "travel" throughout the world and listen to voices from ll'lai:IY and distant

countries. Frequently, the reception of radio Prosrommas is also limited

because of the high cost of elect'rici ty· or because of insufficient supply of

electrical current which,' if exist1ng at all, is frequently provided only for ' . '

a few hours. Reception may also be limited becf;;l,use of tho d.ifficulty of

replacing tubes and parts or of recharging battery sets used where no electrical

power is available.

·Another factor which considerably influences listening habits, but which

is. frequently overlooked in programma planning and audience research, is the

cli:loo.te. llh:lle radio reception, for example in the northern region of a

country 1 may be primarily home listenir..g, it may be 1 1n the southern region,·

primarily outdoor reception - listening in public parka. Heat and humidity.

as well as atmospheric disturbances, which are particularly serious in tropical

regions, also affect reception conditions. Frequently, only 11 tropicalized''

receivers may ensure satisfactory reception.

While DID.XlY listeners do not seek anything more than entertainment from the

neal'(;; at local station, i.e., the station they can receive most easily,. and

ignore inten;~ational broadoastillg1 another group of listeners 1 ardently

interested in .international affairs, "!:fJily be anxious to rec .. dvo news from abroad

as ,.,ell as. from. how and to satisfy their intellectual a:nd cultural- interosts

by listening td talks, lectures, concerts nod dramatic performances b~~ndcast

by foreign stations, Frequently,. however, even those l:tstenors are not fomiliar

with the offerings of broadcasting ~tationa:and are llil.EXWare of how and ·when they

can receive the progr~s and il:lfortllationc1n which they are iritereated •. How·

ITNmY

E /CN'.4/Sub .1/156 1

man.Y listeners, for.example, know the,'transmission schedules' arid frequencies of

in~rnational broadcasts {with the, exception .of a few stations which publicize

their _progratmnes) ;. how xna.nY realize that even a simple outdoor antenna can

cons.iderably impro.ve the capacity pf their receiver; and haw many have le~rned .. . . .

to OP1rate a s.hortwave receiver to their own satisfaction? It would not be

too difficult to provide liste~rs with silch information, to promote '. '

international broad.casta and., 1n br;1ef1 to increase the interchange of ideas

through promot;1on of radio listenins. ' . - - - . .

Many radio problems concern, more or less, all>countrios. SOJ."00 1 hoWever,

·affect o~ tho~e cotu].tries the governments of which intend tD control rridio

'recepti~n ~~ oaca~i~nally, to. supp:res·a the freedom to listen. As stated a:6cvo ' _.,, .•.

the laws and regulations contain ver7 few; if auy1 limitations of' radio ' '

reception .. moat restrictive masures were repealed with the end of 'l-lorld War n and listening to fore1sn :programtnes is at present not forbidden,' ana not

considered a. crime. punishable by imprisonment or even the death penalty 1 as was ·_r • •.• . . "

the case in Germa.:o.y under Hitler.· . ; · . . . - ~ .

HoweveJ;' 1 in ~ countries 1 radio reception is subJect to control throuS}l

the system of lice~ing the o:pera.'l:?ion of receiv~rs and sometimes aiso through

the control .of imports and the sale of radio equi:pmant. vth1le aom:J governments .. ' .

are· ol:u.y intere_sted in the ~nt of license fees, the revenue of which is

needed to defrey .the coats of offi.cie-1 broa.d.ca.st oporations (or of other official

agencies aml institutions) moat of them. require that the radio owners apply for,

information.) Severo.l govornmente seem to discourage the l"'ception of fo~ign

broadcasts 1 and the :press controlled. by.: them or the ·party' in power openly condemt:s

the practice of lending an ear to certain foreisn voices.

/People

E/CN .4/Sub .1/156·

People obviously want· to be informed, and l1here dO'lllestic stations do not

satisfy this desire they are inclined to tune in to foreign stations. To bar

the reception of "forbidden" broadcasts, the Nazis employe·d the device of

jamming, that is the trans.mission of noise over the same frequency as the

opposing broadcasting station .. a practice which certain.J.3 limits 'freedom of

information without, however, Pl~vonting all listeners from receiving news and

progra:mmea. It is aleo true that jamming excites the curiosity of the

listener, and incites "11JEJ.rr3' 1 who might have previously been indifferent to

foreign broadcasts, to test whether and bow much they can receive. Jamming was,

1n fact, a most effeetive promoter of Allied broadcasts in Germany and in German

occupied. countries, ana.: the intensity and duratinn of' the Jamming beca.zoo a

yardstick for Judging the success of' il::ldividual stations and, in particular,

of' clandestine transmitters.

Radio facilities for the reception of pro~ammes 1 still more than for

their transmission, are deficient. As shown in tr...e lllam.orandum on 1'Freedom to

Listen" (Document E/CN.4/Sub.l/l55) 1 the disparity in the distribution of l'adio

sets, not only in the different countries of the world but oven within countries,

seriously affects the free flow of information. Even if it were not possible to

remove, in the noar future 1 such obstacles as legal restrictions· or interference

with radio signals, it would be possible to expand radio facilities and to ·

improve reception conditions to a large extent, and thus to increase tho amount

of information available 1 and especially of internationa,l information.

Proble:ms relating to the rolo of the listener in rudio broadcasting, o.nd

his rights o.nd obligations, are dealt l'lith in the above mz.!J.t!c.lned znomorandwn.

To cover the subject a.dequ.au;ly it would, however, be neceesar,y to muke

further and moro dotailed stu.dius.

The difficulties and probloms faced by researchers in the field of

international coJllDlWlicatione aro very c,reat. But it is certainly, possible to

study and analyze the composition of the audience,. the living and. listening

habits in different co\.Ultries .. or at least in a large ·number of coWltries ..

the mthods and conditions of radio reception, tho spocial interests of

listeners, and thus to gut a e;roat wnount of information which would enablo

broadcasters to develop better, more appro;priate· and more appealing programmes.

/ Jn te "r''lJ3. t ional

E/Q_~ .. 4/Sub .1/156 Pa8c-'5l "

International radio and audionco l:'Osoarch1 11' woll-pl.annod and well-dono, coulci

contribute in a most deciaive wey,.to on:increaae in am. :tnt'ansifiootion of the .. '' • ' ' < .' ' -·· ' : ' • - • ' ' • l ' ' :_ ·~'"~' ~ ·, ... ; ::·;:: . ·. - '

dissemination of' international 'information and could st1mulate the-interest of

listeners 'throughout the world:. .,\. ' • -·-~··j, ~ ., ..... ·. ,.., '.... "~ .,

/2. 1J ire .broadcas tip§·· '-.- ·. ' ..

·, .. · ' ·'.

E/CN~4/Sub .• l/l56

2. \fire b:oadcasti!lS - ita devei~~nt and si~ficunoe Outsicle the cou..'ltries directly concerned, little .attention has been pa.id, to

wire 'br~ad.casti?§ and H;s sm.Prisina growth. It :is now ttme. to ~xamine the

problems :inVolved more closely 1 in view pa..rticularly of the faet that wire

broad.casting - sometimes increasing, but most of the time limiting the choice of

progr8ll:l.tlles - influences considerably the free flow of information.

Only a few figures need to be quoted here to illustrate the present state

of wire broadcasting since the different methods of reception are discussed in

detail in the memorandum "Freedom to Listentt, (E/CN.4/Sub.1/155). There were

{in 1949) 810001 000 subscribers to wire networks in the European part of the

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics - this number has probably increased by

1,ooo,ooo since last year .. and 942,441 (in September 1950) in the United

Kingdom; the Netherlands counted. (on 31 December 19,0) 585,568 subscribers; Polan

555,584; Switzerland 171,996 and Belgium 93,764. Still more :important is the

fact that these figures represent 73 per cent of the total audience in the

Euror:;ean part of the Soviet Union, 37 :per cent in Poland, 25 per cent in the

Netherlands and 16.5 per cent in Switzerland, about 8 per cent in the United

Kingdom, and 6 per cent in Belgium; in some of the non-self-governing territories

the proportion is as high as 80 per cent. These figures gain further in

importance because thousands of loudspeakers are installed in listening centres,

in schools and factories, in club houses and assembly places, many of which are

controlled by political parties,~/ thus considerably increasing the number of

listeners reached by the programmes transmitted.

Uire networks are growing rapidly. Many thousands of new cannexions are

being set up every month, ancl an increasing number of countries becoine, for

different reasons, interested in this method of transmission and reception of'

programmes. It now expands to a new field, television; it seems that ~levision

by wire will be adopteQ. even in countries which do nat have wire broadcasting~

The high price of television receivers and the limited range of ultra-short waves

used for the transmission of television progra.n:mes, stimulates this c1,evelop:ment;

economic reasons, and especially the need for provi.ding "box office" receipts

for ex:pensive programmes, such as special events and ne1f motion pictures, induce

commercial enterprises to look for a system which will prevent the reception of

There are~ almost 6,000 collective listening centres in Pola:.l'l, and. one relay system in a Soviet factory serves as J'fl.13r.J.Y as 5.000 workers.

E tcri-~4/sU.'b ~ l/'156 Pase 53 ·; ·

tel i i i th 't·,,_·· ev s on .s . ..e BJ:l£1W~r .. ~.. . , . . ·x .,""J . . .. · .

This "!{rena. ~ll~uld be of .~icular concern to those. interested in fre~d.diil· ' ' .. - - . . "

of infol'!llation: :Vlire broad.c.asting,·anp, :wire television facilitate 'ceritriUiz'ed ' -· ··! .( .... . • ' - -

' cop.trol end cf3nsorahip ~,.the extt'E)me, not only at tha transmitting· but also

· ~t the. recei~ing -~nd s~ce nothing but a pre-selected prdgremme'bail reach t~ '·. audience. Most. wi::r;e broadcaeting services are operated.· by::..sove:rnmefi,t~c·ont~ol!leo

. . . : ' . - ~ ' -

organizations,. and frequet:l:tly, one single national prog:razmne · is relayed to· the ·.

s~bacribe~!?:~~ tbe11·ba~e no progr~ choice .. wh!iteoev~r. Even;, u1 case 'of tb~ . technical,J.y mpst .. ad.vancecl re·J.ay ~ystmna, "Ule lllaXimum n\tmber of programmes

·.' ". ( -., ,' -, . : : ,1. . ' ·• ;_ • • . ·, • --~ - '

transmitted by wire is five or six, and foreign programmes· to be- relayed are· · ·

care;f'ully acre.enad J.m.der t:Qe· s~periis;l.op. of the ·eontrolH.ng authOrity •

. H~~~~r" _quit~·~ often'wire -1Jroat1caat1ng is a neeerisity ;: ... ·the 1only'·poar:fibll '· c . . . . ~... ~- ..

solution to pro.v.1d~ broadcast pl"'grammes and ~nformation to .. Te"gioris' · Eillar audie~es which c~~t be served. by wi;re,le'ss transmieeiona, or at least •not a·li''.

the present time. This has been the case 1n a war-devastated_ country like

Poland which not only has lost its transmitters and. studios, but also 1,099,800

radio sets (aut of 1,2001 000) most of which were confiscated or a.estroyed by ·the

GermimB.2!2./ On the other hand, in many of the non-self-governing territories

the white population is too small to support a complete broad.cf.l.Bting service 1 anc

tha native population too poor to afford radio sets. Finally, the limited numbeJ

of frequencies available for broadcasting prevents many cou.~tries, as for

example Swed.en, from broadcasting more than two programmes; a wire network, with

relay exchanges scattered throughout the co\Ultry 1 could bri.""lg the lis tenore

an additional prograxmne.

In a:ny case, the problema involved in wire broad.casting need to be examined

1n order to find out how this method. of transmission and reception is being

used at present and. how it could be used not to limit, but to increase the f~~e

flow of information.

22_/ Cf. "StE~,t"lJ,s qf".Br.oMoaat:tng Overa~as" .by Arno.'Buth in '~ele.Jrec~", , , , :. }iew Yo~;~.- ·Ja.nAary 1941"~· · " ··' · · · · · · ·, :· -~ , _

/'JY. 'rJ:Jlil :IMPACT

E/CN 64/Sub •1/~56

IV. THE IMPACT OF NJl.W TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS ·, • I . .

Radiocommunications are today at the eve of a new &m of progress and

expansion'! l'h,eir scope has been en;la.rged w1 th the add! tion of shortwave

broadcasting am transmissions over tl.1 opioa.l :f':requency bands. New ·techniques

for word, and. i~ge 'i?;'a.nemission have been developed., such ·as frequencjr modulatiOn,

facsimile and television. ···

The radio channels of information will be multiplied in the near furbure.

Already, the United States of America has 656 FM transmitters and 101 television

statio~ in a.dd.it1on to 2,~94 standard broadoa.st· {AJ.!I) and 38: short-wave

transmitters; 301 applicati-ons for AM stations, ll for FM a:nd 439 for television · stations are JJend!J.ng:W . . .· · -~ · ·

Anyone C?oncerned '·ri th freedom of infol:'llla tion should thus ta.ke into ac·oount

those .:t;le'W techn.olog:tcal d.eve~IJ!I!.Onte in ra.dioo~mmur:tca.tions, all of which affect

the free flow of :':!_nformation, a.nd ma.y serve hostile ··pro:pa.galld.a. a.a we-ll as the

:promotion of better inter.na tional. rela. tiona.

. f .

Figures based on daif.l. S.'!APPlled b;y the u. ?.• Jederal ~amm.un1cat1ons Cotmnias!on on l3 September 195+.. C{. '':Broadcasting" Mlgazine, Washington, n.c. of 17 September 1951. ·

/1. Short-wave

1. Short~wave (high frequency) broadcasting I.

E/CN~4/Sub.l/156

The very day radio engineers and ama. teure demonstrated that short waves

are oa:pable of linking ooutrtrfes and continents, the door was opened to a

developnent of great significance. A new channel of international information

had been put at the disposal of all Who wan-t;ed to communicate with people living

in far dis~t places, and to broadcas~ progt'Wllllles and information ·to other

nations. ·

Colonial broadcasting, the transmission of progrelllilles to colonists and

native :po:pu.la ti one in overseas territories 1 . has pe. ved the way for international

broadcasting. Like national governments and national broadcasting services,

the League of Nations became immediately interested in this new I!ledium of

information, and built a short-wave station near Geneva.

Twenty years have passed .e1nce1 twenty years. of continuous efforts to

develop the technique of short-wave broadcasting. Today, broadc.ast progra.mm.es

can be directed to any point of tbe $EI.rth1 and ~Ollle countries are addressed da:lly,

in their own languages, by ten o:r fifteen fore11jlt m tiona,. Powerful short-wave

centres, many of which comprise four 1 :f'i ve or even eight or ten transmitters and

a large array of directive antennae, are on the air for twenty or twenty-four

hours a day. One of the first things a "new" country does is to establish a

short-wave station, in order to be heard beyond its frontiers and to participate

in the ttconcert of nations".

The present development of short-wave broadcasting is as remarkable as it is

fraught 'With alarming possibilities, especially since short wa vee are frequently

the only channels which may convey informtion, and which no barrier of

censorship, not even the barrier of jamming, can prevent from crossing the

frontiers.

With the addition of every new station - and there are dozens of short•~ve

trane:oi tters now under construction or projected for the near future·- and "iri th

the increase in· power of existing stations, the s! tuation becomes even mo:re

serious; the mutual interference of short-wave sta~iona, already intolerable,

ro·e ag(!;t'avated from. month to month, and eo are the difficulties of listeners

in recei v1ng information transmitted over short-wave stations.

Interference and jamming further add to the natu.ral difficulty of short ..

/wave reception

E/CN .4/Sub .1/156 Page 59 .. , . . ~ .

wave reception due to atmospheric disturbances and fading, and have discouraged

many in their attempts to listen regulirlt:~.td '@.ort~ii:·b~~ba1.ts~ · =--otili those -·'

who ar~ tterioualj i:b.t~rested'·iri iliteriltitfdil.a1 affain.fantt 1nt~n:ia.tiobai -· . ,:· in:t'ormation =bav$')?eraisted:aM.. :aueceedt;d;~' .'~6 attra:c£ e.'mas~ 'a.'lldiehbe~····an~;' .·,::-· international' pro~e elloUld 'be r&l.RYed; b;l eta tiona' neai-er' to in~ tarseir area-':.. prefexabJJ ,t~.,J.ao oye~ .long ~nd. me4ium wav:Eta ..... al;ld,~ · wh'Sne.v:er possible,, be

" .-~. < •• ' ... ,c " • • '

re .. broad.oaat ov(i}r -~?cal ata.t1~nf3 ~ n,etwo~k;a .•. · ·'It+a .does. _not. :mean,. hOJI'eier, that:~·

direct tra.nsruiaaiona should be abandoned in favour of relays; on the contrlil7·i ·

both are -~q~lly_.~neceaaa.ry fo;- t,he d:tetr1but:l.PlJ.s.Q.t i~~tion, all-the mar.e:aa they ,e_p;peal fr.equently tQ d,ifferent ~w;Uencea. • . . ·; ·

.. Due t.o; .t}).e<_la.lm of. radio. prq:pa(J.l.i;ion.,. ahQrt -~vee (hig}Lfrequenciea) arEP · ··• t ~. •

moat sui ta~e :for lon&-d..istan~e ~~a.aion am ~thuj:';l 'for inter.tllltiona1 and

inter-continental broodcaat~_ng. .However;,. ~a <t;:~.lready-.ll.lentioned .:above, they are ·

also needed for natiollfl,l.&Dd .e:ven f.or lOCtitl ~er~o~s• In f&cti short .waves . . .. · ... .. ·- ' ' ... "'

are being 1l6€ld. today., for six d.tf'fez:en.t i;.yp.es of broadcast transmissions:· • ..-J • .. . . . -· • -! • " ' •

••

~(a) :the. dj,s:tl.·ibut1cm. of ,wo~ ~f· .1.ntar~tioll41: ·orga.piza tiona·, • for · · . . .· . .... ~ . . . ... .. . ; ' . ~ ',_ ' .

~ple t.he; .ba;'oa.doa.ate. of: -t:4~ -Ulli:t;ed. I~~on:s tp~ &ll pa.rts of the ~mrl.d; . ;.. -- ·-··.-.·· .. . ... ·, '- .... ····· . -. "" ' . ' .

,Jp) ~e 1ntsrnat1p~ .and.~J?:1;~r.""cont1_nep.i{a:l ,d;tet.:."'H;l:ttio:n ~o~~ :p1"'cg<:'emmea:' · · '· ·

designed to,r forei.~ .a.udienC~lB ~~ brOS:ica.;;,t. pr.;;.~1Jq.):ily.· in fore.::gn ~ge~ .. •

as, f.or,. ~~;ple,. those of .t..be :BBC ·~·oreP ..... "1·Ge.rT:tc;o}'· , . ~ - . . . . . ~ . . . _. . ' ' . - '

(c) . tll~. tra.nam.1t?s1on of prog~:'X1JIQ.-es 1:1. t~·l~ .:;;l"kJ,ton.:t.J: lru.:rguage.:to· na,.t.ionals ··· . ' ' . ... . : ~. -"- . . . ,. . -' .. ', . ./: -~ . - ' " '

11 v1ng in foreign cmr'lt,rif·.::: tmii ttJ thr:>;ir d.f;f-Gti'.!L'.I'l:::l:c~~ for s-.x.a:mple, · ·

broo.Q.caJ3tS frqm. S+,n>;!~.Klt:'!. to l~z:r~_?ller,:; _of Bv::t;tl;.rrb. ~i.Bfn .tn. the United 'c ·' ..:~· " ' . ' .. ~

Stl~:\:i,E?t;l; ' r 0

• ,

(d) the, t.~D~Jf,,:; ;; ~· · o:£'. :~.::· .. ::-~ u.i ·or 1.1J ."""··~,..,.~ . ' . . ~ ' ~ . \,. ~

e.xa.mpl~, 1;?:r:),-:;,C.e:r:.r-1t2 .f::o.."ll ~i3J::·js .'~(.)-,i'~'t\}:O~:r,:<!Jl-e- ~OJ:' f;rom Lisbon. :to .Ango]4; L ':. · · ~ ~ . '. . ' .· - '

(e) the diB c;r:f..but:ion Of dc:mest..'\C )?X'Ogt'tl."UlT.t:W in Cvt:nt:r1ea With 8. large':'/;'' . ::. ··

t,erritory s.uch.as the.,U.S.,q.li. or Ch~.; .e~m.p11f:1,ed;b3\"bmad¢ttettt'.·from.'· .· ., . ·,.-,_ ,··· .. -.,. • ..... '

MoBc.ow . to Sibe:r~a; . ' . ·, . . . '·l

• ,J • - ·,• ~! . 0:: • . --...· '; -. ~

· (f) the distr1but,_i_on qf _domes'!tic ~~a 1J'l . .reg1one :with a :hi'gh level·.

of _a.-t;moaph,er;9, inte~ere!l9,~,;;;;~?r e~pl&r~b;r~~asting ·in tr<ipica];. zonea.· .

or in Indone_sia a.nd EtJliopi-a.. .:_ ... , ··· . ·" . , · ·

In view of the fact 1:.bat the.n,um.ber, .. of high tre~enci-eara'Va'ilable .for:~ r. ·· • · ... ' ' . . . . . -- "'' .. :. : ~ .

broadcaat;~ng serv:i,~ee i:a v-ery li,mited -~ ;~t the·' demal;ld :for tl1eee :Clt'equenciee: . ·...... -' .. , .. - .

/is three

E/C'N •4/Sub ~·')../r)~5!. Page 51 · · '·!: ' ... :

ie three times as high aa the number which can be alloca.~, tF~r~ ~qs ?~e~1 _, . . ' " . '. \ \ '·.;,_ .. . : ·' ,., . ' ' . ~ ' ' . ~ ' . ~~

at every i~ternationa.J. ccmference concerned witJl. the .. ~istrrDllt!on ·Qf ~veleiigths, ·., . ~:-_·-~-· ;··. ··.·.- '':·; ... !' .. ~.,.-~·!:· ~···" .t .. _,.,,, .. i •. :-•. ~:·_,·j-_.u t:.:~:.:~·-'"·:':1 :··t .··.,., ·:./~·:.· ... '1"., \~·._:;· .:- ... ::' ••• ··.";_-::··, , ..

a serious. confl~ct of i~teres.ts. The. 4i~pa:r:~ty betw~en .supply .Ll.¢ dema.nd has .' ."'· ·-·:t· :·:. ,>l .. i·(:, :· i :'· ·'.•",_. 1 :; : • .Y:-.:.f .;;:·~~~·7.'..:.~--~., ~, ' -',,,' ~- (•r; ··;:· ,.'• ·:.,.,· ... ·, __ .;,' .. >.. , :: '·':'' ·,

inevitably led. to a request for priority .allocatio..lB ar.d for the adoption ,of, · ,. J ~i • '· .. - · '· - ' 1 • •• • ~ i :• • "·· . '" • ~ '' r .• f • 1 i • . ' · -: · • · ; , : ' .' · ' ' · · -... • .· -; · •. '· : :. . ' '

"ge~e;ral p:d.ncipieB 11 I {.a~ 'non-tec~qal· :prinCiP,l~B~' ae:;"ijle. b.a~i~·, fOl' t.Jle . , .. -·~-\· .· .· .-.. ~.:~: ...... ' ' L~·. I ·'· ,1'.", ·., _;. ' ...... ·;· .. ·. :'..:.' ,t\ ·' :- ; p ' .~.,-~;! ....... - : ' ;~: .,

aaeignme~t, ·;9!.·Pi~ ~r.eq~~c.~e,a •.... ~~e~~r' ~7!~?~1~tie~ fo~· .. o.ne c9\Ultry mean .. in.equ*ty.and frequently 1.njuet1ce• to another;. a :priority request for national'

~ '.-·), .. . J '·. :--'< • • ( ··_ •, . ' I· ' .-., ~ :'' . • -' ' ', : • ·.. ,; ) ' ,,

("internal".)· se:-cvi.~.ea 1 ·· i~~ud.ins ·colonial broadcasting aerv:icea, a~riouely · .·. . . • ·• • !. . •. . ' • • ; ' : ' ~ ' < '. • ~ ' • • t:_ • ' ;- • ' ~ • ' . ·. : ·, ' ; • • . " : . ' ' • • • .,.

threatenS interna tiona! (II external 11) ,broadC~~tip~, aC tt,v:f. ti.eB, a!ll ~the P,Be· Of . .rad~lO

channel~. ·:r;~ the intermtio~l· tra~s~i~n ~nd exchaMe of ... infbrmation~ .Repee.;ted . . . ··.· ', ' ' ' ' . '. .. . . '. . .. ' . . . _.,_

! ' .

attempts to ~stablish a priority for: nationa~ service.s. and to reser:ve~:the bulk··.·· "' '\ : . -. t .' .:-. . . .• . . ... .. . ,· . . . . ''• ' .

of high freCJ,.uenci_ea fo:r;, ~e. ~~SIIliBsion of na. tio.~l programmes, . either i11. : ·. , . ' . . ., . . ·.' . '. •,. .,__ . . .

countries w1 th a large terri tory or from the hOXileland to overseas poaeeaeione • . ' ·i . • • ~ ' .

have up to .n<:rr7"fail,ed - owi;ng to, th~ etrorg opp,oe-1 t:ton of th,oee who d~:t'·*!f.nd.e~{ ,'/ :' ·, \• I • • ' ' ( '• ' • • •·

fre~~,. o~ infqx:na ti~ e,nd also be?ause. no t1mal agreem.e_!lt .~ .. yet .b~en r~c»e4. 1 .

oori.cerning ~e tnternational ,allocation of short waves. · But, the threa't remad;pa;, . . ~ ~:. I -~; ,· '~ .. • ~ ~c 1 ' ,. • ! ' . '· '. ." . ' ' ' ' ' ' .' ' ' ' • • '' • '' ' . ~ •

new attack._ a:r;e being launched. constant;Ly <and ·:the utmost vigi~c.~ is requ~,ed,;~ .. l >. . . . ' ~ . . ' . ,;, ~ . ' . . .. ·:~ _,' ....

Sl,1.ort wayes, are not qnly channe,].a of 1llternation:al. information; the;y;. ~-e,. .:."

being ·~a~,, ~ to ':'-11: .. increasing~ ex~ent.; as,, ~rie;rs of. ~_n~rnat;t:~l :tp:'O~~a,:~ . The ov~~ioad.ing of sh9rt:-wa.v:e br~ad~a!lta 'W1 th pol:t tical ~opa~ ~s b~~~ ~:,., ·~ important/~~~iem wh:t.ch .calls for coneidera,tion sine~ it threate~ the .Ufie. an~: . ·,,.

valu~ of ~l;b;t~'\oll;I.Ve broad~aeting, a~;~r tm instrument Of internati~:J_ communica;jj~~:l : ,1 •j l •• 1'· .•..• ' '. ·.. . .. . ' . . .• ,'' .•

and informB.tion, and as a link and. aa a bridge be.W.ee~ peoples ...

E/Cf!~4/Sub .l/1';6 Page ;& · . ·

2. Tropic~l btoadCt\St1.~.

·: irra.l).Qlnission and -recaption in tr.opieal~erea~ fUld. in regfont'. W1 th similar

pro~aga.tion ~qnll:tions face serious difficUlti-es •. The high atmos:Phe:dc noise ; ' . ~ '

level :affects medium-wave broadca.sts1 and causes a great num.b.er of countries to

~use short waves fat' the .distribution of national and even .loqal. progran:mes - that

is to say fr~quenc1ea WhiQh·~ 'oi.vital :tx::wo:rtancfl f0:t' the distribution of

·intel;'Jlati,o.naJ. programmes especially 1n cases of long-dista.nce transmissions where

no other freq.~nc1es 'can be u.&ed ~. . In view. of the special :co:nd.itions prevailing

in troptca~ countr,ies,. the I~t4:lrnationa.l Eadlo. Co.:n.ference in Cairo,.l938,. set·

aside a ae~iea of intermediate,, so-called "tropical" frequenpiea, s.ituated betwee1

the sh<n::t ar.d med.itm1 'l~ve. bands •. But, for different J;"ea~ona,. only a few . . . . . . .

countries.-. such as Colombia, Veneeuela and Indonesia, - have taken advantage of

these allocations•

In.l.Q47; the International RadiQ Conference in Atlantic City endorsed the

principle of special aJ,locations to co'Wltriea in trop~cal .regions:; it recognized . . ' . . . - ,·. ·- .. the needs of the brcadcaating aer..vices working Ulldel' particular condi tiona; and · •· .. . ' .

extended and defined. previous provi:siona.. ·Wi ~ a yiew to encouraging

exp~rimen:tationJn this f:iel~, .fj,v.e bands peJ.ov. 6,000 ke/s have been set 'aside . .· 52 1

fo~ 'b:'opical b:t"oad.castii!f3.~ Rowev:e:r, it took another two years before :the

countries concerned decided to make greater. us.e of "tropical" frequencies;. most

of .. them were reluctant tp ch.a.nBe t'rom ·hieher to lower frequencies 'because or· established listener ha.b~ ts and because o~ the lack of sets caiRble of reeei vt!lli · ·

' ·,-.•·.·: ' . . '

broadcasts over these wavelengths.

The decisions of the International High Frequency Broadca&ting Conference,

Mexico City, 1948/9, stressing the necessity to reserve short waves for long.

distance .transmissions, and those of the Fourth Inter-American Radio Conference

in Washington, D.c., 1949, devoting particular attention to services in tropical

zones, opened the way for a more general introduction of tropical broadcasting,

which is about to become an important service. Remarkable progt'eea has recently

been made, and extensive plane for the establishment of new tropical broadcasting

stations are now being realized. In 1949, there were already 33 tropical

2£) 2,300 .. 2,4,95j 3,200 - 3,400; 3,900 - 4,000; 4, 750 .. 4,995; and ~,005 - 51060 ko/s. ·

/broadcasting

broadcasting stations in the rlestern Hemisphere alone, and eight Iatin American

countries pla.Imed to build a total of lr53 additional 'ones, ma.ny of '\-Thich are now under. conatructioJt. In addition to Colombia and Venezuela, many other countr1~~s,

in particular Brazil, Me.1."1co and India have taken gr-eat i.ntereat in this.

developnent. While· in 1948 only one transmitter in Br.azil was operating on

tropical bancis,. there were thirty-five tropical broadcasting stations on the air

in 1951, and ~r.y more unde:r copstruction or proJected.

Among the countries entitled to use tropical frequencies are quite a few

which do not yet possess effective broadcasting services. Tropical frequenciefl

offer the ~oasibility of ~roviding nsw and mare extensive facilities in less

developed areas; their full use would enable the establishment of additional

stations in areas insufficiently served today. 'Ihe nevr stations would not only

open up new regions and increase the available channels of information but

could also serve as outlets for cultural and educational activities either in

connection with technical assistance projects or the fight against illiteracy.

Desp1 te this opportunity, ma.n,y stations in tropical areas are still using high

frequencies for the broadcasting of domestic proe;rammes, thus aggravating the

shortage of available channels tor 1nterna.t1oiJ.al broadcasts. If an increasing

number of countries '\-Tould follow the example of Colombia .. which, immediately

a.f'ter the Internationa.l High Frequency Broadcasting Conference in l-1e.:x:ico City,

decided to shift 16 stations operating on short waves to tropical bands - a

considerable number of high frequencies could be freti; the transmission and

interchange of international information would g~. .. eatly bene.f'i t from such a move •.

However 1 one important problem - the adequate supply of sets capable of rece1 vi.ng

intermediate waves .. has to be solved before trc-:pical broadcasting can be adopted

in the thirty countries directly interested in this field. As the Government of

Guatemala stressed at the Inter .. American Radio Conference, MSt of the broadcast

recei vera used in Central America have to be purchased abroad, in particular

in the United States of America and in the Argentine, neither of which yet

manufacture tropical recei vera on a large scale. Consequently, the Fourth Inter

Ameri«an Radio Conference r6commended "that in designing and manufacturing

receiving equip:nent destined for countries within the tropical zone, manufacturers

consider that such reoe1vers should be able to receive tranam1sa1ons in the

,. I

.. , ;

E/CN.4f.sub~l/l56 Page 6o

~ ~· <' ~1. ' f ' "' .. • • • ' ,"'l '·

bands allOcated to tl."'~p1c~~~br08deas:t1ng. ,?]} .. ·.

. ~ ..

·· ·rt .seems almost certain ·that tro};$1:cal broad,eaet1ng will develop rapfdlyi ..

as soon as a greater number cf ·sets a.t a rea.~ona.ble price ro;e put on ·tiia market. The. ax:periencos. of those :countries ypich. have bee~ us~ .tl\ese · ~ ·

·:frequencies for many years would certail'll..y'.·be .. valuable in further p1annfng and '"" ',.

development. Here a(Jl.in,. the la.ck of essent:tal·facte and data- hampers diecussio

and decision. ·~ 'f: .... ·.

' I

'' '· '

, I ..

' ,.

,•· ;,

~ . ·- ' : .,·

~ : ''

........

. ...

I ' '

W Of. Inter ... American Radio Agrccuent, Washington 1949, Reconmeildat1on No. 6 /3. FrequencY:

~-~ -~ ... t ,·:: ,; 'i .. · . . ' _-, ·-

'. E/CN)4/s dh·.:l/156

, 3, , .... Freqll,e~cz mpdua.at~~.n 'b:r;padca~,t~~ : . , , . . ' ':' . ., .~ · ... · One of> the most .pr.om113~ng rad.io develoi;tiente bas beon tlle :U:t:croaueti.on in

1936 of.,Frequency· Mod.ul.atio~ Broad,c~eti~g ~fMf ~Thich is based bn_: the pione6~1ng · ';,:-vr,ork .of· thi .. fi;UllOue. inventor and.. rad~9 .eng:l.,n~er ~~J~ 1 Edwf~ R~ Armatrong.d!!./.

" . . . . . . . . . . ' '· ' . . . ''\''.' . ·, ·.

Officially· admitted by the Federal Commun1cat1o:ria COlrimissiori of' ·the UnitEKl . . . . . , ~ . · .. - -. ·. . - . : , -. '. ~- . ,._. . ... r . -... ,. States in 1940,, it is still f~ from. peing utilized.. to its fUJ.J.est possible

extEmt P.nd ia not yet recOgi'lfZ,ecl as .an ~qual, a.rid potentially su:p·er1or pertner

of r.egu;Lar Am;pl1 t~e .Mod~:toi~~ J?roadc~stins.. Ita 'eign.ifid~t/Advcmtage~ as • • ' .-' . .f- - ' (: . . • ·, •• - ~

a moans of s'Qatic-free and. hig}:f~f:!.delity re.prOd,uction of m~s:i~· 8.nci speech hav·e, \ • ': •• ' ,, • ~ _. • -' : > ; '. '· '• , . ~ •

howeve.r, been :proven beyppd ~. ~oubt.. Wi f.h ;;~gard to freeU.om ci: inforillati'on,

FH Brqadpasting pres.ents ae~er~l ft)ature~ ~hich dese~ve atte~tioD. ·a.a ·,ieil as . . ' . ' '"". . ", ' :

e.nc,Qupaaemant. Diff~rent, :and ~esa or9Wcted frequ~~c~ bands - 'ie:ry high

; f:r~g,ue;noies (ult;ra .short waves.) -:.are b~ing. used for FM; and since th:e 'rarige ·

··• of the,ae frec.!.Uenciea is .rat~er lim1ted1 thousama of new tra.namitters can be

ept.{l.bl;tshed and be o:petated witho~t the ~isk of mutua.l interference 'Which llndts ' ' . ·"" .. ·; . . ' .·: . : . . . . ' .: ' '·; •' _: . ' •, - ..

, th.e nui(l.ber of ::rt<;~-tio?s. in .tp.~ p:tanda+d broa.dca~t (med±'um 'wave) band. Xt ha.'s

th1,1a. b~ame :possible no;t only to imp~ove reoe:Ption oonditioh:s td a consid~ra.'ble '• ', ' - :·' > .·' : • • .' ·' ·, ' • • •

-~' ext~nt, .but .also to. :provide additional facilities·· mied.ed. for the tran:snrl.'ssion of

.mtismaJ. and. loyal. ~ucatipnal pr.o~~s~ ~~e~;cr, Fir transktttinS equil:meht

if! muc)l .J,eaa. ex:pensi ve than th?-i ~aeci for _regular (AM) broad.oast:i!lg. ' Small '

.. c:omm.un1ties, universities, ouit~~ and ;~ll~:i.~ua ~~aociati(ma'whioh, a.ue' tb the

shor.tage pf, fr,equencies and 1;'4e .high, cost of r~io ;facilities, cbUJ.a· not have, u:p ,, , ,- .: ., ·> •. •I ·- ·', . ·.. , . ·•. . ' .. ·. -· - -'

to .:no"~'· a .. s~ll~t?n of their.~~ are nov being e:oabled to ·aet up· FM transmi ttE~rs

.. ,mld .thus to 1dden th~ scope .of thefr actirt ties 'am. to communicate with the . . ' \ "-, . ' ' . ' . . . ~ .. -~ . -. ' . . :.~' ::: . .

. :people.

As mentioned above,.J.?.o le~s than 65.1 FH.sta~i<;>ils are ·oti tho air :i.n the

United S'\iates,. reaching already m~re than S,ooo,·ooo receivers. 93 non.;.

Cozmn~rcial 11eduoat1o~l11 Fr.i sta.t:!.~s are. operated .by colleges·~ 'ut~.iverei tios,

and. off;~r :liste11.era in thei~ area a greatnumbe~ o! additio:ri.a.l pro~e,. SOillf) of

very hi/!)l c.!.uali 'o/, B~~d~ast~~g c~~:pa.nies are ;n general ,relucfuht to ·progra:mme

aepara. tely for li'M, l;!.nd their. ~i transmitters moatJ.Y carry the same progt"Smmes ___ ._._ •' ' ,>• 0 '• ' ;., ', ,_ .~ .~' ' ' ;• ,' L L ~ 0 L •• .: 0 0 0 0 '

54/ Cf. "A Method of Reduc'!ng Disturbances in Radio Signalling by a System ~f: Frequency}Iod~ tio.a'.1 py ;Ed,,nn R. A..riru:Jtrong. Proceedings of. .. the InstitV,t~ of J,={~dio ·E'llgfne'era'1 Vol~ XX!X, No. 5, May 1936..; · ..

.,. ' . ,,._ . .. ~- ·. :.~-· . .. . . '-

/arJ' their

E/CN,..4/Sub<'.l./~56 Page ~62 · ··

as their AM stations.

Despttea11 initial opposition, ma.in.l,y from the aide ·Of the radio· industry,

,.;hich has invested so much . capital i~;. regtlla.r broadcasting opera tiona and the

wanu:fac~uring of re.suJ.ar broadcaa~ing re~eivers, FM broadcaatinB is constantly

gaining, ground.. A, f3I'OW1ng number of FM seta are beirtg manufactured: · the monthly

average h~s ln:crea~~d f.'rom 72,~9 FM sets ~ 40,543 FM~TV sets in 1949, to · + '.t ..• ·.. : ,, '

103,0?5 anQ. 5.4,445 r~pectiv~ly in 1950, and to 1521 295 and 521263 at the beginning

of 1951.. Nearly .three m1l;Uon FM recei vera will be produced this year, aDi

probably even mor~ in 1952.'t1/ M:tey li~t~rs, once they have experienced FM

broadcasts, almost completely a"ta.;ldon the sta.nd.Brd broadcast band.

FI·equency modulation broadcasting has been introduced in nearly twenty

countries, at least on an e.'JC.!>erimental basis. Danma.l:-~, once more pioneering

in radio1 has been the f~st to establish an experimental transm:l. tter in Copenhagen. . .

now. .in operation for nine years •. :Ha.Izy" Ameri:Ca:n am E~opeim countries followed

. after 1;;he end. of the we;r, using Flv1 tra~ tterei also· as a link between studio and

station. At the beginning of 1951, Ce.mda had 36 FM ~tat:1ons, :Brazil 10 and ., (.

Italy 8. .Jpnbi tioao plans are be~ng carried out. in Western Ger.ma.ny where (according

to the journal "Funk-vlacht") 37 FH transm.1 tters were in operation on 20 April - ' . ' : ' . ! '

1951; several .States are building .FM networks to :provide 'listeners 111 th additional

progra.:mmes and a highly improved service. It should al"lo be not~ that »t may

replace, as has been suggested in the Netherlands, prese.:'.t 'cable connections ' . ·. . . ' . ~ ' _,

used for network operations a.:nd the transmission of progrc\L-mles to rE:JlAY exchB.nges •

. Frequency Modulation offers ,a possibl~ s~lution of the lllBllY 'difficult ·problem<

now. facing broadcast!~ in tropical r~g1ons~ Almost lllli:.tffected. by atmoB:pheric

and electrical inte:r·ferences, and often completely static.;.free, it may provide

primary service for listeners in areas where the reception of ra~io programmes

has up to now been VftrY difficult and during certain p~·:!.od.s of the :real:. even ¥ ' ' . J

impossible. The intro~uction of FM in the Tropics· wc:m~d also ease the Shortage

of. high fl;'equencies,. and free a number of channels nO"w being used for the . ' . ', ·' ' . . .

distribution of local and regional programmes. Since, on t.b.e· other 'hand:, FM ·

transmitters are relativ~ly inexpensive, it would 'l>e possible to. establiSh· . . . . . '

transm:lssion facilities at reduced cost even for less·developed areas.·

Information given. by .the Rad.,io .and, ;TeleviQD. M:lnufacturers Aesoe:tation, vl as,hington, D.c. and by the Chair'.tll.'ill of the FM Industry CO!llilli ttee.

/In view

E/CN .4/Stt'b ... l/156

In view of this fact, and conscious rJt the potent1all'tj_.ef3 of_li'r.eqq.,el)py .

Modu.J.ati6n 'Broadcasting,· the. Fourth .Inte.r-Amerl.can ·Badia. ConferaJ:?.c~~ W~1ngt~n, D.c. , l94 9 I recomniem9d.: • ' '

."i. r t.lmt · tJie Al:lierican countries, pu"t1cu..larly tb.ose in the Tl:Q:p~ca:I: Zone, ~e:rtake experiments .to determine the extent to which' broadcasting · in the frequenCy bands 'allocated. tn this "service in the vmr portion of the· spectrum can provide a more aa.ti~factory service;

112. "t.hat the inf~rmation obtained as a. resUlt of these experiments be ' interchanged. among all the . .Am.erican countr1ea.''2..§/ . . ... ~ · " .

· One lria,1or · ohstacle to the general adoption of· frequency modula.t~on is the

shottage·of·FWrecelvera a.I'ld the fact t.hat J,arge-scale prO(Luct10n. or these .se~a

·'<ui .i:imitEki to the United States, which~ .that they have to .be ;paid for. in·.

-~ cu.ri-ency. ·Frvi receiver~ - unlike Fl1 tran®dtters '- .are a.lso. m.or~.· expenslve '' .. i, '

than ord1nary· sots; this problem however 1 col.Ad proba:bl:Y be solv~d as soon ·~s

larger orders enable the manufacturers to adapt thef:r 11J¥S to :the :JD.!ies :prQ1i~ction

ot FM sets. ·

'22J Cf •. Inter-Ameripan Radio Agreement, vfash1ngton, 1949, BecOll:llnendation No•.9. ' . . . . . . ;: . . . . . . ' '·· . /4. . F~eimtle

E/CN-.4/Suh.l/156

4. Fjtcsimile broadeasti~

The· point-to-point transmission,· by Wive' .or·· wir.el.est?, of. ~otorial ~ other

information has been a common practice for IlJa.I.1Y years: • pictures. and maps, •

\Tire.-photos and radio-:photbs are fhshed .over countries and qontinents, and are ' ' . '

reproduced by photographic processes and. re:grinted in newspapers. Facsimile

'trcadcasting, however, the d.ellvery of print and pictures to the :.hom.es and

offices of all who have a set capable of J:'ecei ving and recording these

transmissions, is a. relatively new service.

Fo.csiinile broadcasting is the fulfil.ment of -efforts which started more

than one hundred years ago, with the invention in 1842 of the electrochemical.

recording telegraPh by<the English phyeio-iet Alexander· :Bain. 'Ihe first facsimile

broadcasting system was developed as early as 1926 by Austin G. Cooley, followed

a few' years later by vT.G.H. Finoh a.nd. John V.L.·Hoge.n, inventors and radio.

engineers who, with the help of newspaper :publishers 1 broo.dcaaters and radio

manufacturers, succeeded in developine several :practical and highly ingenious

aystema.W Ah'·eady in 1931, six stations in the United States had been granted

experimental licenses to broadcast, between midnight and 6 a.m., printed news

and material. Facsimile passed the laboratory st£l{~e in 1948 when the Federal

Communications CoillJllisaion authorized regular transmissions and full commercial

use or fo.ceilllila broadcasts.~ However, the general introduction of "Fax" is

delayed for the same reasons which hamper tropical and frequency modulation

brcadcasting, i.e. the lack of au:f'ficient economic bases and the uncertainty

'W1 th regard to its acceptance by the public. Jm:y substantial inves'bnent and

expenditure for the operation of facsimile broadcasting which, like radio and

television in the United States, will be financed by advertising, has of couree

to wait until there is an audiencej this, in t'l.t'rn, requires a large number of

fac&1m1le recorders which are not yet available.

'2:11 For more detailed information on the history of faceill!f.le broadcasting, the early experime~ts and different systems see: "Bild.telegraphie" by Paul Bellac, Zurich, Neue Zurcher Zeitung" 1943; ''Facaim1le Bl"'oadcasting: Problema and. Possibilities" by Burton L. Hotaling1 JournaJ.iam Quarterly, June 1948; and 'tnadio - Heute und Morgen" by Arno Ruth, Zurioh/Uew York, Europa Verlag,. 191+·1 ~; "Facsimile" by Lee Hills and Timothy J. Sullivan, New York, McGraw Hill Book Compa:o,y 1 1949.

~ Cf .. Fcc f{~es 'and Regulations 'ror Bl·oadca.st:lng Services, p.u-. 3.266. . . /It would

E/f5N~~fdifD~'f./156. ;, '

1, .: * j .· ~ . ', . ' : 0

•I _._-, .. , , · '-/ ~ . "". •{' ~ ' • •:• ,o •;il l, ·. , ,

·· ··It' :~?uld ~everthe~s.s .'b&: ~ '~arit;~l ~~t:~e=·fcS ttettij:~cOrili!kttr&tti:nr.' o:f,(the. ;; .-_,_ ·, _· ":~-- '~-·- ·~·-·,· ... ( .. ) __ .,., , ..... ·~· ~···_--"- _ .. -" .. _~

new: ~~dium b_e.~~~~·'of , fta pres~rit' lW ~d ilse~' i 'ri\3-'lila~- hf•.\jBmDtuilieattoos · ,~ ~a' cAl'llbn,st~t~ h~: r~st a ·ne~:~tllod of tr&riamfset'oif~~re~pttonleah.~be . ' ' .. . .... ' .. -· ' ~ . . :. . . ,_ '

... •' ' -, •.: .. ., - . ' . '-' ' ~ ... " . . - "\ ; . - - '... ' -. ' .. ·· develo1J6.d as· soon· as, ~he 3-nte~st· of the public· 1a'·S.rouae¢'am" as sQon as.,.i;.tt;J·

; ;, • -· --~·.:.. - ' ~:· : i. > .. f' - ,, . ' > l' . . ·. • ' ' .. - . ' - ' ~

val.ue:·e;e a/ public~ eer¥1ce; or c.a ~ means of' commercta.l: pub~1ti:p· is•:,-~rtU,.~

rEi~~~iit:id.~· · The :.'eame' wtn~ probably 'also be true for Facailnfle · B'l'aeieloaating,.

:1:1t ·~1~~ part:tc'iu:ariy:'or-··auooeaeful deDIOiistrs.tions 'of: the Rogan 's;ystemr b,y tll~. l!'M s~ations of the "New York Times,~ the Ph1la.delph1a ":Bul.let1n"·· ~d "~nquirer,"

·'the :Ba1tlmore'·'1Newa .. ~a~11 Ol!'. the Miem1 "Herald" broa.dcaat1:lll3 ·faQ~;JliQ!J.e .. ~wepapera

. and otlier irb.f.e:tdtll bf ·epec:tal·:1n.ter~st •. The public marv.ell,ed. .at -thfJ pose.t~iJ;ity ~ '· 'Ot'"'~e:oe:tlving'!J1~llt.ed toocte' or pictures, .veather maps a.nd .charts :t:t;ana,mit~e.\i.c~ver

,.~~,, 1~o,r:·anaf to' 'nave ~them ~c6rdea. on paper, in a pe:manent fom;. 'Qy t)lE;t. ~ft¥;~~le _t.:c\:lilt':~·r· i:' 'rh ... :· . '· . ·' X"'e0'8 ·y1;1J ., {. '' ! ~~· ',

·The '\E~g'au: Fr:aintU!e System," vh1:oh ts ·ready for publ!o 6.ll4 oo~c;~ ~~!e as:~el~ iii f\)r·\i!'\3~ p;_'f'ldt4r.tion'of sa'ta, t~e full advantage 0~ .both the s~~1ns

··~ 'tecbri.tqu~ir o~ hlo~.-~.t~ I."Jrt ··:.;:7.r1 of 'the deveiopment of frequency modulation,

b;"oa,4ci~~t~'r.J:5i' 's·~j~:.1o t:a:~ ·fa . .:,~1.mil-::> reoord~l" c~'"l be· e.tts.ched··t~ or bui:lrt into- any

FM t~~{'lik~ ":ti. r~00~ ... ~-~·f~.!.i:(;IS:<, !.ti 'iJ' '1n 'Pl"'1nc:i.ple; : aooejafble to mq~. th.t¢•:>,::·

·- :· :·a,ooo~boo·.·hotij~. 'iu thu -c;.:;,Ji~e/i. n :;,~\ee ;cmd to t.ane of tho.:.;;ande it~:. other,, c;pp.p~r1es. Since fa~·~iifuii$ ~.s li'!:-tls kc,ohn ·o:J.tside the places where it has ~en:.deia.oi:iat~ated

'r<" < '·,~'·_;~·/ •• ~ "':'.",> ·,~ .·'i:; ' •" '>._ ' ' '' ' 0 '·~ • '. .... ''>

' a. few .words I "lf e.1i1!:·1.0..<3;hi{m C~;ncem1ns the techri.1cal methods used:ill!8y'ibe.r~eosary.

A~ 'the' tra.~~futtt~ns e·tld, the '.'scanner"· :(,ho~·e l'l~t· 1a a.. pl.-ot:O~ele.b~1c:.'-4'B~ 1s substituted' for. the mi:cro~~bn~:;: while at; th~ :receiving' end ·thi'ti "<J:recmrder," .

. . substitutes ':fbr ihe lo~~e~~er~ · Tbe reo~1Ver fei'tune·d 1n the uinral;Way. -to :!;he

. : ~t~~~on rf(dtattng 'the :r~~·tiliie' ~ign~. ,, An ahoilra.te ~production Of; ·tibe original,

··, a' tif~cainirreu:;· ~!>'Pear~ i~l~at~lidrl' th~ moiat,:·ohemlee.ll.y 'treated·~reoordtng paper w.h1ch unroll~' ~nder t~e printer blade in the home recorder - as, .~.~'.[:l~dl:r

·,r.J :l~··:~s:, t~¥in1 tt~~ .·an~· ~;r~hl.tou~ .· r~·q,~~~~ '~, '·~~~ofta~ht:. 'oV ·ethel,' o~emlc&L · '··r:1n1ah1ng 'PX!6Q~~e~ •. ~ .. (~a·:~4~rd~r~ ts,·~as~t,i~l,:,,~-~~~~ ·for· ~r~1ns the

. :~per jn · r,~~~an$e'-.~: ~.· ~ee~J.t~&<:~9~~fe~·~¥sntu.;.etid': ·t~t~ .. t.he ·pa;pe~ ·:to the ·~ .. ~, ·('.:· -~~-~-:_,'; ,· __ ;··~_~;'4~1 +_.,~-·\~.'._;":_·{_-~r-._-~\-.--.--- ~_.~/""·;~-.:1~·,-•{: ..... -._. -.~.-./ ... ;._--_:~J':~·-·J~v,;:.'··i ·1 1:: ·.- .•• -:--.-. ,•"·'

mark1ng~ .. d.ev1'~Q,;~t ·fi tate.·~9rn.i.Spdrid·:t~··~;~o~·:tl,le :.t1C.~.Jt~.~) :·~.~~ epe~<l ~a.dy ·: · ~tt~1n~ii .. &~:~~~;;i~rti;;-);si (~~j;~~U:~1 -Se·:-~~~;J.e,;.• A\91+~·-·:?P() :~~~, ~ei', ,~nil~E( -' ' ' ' ':•, '""'-' ,,.:-•,-•c,,~" .. ..L>, .'...,,•·;q ,',,~·t(<';:.)">.• '.>>_:' '.'/'•'',_, '.·': • ''!'>"> ,·,- '•,•~'":. ,•,'

· . .a:qd exc~ed:(,!bj.:te.r:~·th~;~P!ffl.~i·qf~··Je;t~,Yp'~, ;p#tltet's. ·.o!:''ne~ :\)r<)adee.s~e,.;: '·'On 't1ie ,· •· • . ··"~ • -'---~ -. .... :; -_,_~---~-.·" ·~ •• -- -·- ,\. '·_ -_· '<'•'· .... 1 .. '·-~---~·f,f.-·._·,_~ ~.--"'-.'' ~.«. tl----~\~};!'}_,·::-: > "'\-:· -_·_ •/ :•: ... ,-_ •

. :other :hand., :~li~ ~ ~~~.~~~~'%~:~~/-:?~ '~~=-~~ wh,~ch ,M~ ·~~1)8 ··?~$ . ~~.:~-~ .. )to promote

' .. /faoei~le and to

E/CN,.4/Sub.)./J:-5f, · · ·

faqa:1ni1le and· to .~aeW,~ woo~~ . equ Lpment 1 . has developed a commtlnication

systezn caJ.J.ed "UJ.,t;raf8i)(n· which., as tar as. :1paed is cl"l:ncerned,_ ''s~sas all

otha;re;; .USillS.-8. ~levislon' il.:\Stead of a br-)adcast!rig ttanemittsr··e.n,d-'prefarably

fi:B.l.f~?r th~· record.~ng Qf• the televised material, it is _capable o:t trananiitting

".a miUion words .a minute". D~JlS a demonstration ~t the Library of Congress

in W'a.eh~ngton, D,c., on. 21 October 19481 the 1,047 pages of th~ f'a!l'l.Oua novel 11Gona With The Wlnd." waro transmitted by tn.traf'ax., word for word1 in 2 minutes and

·21 saconds.2Jf · . . . . · . . ·. · . · • · · ·

The applications of facsimile and·f'e.csimila broadcasting are num~rous·. · As ' . ' ' . ..

Dr. Hogan stresses 1 "any ~ind. of copy that c~ be put on paper, whether ;

· · handwrttten, set .in type, typewritten, drawn or photographed, can be broadcast".

··There is no limit as far as prograzmna c~ntant 1a concerned; it may be entertaining

or educational, advertising or news, the picture of a movie star or a ~ical

score. · Fa.csimil~ is primary a medium. of information and a medium of great

potentialities. Newspe.~ra JIIaY deliver spacial facsimile editions to the homes

or additional pages app~e.l!ng to special groupe and interests •. Facsimile offers

.government and private enterprioee a new method for the almost instantaneous

tranamfsaion of writt~n orders, legal documents, scientific formu.lae, charts,

graphs, .blueprin't!s,. pia.ns and draw-inee and pictures of e.ll kinds •. It is a unique

tnethod of communication for the Arm::r, linking haa.d.quarttJ:.'3 to rnili tary. ·

eata";liehme.nta, tran~1tt1ng in:f'ormation and intelligence to and from commanders

in the fi.eld; it enables airlines to tra.nsmit weather oe.pe c.nd flight data from

airport to plane, and the police to flash pictures of f1nge~pr1nts, stol~n oars, ' ' ' ' '

fugitives and missing pe'raons· over its radio networks. Now baing used'prlmaril-3

' for inter-office .. oOITJJnP.ntoation tn mi11 tary ana· government services, oolll!llSroial

and Pt7.ess enterp;-1ses ,f!J/. faosi:nile ooi1ld re~oh tomdrrow a nation-Wia.e and even

A .detailed dascr1pt1Qn .of the Hogan System is co:lta'1nad in ·the 'booklet "Fax1m1la • W'hat It Is .. Row rt·\ro'rlis'"-, Radfo Inventions, Inc., New York, and in the article ttB-adio Faet:r1mi~e . • The NE;)~spap,er of Tomorrow" by Arnold Siegal~ Col~bia ·Ena~:aee>ting. Q.uart.erl-3; New 'ro:tk Ci t:v';, May 1951. ThE' RCA System ie dieou.ssed ln 11Ulttafai", booklet publisiled at the. occasion of the first \'le!llOnstra.tton by tile~ Badt1l Corpo:·a.tion of Amart~a.1 New York, l94L.

ftjj · Two thousand tranBmitte~reoeive:tt units: WE!;ve -,-apera1:;ed, .in September 1950, b~·· th~ te.J.egraph pompany W~~e.~ Uni~, ltnldng t&n cities in t. he United Stat~)2J b;y. means of a facsimile. network.;. The~ U.S. Weather Bureau, the Coast. Guard. and. several· ai'rlinas al.ao Dlake .· e-~te[ijl!tye. -use of f~eimile. Of. "Facsimile Spurtn, The _wall Street Jou.rnal;·New Yol'k, 18 Sept.·~ i950.. '- '

/1ntemational

F./eN·-.v,ysu."9 .111~;6 ·

international audience. A technical expert has predicted that '*.·\ih~·.:tiirl.e is rtot

distant wl1eh 1t; ~ut·b~:pbsslble to. print rlatiOnal 'nenpapers aiinUltaneoualy at

mar.ypoint~ ~th.roughtotii· tn6. wor:i.~tl.§!f·.;"F.iceilnfio me;y so~· dey enabl~ tho United

Nations tcr broa'dohst '~imU.itaneoualY ima·over w1d~ areas e. daily' newspaper 6:f' its . . " own.

'. Opeiating on radio cbm-illefa and corilbining features of press and 'iieleviaion,

Fe:oaimile Broadcasting l"'~te$a· .of course tnaily· e.r.id importan't queetioriS with regard

tO freedom of' iritormatt:on,''·all the more si~e the transmitted mat~riiU. is' received '' " .. ~

in its original term, ·~·· 4•re.o~unilen, end. ~o the. ·aw-:>er o't a s~t reoe1ves a. t' t \ ... - ... , . - • ' -·· . . -:· . . ~' ' . ' t ;; ; ' • ' • • • - ' '/ ,'

permanent record which enables him to look a.t 'and to· exa.mino the' broadcast

information again and again. On the other hand, centralized control and . ' .

oe~orchip of this medium is easily acoomplisb~d .... there ia rio need to establish

controls at the a.dniinistra.tiva o~ orsanitdotiona! ie~el; censorship oa.ri be . - . . e:lceroiseci directly in the editorial r~om where the ma.teriei to be broadcast i'a.n

,._ r • , ', ,

b~ easily' screened.

'. In. view of the. poter.t1ai~ ti.foB and' th~ problUJS ot fa.oslmilu 'broadoa.sti~, ~ . ~ . '

lt e~ems to be neoe(;sar,Y to eXarJ.ine closely its poaoible impact on freedom ·of

··· ·i;u.~rmatiori ·~nd to ~toh its· de~elopment ~t bhe very b"7.g1~ing. . .

fjJj Cf. Memorandum: ori ·ll'lternationa.l 'CO%DJllUnicatiooo and the Freedom of. Information, E/COi'W. 6/29.

/5. Television

E/CN .,'4/Sub~")./156 · ..

5.- Television · I . \.

A poweri'u,l m~ium has cpm,e to life - a ~edi~ which 'cambi_nes the

characteristics of film and radio and which threatens all oth~r· media of mass

communication, w1 tll the exception of interpational br_oadc,asting. Wherever . . : ~ ' : . ~

television has been in operation as a regular service, in the United States and

.in several latin ~erican t;md. European .citiee, its in!.pact on the public has been ' ' ' ' . . . .

a tremend9UB o~e, in;f'luencing _ap:pa.rently also social habi ta and interests. It . ·}

. fa~cinates the viewer .and attracts l;lim away from ma.ny th~ngs he once. preferred, . . . .

from radio broadcasts, books and moVies, and, ca~a him to co:rirorm. his daily

life, ·and especially his leisu:re .. tin!-e actirttie~,· to the' schedule of telertsion ' . . ' ' '

programmes.

The potentialities of television as an instJ.·u.lnent of news reporting have

been evident since . tP,.e b~gi.~ng of re~ tel~vision b~oadcaats, 1

and ·li~:V.e already b~el?- demonstl·ated by the m~c telecaa;te, on 12 May 193~(, of the Corona~ion

of King George VI in London and the NBC telecasts. of the openiDg of the World r s

Fair· in New York .. by. President F.oo8eval t on 30 April 1939. Mo~e recently 1 the f" . . . . . •

televising .of the Un::l ted Na tiona' General. Assembly and of the Security ·council, -~ ' .,

of maJor address_es by statesmen ar..d othe7:pol1tical'1~ad.ers, but, in :particu.J.e.i.,

the transmission of the hearings of the United Sta tea s~:.;~a. te Crime COliiilli ttee,

have demonstrated television's role aa a unique medium of information -more

::OlO"t-;erful than e:ny other mown before. A sense of ":participation" g1 vee tel.evision

an advantag~ over all other media.

Governments and political :parties have, of course, become immediately aware

of' the power of tel.evision and of its possible dangers. It already seems that

it will be much harder to defend the freed.cm of televi a ion than it has been to

defend even the freedom of radio, not to speak of the freedom of the press, On

the other hand, tel.evision broadcasters, supported by public opinion, claim

rights and privileges which radio broadcasters seldom obtained, in particular

per.misGion to be present at any public hearing and even in the courtroom.

The costs of technical and proerarnme operations, which are at l.east three

times as hil?.h a.s radio operations, have led and misled television broadcasters to

seale illlllledia te success - even at the sacrifice of programme quality. The flagrant

abuses of the new medium, the over-emphasis on murder and crime stories, and ·,'' .

the excessive use of. television for COI!Illlerctal· purposes, bav:e been so al.a.rming

,. /that even those

that even thoe~ who always advocat~ complete .f~eedem of radio· new suggest some

k1n4 of vol~ta;r an; self.impo~ed restrictions upon television,

.The. ~b~em is/. of course·,. :partic~ly ~cut~ in the United States where

UQ fe'Wel~ than 10'7 teleVision statfons, located in BfXty .. three markets, are'· ' ~ ' ) • • • '<- • " • • •

. . competing' for . the ales of more than sixty millioh people - the owners 'of

13,:JOO,ooo sets, 621' th~ir families and fri~nds. To })revefit cerieorsh:l.p by the

J[.ed.~·~l ~vernm,ent, mol~e. than one 'hund.i'ed teleVision broB.dcasters, representing

sixty_-five stations; have etartad. a move to. adopt "staDctards of' Self-Regulation" • ·,' • ,.. 1- • • .' • . ' - ... : - • (.

~~s.~.gneCI. to ~'iflprove the character of te~ertaion :proe;rammins and ens'ure :tta " .. . . . . 63 1 ' ObSeJ:'~Ce Of good taste",::.:!./ . . . . . ' ·. : •·

. The. Nationai As~ociation of :aadio. and Television lJroadcasters' is 'stUdying . - . ,; - ' '

the dif!~rent problems involved, in consultation with all conc~rned, and "-ril.J~ draft.· an '-n1 tial prop~ sal for 1nd~atry-w1de btan'dards to be ·submitted. tO a

' .- . ' ..,

special meeting towards the end of 1951.· Already one of the leading .AniOrican

networks, the. National Broadcasting Com:pa.Ilj-1 has i-ev1sed its broadcasts ' . " ,. .

standards t() include television. r'~"o~es; already teleVision station operators

.haye a];:proved a _resolution call.:l•J for equall ty in the coverage of everits to

elll!uro s.ccura te and. fa.oturt.1 ne1:49 rep6rt1~ &::d. the Na t!onal Society of TeleVision

Producers, comprising 53 pl-oducere in HOJ.ly\-TCod, who rru:..;l;.'e films for 'TV1 adopted

a Code o~ Ethics similaJ.• to the one governina motion picture :Pl"'duction.· "The . ' . . .

intima te.'impact of thi~ medium in the home," the preamble status, "S:nd more

particularly in aieht and sound of the youth 6r our society, creates an immediate

need for self-censorship within ~e televiaiort fndustry 1tself~"64/ · · ·

Television broadcasters and. regUlatory author! ties in other ·countr:tee have

not remained indifferent· to these developments .. they are.· care~ expl~1ng

the problems caused by the expansion and influence o1' televie.ion# ani·· the

possible use of the medium ·as a tool for education as well as .its .possible misuse.

1.hey also fully realize the importance of television f'or ~e .. dis~ibution,

intercha.nge M1f reception of news am, . in :particular 1 of 1.nt~r;national information1

§il According to estima tea by Hugh M. Beville 1 Jr., Director of PJ.ans.: and Research, NationAl :Broadcasting Company,'l3,093,000 television sets were in use in the United .$tates on l July 1951. The magazine, "Broadcasting-

, ;pelecasting", Washington, D.C. est1Illatea·· the nUm.ber of seta at·J.3,4821000 by ;the end of Se:ptemb.er 19B·l.

~ Cf. Radio Daitl1 New York, 25 June 1951.

64/. Ibid., 23 July 1951. /especially since

E/CN.4/Su.b.l/l56 Page "{0

•

especially since;. international television will soon widen. the range of the ...-. ,......._., ' ' ,, . . .· ' . ~

broadcasts.

· For the first ti~e, oconom:lc p.roblems,which g~erall;r have a 'delaying

effect, accelerate the .realization of inte~n.ational projects. Network operations, . . .

the :production and. transmission in .coram.on of the same :programmes, the use of ' .. '

:!.FOGl'anmle ma.terial by stations in different coillltries w;ill, it ia hoped~ reduce

the expend1 tu.re .of television services. Before long, several countries in · ·

lrlest;ern Europe am probably also in. Eastern Europ~ will be linked by television. . ' ·'. .

Stations in five Latin American ci.ties ma.y soon become .part of' a Television

Film Network, supplied with special programme material prvdJ.ced in Spanish in

Me%! co City. .One of ~the l>:l'incir,al. internat1ona.l. broadcasting services, the

"Voice of America", has as tabliehed.. a Te~vi sian Unit, . a.~ .did several years ago the United Nations Radio. .The B13C plana to ol·ganize a TV Transcription

Service {similar to its service for s~und. broadcasting}~ to make B~itish televisior.

progrannnes available to other European countries.

Television is making stl"ik;.:.lc pro@.'ess, not onl,y in the United States, which

may soon have 400 to 500 statio;: c •• , but also in many other countries of the

world. It. is spreading throughm:~t Latin America as wall. as in Europe, with the

BBC Television Service taking the lea;d, building ~ na.t.l.:;n-~d.e network anii

already appealing to a. mass a\.tdi enae. uai~g, on 30 June _! S'51, 897,000 re~ ei vera.

Twelve· qountries are act1 vely engaged. in television - there will be more

than twenty before +..he end of ~95~ •. While most television stations are operated

by radio services and l~adio ma.nufa.cturers, in connexion w1 th broadcasting - ' ' ' ~-' . . .

stations, laboratories and :facto:~:"ies, press and fi.l..Jll. enterprises are also taking

increasing interest in television: many stations are owned or at least

controlled by newspaper publisher~s ·and motion :picture studios and theaters anxious

to maintain their competitive posi t1on through the development of large-eQreen

and :possibly· coloured ·"cinema television."

Press agencies. are establishing ep~c1al services for television stations:

the International New Service (INS) 1 :for example, offers them a daily' newsreel - ' ' ' ' . ' ' ' ' ~

. coverage comb:!.ned lr.! ~ up-to-the-minute scripta sent over t.ele'\zy":pO" circu1 t and

giving the film the impac_t of late. nO\.is devslo:r::m~ta ... The United Pre.ss (UP)

proposes to establish in the near :future a .news film SeJ:'vit' J for television

/stations, in

E/CN.4/Sub.l/156

eta tiona, in co-operation t'rith one of the world' a leading newsreel p:t"oducers,

the Twentieth Century-Fox International Corporation. ~!'he production of fil.ms

for television stations ha.a become one of the major act! Vi ties in Hollywood,

overshadowing QVen the production of feature films.

It ehou.td not be forgotten either tha.t television by wire is no lancer on experiment. It is· Vigorously promoted by the conunercial interests of those ·

who seek to recover the costs of such progra.tnm.as by means of subsci•i:ptions or

immediate ''box office" receipts; the distribution by wire is a.ls6 fav~ur'-ed·by

the fact that ultra short waves, i.e. the frequencies used in television, arE'

of limited range and that te~evision relay e::::cho.ngea such as those operating 1n

Canada and in the Uro..i ted F:.ingd.O!l, may help to e::-:tGr.td. coverage in f:t•inge areas;

finally, there are the needs of those who want to receive television programnes

but are not in a position to :pay for a set of thei:t• own. The same problems as

caused by wire broadcasting are now arising in wire "WleVia1on1 :pl.•oblema whic:h

directly affect freedom of information, although not exactly 1n the same way

since, outside the trnited States, the majority of the television audience will

probably be linrl ted 1 for llla!lJ years, to a. single national prograrmue.

Television poses many complex problema • political and economic, legal,

technical, aocia.J., e:lucational and. artistic - more difficult even to solve than

those in ·the field of radio broadce.sting, The sensational growth of television,

lrh1ch is now adding full colour reproduction to its attractions, an:l the

consequaace of the present expansion of television services certainly make

necessary studies of the problems involved, and especially of the control and

censorship of television transmission and reception.

V. SPECIAL

E/CN.4/Sub.l/15g

V. SPECIAL PROBLEMS

There are a na~ber af special problema in radio-communications which need

to be considered since their solution would contribute to the sa.fegual•ding and

:promotion of freedom of information. Some of them concern the relat1onsh1:p

between radio and ot.'ler media of information; some, the ma.11.ufacture and

distribution of radio equipment; others6 the professional trau1ing and

advancement of broadcasters and infor.tlli'!:l.t1on of'f1cers; and the need to provide

the basic documentation 1ndiepeneable for further study and research.

/l. Relat1onshl:p

' '

· · 1. · Re.lations!1i;p b~tween ;p;ress and radio

E/CN.~/Sub.l/156 Page.73.

. The strong competitiot+, ~ frequently rivalry, bet;wecn Press and, Radio,

b.at'\'reen newopaper en~orprises and broadcastin3 stations, 4es been oris of the '.

ma.in features of the early years of radio and has been the cause of· a ·

c.ons1derable ·delay in t.'l.e growth o-f broadcasting. Sta tiona '"'..rere not allowed i -- . ' . ~

to tl."ensmit the news prior to tha mornirl$ or evening newsPa.pers; radio .

corresponde:1ts and .reporters were not given access to the main· SOI.U'ces· of.

information; f~equ.ently I newspapers refuSed to pUblish pl"Og.t"amtlle SChedules,

.a,nd s1:;111 today very few dailies, outside of some·metropolitan centres, have

radio edi tore or qualified critics reviewing radio and television developillents

and the best progra.n.u:nes w1 th the same care and attention as is g1 van to concerts,

tlleatrical performances and motion pictures •.

Only in a few countries have newspapers realized from :tJle ver:r ·'beginning

the need for co-operation l~ith radio stations and have taken an active interest '- , " -

in broadcasting. A typical example is Sweden, "There the press has underwritten

t\-ro-thirds of the capital of the broadcasting corporation (Aktiebolaget

RadiotJanat). In the United States, in ·Ganada and in several latin American

countries a great number of newspapers b&ve aequtred or established ratiio

stations, thus e.xpa.z.iding their ~m information activities - and their influen1~e . .

on public opinion. An interesting arrangement was once made in London where

. the two media co ... operated without controlling or absorbing each other's

operation; for many years, the "Morning Poet" (now combined with the "Daily

Teleera);lh") reprinted the news broadcast the night before by the BBC, aild

informed ita readers at which pages they could find more detailed information.

It should also be recalled that during, and immediately after, World War II,

'i·rhen the press agencies had difficu.l ties 1n covering the news, some American

radio networks :placed. the information collected by their monitoring ser~ces ,

at the di'sposal of the newspapers.

However 1 there are 1 and in practice more than 111 law, lllBl\.v proofs .that the

old fight between press and radio is· not yet over ... · to tJle disadvantage of'

the· public which definitely . suffers frQl1l. t}f6'. ~eeJll.ting 1im1 ta tion .of fr·eedom . .

of information. The broadcaat1n~ serVice in~ tze~lan<l,, for example, i.s not

allowed to gather, to select ~· tran~~t .ita. own ·news;: :"but ~is obliged to

/broadcast only

E/CN .4/Sub .l/156

broadcast only news bulletins supplied by the press agency, owned and operated

by the newspaper publishers of the co:ulltry. The Directions far the Use of the

SWiss News Broadcasting Service of 5 July 1939 (paragraphs 1, 7 and 8), . provide

that:

"1. Broadcast news and reports should be of outstanding general int.erest. The most sui table items shoulc't be chosen from the news '\>rhich is constd.ntly being collected for p1.t'~J.ication in the Press."

"7. The concessionary authority_which ••• reserYeB the right to designate the source from which the news to be broadcast may be derived, may also decide that the daily news service shoul~ be entrusted to an agency, which will select the ne•«s 1t6J:lla, prepare a text suitable for reading aloud and, as a genE;}raJ. ::r.ula1 me.ke arraCJ.gements for -t~e broadcast,. Thia agenc-y Will be responsible to the l)ompei:,.?:!~t au:t:':wri t:r fur the r;o~i;:mt of tile news and ita selection, ·which s~KulC. ·be in keeplr.g ui th the na ::~::.. o:nal interests,"

"8. The B:::cac'.ca.f!t.;tng S•x:.-vic:.:~ ::l.O':)S r~ot r~;·<:>~lc:t:.S':j cl.."!.n.:}f r.~lS cf its O'Wll,

and. "t-rill r:;fral.:'l :t'1'0l!l roproouci11g coWl!!ei!t:J d.e:.:ivc;\1 f.com neW31Japors (Press rev.t-:)·'~-:3)"" ''~·3/ . · .

. _ ·-- .JH:lfl:r9~s~.:Y!~~..£?~~~~.:.t.J;U~:.?::cl~Wlas.::;~w:.....G.'1t.'~Q~~ic:n, .:tt;tl,~ "~o....ia..J.~cte£:--.to·

se.lect its news pr:1m.:i:::'::ily f:::·vm the .JJkl. te:.:-.T_,,.::r. It~u·;idei -oy the r.atlor..al press

agency, is pem1 tted, to use aCi.G.i ~:to::n.::.. ~:1'.-~i:--:;.l"la::., t.b.·;, f:W"ies Broadcasting ;=;ervice ' ' .~1'" j'

is entirely depo.n•ient upon tl:.:is som· ... e):l! !·b C&;~;o.ot offer· the listeners as

muoh inf ormation and as IDal"lJ' newfJ :rrc•g-.~.lll"mos as it W::. s.nes to, but has to limit

itself to the transm:tssion of a a.r.<::.ll mn:r..bsr of' c1.e~ 1.y llullet~:ns .. the press

even opposed an increa.se from tbr£~e -co four a::: C.-3c1:'.eli dur·:J.:ng World War II ..

and cannot even use 1-i:;a awn p~ofl.:J.Cc·:.·s end <lll:'.lO'::t:".ce:"'s for the presentation of

the news. Rad.io listeners in Sw-:i~:::;s;rJ.~.:rul hav·e 'Mus f·rac_;_u.ont.ly turned to foreign

stations, in particular to EnglicJt,. Fre!'!Ch al"!.d German stations, from which they

received more frequent and more de~iled news.

Cf. Freedom of Information. A Compilation., Vol. II, • p:p. 121-22, United Na ti c::lB Publications 1950, · JJ:V, l.

"Le service d' information proprernant di t (service dee nouvelles) est un / I I / service assume exclusivement par l'Agence telegraphique ~sse, confonaement

\ una decision de l'autorite conc6dante (De'partment federal.dee Postes et Chemins de fer), qui e,' est reserwf le d.roi t de designer las agencea cllargoes de fourn:f.r lea :1nfortua.t\~na b. diffuser (par. 10, ch. 2 de la concession), 11

See: ''Rad.iodiffuaion Suisse" :par Georges Conus, Administrative Director of t."le Swiss Bl~oadoe.sting SerVice, p. 20, Berne, March 1948.

/Another example of

··E/ON~a./silb~·l/156

Another example ot restrictions imposed upon radio· in ord~r to reduce 11tis

compet1 tion, is the rule applied in Australia. Radio s-tations are not allm·nn

to .use rteys bulletins reeei ved. from ove:t-seas radio stations. · "The effect may 'be", e-t;.&tea :the.r~ply of the Australlari Gt:!V'ernment to the Request ~or

.;r:nformation, "to prec.lud.e the u.ae of speedier methods of tranamiaa1on of ne'm

from tll,e sou;rc~ to the. newa:pa.per as to domestic news, and to llm1 t the ·

op:portuni ties of overJ;Jeas ne't-TB coverage for the ne1vspaper which is not assoc.j~ated . . 6'"~ I w1 th the Australian Associated Newspapers cable service. rril.J . . · ·

Such regulations protecting the press aca1nst radio may occasionally be

justified by economic reasonQ; the fact remains that 'they seriously hamper ard

restrict the free flow of 1n,format1on• Moreover, 1 t has been proven again rud again that. the fear of the press that its interests would Suffer if radio .

stations were .allowed, tea offer a complete and timely news coverage is unjustff1ed

at least where newspapers and. radio stations understand the basic differencee1 of

the JD.ed1a ~ act acc,ordingl.y •

It. may be worth 'W'h:tle to study . this problem and. to find. out whether and

how ~eae obstacles co~ be r~oved, and.·how a more effective co-operation

of press a.nd radio e.nd more e~tensive use of all the news avalla.bl-e could ·be

achieved.

.•,'

\ .... :

§:if. Cf. Document E/C6NJ! .6/9, Annex E. and ];.eedom o;f Info~t1.on •. A Coml_)i;J.,ation · . :Vol. I~·~ p. 141; United Nations Publlcatlons !§5o. XIV, I.

' ,•.} •'·'

E/C'f:T .h 'Sub .1/155 Pat3e 7G··.

2. :Radio influstry and trade

Those concerned wi t.h, freedom of ihfoi"'Dlla.\ion and the promotion of the free ' flow of information :qave long recognized the urgent need for more and better

radio facilities;· and especially for the.mass production and distribution of

low-cost receivers. UNESCO has co1~ucted a aeries of surveys on technical needs

and its competent commission has made specific recommendations. However, the

economic and legal problems of radio manufacturers and radio dealers have not

yet been g1. ven due consid.era tion, and 11 ttle is known about the radio industry

and about radio trade and the problema of the distributor of raciio material •

. De~iled figures are available for the radio incl.ustry in the United States of

.Amorica and in a. few other countries, but no comprehensive and up-to .. date

statistics concerning the production of tranuruitting and reoeiving equipment

have ever been P':'-blished. General information, such as the manufacture of one

million radio sets in a particular country, or an increase in production by

fifty :per cent as cr)l]X_pared w1 th th~ :previous year, dooe not mean very much as

long as the types of receivers produced, the manufacturing and the retail prices

are not known, or as long as no in:fo~tion is provided about the distribution

of these sets 1 the people who have acquired them, and at what price. We knqw

too vrell that even receivers manufactured at a relatively low-cost, and

retailed in the country of origin :ror a rela. ti vely madera te :pr.tce, are being

sold in foreign countries at very high price~, due to the coat of shipping,

due to taxes and custom duties, and frequently to excessive profits of local

retailers. The same set which the middle class in countries of a certain

economic standal·d could purchase at its original price, becomes thus a luxury

in other countries which only people with high incomes can afford.

The removal of' trade barriers 1 as proposed by l.JNESCO and agreed upon by a

great number of' countries, would be one way to solve the problem. But there

are lllal\V other measures to be taken, ranging from economic to organizational

ones, from financial guaxan.tees of the order given to the manufacturer to legal

curbs of speculation on the part of distributors of radio equipment.

It is generally overlo&ked that only a. fevr countries manufacture radio

material on a large scale and that all the others depend. upon the impart of

transmission and receiving equipment, or at least of p;u-ts and tubes to be asaem'b1

locally. This is of' ~ticula.r importance in _less-developed countries which, on

one side, are in gt:"eat need of radiocommunication facilities and,. on the other,

have to impqrt, and frequently to pay :ror in hard currency, every single piece

of' equipment. /3. Training for

3. Tra.inir~ f.;:>Z: int~rnatio~l broadcasting

E/CN .4/Sub .1/1.56

Ipterw tional .broadcasters, and especially those concerned with

intm•national information programmes, are facad 'With a complex task and a

great responsibility. 'lliey are addressing, mostly in foreign languages, an

audience ~~e traditions, attitudes and beha~~our of which widely differ from

their own; they use an instrument which is difficult to handle if only for

technical and political reasons, and have to take into account distance and

time differences between the cou~try which originates the programme and the

country to which it is directed. They must oA familiar with all special aspects

and problema in international broadcasting ane. wit..l). possible obstacles to thl:l

free flou of information, in order to adapt their activity to the prevailing

condi tiona overseas, and in order to find ways and means to overcome existing

barriers.

Few combine the special knowledge, the international experience and high

sense of r~sponsibility1 which is required, In fact, international

broadcasting and international information activities seriously suffer rr·om

the shortage of capable and well-trained professionals, and the best of them

openly adm1 t their deficiencies. The situation is aggravated by the almost

complete lack of oppo;rtuni ties for further study and traifl.ing, Occasionally 1

those engaged in international broadcasting, such as the staff members of

the BBC Overseas Services, receive special instruction but outside the

organizations themselves, there is only one institution (in tho United Statee1)

which has been offoring courses in this field: the New School for Social

Research in New York, which introduced, in 19471 lectures in international

broadcasting conducted in co-operation with staff members of the Ur..:ited Nations

Radio. Bu.t there is no International Radio School, no centre of study and

research, where future international broadcasters may get their training; the,re

is no co-ordinated programme for an appropriate intellectual and professional

formation which necessarily should include studies in international

communiclltions, in journalism and foreign langu.ages, as well as in political,

economic and social sciences.

There is today, in many countries, an urgent need for ta1n1ng in

international communications, and in particular in international broadcasting.

/Such training

E'CN ,h 1~t~1.1.1j-::.56 ' .:t.'r,:~·J ·, :J

Such tl.'d:ning would lead to the improvement of the quality of internaticr.D.l

broadcasts, and such improvement, in tu:rn, to a better understanding of the

potentialities, limitations and dangers of the media of infornu.tion, ·by both

broadcasters and listeners~

/4. Bibliography:

4. ~~~iograpEY- of radio

, Had1oc011,llilwp.ca t~OJl.B ha ye-. knom1 dw;-:l,ng .~tl~~ rl:aet deca.~e: a most no.table

dev~lopll'f1!:p,t and gr~th. InteJ;'I}ationa.l rad~o e.g:reero.enta:.anc1 .reg~J.la:ti~na haye

become part· of international law, and. rna.n;r of the lega..L tax-!;a o.re doc\lr.,e~'!.t~ · ..

of far-reaching impo:r:-tanc9.. New ~echniques of wo:rd and. image transmission

have furt~her widened the scope, ~f rf34-io service-s: an,d: have stimu.la:ted, in .. tu_riJ•,. pol_i-ti cal 1 ec onom:t c, social and ~ ul tural ac ti viti es •

I>e(3pi t~ this -~eir..arkable development,. those inter~eted in radioeonm~lt:o,iqatiom

or only ii), r~lii<;> broadcasting and. televi~~on1 do not have at the+r. d.is:pooa;J.. tll~

tools: irid.ispenaa·ole for, fm·ther study e.nd. reE:learch, 'ftle~e is, in IJarticul~r,,

no comprehensi Ye :Or. an.9.lytica.l £~)};,io~~~-lt~~;:'_,l'~l.£ which _may _gulcle, th~.

researcher through the la"uyrinth of tlw·'.l2l~rii.B ;;'! P'J.b.Lice tio:.1s, stud.i.e~:··and ..

articles. The fev11 radi-o bi'b::.iog~.·z,.J?hies, 'Whi,\\:lJ ht>~v:e b~on ,pub~~ah&<l so ;far, do •J > ,J ,(

not cov€lr more than a few special aspects (enei.:ae~~:tng 1 edu.catlon by ;rad.i9:,. ·.

television in the Un.:t ted States, etc.) or inolli\J,~ only books pu'bllsh,.ed ina_

particular language or in a: particular, country.. None of theJ;U is, :U.p-to~da te and., lists reca.."1t,l1Ubl1cations '\-rb:i.ch reflect the i!l~E'luen~.e of the mss. m~~~a on

wartime and post-war develo:p:j],ents, and the tech.."1ological advances s.f:nce. 1,945. Every year which pa.s:?~es makes 1 t. more difficult to establish .a.u.ch a

refer~nce· document, .and ~kes it more necessary to have .ll bibliogt.·aphy '-~'f.lich

c~assii'ies and apalyzes the main, ]?Ublicatior;s ._in this. fie¥,, . It, would be of

the ereatast value for .further study and. res.earch and for f.u.rther COJ:.lSiderat1on

and. discussion, if at le~st a selected list including the principal pooks and

articles could be eata~lished, with special e}!l:p}lasis -~n those w~tcP. Q.eal:wi th

the int~r:na tional organization and regulation· of radi.oco;llm+uni.cations. and w1 th • • ' ' ' • • • ' ' oo, '

radio ·problema and dev~lo:pments aff~eting freedom~.of 1nformat:to:n. ·

/CONCLUSIONS:

'P 1;N ,l~/Sub.l/).56 ~ ·'~"'· vJ

CONCWSIONS: TOPICS FOR S'rUDY AND RES:JI'JffiCH

Long experience in international cqmmunicationa and the analysis of the

present si tua.tion in this field lead to :the conclusion that radio proo;J..ems and

develo:pments affecting freedom of information ahould be tur+.Jler e:xamir.Led so

that the United Natio:ns, the Governments of its Member States, as well as

radiocommunioation and broadcasting organizations, may have at their disposal

all the information and pertinent data they need for the study and consideration

of future mee.aures. Ar.Jy const:-u.cti ve action, whet.her national or international,

requires, of course, Sel•ious and. detailed analysis of the ma.r.ty radio problems

affecting freedom of inf'ormat1on. Basic stuC.ies would show what steps could

be taken - and action baaed on the results of these studies could help to \

remove ;r;>resent obstacleso

It has been the purpose. of this paper to call· the attention of the members

of the Sub-Commission on Freedom of Information and.of the Press to some of

these probl~a1 and to the aeriou~ obstaol~o to the free flow ~f infor.mnti0n

.. which presently .exist in the field of. radiocommu.nications and broadcasting~

As a result of this analysis, .the. study of the following topics seems to be of

particular interest:

The mass media of information • differences ·and similarities

Purpose: ~o get a clearer understanding of the functions and potentialities of

press, film, radio and television, and of their struc~e and OJ:Ieratior

with a yiew to promoting a more constructive use of these media and to

advancing the aauee. of fr-eedom of inf'ormation, .

This study, unlike many others . on mass corumun~ca tiona should be based· on

comp:a."ehensive, authentic, up-to-date information and expert analysis. Throut3h

comparison of th3 characteristic.s. and ac.ti.vities in the field of press, films,

radio and television it should contribute to a clarification of many basic

problema and to an evaluation of the effects of the mass media on public opinion.

Freedom of radio and freedom of the press - a comparison

Purpose: To contribute to a satisfactory solution of the highly controversial

question '\<Thether radio should enjoy the same rights and privileges as

the press, an issue which becomes increasingly important.

The Inter-American Radio Agreement, Washi:ngton, D.C. 1947, contains a

unanimously adopted resolution on freedom of radiocommunications which calls

/for equal rights

E/CN.4/Sub.i/l~

for er.tual rights of rad.lo and press. (See Appendix II) American broadcasterB,

tbrou.e;h their trade organizatlons, cla.illl the same pri vilegas for radio stations

as accorded to newspapers. On the ot}ler hand1 legislators of several: European

and Latin American co'lll'l.tries and specialists in international law. doubt whather

the same rights and privileges can and should be granted to newsp1pers and

radio enterprises. The press, as a whola, is oppostld to the idea but frequently

rallies to the defense of radio against government control and interference.

The issue thus seems to need greater clarification, in view, particularly,

of the fact that D'.aJ1Y countries are now preparing new radio laws and regulattons

the w·ording of whioh will und.ou"bted.ly affect freedom of information.

I .

/I. LEGAL AND

'E/C1.T .lt-/Snb.lA156 ',

I • L"OOAL AND ADMttrrSTRATIVE PROBI.Ji'.MS

The rules and practiqes ~~~ernin~ new~ .~toa~caats

Purpose: To collect authentic and deta1led d.ata concerning~ 1. the gathering of news by, or on behalf of, national and foreign

681 broadcasting ~~ television services;~

2. the use of technical facill ties by broadcasting and telev:l.sion

services, their representatives and correspor..da!J.t;J 1 for the tranamissio)

of news;

3. the con.tl'Ol and supervision (d.!rec t and inG..trect, pre- and post

censorship) by local authbrities of n0ws and information gathered by,

or on behalf' of, national and. foreign. broadcasting services;

4. the transmission and presentation of news in br~dcast programmes

intended for local, national or foreign audiences, i.e. the role of

neue services within the radio programme, and the organization and.

rules which govern their activity;

5. the roception of news, in :particular of news from abroad, with

special emphasis on freedom and. control of reception;

6. Codes of Hono-ur (Ethics) 1 adopted by :Pl"'Ofessional organizations

of journalists and. broadcasters in different countries, and their

obaorvnnce 1n practice (if pocsibla opocific caso3 of violation of such

codes ehould be cited and an analysis made of action taken by the

organizations in order to remedy the harmful effects of such violation.6

or to apply sanctions to the responsible).

More than 30 governments replied in 1948 to the Request for Information and.

supplied most valuable and. interesting information concerning the rules and

regulations governing radio services. But in order to got a full understanding

of the operation of radio news services and of the obstacles ~1ich limit their

activities, it will be necessar~ tu have complete information from all countries,

to add new data to the old and to obtain1 in addition to radio laws, information

on radio practices.

§§./ T'ne term "service" as understood here comprises all types of radio and television operations owned and controlled by individuals, companies and corporations, associations, institutions, cr gover11ment agencies and. departments.

jr.Amersh:tp and

II

OWnership and control of radio ~ tele~1on services

E/CN,.4jSub .1/156 · ·

Purposo: To obtain an authentic and compre~.ens1ve picture of the pr~sent

statue of radio and television operations with regard to tho

individuals, the.organizations and agencies which control and finance

the services.

!t lTould be most valuable to analyze the structure of broadcasting and to

get a clear understanding of the interests behind radio operations and of t.~e

aims of the opera tors. The study R'hould also consider the influence of tho,se

who are in control of radio on the selection and presentation of news items and

programmes, in order to find. out whether1 and hcr..r, a :particular "syste:Dl11 of

organization promotes or restricts freodam of information.

International radio conventions and agreements

affecting freed~ of information and the international exchange. of

programmes and radio personnel ..

Purpose: To analyze provisions and recOilliil.el'ldations in the various international

radio conventions am, in :particu.la:r, the multilateral and bilateral

agroaments concluded between broadcasting organizations; to find out

to wb.at extent the proposals made by govermnent repreaontatives and

approved, often unanimously, at intermtional conferences, have been

imi:)lomented b7 radio services, ~Whether the present arrangomonts

could be extended to other countries.

Poll tical propaganda and psychological warfare over~~ad~ the . I!lB,I\7 and

important efforts which havn been ma.do to advance international und.orsta.nding.

The adoption of resolutions concerning the use of radio for the improvement. of

international relations, urging the promotion of freedom of info~tion. and. of

international programme exchanges, but still. more the conclusion of .a~eemepts between broadcasting services are a clear·expressi~n of the desire to co-operate.

In view of the fact that ~ provisions have been implemented while others had

no practical consequence, it seems necessary to gather .all the pe;-tinent

information and data.,. and to e.:x:a.m1ne the reasons for success and failure of

efforts in favour of international co-opera;tion of broadcasters. The report would

demonstrate how much can be, and has already been, achieved -in this direction,

and would thus oncqurage similar efforts.

' '

~equencr

· Fi/ciJ .41sub~l/l5o ·

Freg:uenc;r allocationa.and freedom o~ 1~oz;nat1~n .

Purpose: To a·tudy the influimce of internatio.Pal, regulations am, in particular,

of the ·di-stribution of radio frequencies on freedom of information,

·and to find out to '\>that extent they affect the intermtiona.l

tranBmission and exchange of information •.

The scarcity of radio frequencie:s available for 'broadcasting is one of the

major obeta.;Jles to the free flow of informa.tion; political. considerations and

interests further complicate the already difficult technical prop+,em. of :f.'r:equency

allocations. An impartial study might lead to some constructive -proposals-and

may thus ~ve the way for an agreement concerning high frequency broadpaating,

which is essential for the future development of international broadcasting.

Economics of radio (financing of broadcaatir..g and television opera-tiona) ; . ... . .. ' - ..

Purpose: To analyze the economic atl."Ucture of' radio and televi·ai_('ln oervicoa

and the in~r-relationohip of economics and broadcasting activities,

wi tll a view 'to ffnding out to wha. t !3Xtont economic . prtoblemo 1~1uence

freedfilll of information, and to offer some augeestions (f('IIlCerning a

pt)Bf!ible broadening of the economic basis, ·anri subee9.uently the

· · · · expansion and improvement of the information services .•

Economic difficulties are a serious .obstacle. :to in~~:l:'D.'3.tiona.l information,

.fn 18rticular to radio aerv:tces in smaller .countries moat of. 'Which cannot afford

to spend money for direct n&Ws coverage. A study examining the _economic aspects

ot proBOJlt radio am·' television o:perati(')M throughout the wo~ld.·could offer

· substantial information needed for a solution of economic radio problems which

· grea. tJ.y atf ec t freedom. of informs. tion;, . : · · ·

Im;port and exRort of radio :rna terial.

Purpose: T6 fird out ·t6 what extent the. preee~t.);"tt:!.ea .and pr~ct1cee concerning

the import and export of tranami tting ·and rec~i ving .equipmt)n~ delay-

. and l1m1 t· the development of radio fao111 t:1es; ~ to lff!BXn whtl t pr~ctical

. measures shoold be· taken' to remove tlle obstacles fac.ed by radio,

industry and trade, .and by the authorities ~ orga.nizatione interested

in t'adioc0%1lmuri1cationa. · ··.·. ,

'The free' flow of> information ie hampered by many ;restrictions on, the import

and export of radio transmitting and receiving equipment,,, s-q~ as, q'Uotae,

C\lrrellC7 rogula:tiox:~n 1 hish custom dutioo, oto. If tboso obstaqlea could b~ •

/overcome, at least

. :E/CN .4/Sub .l/156 ·

overcome, a. t l~st 1n pu-t; lDariy bo\Uiit'ies and especially . under•developed are•as

now suffering frOm a shortage of raAi6 ~te:rial, .coUld be supplied with new

equi;pment1 in :partioular radi~ sets; and this at r~uc:ea.·eosts. ~e Agreemant

on the Imr.'IOrtation of Educational,; Scientific and Cultural Materials apdnsored.

p;yUNESOO is the first step in. :the right direction. A comprehensive survey and

a..tloa~s1s of e:x:lst1nt; trade ba.r:riero in the field o:f' radio and their effect on

the tra.nsm:Lssi.on and .reception of news may lead. to other legislative a.nd practic'

measures •..

• I

. ' /II. PROBLEMS OF

E/CN.4/S·uh .1/156 ·

II. •PROBLEMS OF PROGRAMMINU .o :tNmll:RNAT:tONAL .Dni'ORMATION BY RADIO

Radio cha.nflels, of .inifEnational·information

Purpose: To gath~r. detailed information concerning .the use of broa.dcaa.ting as

a means of international 1nformation1 and the channels used for the

internatiQnal transmi~aion of news.

l--~ political. and spiritual leaders,. who fully realize the interria.tional

role of the press, are not aware of the possibilities and limitations of

international broadcasting, of the inter-connexion of technical and programme

problems, and the different methods of conveying a message by radio. If a basic

document containing this much-needed infol."!lla.tion were available, better and more

c~nstructive use of radio could be made.

Selection and Eresentation of radio news

Purpose: To study and analyze the selection and content of news and the

interpretation of international events and activities, with an aim to

finding out whether greater objectivity would lead to greater

acceptance of international news or, more PX:eoisely, whether and to

what extent the free flow of information could be promoted if radio

services would agree· to be tnere restrained in their language and. ~:::>

avoid hostile propaganda.

~mch opposition to the principle of an unrestricted international flow of

information sto:ns from the fact that radio ne"Vrs programmes are overloaded with

political and frequently hate prcpe.ganda, that the select:'..on rmfl.. presentation

of news is one-sided, partial and even distorted. It '\lcnE ·:Jf, :l.:t:r::;eresting to

find. out whether and to what extent guvernments "VroulU. h.'l ·.r"i. t.: to remove

obstacles to freedom of information if broadcambing so:cv.!.J.:..::~j ~.;ould take a friend.l

attitude and. abstain at least from direct attacks on foJ:.'oi&:l c:nmtries.

Such a study may possibly permit a new approach to the question and lead to

a series of new bilateral ag:t"eements providing for the exchange and re

broadGasti:ng of nows :prog~:"ammoo over d.omastio rrr.::..io f1:.cill tioo.

For~1SO;-~ga broad.caats

Purpose: To collect authentic and detailed information concerning the aims anll

purposes of foreign-language broadcasts, the types of information

(political, economic, cultural, etc.) included, the languages used. in

these programmes and the targets of such broad.casta.

/Broadcasts in

E/CN.4/Sub.l/156

Broadcasts in foreign languages have expand~, and contime to ex:pani.

Every month ne"'·T :pragra.mm.es and new langua.JeS are added to the schedule of

international broadcasts, wit~h an aim to reaching more 'ana. more audiences and

transmitting to them information of all kinds. An analysis based on complete

and authentic information concer~ng these activities would provide valuable

knowledge and data.

~ernational oxchange of radio programmes

Purpose: To study tl1e scope of international programme exchanges, espec:lelJ_y in

the field of information, the expel"ience acquired and. the problemEl to

be solvEd as well as the !)OSSib1l1t1es of extending and intenaif'yins

one of the rn.ost constructive and encourasing activities in broadcasting.

The exchaniSe of :progrrunm.es and proe;ranm:te material between broadcasting

organizations of different countries has always proved an excellent means of

promoting the free flow of information, and. of increasing international

understand~ng. A atu.•vay of thes,J ~ctivi'ties and an a:.1alysiJ of the problema

involved - such as selection of ~uitable ~a.:mme material, the adaptation of

programmes to the tastes of fol .. e:t(0ri audiences, the solution of the language

question, appropriate methods for the tl~nsmission and distribution of prog1·ammes,

or the costs of relay facilities ... wou1d be most useful and valuable. The study

could lead to specific suggestions and proposals and to the expansion of

international programme exchanges.

Educational broadcasting and international unde~standing

Purpose: To collect information concerning educational broadcasts, both national

and international, promoting freedom of information and mutual

understanding, with a view to learning more·about the experiences

sained by the broadcaste~s and educators engaged in these efforts; to

encourage such acti v1 ties which contribute to the intercl1ange of

informa.tfon about peoples and countries and which are an effective

tool for teaching the principles of the United Nations.

:Sl'06dcae~ra and radio ed\loatora in lOOrolj" countries have rizd.e remark!lble'

efforts for the :pro~lOtion of international understanding by :..1eans of school

broadcasts, language ~esso::w ;.md edw:;ft.tional programmes of w kinds. They have

succeeded in interesting young people, students and scientists in foreign

/countries, and

E/CN.4/Sub.l/156

countries, and. ha"'e thus promoted the cause of internationa~ co-operation.

Hovrever, these ex:pe!'iments need to be ex:pe.nded and intensified.

Radio in under-developed areas

Purpose: To collect information on the radio facilities which exist in under

developed areas, w1 th an aim to finding out how these facilities could

be improved, and to malce specific and constructive proposals for their

development and for the promotion of the free flow of information in

these areas.

The under-developed areas need radio more than any other areas in the

world; in fact,. tPey largely depend upon radio for communication and information.

Their economic. deve~opment coUld be greatly advanced if broadcasting services

could be expanded and improved. A survey of the existing facilities in this

field vould make 1 t possib~e to ~earn more about the deficiencies and the

diffic~tiea of radiocommunications,. and to formulate, on the basis of an expert

ana.l,yaia, some proposals which could be realized w1 thout too great_ difficulty.

Any improvement of the msens of r~diocommunications in under-deve~oped areas

would immediately increase the free f~ow of information and link these countries

w1 th the com:mun:i ty of na tiona.

vlorld radio and world public opiniol!

Purpose: To examine whether and to what extent radio as a means of information

and in particular internationa~ information influence pub,Uc opinion;

to find. out, in :pa.I'ticular, to what. extent progrw,nmes prepared and

broadcast by the United Nations and the Specialized Agencies create an

u.ndersta.nd.ine of, and goodwill for, the aims and ac:ti:vi ties of these

organizations.

Goverxunents and private enterprises, national and internatioml organizations

make an increasing use of radio in ordel' to mobilize public opinion. It would

certainly be of great value if the political, educational and psychological

problems involved could be studied. An analysis based on serious research would . ' ' · .. ,. ' ' ' ' . '

make it :possible to measU:re ·and appreciate the effectiveness and influenc'e of

internatio~ information transmitted by radio and frequently relayed by iocal

facill~ies.

/III. DISTRIBl.J'r.(ON

E/CN.4/Sub.l/156 4 r

m. . DISTRIBUTION AND RECEPriON OF INFORMATION

e~.v~v and. analysis of radio facilities

PUl~poae: To gather comprehensive information concerning radio facilities

available for the transmission and distribution of news and to find

out, through expert analysis, how a}?parent deficiencies in the

distribution of transmitting and. receiving equipment could be remetdied..

The cause of freedom of information collld. be considerably advanced through

a series of practical measures e:xpa.;ndinc; and improving existing radio facill ties

for both the tranmniasion and. reception of news. Such at.e:;·a could, of course,

be decided only on the basis of a. comprehen,ive international survey and.

analysis of the available facilities for long, medium and. short wave broadcasting,

and their possibilities and.. limi:tat,ona. A b(Sic study seems particularly

necessary since the information and data conccrnlng radiocommur.ications,

published by various orga.nizati<'na, are incomplete and pru:tly out-dated, and do

not take into account aigrilfice,n.t dev(:llo~n'US 1n, for example, tropiol

broadcasting, wire broadcastiQE, facsi~le anf. television.

Methods of radio receEt;ton ..... li~'11-AB hapi ~

Purpose: To obtain complete and. detailed information about different methods

of radio reoe:ption and list~ning ha.bi ts; to find out how :t;"eceptio.n

condi tiona could be improved and how experienoe gained in some parts

of. the world could be applied in other parts.

An analysis of the different methods of reception as well as of listening

ha.bi ts which vary from region to region, from country to country, from people

to people and frequently even from one group of the audience to another group,

would provide basic information needed for the improvement of radio reception.

It would also show how geogt'Etph1oal, technical arid economic problems have bean

solved in particular areas of the world and ruay thus help other countries in the

solution of similar problema. Any improvement of reception conditions, and a

more thoroud:l knowledge of listening habits, wculd of course be of benefit to

the promotion of freedom of information.

Wire broadcasting

Purpose: To collect complete information on the transmission and. reception of

progre.mmes by wire, the methods used in the different countries, the

programmes available, the number of subscribers to relay exchanges.,

/the equipment put

E/CN.4/Sub.l/156 .

, r

the equipment put at the disposal of subscribers by the wire

broadcasting services end on subscription fees,.

Wire broadcasting has gained considerably in. impo,;rta:pce in many :rerts of the

world. aild. in rarticular in Eu.rope and in non-self-governing territories. Its

significance for the tranemission and reception of news is illustre ted by' the

fact that this w.ethod is used.· in some oountr:tee as a means to limit end control

the programme cho:toa of the audience, whereas :1 t ie used 1n others ee a means to

offer audiences nrM:l~~iona.l pl;'ogrammes and inforn:ation. A comprehensive study

collecting al.l }?'C}:c;~~~r'-""n·t de te. and analyzing facts and figures would be ~oat

valuable for an app:.."E.iual of the influence of wire broadcasting 0:'.1. freedom on

inf OriiB ti on.

Purpose: To examin·i ~·-,~"' ~·..T~ , •• ,.)> .::1.~ls~ and practices concerning the operation end

licensing cf re0e~ving e~te and the control of reception where such

control exists.

It ie a fact tila.t receiving facilities, even where they are available in

sufficient quantity, ere not &ccezoible to the entire population. A large

number of potential radio liete:1u.ca in the lower classes and in :particular among

:native :poJUle tiona cannot afford to buy redio seta Eiv'en .of the most primitive

type; wide areas 1n the interior of some countries a.re ~.oprived of receiving

facilities which could'be set up at little cost if gove;;;·x::..:rsnte or private

enterprises were interested in such a proJect. Further, in certain countries and

·territories, .women are not parmitted to enter places where radio receivers or

· loud speakers are installed. On the other hand, present rules and regulations

concerning the usa of r':lce:tving seta conati tute a method of controlling and

restricting radio l:!.s t~mtng. SllCh a study would. also ~ke it posei ble to find

out how radio. :r·~J~"~•::?-';:i •.m. could be developed and 1m-proved.

License fees ancl .3 = ....... ~--.;;...;.;;;_..;.;;i;.·• -· -----

'Pur:pose: To collect de tailed and authentic information on license fees and

other taxes imposed upon the purche,ae and use of radio receivers, as

well as on the differdnt n:ethode of te:x:ation in the different countries;

to find out whether and to what extent the imposition of license fees

adversely affects the growth of the a.udience and thus restricts the fr~e

flow of informtion •.

/License fees,

E/CN.4/Sub.l/l'J6

License fee.a, ~s we,ll as o~er fees and .tflzee1 ·imposed in ·tm~ cou.htrte.a

upon listeners. (and .occasione;l]Jr ~;dio d,ealers) constitute ~e nein l"e,venue of

a great .number of 'broe.dcas~ing a~iptH:t•, The a:mqunt:.to be paid by the··l'Sdio

owner or. aul:>scribe:r to ,a relay; excha!lse dif;fers eonsidere·bly in va~ioua countries"'

It is ope~, to ;quea.:tion whet:tlc3r the listener ·should be texea as heavily as if!·

sometimes<~· case a~d whethe~ the very ~omplex,;f'E?Q etructu~. could be. simplifJe-Q.

(di~rent fees for different_. types. of license-holders, differeilt types· of

receivera; the use .l!flde of radi() equ.ipment., the location of the rectto homes, .

etc.). A:n enquiry. into license. fees seems !llr.ticularly necessary end, justified

in vie,w of the :fact t:Qat th~ lowering o:f fees has,., in several instances, brought

an immediate and considerable incre~ae in the number of seta, and has thus

increased both the size of the audience aM the revenue of the· )lroedoasting

... -.,

Low-cost receivers , r

PUrpose: To gather·in:forttBtion about .the efforts. lP&de in difff!)rent countries

.~o provide low-cost reoeivel'S· to those ~Pa of, the population whicll

oannpt t;lff~ to buy;e· regul,ar set; and t-o qetermi;:te how nery .Low-cost

receivers, what kind of receivers, .~P~ E!t what mximum cost they should

~e prov~ded.. . r

Tl1e pro'blem,of.low-coat receivex-a has become a very ~sent one. ·It now geils·

inc~asing .e:ttention from govermnent authorities; severel countries e.~ no}'

experiment.ing with low ... cost receivers an~ }lave euccee4ed in ~nteresting a fe:-,

radio manufac't;urers in this question. 13Ut there is. no comprehensive information, .. . . ~ . . . ' '

ave.ila~l.e, and with few exceptions, .. the need. £4l:r such receive~ is not yet .

de'!;el'!Jli~d.. I:f;' it wre poa~ible .to ascertain through a detailed stv,Q3 how Jm:py I • > • '• • : - • ~ • • • '

sets are required, which are the ~qhn:tcal standards to be :rr.et,; and the. economi.c

problems to be solved, the radio industry .would· pro~bly. be. more willing.to

co-o:pera ~e ~- .. . , f" Cl

Radio al'Jd. !9¥:.o:dtie.s, .....

Purpo~~Je:. TC? deteJ:.!ll;ine whether the needs of,n4nor~ties,t ~ciell' ethnical,

linguistic, religious, etc. • are satisfied by ~roedoaeting services

a~, ,if ~ot, hov :r.edi,o, c?ul.d p.saist the po.11~ioal.~;t;l<l ~ocial ..

. (ieyelqpment 9~ .lllinori ty g~~s. , . , .

·''

/Although minorities

E/CN .4/Sub ~1/156 ..

iilthough minorities constitute an importa-nt and. moat vulnerable target of

international pro!l'ganda, the. problem of nunoritiee with respect to freedom of.

infornation has never been explored. In some countriea-, :re.d.io takes care of

the needs and ·interests of the lll1nor1 ty; in othE'ira, however, minorities have

no access to radio facilities, no possibility of expressing their opinion or

receiving broadce.sta in their own language. The anise of fre&dom of infc:rmetion

could undOUbtedly be greatly adVa.nced if· natioiJB.l broadcaatinS Lervicae all over

the world oame to 'understand that it is in their own inte~st to fulfil the·

needs o:f' minority groups, and to provide them with special inforn:etion and ·

programmes which, up to now, they can not receive at au'or only from foreign

eta. tiona mny of which .carry hostile propaganda.

Women in 'radio brood.ca'BtiEfS

Purpose: To examine the role of won:en in radio, both as professional croedcastere

and as listeners; to determine whether their activity 1 which is very

important in some countries 1 could help in pr'omoting 'i'reedom of ·

inforn:e. tion and how the value of informt16n prosri3mmes to women could

be meres sed. Finally, to study the prectlce restricting the reception

of :radio programmes by won:en.

The role of women in :radio varies from an active perticir::e tion of women

broadcasters in radio and television progrB.mmea, in the United States for example,

to the exclusion of the'women·fram the.listening audience ih several countries.

If we had more, and au theritic, infol:"'IB tion, it would be possible to e::mmine

how women broadcasters, many of whom are greatly 'interested -in international

affairs, could contribute to the promotion of freedcm of information end how,

on the other side 1 prograllmles could be DBd.e available to WOmen Who have no access

to places and listening centres wh~re inen assemble.

Listener rela ti6na and promotion of broadcasts \

Purpose: To e.mmine how listener relations can be improved in order to aat1sfy

the needs and interests of the audience to a greater eitent aM how . '

the reception ·of broadcaatc and1 in partieular, inforrietion from abroad . ' ean be promoted.·

Liatenero frequently .igno:r$ the prograu offer~s. of rac'iio acta tiona.

Intel"tlB t1onal broadcasts in -particular are o:ften hot aufficientl.Y publicized,

neither their schedules 1 nor the frequencies over which they are transmitted,

/nor the content of

E/CN.4/S$.1/156

nor the content of the progrem;nes. It wou.J.:<tb~ .qU.ite possible to stimulate.

interest .in ne.w a.nd inLFQrWJ.lt,·;pl"'Q~ .. eL~f .better .relatior.~,s, between broadcasters

and. their audi~mce~ c011ld. be 9,ev:e.]..(}~ :BJld .if :listeners. could be provided with

appropriate infol'!IB tion, ~ .lrhe ,propg~.d ,"~dy shou;J.(i exami~ . ~hat has. been done

in this respect and point. to- ~.e maey, --}l<lSsib~li ties for a :Promotion. of

: ~ \

/IV'. TBE :IMPACT

. rv.. 'l'IIE IMPAQ',I' OF NEW . $C;HNOLOG!CAL DEVELOPMENTS .. 1''

ShortWave (high frequency) broa9.cast:tns

Purposci: ' To ga.~or: compr.ohenet VQ and, ,d,etailed information on the, use o-; high,

, frequo~¢ios (short wa.vos) for broadcasting ~see, e~ther locallY ' . ., . ' ,,

and tlational.ly or int-o.rna.tionally; to study the possibility of

increasing and improving international shortwave. tranami~sione tmO. of

solving difficult toohnical, political and economic problema involved.

High frequencies are being ueod not only for international broadcasting

which, partly at loast, is dependent upon their use, but also for long-distance

tranemiss ions of national procrarmnee in all countries with a large terri tory,

and for the distribution of local programmes in some countries where medium

wavos cannot bo received throughout tho year due to propagation conditions.

Since, on tho other hand, tho number of available frequencies for international

broadcasting no longer maots tho o~r-increasing demand for such frequencies,

·short-wave transmissions and reception suffer seriously frcm interference of

stations operating on tho same or adjacent frequencies. A beeic stucJy

assembling and analysing all the pertinent facts and data would be of great

valuu; it would make it possible to propose solutions which would free

international information and the international exchange of ideas from the

present limitations and would enable listeners to receive more clearly a far

groator number of international broadcasting stations.

Tropical bvrvadcasting

Purpose: To study tho dovolopmont of broadcasting in tropical areas and,

in particular, the usc of the special frequencies allocated to

broadcasting in those regions and in countries with siln.ilar

propagation conditions; to find out whether greater use could be

made of those frequenci~s thus freeing short waves for the transmissior

of international information.

Tropical broadcasting, i.o. the transmission of programmes over frequencies

set aeido for services in tropical areas, has become increasingly important durir

the last two years and will continue to expand. But up to now no comprehensive

analysis nas ever been made; it would be of groat value 1 since many of the lees

developed countries could take advantage of the new frequency allocations.

/Freedom of

E/CN .4/Sttb .1/1~

Freedom of information ,could greatly benefit if stations now using short' wave

for tho d.ictribution r>f local,,pro~s .would shift to tropical frequencies,

thus vaoat1ng channels urgently ~aeded for.international transmissions. ·

Frequency modulation broadcastins

Purpose: To oxauinc tho potential! ties or. thia new method o·f transmission and

its possible use in countries where :present radio· faoili ties are

inauffinien:~, tn p3.rtieular· in.les·s-developed areas; to find out hm·r

FM broadQ!asting cou).d be used for the promotion of ·fraed.om of··

inforna tion through an· increase of .news programmes or as a s'ubati tute

for loe.;1l . snortwave broadcMting in tropical areas.·

Froque.nc;y mofulat1on broadcasting,. which presents considerable advantages

as far as tho qoolity nr recaption ia concerned, offera also possibilities for

the s.olutton r.>f ott...er problems wb$ch he.ve a: di~oot bearing on freedom of

in.f'~'"'mation. It IOO.ko6; the eotabl1~~nt of tiJ8.W' additional transmitters possible,

and consequently tho offe,ring or EJ.ddit1onal x:rce;raJ!lillSs.. Protected· a.gainat static,

it n:By help to.ovorcome difficultios in~ tropical areas where radio reception

is seriously affected by a'tn\Ospl'J.ario disturbancos and in highly industrialized.

districts whero tho recaption suffers from eleetrtcal interference.' The extens:tve · ' ' . \ .

UB(l> of this new technique would enable the shift of many stations using short

wo.veo, which are ;n.t;eded i'or international broadcasting, t6 other bands which

cannot ,be used for· tho tnternatiol'ial transmission of information.

FacsimilO broa~caat1ns ;

Purpoac: To collect the be.sio 9-ata concerning· this n&W meditim of c:Orimuriication.,

w~ich may rqvolutionize the methode of distributing information; to

.. mc~mine how freedom of information could be protected from the very

beginning. of fo.cs-iJn~le broadcasting,. in ·view particularly !of· the faot ·

that it oan eas1,ly be subjected to centralized control and censorship.

~fter maey year,s of laboratory work and experiniental transmisaiona, the

inventors f')f facs:t)nile broadcasting have novr perfected 'Several methode which' can

be, and pro?ably will be 1 ·introduced to the public in the near future. A new

modium for the distribution of ·information by radio .. news, ·coll'.limnts, pictures,

maps, graphs, etc. - will 1;.hus be e.t the dieposal of all who· have ·appropriate

rec~iving equipment. Th• ,potentialities of facsimile broadcasting which enables

/t~e public

E/CN~4/sub.:l~l56 .· ·

the public. to 'keep a' perinanont record '6r-'radio news' and. :b:i:formatiori, :are so .. _,, ...

great that' it see~ ·to be necessaey to study'- the 'probl.9nu:i involved even· ~be:fote -!. tho goneral ad.·dPtior{or···thia· n('\w~ systOm~·:· · · · · '~ .: ' -· ~ ·· '' '

TeleviBion and freedom of information --~~--~-~~~~~~--~~----Purpb'ee{ 'ro atJA']iie the role ana· illiportance of television as a' mdium,:of: ~:'•;::·:

co~j.-,~~at:i.on: and 1nformatioii;· and. 'ti1Ei· telovision ~-lee and practices

regula tio'~ir • . .. > • '. :

Th~ fupac't of teievtsfori has provoked a serious. controversy whether tho

new medium can be left 'alon~ or whether it should 'be strictly ~uiJe·rv:i.s~d in

order·· to 'prevent abuses which ai.ready ~bec'oma ·apparent." Ev~ri tlle e'tr'orige'st·

defo'Ildors of freedofu of :·radi'6 now propc)ae,· that SelJvision broodcaaters' shouid,

exercise some voluntary cerisor'ship 'similar .to' the self•rogula.tfori :i.n thd _,

Ainerica"l motion· pic turd :l.rid.ustry .:§2/: ·· Economic ptoblems, ri:.o~e ''com1hex ·ev-e;n than ·

'in tho field of broadcasting,' further ~ggrav-titO ~aii televisfoti probl.ema'~ Tlieir '·.

solution is ail the 'more' 'ilnportant ·a.s televisioh ?is; by 'its vo):oy 'nature, a nedimt

of mass information~ excoodirig in its lx>wr and. aP,ntaneity both news broadcasts· i .. ,; ..

.. . . . .. . . ' '

I:t1":.2,~tional tele~ision dAvolo;pments ·

Purpose: To gather 'do tailed information 'conceriling internatioridl tele'V:is.i'on ' · '

developzrlents and, .in particular, interiiationB.f' television broadca3ts~

the exchange of television programmes and progra.mirx) :ms.terial,. Md.

'important t'nterna tional te levfsidn ·);lrd jec ts ~ c ' ': ,. · • · · · .-::-

Tole\rieiori is now spreading rapidlY-throughout the ~orUl, ··arid ·i:[s on the

'WE',Y to becoming' international. Alreac(y I ''twelve countries are'' eingaged. in this

field; t:to:ro '\>rill be (regular or 'expe:H.lllEint'al). tei~vision services· :l.n more than

~ty Amtir1cari and Europ~an'cotiritrtee by the ertd of 1951. Likewise; :the

United Na tforis which has ·'bceri 'pioneering in ta lovision,· is !OOenly iritereslted in

using tho new ~dium. Successful experiments with international televfs:i.on

bl;"'Oadcasts haVe · reci:mtly been made, and the exchange of kinescope ~-cbrdinge anG.

of·ftlma produced for television will.soon become a common practice.' ;.Important{

international projects ·will be carried out in the :near· future 1 providi~ :for·· ther 1

es~blishmant of •'i:tl,.terna.tional television services 'M.d. the CO•Operation of ','

television stations in Et~ope and Latin America.

£2/ Cf. Code of the Motion Picture Association of America. /These developments

E/cN:-4/sub .i/156

These developments are of f~;i~~¢h1~-importance and directly affect the

free flow of information, all the_ more so sinqeJ ~};if.'~*~· p~e;~~:mmeu:l,<·exehange·d ~·

~xnons, teley~sion.:a~'t.iona ~ Wor.$.itd:on.'PJ:'ogralilmealiri.!ii nawereeia~· · '· · ·

jv. SPECIAL

E/CN .4/Sub,.l./15tli,. Page' 96 ·

·v~ SPECIAL PROBlEMS

R&lations£4p betWeen press and. 'radio ~ 1."

Purpose: To study the ~l.S.tionship between the two great media of coll'.IIIIlmication;

to d"')termine whether end to what extent they co-operata in informing

the public or rather try to restrict the other's activity.

In some countries, Preas and Radio .are co-operating closely both in the

gathering and in the transmission of information; realizing their potentialities

and differences, they supplement each other in covering and .distributing .neve.

In other countries, however, newspaper enterprises attempt by all possible means,

and frequently with considerable.auccess, to restrict the news services of radio

stations and to prevent them from giving the public the information first. Here,

tho broadcasting organizations are not allowed to gather and select their own

news; there, they aro obliged to broadcast :news bulletins prepared by press

agoncios, avon if they aro not appropriate for radio; sometimes, in order to

avoid competition with national press agenoins they are not permitted to transmit

information from foreign stations which :may be of great interest to the radio

audience.

An ~nalysis of the rules and practices restricting the freedom of informatio'

through radio in the interest of the prose would reveal ma.ny important and

unknown facts - and would demonstrate ~oesible methods of promoting the free

flow of information.

Radio industry and trade

Purpose: To oxamine tho obstacles faced by radio manufacturers and radio

dealers, especially with regard to the production and sale of

roce1vitlg B!tl:,. and :to find out how industry and trade could

help in the development of transmitting and receiving facilities and

thus in the promotion of the free flow of information.

The supply of radio facilities to those areas which at present suffer from

a shortage of equipment, is largely an economic ancl a commercial problem. The

demand is greater than. the supply, particularly because it can mostly not be

satisfied neither by domestic industry, nor, because of currency restrictions} by

foreign countries, On the other hand, all kinds of trade barriers complicate the

import of radio material, even in those countries which are in great need of such

/rraterial

mab9rial: '·'A::f-a.et;..:rindine si,.r~l'wul'd thus,;.· nec~esary :in ·order,to get' a,olear

undereti:md1ng · of> 'the· probleme involved andf.<of ·possible aolutiorur..: · ·

:rrainint;{ for thternational broadcaetina· · •· :: · , .

Purpose.: To study the problem and tcf make .!Jroposals as t<,-. how· tb,e s:tand~· · ·

···of.iiiternational broadcasts: could 'be. ra.ised·through the ;t:n"of~saion.al

· . .format1Cl1.:of respdrieible· and skilled br.oadcaste.ra familiro:- with.'.·'

. .ini;Lrnational· 'affaiJ•.s .:ana SOC:J~J, BQ !en~~~;. to ·a.tre:B'S ,the .need, f(l;r. ; : •"· ··;I; .. -..•. ,. :· "" :prSvid·irls fLciUti~s fel" the ·training of· ·mte:Pna':l;;iopal.broadcaetera. · ... ·

Intt.rnational broadcasting and internattonal in:formatton seriously suf'fel' ·

from the ~hortage of well-trained professionals who combine special knowledge,

intornational experience and a high sonse of responsibility. The only

opportunities for training in international broadcasting, are, as far as is

known, the courses of the BBC Staff School which offers some special instruction

to employees of the Corporation, and the courses conducted since Spring 1947 a·t

the New School for Social Research in New York which benefit from the participati:

of loading staff m:;mbare of the Unitod Nations Radio as guest speakers. But, as

a vholo, students and professionals cannot prepare themselves for any activity in

this b.~ghlJ important field.

A study of this problem may include suggestions for an appropriate scheme

for the training of international bl:'c.).dcasters, and show b.ov this problem could

bo solved in tho be0t interests of international co-operation and freedom of

information.

Bibliographz of radio

Purpose: To provido all concerned vith radiocommunicationa and the use of

radio as .a. channel of information l-rith essential data on principal

publications.

None of the few radio bibliographioa available cover more than a single

aspect of broadcasting activities or more than the development in a particular

country; most of them are outdated and do not include the many important books

and articles published since 1944. Others are limited to publications in one

language on}3 and Q.o not include eTen the principal books published abroad.

None of thom includes a detailed list of the la~-rs and regulations governing

radio operations, and of the international conventions and agreements concerned.

/Consequently

E/CJN .)-t/Sub.l/156

Consequently, there;· is an UPB')nt need for a -comprehensive bibliography of

radiocommunications · .. or at, 'least of radio broadcasting and television .. not

only as a basis for further research in this field but also_for :politi~~l,

economic, •: social, educational and psychological studies.

· However, thore is not only a need for. the study of the many radio problems

affecting freedom of information•~ There is also a ~eed for continuous and

objective enquiries into international radio and television developments which

hl'l.v.o fl. d.i:rBct bear:tllf' 01.1 the.·~~hr~.i_o':l, of t.hf'I8E" nroblems, ~1 tu~ pe.-1041e&1 w~~t~ based on th~ results ui' ~'\"l;:.t\ ,.!f.~<!'uiries •..

/A P P E N D I C :B S

APPEND_IGES

: 'E/CN .4/Sub .1/1:56

/APPENDIX I

E/CN .• 4/Sub;,.l/3.FJ6

Telecommunication:

Radiocommunication:

A:PPEND!X I

DEFINITIONS included in the

International Telecommunication Convention and tha annoxod Radio Begulations

(Atlantic City 1947)

Any transmission, emission or reception of signs, writins:

images and sounds or intelligence of any nature by wire,

radio, visual or other electroll!a£Sn.etic systems.

Any telecommunication by means of Hertzian waves, i.e.

electromagnetic waves of frequencies between 10 kc/s and

3,000 1000 't!i.c/a. Broadcasting service; A radiocommunication service of transmissions to be

received directly by the general public. This service

may include transmissions of sounds or transmissions by

television, facsimile or other means.

Ama tm:tr sorvice:

Facsimile:

TtHevision:

Station:

Broadcasting station:

A service of self-training, inter-communication and

technical investigations carried on by amateurs, that is,

by duly authorized persons interested in radio technique

solely with a porao:ca.l aim and without pecuniary intez:est.

A systom of telecommunication for the transmission of

fixed images with a view to their reception in a permanent

form.

A system of telecommunication for the transmission of

transient images of fixed or moving objects.

A separate transmitter or receiver or a combination of

transmitters and receivers including the access~ry

equipment required for carrying on a definite

radiocommunication service.

A station in the broadcasting service (i.e. operating on

the frequency banda assigned for broadcasting services).

mx~rimental

· :E/QN..4/S1J,b.l/156 · · ·

E;perimMtal ata~ioq: . A statf®· utiihi.Jlg :t1er:tz.ian waves in experiments w.:t th a

v19w to thedeve].opment of science or technique.(othere

than ana tour stattona).

Broadcast matter:

Television:

DE]'INITIONS included in

·Radio Laws and Regula1;;1ons.

' '

Tho transmission for reception by the 'publhr ·at ·lareei.

This service consists of':

1. . radiate lepl'lonic aervicE;ts, which broadcast a igna..ls

permitting speech and music to be heard at a distance;

2. television services which broadcast· ai~ls ·

permitting still or moving objects to be seen at a

distance. (Colombia .. Decree No. 1966 of' 1946 regulating

Radiocommunication Services).

Dissemination of' radiocommunications intended to be

received. by the public, directly or by the intermediary

of relay atatims. (United States o:f America - 'l'he

Conmnmicatione. Act of 19311- revised to 1 September 1948).

Music, lectures, speeches, addresses, discussions,

appeals, woa ther reports, news, informa. tion,

ent~rtainments af any kind or description, images of

~rr!.ons, aper>tacles or objects in movemont or at rest,

an~ any other-matter transmissible by wireless

telegraphy. (United Kingdom • Licence and Agreement

botwoen Hie Majesty's Postmaster-General and the

British Broadcasting Corporation of 29 November 1946).

The representation by telegraph in transitory visible

form of' images of' persona, spectacles or objects in

movement or at rest. (United Kingdom- same Agr&ement

as in paragraph above) •

~dio

E/CN •. 4/S Jib; ~l/156 Page loll.:: ·

"· Radio· station:. ·' .,

~rondca~ting station:

Amateur ata.tfon: .. ~-

-::·;A- stat;.i.~ .e,quJPW.~ to ~ngage in radio corrmn.mication or ' ~ · · ~ •• . , .• .' : ~ ' (!"::; ,.. ~·r; :-- -:_ .t : • ; , .. : t'• • _._ .... , • ~ : ,._ "' •

.r,a.dio :tran~tniS.!3:lon 9f energy. (Untted·Sta:tea·of-- , .; -. . . ..... ~- ... -.. 3-t ~)-~~ -~·~·~,- '-·~ •·. ; ~

America.·.~, .T!'w. Oommun.ications Act of 1934) • .. ·, ~··-.. • • ·- _:_ -. • ••• ·,· •• •• • w • •• i ;

A station for the transmission of matter intended for

auraLrec·eption by' the general public. (Australia -

_Act~ No 1' .. 33 of 1Q42 ~~ating to Broadcasting) I . . ~ ... ; ~-.. ·

A radio station operated by a duly authorized person . . ~ .. .. ,.

. ... , __ interesteid in radiu .technique solely with ~, perscc.l _ . ;: . ·.' .._ "~ .... ,

. Television station:

- . ·' ..

aim and without pecuniary interest. (United States of

Aiherica ·-.-The COmxn.unicatio_ne Act of 1934) I

A station for the trallsmission of transient images and

associated.' soUnd tritended for reception by the general

public. (.Au~~.lia! ·~ slime Law as in paragraph on

I APPENDIX II

APPENDIX Il:

-··.

· E/CN ,4jSub .1/156 ~e 105

RESOLUTIONS AND· RECCM1ENDATIONS OF !NTER.NATIONAL CONFERENPES .

1. Resolution eo:nc·ern1ll8 Radio Broadcasting in the service of Pe~c", Inter•

American Conference for the .tofaintenanoe of Peace, BuenoE! Afres, 1936.

( cf. International Conference of American States, First Supplement;

1933-40, pages 152-53, Carnegie Endowmont for International Peace.)

2. Recommendation concerning the Use of Broadcasting in the Cause of Peace,

submitted by UNESCO to the International High Frequency Broadcasting

Conference, Mexico City. (Approved by the Plenary Assembly on 25 February

1949.) (cf. Supplement to the International High Frequency Broadcasting

Agreement, Mexico City, 1949, circulated by the Secretary-General

of the International Telecommunication Union.)

3~ · Recommendation concerning the Use of Radio in International Relations,

proposed by UNESCO and adopted by the Fourth Inter-American Radio

Conference and the I. T .u .-Region 2 Radio Conference, Washington, D.c., 1949 ~

(of. Inter-American Radio Agreement, Recommendation No. 11 and

Final Acts of the I.T .u. Conference, Recommendation VI.)

4. Resolution concerning Free Access to Information, Inter-American Conference

on Problems of War and Peace, Mexico City, 1945.)

(cf. Report of the Delegation of the United States to the Inter

American Conference, 1945, pages 99-100, Washington, D.C., 1946.)

5. Declaration concerning the Freedom of Radiocommunication, Fourth Inter

American Radio Conference 1 Washington, D.c., 1949.)

( cf. Inter-American Radio Agreement 1949.)

6. Recommendation relating to Freedom of Information in Radiocommunication,

Fourth Inter-American Radio Conference, Washington, D.c., 1949.

(cf. Inter-American Radio Agreement 1949, Recommendation No. 5.)

7. Resolution relating to Interchange and Retransmission of Radio Broadcast

Progra.nmes, Fourth Inter-Junerican Radio Conference, Washington, D .C • , 1949:

( cf. Inter-American Radio Agreement 1949, Resolution No. 4.)

/8. Recolllm6nda.tion

8. Recommendation concerning 'tlifua~ of1lladio 1n the Field of Education,

propoeod, b;y ~?C9c ~ ,adop~d by the Fourth Inter•A:morican Radio Conference •• ·' •.•. ". --·_ •• ·_r• .• ~·'·'.":"''·,}·-:- ·~:-~ -.'.\- _:- •.;_,_-- ._ ..• ,

and the I .T. u. -RelP.on :Rad.io Co:nferelid~; 'Washington';· D .c -:;·;· i949··) (of.. Inter-American Radio Agreement 1 Recommendation 12 and

~1~1 ,Act~ of th~· ~ .T ~U., Conferen~·e, .Reeoi!Illendation··vr:r.) . ' ' ' "'

' :' If -. •. , --•

~dio BroadcastiAS

Radio Broadcastipg !n,th~ Service of Peace

·. 1

• ~ao·i~ti~- :¢! t~~::rfi~r ... AJnertcan .'donterimoa. · .. -. ' . ' ~ -,. _: i ... ' •.

for the·Mairltenanoe. of Peace lj1J6nos Aire.s. 1936 12.1

' ' ' t .. - . ' -' .. '. \' ' l ~ '

Convinced ~fhat for the M,ot~i D~·sar:mament of:>peoplea it ia necessary to :·.

promote the establislu:nent of certain standards, in addition to those set forth

in the· Conven:tion, in .for.ce, conoerni;lS the use of radio-broadcasting in the · ' ·- · · · ·· · ' · • · · -- · - ·: ~ .. -_ - · ··r . . _: ·· · · • . : ., _1 .-.1'·

interests of Peape 1 · • • ·

· ~ Inter-American Conference for the J.faintenanoe of Peace .. .... ' .... • ' ' • ' • ' • • 1-'0- •• • .r

~ ReEtol vee · ·

1. To recommend that the Governments of America., insofar as th~i~· ·: ., ·

respective internal legislation Illt\Y permit, shall Emd~~v~ur to eno6~a~ . ' . . ' . ' . . ( . . . t:' . 't;,• }--~· ' ., ' .-~- '~- . •

in radiobroadcaeti;l81 the inclusion of themes relative 'to' the benefits of

peace and tne. peaceful. eettlemant of international controveraie~~<t;lie· ;. · · . , . . .. . ; i . ' \ • .. ' ·, . .' ~ > ~

scientific,,. intelle~tual, and material prOB!'eSe of Nation'S, tkd the pronlOtion • - -. ' • ' • • •.• ,. '/ ·- " - ;.1 • • ~

of a .spirit of ·m~tual unde];'e.tanding .and moral diaal"1TJaliJent of l>eoples; · ·· < • ' • • • ·- ~ • \ : { • " ' ' • ' >.- • • ' ',- : .~_ .. ' --,_. ;· ;_ • ~

?· To reoOlllmend that the Gove:r:nments e¢eavour to avoid any' radio.:. ' ~ _, • ' • .- ' .•• •• ', • • ~ - ;. " • • .,I • -\ '·

broadcastioo, originating in any of .:the Air.erican Republica, or re-.. - . ·:.' ._.· . -_,' ,. -' ,-, ', \.

·-.:transmitted from some other aource,.b;r. ~radio station within :ita· .- . . ··~.-,, ,.,·-~·-, -~_-. -~ .. - ... ~. '!i: ~- -~ _":'·~ "'--~- ,,,. '•:.;...,-r-~"'

territory, that may disturb the peaceful relations between peoples; or· ' -·: ' "! <' ·.' <'

wound national eensibilities of listeners. in another countcy. ' '.,

].9_/ ct: International Conference of Am:lrioan States, First Supplemnt, 1933-40, paaes l52·53 • Washington: Carnegie End~nt for International Peace, 1940.

; ... ·~ ~ '

macoiii'!l:lendation

E/CN .4/Sub .1/156 Page 1o8

(submitted by UNESCO and app.rov3d on 25 ~ebruary 1949)

I:nternational Eigh Frequency ·Broadcasting Confer~nce ~xico City 194d-49

The Plenary Assembly of the International High Frequency Broadcasting

Conf'orence,

Coneide1•.1ne that it is highly desirable that high frequency broadcasts should

eontribut.o to the develop~nt of. international co-operation and peace to the

greates~ poesiblo e~tcnt, and

Inepirr.d b;Y tho proposals :QJade by UNESCO,

Reeommend.s. . ..

That the frequencies to be assigned by the Conference should not be used ' . _ .. : - ' .

for purposes contrary to mutu.al understand~ng and. tolerance, and

That, all appropl'iate steps should be taken to the end. that this

resolution. be followed by practical measure,a on the part of the'Governments . ' : ; ' :.

concerned, and. that such moasures are brought to the attention of the

International T~leeommunication Union, U.N.O. and UNESCO by the countries

members of these orsanizatione.

• •• y

/Recommendation concerning

necommandation Concern of Radio in Internatio elations

(proposed by UNESCO and includ~J tn the Inter-American Radio Agreement and the Final Acts of the I.T.U.-Region 2

Radio Conference, Washington, D.C., 1949)

The Fourth Inter-American Radio Conference, Wa.shi,ngton ( 1949) ; * Consido~ing that it is highly desirable that rad~o and especially

broadcasting services, contribut~ to t~ greatest extent to further international

co-operation and strengthen pe.ace 1

Recommends**

1. that radio and especially broadcasting services, be utilized in the

interest of peace, in order to increase international co-operation and . . . '

mutual understanding among: peoples i

2. that the countries of the American Region, Members of the International

Telocommunieations Union, the United Nations, and t:r.NESCO, take steps to

implement this recommendation and keep these orga.niza.t1 ons informed .

. ':•

* or: ·"The I.T.U.-Region 2 Radio Conference (Washington 1949)"

· ** or: "r~cOllllllende to the administrations of Region 2.''

E/CN .. 4/Sub .l/156

'.

Free Access .'btr, !nt'o:rma.tion

Resolution of the Irite~•American Conference · · ·· on: Problema of· 'tolar arid. Peace71/ . , ·

. ~ioo City, 1945 -

Whereas

Tho American Republics have repeatedly expressed their firn1 desire···to assbre

a peaco that will de'fend and protect the fundamental rights of man. eye:ry:Where and :pe;rmi t ~11 peoples to llve free from the evils of tj'ranny, opreseion and e:lavery;

The progress of mankind depends on the supremacy of truth among men;

~th is the enel!\Y' of tyrarll1Y1 which cannot oxist where truth prevails, so

tml.t' those who would erect tyrannies are constrained to' attempt its sup:Presaion or

to raisu barriers against it;

Freedom of expression of thought, oral and written, is an essential condition

to, the devolopment of an active and vigilant public opinion throughout the world , . ', .

to gUard. e.sainat any attempt at ag~ssionj

one o-: the most pt;rnicious acts against humanity is the ·m:~thod employed by

totalitarian governmonts in isolating thoir poople from the influence of foreign

information, depriving them of access to the truth about international affairs, as

well as creating obstacles abroad to an exact knowledge of internal condi tiona in

their countries;

It is one of the fundamental lessons of the present world war that there can

be no freedom, p::>ace 1 or security where men are not assured of free access to the

truth through the various media of public information,

The Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace

RecoDIIII8nde

1. That the American Republics recognize their essential obligation to

guarantee to their people, free and impartial access to sources of

information.

2. That 1 having this· guarantee in view, th~y undertake, ~pon the

conclusion of the war, the earliest possibl-e abanaoz-.nt of. ~oee' Daau:res

of censorship, and of control over the services of press, motion picture

and radio, which have been necessary in wartime to combat the subYSrsive

political tact1os and espionage activities of the Axis states.

cf. Final Act 1 Resolution XXVII, Report of the Delegation of the United States of .A.zne;rica, Appendix I, U.s. Department of State Publication 24971 pages 99·100, Wash1ngt01'11 D.c., GoWJrnment Printing Office 1 1946.

/3. That the

! ••

" . E/CN .4/Sub .1/156 Page ill

3. That the Governments of the A.mericari' Republics takS :m&e.sures,

individually and in co-operation with ~ another, to promote a free

exchange of information among their peoples.

4. That the American Republics,_ having accep'f?ed the _principle of free

access to information for all, DJake every effort to the end that when a

judicial order in the world is asst~., there may be established the

principle of free transmission a.t¥1 :roce:ption of information, oral or . . .

written, published in boo~e or a, the ~reas, broadcast by radio or

disseminated by any other meens, ~r pr9~.r responsibility and without

need of previous censorshtp, ~ is tl1,e c.U. with pr1 va te correspondence

by letter, telegram, or any ot._;er ll!eel\6 ~ time of peace.

(AJ~ve.d at the plenary session of 'f MArch 1945)

/Declaration

E/CN .4/Sub .l/i56 _Page ll2.

Declaration ooncern1na the Freedom of Ba.diooomm.unication ' -- .... ' • '·. ( • ." " ,. ) , ~ J ·, ... ~ " •• ,.. ::0' ~ .. 'l) _2 J ~i' .. . ..

. . , , ll.'lte;J;'""~.:t'~.Ct:;l'\ 1,\adiO. .As:rE!~J1;6nt ., : ;:i .. • £ ' · Waahirigtori, D ~C.; 1949 · ·

' . The F~ilrth Inter:..American Bad16-ciorif~r~nce; w~~hiri~~n ('l949),

' '' .. ,- ' ~ ' . ' . : \

!. Cd.."1.B fderirtg · · ·" ·

A.·· ~hat the Second Inter.:ADxtric'an Radio dorrl-erend~, Sant1~go;·194o; adopted iecommendS:tion III relating t~ freeaoni of radiocominuri~c~ti~ns; . . '• ' . . •' ;_ ..

B. that tha 'American countries 'sho\lld. at tli!a Conference reaffirm. the

basic 1mpdrt&:..':::;s Jf ·said ·prinoiplej - ·. ' ' :_ . . ' ' .. •. . . .- . - . :·:~ ."- ·. : i. } ' . . . .• ·.

c. that consideration of this ~tte~ at the next Pleninotentiary Inter-.. ' -t { ' . ,· ' ,. ' :. ' • .•

American Telecommunication Conference should receive moat thorough attention

. and .study ·so· as ·_to appropri&tely reflect the dignity of this subject. . . '

Declare> a

1. that the American countries, in order to maintain and further improve

the friendly relations existing amot~ their peoples, affirm the principle

of freedom ~f radiocommunication, particularly in those services connected

with the dissemination of information to the public;

2. that each one of the American countries should take such steps to put

int.o effect e:ni'~ apply th1a principle- in proctiee as rr.ny be practicablo and

consistent with its i~ternal legal provisions and the a.:pp:LieelJl.o~in"ternational

agreements;

3. that the subject matter covered by this declaration should reoei ve the

most thorough study by the next Plenipotentiary Inter-American

Telecommunication Conference, with a view to including 1n future conventions

an article concer.Qing freedom of radiocommwnication.

/Recommendation

.; .

. E/CM .4/Sub .1/156 ·

Ifiic6~nda.tio~ Ba~ti'~- t6 ;Freedom o:f': Iriformati6n"-in Radiocommunica.tion • "! : ·1"' < •• .i·;. · .. ·. .f

Inter-American Radio Agreement \vaehingtori, D.c.·, ··1949 ;

The Fourth Inter.:.Amel~iccn Raa:{c, Conference, ivashin,Ston ( 1949),

Coneic.ering

A. tho.t in the Acta of Che.pul tepee, emana.t1ng from the Inter-American

Conference held in Mexico hi 1945 1 it vas recommended to' the American

countries:

1. that they recognit.a ti:O. OIJJ30nt1a~ obligation they have to

guarantee to their peopl.ee tree end. 1~\"'tial acoeas to the sources

of inforruation;

2, that they adopt .1Q1ntly and separetely measures to develop

ur.:reetricted interchange of fhformation bet\-Teen their peoples,

B. that on:~ of tho most e:tfeetive ~·of promcting the interchange of

infvrmation among ·tho peoples 1• by the liberalization of all government

regtlationa d€laling with the t:J.·anemission and reception of press news

addrossod tt) multiple destir..a tiona;

C. that freedom of thought is one of the most important conquests of

ciVilization and 1e the fundamental basis of democratic systems of

government;

D. that radiocoliD.llunioation provides an effective medi.um for the expl:-ession

of human thought which is comparable to the press;

Reconnnonda

1. that the ne,., Inter .. Amorican and interr.ation.1.l regulations be drafted

to provide aa follows:

(a) Pross rf'.dioconn:n:unlcr;tions for mnltiple destinations may consist

of information and neivs intended for pnbl1cation, reproduction, or

broadcasting, and of press service meesacea dealing with the collection

and distribution of news, with meosa~jOS of a private nature strictl;r

prohibited. Any portion of these communications may be addressed :f'or

the specific attention of any one or more of the authorized recipients.

(b) The news organization eend:l..ng those communications shall communicate

to the transmittine orcanization the names and addressee of all ... .., ' .

' .. /authorized

E/CK.4/Sub .1/156 ·

a.uthor.ized reoipients •. The tranemittins orgahitatiOftS shall in turn

notify each intoreeted administration Of the Dease and addressee of the

authorized recipients in ita territory.

(c) The AdminiatratiO.J."'l of each country of reception, after confirming

the good faith of the recipients shall i"'laofar as its internal

legislation permits, authorize them to carry out reception by Reane of

their own facilities or installations by moans of radio receivers of the

recipients, and/or of other private persons;

2. that the An:erican Gov&rn:menta prcnnulga te the necc..ssary maa.surei,'J to give

the expression of thougnt on the radio the eame effective guarantees of

freedom as the press enjoys;

3. that the American Governments adopt the ~aeuree necessary for lowering

the cost of services to radio b~casting stations and of radio

transmitting and receiving equipment, and. ecpecially the elimination of fiscal

charges which burden the development and use of these facilities for the

expression of thoueht.

/Raeolution

E/CN ,)+/Sub .1/156

~solution Relati:il to Interoha,OOe and Retrari.Snuseion of . · Radio Broadcast Pr.ogra.I)JDles .

Inter-American Radio A6reement W~shi~ton, D.C., 1949

';'he Fourth Inter•Arneriean Radio Conference, lvasbinc;ton ( 1949),

· Cons ideriE:B

:A. that in :proviouc Inter•Ame:..•ican Rad~o Conferences the vital importance

0f th~ interchange ~nd transmission of broadcasting programmes between the

American nations hns been sot. forth and fulllT diaeueeed, for the strengthening

of good relations and nmtual knowledge and the develop~nt of their respective

culturr,l, artistic, educational, scientific, historical and informative

a.cti vi ties;

B. that a clear result of such considerations was contained in the

Agreement of the Second Inter-American Radio Conferei~e, Santiago, Chile

( 1940), RecoiDJ'OOr.dat ion IV of which reads textually as follows;

'':rt is recoilliil()nded that authorized broadcasting orcanizations of tho interested countries, exchange, sufficiently in advance, progrb.Imnes of their bl'oaclcasts, especially all ~ose relating to important national or international events. In this case, it ie recommended that telegraph or telephone be utilized, if necessary, to thus assure receipt with sufficient tima for appropriate publicity and its retransmission, as far as possible.";

C. that the Agreement of the Third Inter-American Conference signed in

Rio cl.o Janeiro (1945) contained in Article 25 the following provicions 'Which

substantially confirms the Recommendation quoted in the preceding

consid.eration: 11Wi th the purpose of promoting the closest possible relations between the peoples of the American Region, the contracting goverm.1Snts shall adopt the necessa:..·y m~asures, to the extent of their respective possibilities, to facilitate and extend the retransmission and continued reciprocal interchange of cultural broadcasting programmes of an artitistic, educational, scientific, and historical nature. The information concerning such broadcasts shall be furnished with as much advance notice as possible, in order to assure ma.:xinmm publicity and dissemination.";

D. that despite the preceding considerations, up to tbe present time

interchange of programmes and transmissions have not been made to the

desired extent;

/E . that tt.u

E/CN.4/Sub!l/156 :

E. that 'this Conferenpe acknowledges ana. ,confirms the vital inportance

and. urgent need that this tnterchance be effected as soon as possible for

the purposes indicated,

Resolves:

1. To make . urgent appeal to the Administrations and broadcasting

organizations of the American nations in order that, as a contribution to

the culture and solidarity between their poples, they should adopt the

nur.essary and appropriate measures 1n accordance with their respective

intel"esta and posaibili ties to. 1ntens1fy as soon .as possible the interohailf~e

of prnB!'arnmoS ar~d culi;ural broe.dceating material of artistic, educational,

scientific, histor:Ica.l and i:afor.me.ti ve character, of national and international

interest, for tho rctraasmis~~~.on thereof;

2. to l'ecommo:~~d the.t ·c:r-e next Plenipotentiary Inter-American

Teleoom..n.unicationConference fully review·this question in order --Go

achieve the specific means deomed nece3sary and advisable so that such.

intcrcha.nge of progra.rnmes ano. the retra:;:ls:mission ther~of mz::ty be made in a

manner which fundamentally tenc1.s to stronJthen the demoon.tic feelings of the

peoples of America.

/Becomm.endation

E/0~.4/Suq.l/156

Recommendation Conoern1!fJ3 the Use of Radio in the Field of Educ!3,tion

{proposed by UNESCO ana includea in the Inter-American Radio Agreement and the Final Acts of the I.T.U.-Recion 2

Radio Conferonce 1 Washington, D.c., 1949) ·

The Fou:t.•th Inter-American Radio Conference, llashineton { 1949) • I

Conaio.erins

A. that it. is necessa1:y t.o develop and 1no1eaae the international use of

radio, oapecially broadcast:f.ng eerV'ices, in order to strengthen moral and

intellectual tios umong peoples;

J3. 'vhat is is necessary to foster international information and provide

facilHies leading to the attaill'tllent of a better culture;

C. that many countries noed technical u.asiste.nce, as evidenced in the

Reports of the Commission on Technical Needs of UNESCO, making it necessary

to remedy the lack of radio equ:lpmt:mt a..!d personnel, as soon as possible;

D. t!1a·;.; r!:4dio :l.s one of the means of comm.unica tiona wt.1Cl'! is roost effective

in reducillg illiteracy and promoting basic education;

E. tha·~ in the Aloorican Roc;ion some countries :possess highly developed

broadcasting ~ervices, while others lack adequate facilities;

F. that in th0 American Region great opportunities exist for muta.l help

among radio organizations;

Recommends**

l. that the countries of the American ReB1on l.lee radJ.o, especially

bro~dcaating services, to the maximum possible extent in order to reduce

illiteracy and. promo·~e basic education;

2. that the material and technical aid shou.ld be civen to those countries

which have not yet Aeveloped efficient broadcasting services;

3. tha~ the training of technical ~adio personnel should be encouraged for

the mutual ~enefit o~ all the countries of the American Region;

* or: "The I.T.U. Reg:ton 2 Radio Conference (Washington 1949) •• " **' or: "recommends to the Administrations of Region 2 •• 't

/4. that the

E/CN .)+/Sub 41/156

4. that the countries of the Alllerica.n'ttegion, which are Members of the

InternationAl Telecommunication Union, the United Nations, and UNEsco, take

steps to implement this rec01'1llend.ation and keep these organizations informed.

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