UNIT 14 COUNSELLING AND BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

22

Interpersonal and GroupProcesses UNIT 14 COUNSELLING AND BEHAVIOUR

MODIFICATION

Objectives

After studying this unit you will be able to:

• discuss the nature of counseling;

• differentiate between counselling, guidance and psychotherapy;

• discuss the stages in counselling;

• describe counselling skills;

• explain various approaches to counselling;

• describe ethical issues in counselling;

• discuss counselling in organisational set up; and

• explain behavioural modification and its techniques.

Structure

14.1 Introduction14.2 Nature of Counselling14.3 Difference Between Counselling, Guidance and Psychotherapy14.4 Stages in Counselling14.5 Counselling Skills14.6 Approaches to Counselling14.7 Ethical Issues in Counselling14.8 Counselling in Organisational Setup14.9 Behavioural Modification14.10 Behaviour Modification Process14.11 Organisational Behaviour Modification (OBM)14.12 Summary14.13 Self-Assessment Questions14.14 Further Readings

14.1 INTRODUCTION

Ishan works in a private bank and was known to be one of the most effectivepersons in his branch.

Because of his performance and consistent contribution to the branch targets, hewas recently promoted as manager of that branch. Overnight the responsibilitiesof Ishan doubled. Though it brought him great happiness, excitement andchallenges, the work pressure also considerably increased. This work pressureand the stress that was its outcome took a toll on Ishan. He started loosing histemper often and his relationship with his colleagues and subordinates startedgetting affected. He was not able to perform to his best and in fact he made a

23

Counselling and BehaviourModification

major mistake in one of his presentations because of which his superiors werenot very happy.

Amit is a worker in an manufacturing industry and it has been noticed by hissupervisor that he remains absent from his work for a prolonged period of time.Further, whenever he would turn up, he would seem lost and aloof. Whenenquired, some of his close friends reported that Amit had recently lost both hisparents in an accident and has not coped well since then. He also did not haveany siblings and all his relatives were at his native place so he did not have muchof support.

Sheena topped in MBA and got a job during placement. She entered theorganization with great enthusiasm, however when she submitted her first monthlyreport her Boss criticised it and said that it was not up to the mark. She workedextra hard for her second report and the same was also criticised. She could notunderstand where she was making a mistake. Her Boss also ridiculed her duringweekly meeting in front of all her colleagues and mocked her for not even knowinghow to write a report. As a result Sheena felt very humiliated and upset. Shewent in to depression and developed health related issues.

Santosh is a 28 year-old and has a very demanding, stressful job. Santosh hasalways been a high achiever and has very high standards for herself and can bevery self-critical when she fails to meet them. Lately, she has struggled withsignificant feelings of worthlessness and shame due to her inability to performas well as she always has in the past. For the past few weeks Santosh has beenfeeling unusually fatigued and finds it increasingly difficult to concentrate atwork. Her coworkers have noticed that she is often irritable and withdrawn,which is quite different from her typically upbeat and friendly disposition. Shehas called in sick on several occasions, which is completely unlike her. On thosedays he stays in bed all day, watching TV or sleeping. Santosh has found herselfincreasingly dissatisfied with her life. She gets frustrated with her self becauseshe feels like she has every reason to be happy, yet can’t seem to shake the senseof doom and gloom that has been clouding each day as of late. All this is alsotaking a toll on her performance at work.

As seen from the above short case studies, you can see that Ishan, Amit, Sheenaand Santosh are going through certain difficulties that is having an impact ontheir day to day life and more importantly their performance at work. Similarly,the employees in an organisational setup could have numerous issues andproblems that could affect their wellbeing, functioning, performance and eveneffectiveness.

In any organization, human resource is one of the most important resources andif the human resource is not able to perform effectively then the overallproductivity of the organization can get affected and that will then have an impacton the outcome and profitability of the organization.

Therefore the various factors that can have an impact on the behaviour, wellbeing and effectiveness of the human resource in an organization need to beidentified and more over suitable intervention or counselling should be madeavailable in an organisational setup.

Factors that can have an impact on the behaviour, wellbeing and effectiveness ofthe human resource could be related to the organization or the personal life of

24

Interpersonal and GroupProcesses

the employee. But either ways, they can have a negative impact on the overallproductivity of the organization and thus suitable help at the right time needs tobe made available.

Issues and problems in this context could be either related to the work life of theemployee, like organisational structure, relationship, communication, workpressure, role ambiguity and so on or at personal level, like problems related torelationship, developmental changes, life events and so on.

Some of the signs that the employee may need help are:

– Irritability and aggression

– Increase in accidents

– Symptoms of fatigue, stress and burnout

– Substance abuse

– Signs or anxiety or depression

– Decrease in performance and productivity

– Difficulty in adjusting to the workplace

– Difficulty in maintaining relationship with the superiors, subordinates orcolleagues that is resulting in frequent conflicts.

The main focus while looking for signs of issues and problems in an employeeshould be whether there is a sudden behavioural change and also what is thedegree and duration of the problem. For example, if the person who was earliervery interactive and jovial, has now suddenly become aloof or if a person isdisplaying symptoms of anxiety for past six months, these call for a counsellingand suitable intervention. In the present unit we will mainly discuss aboutcounselling. Further, it is also possible that in certain cases the behaviour of theemployee needs modification, thus the present unit will also cover specificallybehaviour modification. Behaviour modification is mainly based on learningtheories and can be used to modify the employee behaviour.

14.2 NATURE OF COUNSELLINGIn counselling there is give and take of ideas and feelings between mainly twoindividuals. One is of course the counsellor and the other is the person with anissue/ problems (Though counselling can also be group counselling). It mainlyinvolves helping the individual deal or cope better with his/her problems.Counselling has vast application whether it is educational counselling or careercounselling to HIV/ AIDS counselling and employee counselling. The principlesand techniques of counselling can thus be applied to varied issues and set upincluding work place.

Pepinsky and Pepinsky (1954) has defined counselling as an interaction, thattakes place between two individuals termed as client and counsellor in a settingthat is professional in nature, that is initiated and maintained in order to facilitatebehavioural change in the client.

Perez (1965) defined counselling as “an interactive process conjoining the counselwho needs assistance and the counsellor who is trained and educated to giveassistance”.

25


Counselling can also be described as “a process aimed at helping people to explorea problem or issue, and alternative ways of dealing with it, so that something canbe done about it” (McKenna, 2012).

As seen in the above definitions, some of the key points in these definition are asfollows:

• Interaction between two individuals: Counselling is necessarily aninteractive process, that is interaction between the counsellor (possessesnecessarily qualification and competence) and the individual (who is havingproblems and issues). Though in certain cases there could also be groupcounselling where there might be one counsellor but many individualsdisplaying similar problems/ issues.

• It involves helping individuals: Counselling is mainly focused on helpingthe individuals who seek counselling in order to help them deal with theirproblems and issues, make decisions and solve problems.

• It is professional in nature: This not only indicates the formal and seriousnature of counselling process, but also highlights the need to follow therequired legal and ethical issues. This is also necessary to uphold the rightsand wellbeing of the individual seeking counselling.

• Helps in exploring problem/issues and/or bring about behaviouralchange(s): Counselling is mainly used to help the individuals explore andunderstand the problem/ issues and it can also be used in order to bringabout behavioural changes in the individual.

Functions of counselling

The broad functions of counselling are discussed as follows:1) Creating a conducive environment for the individual: Counselling

involves creating an environment with the help of empathy, unconditionalpositive regard and congruence on the part of the counsellor, so that theindividual is able to become better aware of his/ her situation/problem aswell as potentialities, which in turn will help in the coping, problem solvingand decision making process.

2) Providing reassurance to the individual: Counselling mainly involvesproviding the individual with reassurance so as to help him/ her adequatelyface his/ her issues/ problems.

3) Promoting rational and clear thinking: Counselling also helps theindividual develop rational thinking. Various techniques of cognitive andcognitive behaviour therapy could be used in this regard to help the individualto do away with irrational thoughts and develop rational thinking.

4) Behavioural change: This is one of the most import goals as well asfunctions of counselling.

The behaviour of the counsellor that is leading to aggravation of the problemcan be changed or modified using various therapeutic techniques.

5) Helping the individual release emotional tension: Besides helping theindividual change behaviour and deal with irrational thinking, counsellor

26


also functions towards helping him/ her release the emotional tension.Behaviour, thoughts and emotions are related to each other and counsellorwill need to focus on these during the counselling process.

Types of counselling

Counselling can be categories in to various types, discussed as follows:

1) Individual counselling: As the name suggests this is the counselling thattakes place on one to one basis. There is one counsellor and one individual.Individual counselling helps the counsellor in focusing on the verbal andnon verbal behaviour of the individual besides promoting betterunderstanding of the issues and problems faced by him/her. Though it istime consuming, it is none the less very effective in bringing aboutbehavioural change.

2) Group Counselling: In this there are many individuals who are similar in away either due to the problems faced by them or due to some socialdemographic characteristics. For example, there could be a group ofemployee having high stress levels or there could be certain senior employeeswho are being counselled or prepared for retirement. Groups counsellinghas various advantages and disadvantages. In this less time is consumed ascertain techniques can be taught to many individuals at the same time. Alsothe participants have a chance to interact with each other and learn fromeach others experience. However, there could be issues related to the paceand capacity of each individual in the group and also issues related toconfidentiality and privacy.

3) Directive counselling: Directive counselling involves greater participationof the counsellor, where he/ she is in fact is not only listening but alsoguiding, motivating the individuals. In this case the onus of directing thecounsellor process as well as the individual mainly lies with the counsellor.It can be used with individuals who display external locus or control or aremore indecisive or finding it difficult to open up with the counsellor.Directive counselling can be effectively used in order to reassure theemployee, encourage emotional release and also help the employee to bringabout a clarity in his/ her thinking.

4) Non-directive counselling: This is in a way opposite to directivecounselling, where the individual takes the lead in the counselling process.This can be used with individuals who have internal locus of control anddisplay low self confidence. Such individuals may require encouragementand further support in dealing with their issues/ problems or making decisionsand solving problems. Counsellor mainly pays a role of creating a conduciveenvironment.

5) Participative counselling: This is mid way between the directive and non-directive counselling, where there is equal contribution from the counsellorand the individual and none dominates the counselling process. Such anarrangement helps exchange of various ideas and thoughts that could helpthe individual deal with his/ her issues and problems. Though listening isused to a greater extent in this type of counselling, in later sessions thecounsellor may play a more active role by using various techniques ofcounselling.

27


The choice of the type will mainly depend on the nature of the individual as wellas the situation and the problem besides the expertise and competence of thecounsellor.

Activity 1

A) Define Counselling

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

B) Differentiate between directive and non directive counselling.

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

14. 3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COUNSELLING,GUIDANCE AND PSYCHOTHERAPY

Counselling can be differentiated from two other significant terms, guidanceand psychotherapy.

Though often mentioned together, these terms have different meanings. We havealready discussed about what is counselling, but we also need to throughlyunderstand the other two terms.

Guidance can be described as help or some kind of assistance provided toindividuals so as to help them solve their problems adequately, take effectivedecisions, make intelligent choices and adjustments. I am quite sure that eachone of us have some point of time or other have guided others in this way. Thoughthe guidance we talk about here is in a more professional manner where a student,for example, can be guided to take decisions about further studies or make careerchoices.

Thus guidance can be in simple terms is a helping process so as to help individualsin certain situations and it also involves providing relevant information andmaking the individuals more aware. It thus focuses on making the individualself sufficient and self directed.

When compared with counselling, guidance does not work towards bringingabout change in an individual’s behaviour, it promotes to a greater extentmaximum utilisation and realisation of an individual’s potential. counselling onthe other hand has its main focus on brining about a positive change in individual’sbehaviour. For example, in an organisational set up, you could guide a person

28


regarding which job posts he/ she could apply for, but counselling will focus onyou helping a person change the ways he/ she is dealing with his work so as toreduce his/her work pressure.

Psychotherapy on the other hand is an extension of counselling where there couldbe certain deeper problems and issues that are beyond the skills or purview orcounselling and thus require some thing more than counselling. For example, ifan individual is under going major depression, counselling may not be help andthe person may require psychotherapy. Psychotherapy is thus required mainly incase of major psychological disorders and counselling can be effectively usedwith issues like stress, anxiety, relationship problems etc.

Two other terms that are used in an industrial set up along with counselling arecoaching and mentoring. Coaching involves providing support to the individualin order to help him/ her achieve certain specific professional or personal goals.Mentoring, on the other hand, can be described as “a work relationship thatencourages development and career enhancement for people moving throughthe career cycle” (Quick, Nelson and Khandelwal, 2013).

Activity 2

Differentiate between Guidance and Psychotherapy?

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

14.4 STAGES IN COUNSELLING

Counselling process can be divided in to various components, they are discussedas follows:

Stage 1-Ensure readiness on the part of the individual: An individual mayhave an issue, that could be related to work or personal life. However, unless anduntil he/ she is ready to share the same with the counsellor and seek help it is notpossible for the counsellor to help him/her. There are various factors that caninterfere with the readiness of the individual. One of them is lack of awarenessabout the issue. In this case the individual may not be aware about his behaviourbeing out of place or affecting others around him/her. He/she may have certainhabits that may be undeniable in nature but he/she is not aware about the same,Yet another very significant factor is resistance on the part of the individual toseek help or even change his/ her behaviour. This resistance again could be dueto various other reasons from social stigma to insecurity that one may loose thejob (in case of employee in an organisational set up). Another factor that couldbe relevant in the context of readiness is the amount of motivation to seek help.The individual may be aware about the problem/ issue but may lack motivationto seek help.

29


Thus in an industrial set up suitable conducive environment needs to be createdthat promotes individuals to seek help and counselling and also suitable facilitiesneed to be provided.

Stage 2-Initial session: Once the individual is ready for the counselling session,the counsellor has to work on building rapport. The counsellor here needs toexhibit trust, genuineness and unconditional positive regard towards the individualwhich will create a conducive environment for the individual to express anddiscuss his/ her issues/ problems. At this stage the counsellors also need to focuson any defence strategies on the part of the individual. Initial session also includespreliminary interview where the individual is made aware of his/ herresponsibilities, expectations related to counselling are clarified. The individualis also given an idea about what will be the counselling strategy including theduration and frequency of the sessions. If the counselling services are not freethen the details about fees is also provided.

Stage 3-Identification of problem: The counselling is now at a stage where theindividual is ready and willing to participate in the counselling participate andrapport has also been developed between the counsellor and the individual. Thenext stage that follows focuses on the identification of the problem. Case history,Mental Status Examination (MSE) and even psychological tests can be used inorder to understand the issues and problems that the individual is undergoing.The counsellor may have develop a certain idea about the problem during his/her interaction with the individual so far, but the same needs validation with thehelp of suitable diagnostic tools.

Stage 4-Strategy for intervention: During this stage, the strategy or thecounselling techniques that could be used to help the individual deal with theissues/ problem are chalked down and then implemented. The individual mayalso be given homework by the counsellor. Regular follow up is carried out toknow how the individual is coping and whether there is a change or not. Incertain cases psychotherapeutic techniques are also used.

Stage 5- Termination: Once the counsellor and the individual mutually feelthat the individual is now able to deal with the problem/ issue effectively, thecounselling process can be terminated.

Counselling process can also be prematurely terminated if despite of the effortsthere is no rapport formation of building of trust between the counsellor and theindividual or if the counsellor feels that the problem/ issue is beyond his/ hercapacity or expertise. In which case he/she can refer the client to someone else.The premature termination can also take place if the counsellors feels that theindividual is becoming too dependent on him/ her. Though in a way it indicatesend of the counselling process, this is also a significant stage in counselling andhas to be dealt by the counsellor with utmost care. The counsellor needs to ensurethat the individual is ready for termination of the counselling process(mainlywhen the goals of the counselling are achieved).

Stage 6- Followup: This is the last stage where post termination, the counsellorwill follow up with the individual about how he/ she is coping with his/ herproblem/ issues. If the counsellors feels that the individual is not coping wellthen further counselling may be required.

30


Referral: Though not one of the stages as such in counselling, a good counsellorshould also know or be able to judge the situation or moment when the individualneeds to be referred to some one else. This could be another counsellor or couldbe a medical doctor, a psychiatrist, a clinical psychologists and so on. Some ofthe situations that call for referral are:

• the counsellor and the individual are not able to form a positive counsellingrelationship despite of their attempts.

• the personalities or attitude, values and beliefs of the counsellor and theindividual clash.

• the individual is displaying issues and problems that are beyond the expertiseof the counsellor

• the individual is becoming or has become dependent on the counsellor.

Activity 3

Describe termination and follow up stages in counselling process.

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

14.5 COUNSELLING SKILLS

Some of the most significant counselling skills are discussed as follows:

1) Empathy: Often explained as ‘putting oneself in someone else’s shoes’.But imagine you wearing someone else’s shoes, do you think you will findthem comfortable, most probably not, as the size definitely will vary besidesother aspects and you are least likely to feel comfortable in them. In a similarmanner, empathising with another person also is a challenge. Empathy mainlydenotes that the feelings experienced by individual are sensed by thecounsellor in an appropriate manner and this is again communicated backto that individual by the counsellor. Empathy leads to strengthening ofrelationship between the counsellor and the individual and is also relatedwith positive counselling outcomes.

2) Unconditional positive regard: Yet another skill is unconditional positiveregard, that can also be explained as acceptance, in which the the counsellorhas a regard towards the individual that is both positive and unconditionaland thus he/ she can share any information with the counsellor without anyinhibitions. The counsellor in this regard needs to be nonjudgemental andaccept the individual as he/ she is is without any bias. This skill again canhelp build a positive relationship with the individual and encourage theindividual to freely discuss his/ her problem.

3) Genuineness: This is related with authenticity, openness and also to whatextent the counsellor is in touch with his/ her own feelings. It is important

31


that the counsellor appears to be in congruence and in state of balance,where his/ her feeling, thought as well as behaviour are in synchronised.The skill of genuine is also related to emotional intelligence where one isaware about one’s own emotions and that of others and is able to identifyand manage one’s own emotions effectively. Genuineness again will helpcreate a better rapport with the individual and create a conducive environmentfor the individual to reflect on his/ her problem and come up with a potentialsolution for it. It is also important that like empathy and unconditionalpositive regard, genuineness is also communicated to the individual by theclient. This can be done though various verbal and non verbalcommunications.

According to Rogers, empathy, unconditional positive regard (discussedbelow) and congruence or genuineness are most essential elements of acounselling process.

4) Listening: This is yet another significant skill in counselling. Though inpsychotherapy, the psychotherapist will go beyond listening and use varioustechniques, in counselling listening is very important. Also it is not justpassive listening but active listening that further includes skills discussedas follows:

• Attending: Paying attention to what the individual is saying

• Paraphrasing: That includes the restatement of what is said by theindividual to confirm that the counsellor has understood what is beingsaid by the individual.

• Reflection: This is related to the reflection of feelings of the individual.

• Probing: Involves asking questions related to the problem/ issues.

• Perception checking: That includes finding out whether theinterpretations made by the counsellor are correct or not.

• Being silent: Silence is extremely important if one wants to listen.

• Summarisation: Based on the information and the non verbal behaviourof the individual, a summary of the problem is created by the counsellorand discussed with the individual.

The counsellor could also keep in mind SOLER technique while listening

S: Squarely face the individual, that is the counsellor is facing theindividual and thus indicating that he/ she is attentive and interested inwhat the individual is saying.

O: Open posture, referring to the posture of the counsellor that shouldindicate openness.

L: Lean towards the individual while listening, keeping in mind thepersonal space.

E: Eye contact is to be maintained

R: The counsellor should also be relaxed while listening to the individual

5) Observation: Besides listening yet another significant skill is that ofobservation. Certain things about the individual and the problems and issuethat he/ she is going can be apparent through his/ her non verbal behaviour

32


like the way he/she is sitting, their facial expressions, body posture, gestures,whether he/she is maintaining eye contact or not and so on. Counsellorsneeds to develop this skill of being observant about the individual’s nonverbal behaviour.

Further the counsellor also needs to be conscious about his/ her own nonverbal behaviour as well.

The way he/ she is sitting. his/her own gestures and body posture. Thenonverbal behaviour of the counsellor should also convey that he/she ispaying attention to the client and should reflect empathy, openness and nonjudgemental attitude towards the individual.

6) Self Disclosure: This is another technique that can be effective, thoughneeds to be used with caution. Self disclosure can be described as sharingof information about one self. It could be sharing of personal information orexperience or even showing involvement. Thus in a counselling set up incertain situations, the counsellor may share information about his/ her ownself with the individual. This could help in providing assurance to theindividual, instilling hope in him/ her and also may further promote trustbetween the counsellor and the client. Though it could also be dangerous asit may shift the focus of the counselling from the issues and problems of theindividual to that of the counsellor and extreme self disclosure can be riskyas the individual knows too much about the counsellor.

Some of the guidelines that could be followed here are ( Nelson- Jones,2012):

• Counsellors needs to talk about himself/ herself in general and be tothe point avoiding any distraction due to overtaking or shifting of focusfrom issues/ problems of the individual.

• Past experiences could be shared in place of current experiences, likeif the counsellor is coping with a major life event, the same should notbe discussed as counsellor may find it emotionally draining may not beable to maintain emotional distance from that experience.

• Suitable verbal and non verbal communication needs to be used. Thereshould be genuineness and consistency in what ever is being disclosed.

• Share experiences sensitively keeping in mind the cultural and religiousbackground of the individual

• Personal experiences and informations should be minimally used andwith caution.

Besides the above skills the counsellor also needs to be self aware, honest,congruent, approachable, have ability to communicate and be observanceand have the necessary knowledge, skill and competence. Advise as suchshould be avoided in counselling as the employee or the individual is inbetter position to understand his/ her problems and should be in position tomake his/ her own decisions and solve his/ her problems. The counsellormainly has to create a conducive environment for the individual.

33

Counselling and BehaviourModificationActivity 4

A) What is unconditional positive regard?

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

B) What is SOLER?

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

14.6 APPROACHES TO COUNSELLING

There are numerous approaches to counselling that can be used. Some of theprominent ones are discussed as follows:

1) Psychoanalysis: This approach was proposed by Sigmund Freud. Freudproposed that there are three main levels of consciousness, namely theunconscious, the material that is repressed and therefore is not in onesconsciousness; the subconscious, that is, the material that one is not fullyaware about but can be brought to consciousness and third level is theconsciousness, the material that we are fully aware about. Freud also spokeof the three systems related to mental apparatus, Id, Ego and Super Ego. Idor ‘it’ is the oldest of the three systems and consists of everything that wasinherited. For example, instincts. Id is not controlled by logic or moralityand is thus impulsive. Ego or ‘I’ can be described as that part of Id that hasbeen modified due to exposure to the social world. This is represented byreason and common sense and may also try to bring about a balance betweenId and Super ego. The Superego can be described as remnant of Ego, whichis as a result of extended parental influences. It mainly functions to controlthe demands of the id thorough its moral influences on Ego. Freud has alsospoken about the psychosocial stages of development from oral, anal, phallic,latency to genital stage.

These are mainly related to sexual development and any fixation at any ofthese stages can have repercussion on the behaviour of the individual laterin life. In psychoanalysis past experiences is very important and anybehaviour of a person in present can be attributed to his/ her experiences inthe past. Freud also believed that the feelings that were repressed couldsurface later in form of conflicts, depression and so on.

34


Freud has also given a number of defence mechanisms that are used byindividuals, like repression, denial, projection, rationalisation, reactionformation and so on. The main techniques used in psychoanalysis are freeassociate and dream analysis. Transference on the part of the individualsare also taken in to consideration in this regard besides the resistance.

There are various approaches as well that were developed by Carl Jung,Alfred Adler, Anna Freud amongst others, that are termed as neo-freudianmainly because they are diverged from basic principles of psychoanalysisbut do share certain similarities with it.

2) Behavioural approach: These are mainly based on the learning theoriesby Pavlov (classical conditioning), Skinner (operant conditioning) and sociallearning theory by Bandura. Where as psychoanalysis focuses on the pastexperiences, behavioural approach gives relevance to the external stimulus.Thus the behaviour of the persons is described as a result of external stimulusand it is also believed that if this external stimuli is controlled or manipulatedthen the behaviour can be modified. We will discuss about behaviourmodification that is mainly based on behavioural approach later in this unit.Some of the techniques used under behaviour therapy are systematic de-sensitisation, in vivo techniques, relaxation techniques, self monitoringtechniques etc.

3) Humanistic approach: This approach considers human beings to be uniqueand having potentiality to develop and also deal with their own problemsand issues. This is also considered as the third force after psychoanalysisand behaviourism. There are three main approaches that are covered underthis approaches namely, Person Centred Therapy by Carl Rogers, Gestalttherapy by Fritz Perls and Existential therapy by Irvin Yalom and RolloMay. Humanistic approaches see individuals as whole and unique and thusthey cannot be categorised. They also believe that the individuals do havepotentiality and are in a better position to understand and deal with theirown problems and thus the role of the counsellor is just to create a conduciveenvironment for the individual for self realisation. These could be categorisedunder non directive type of counselling.

4) Cognitive approach: On on hand where behavioural approaches focus onthe overt behaviour, cognitive approach focuses on the covert behaviour orthe thoughts. the main focus here is on the thinking, precisely the irrationalthinking and cognitive dissonance on part of the individual.

This approach mainly helps the individuals deal with their irrational thinkingand make them more rational. There is also Cognitive Behaviour Therapy(CBT), that combines the best of behaviour therapy and cognitive therapy,thus focusing on behaviour as well thoughts.

5) Eclectic approach: Most often in practical life it may not be possible touse one approach, thus more than one approach is used in counselling tohelp the individuals. This is known as eclectic approach. However, careneeds to be taken in this regard based on the symptoms displayed by theindividual, his/ her locus of control (whether external or internal) andpsychological defences (whether related to behaviour of thoughts) whileselecting suitable approaches and techniques.

35

Counselling and BehaviourModificationActivity 5

Explain Psychoanalysis.

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

14.7 ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING

As was discussed the outcome of the counselling process to a greater extentdepends on the counselling relationship and the rapport and trust between thecounsellor and the individual, which in fact helps the individual open up anddiscuss his/ her issues with the counsellor. This relationship also needs to beethical. Further, there are a number of ethical issues that need to be followed bythe counsellor so as to ensure that the individual is not harmed in any way.

In this regard APA (American Psychological Association) has stated certainguiding principles and standards that need to be followed by psychologists. Theseare available on their website as well, the link for which is http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx.

Some of the relevant ethical issues are discussed as follows:

1) Autonomy: Autonomy indicates that the individual or the person undergoingcounselling has an autonomy to take the decision. This also refrains fromany manipulation of the individual against their will. The individual alsothus has autonomy to decide what is right for himself/ herself and hasautonomy also to exit the counselling process. This is one of the mostimportant ethical issues in counselling.

2) Beneficence and non-maleficence: Beneficence indicates that thecounselling should be for the benefit of the individual and in order to promotehis/ her wellbeing. Non maleficence indicates that the individual should notbe harmed in anyway during the counselling process.

Despite of seeking informed consent, the counsellor needs to take suitablecare that the individual is not subjected to any harm.

3) Justice: Counselling should be fair and not partial. The counsellor shouldbe fair and should be just in his/ her approach towards the individuals. He/she should not discriminate amongst the individuals who approach him/herand treat each of them equally and honestly though they may display variedproblems/ issues for which the counsellor may require to use differenttechniques. But his/ her approach should reflect justice.

4) Confidentiality and Privacy: One of the most significant issue ismaintaining confidentiality and privacy. The counselling should take place

36


in a private set up and the interaction between the counsellor and theindividual and the information shared should be kept confidential. Therecords also need to be adequately maintained and should not be madeavailable to others without the consent of the individual. Though in case ofany danger to the individual or others around him/ her and in case of certainlegal issues etc. the information may be shared.

5) Informed consent: The informed consent needs to be taken from theindividual at the start of the counselling process. The expectations that theindividuals might have with reference to counselling need to be cleared andthe objectives should be mutually set. The individual then needs to providehis/ her consent in written. this is also important so that individual feelsresponsible for himself/ herself and is aware that he/ she has to take decisionsand solve problems and that the counsellor is just there to create a conduciveenvironment and to provide help and support.

Besides the above ethical issues, the legal requirements of the state and thenation are also to be kept in mind besides the norms in this regard set by theorganization.

Activity 6

What is informed consent?

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

14.8 COUNSELLING IN ORGANISATIONALSET UP

Counselling in organisational setup is not other wise different from any other setup, except, the nature of the individuals and the issues and problems faced bythem may differ to some extent.

Employees in an organisational set up may under go stress and may alsoexperience burnout due to various reasons like role overload, role ambiguity,shift work, strenuous work environment and conditions, work relationship andso on. Thus there could be numerous factors that can lead to development ofstress, anxiety, depression and other psychological problems and disordersamongst the employees. There could also be other problems that may have theirroot cause in the personal life of the employee but might affect the work relatedperformance of the employee and thus may require counselling.

Besides helping deal with numerous problems, counselling or making counsellingservices available also leads to increased morale amongst the employees as theymay feel that the organisation really cares for them and their wellbeing.Counselling can also be used to promote positive mental health.

37


Thus the focus of counselling in an organisational set up is not jut on the problemson issues but on promoting wellbeing and development of the employees.

Some of the main issues that may call for counselling in an organisational set upare:

1) Productivity related issues and problems: One of the main issues thatmay bring the employee to the notice of the organization and may highlightthe need for counselling is the productivity of the employee. Employee is asignificant resource and if his/ her productivity is affected, then it is matterof concern to the organisation, as it is directly related to the organisationalout put and profitability. The productivity of an employee can get affecteddue to various reasons which could be personal or related to work. It ispossible that the productivity is gone down due to various reasons that arerelated to the psychological wellbeing or relationship issues or inability ofthe employee to cope with certain situations, which may call for counselling.

2) Conflict: Counselling may also require in case of conflict, for example,between two employees. Though this will also depend on the organisationalpolicy but certain conflicts and relationship issues can also be dealt with thehelp of counselling.

3) Issues like absenteeism, substance abuse and other behaviouralproblems: Employees can also be refer to a counsellor, when he/ she isdisplaying absenteeism or is having substance abuse or displaying any otherbehavioural problem. This again is in a way related to productivity andfurther can also lead to loss or even accidents in an organisational set up.

4) During organisational change and restructuring: Counselling can alsofind its application while dealing with the anxieties of the employees whenthe organization is going through merger, acquisition or an organisationalchance. Besides individual counselling, group counselling can also be usedwith the employees.

5) During career transition: Counselling can not only be used with newemployees in an organization to help them adjust well, but could also beused with employees who are being promoted to senior levels so as to preparethem for the role and responsibilities. It can also be used to certain senioremployees who are about to retire, so as to prepare them for this transition.Counselling can also be used with employees who are being sent abroad, toanother country on an assignment or to the expatriates working in theorganisation.

6) Career Counselling: It can also be used to provide counselling regardingchoice of career or career path to the employees to promote their developmentin the organization. Employees could be helped to prepare and develop skillsnecessary for next position or for a job position vacant in the organisation.

7) As preventive measure: Counselling techniques can also be used aspreventive measures where the employees on regular basis practice certaintechniques so as to promote positive mental health of the employees andtheir overall wellbeing.

38


Issues and challenges in counselling in an organisational set up

There are various challenges that can interfere with effective application ofcounselling in an organisational setup.

1) Pressures and interference from the management: In an organisationalset up besides the employee and the counsellor there is also a third partythat is management. And an effective counsellor will also have to deal withmanagement. The counsellor may face pressure from the management toproduce the results as per their goals rather than the goals of the employee.Further, they may also expect faster results, which may not be possible inall cases as it will depend on the counselling process and the pace at whichthe employee is going. The management also will be concerned due to thecost that they are incurring towards the counselling process and also theloss of work hours as the employee is not able to function to his/ her fullest.

2) Maintaining confidentiality: As discussed above, confidentiality is one ofthe most significant ethical issues and in the case of counselling in anorganisational setup there are limitations to which this can be maintained asthe management may want to know how the employee is coping and otherdetails. This is a significant challenge that needs to be handled in a verysensitive manner.

3) Social stigma related to counselling: It is also possible that an employeemay not approach the counsellor due to social stigma, about, what his/ hercolleagues are going to think or they are going to think that he/ she is havingmajor psychological problem or disorders.

4) Insecurities: The employee may also have insecurities that is theorganisations comes to know about his/ her problem he will loose apromotions or may even loose his/ her job.

5) Lack of awareness or misconceptions about counselling: Many employeemay not be aware about such facilities available in the organization or mayhave numerous misconceptions (for example, that the counsellor will readtheir mind) about counselling and the counsellor that may stop them fromseeking any help.

6) Counselling as a part of the organisational structure and process: Mostoften the attitude towards counselling is negative and there is social stigmaattached with it. Thus the counsellor will have to make an effort towardsmaking counselling a part and parcel of the organisational structure andprocess. Creating awareness in this regard is also necessary.

7) Diversity in the organisation: Diversity could serve as a challenge, thoughpsychologists and counsellors specifically are trained to accept the individualas he/she is without being judgemental. The counsellor also needs to beconscious about the diversity that exists in the organisation in terms of gender,culture, religion and even regional backgrounds. Counselling needs to becarried out keeping this in mind. There could also be employees withdisability and these may also require counselling services. Counselling theemployees with disability can also be a challenge in itself as the nature ofissues/ problems faced by them will be different from those who do nothave disability.

39


8) Multiple and/or conflicting roles: This can mainly occur when a manageris playing a role of a superior as well as that of a counsellor. In this regardthe manager should have clarity in what role he/ she is playing and alsoneed to prioritise the goals of the counselling and that of organisation. Thisis one of the major challenges that is faced by the manager.

Besides having a full time counsellor in an organization, it is also possibleto train the supervisors and managers in basic skills of counselling. Thisagain can be helpful because these are the people who spend time with theemployees and are thus in better position to identify any change in behaviouror performance. Further, they may also have a rapport with these employeeswhich will help them understand and help the employee in the better way.In certain cases employees may also hesitate to approach the counsellor dueto social stigma and other insecurities. The supervisors and managers couldbe trained to handle certain minor issues and could also be informed aboutwhom they need to refer in case if they feel that they are not in position tohelp the individual or the matter is beyond their skills and capacities. It isalso important that a general awareness about psychological problems andhow to seek help needs to be created in an organisational setup.

Recent trends and future prospects for counselling in organisations

Availability of counselling services in industrial set up is not very common inindustries, especially, in India. Though some organisations in some way or theother are trying to incorporate counselling either by seeking services of privatecounselling centres or by training managers and supervisors in barefootcounselling, where they are taught basic counselling skills and techniques sothat they can help employees deal with their issues and problems. In this as wellthere are a number of challenges and issues as discussed above.

Over the years the awareness about counselling amongst the general public andalso amongst the organisations is increasing. There have also been variousdevelopments and trends in this regard.

Some of the recent trends and future prospects for counselling in organisationsare discussed as follows:

1) E-counselling: Given the familiarity with technology and also how often itis being used by the employees, e-counselling can be effectively used in anindustrial set up. Also most of the industries now can afford the requiredtechnology, that is availability of computers and also internet. Thuscounselling can be carried out via emails or even video chats. This can beeffective in a way as it may save time, the employee will also have enoughtime to reflect on his/ her problems and issues that will promote selfawareness. Further, it will be easier for the employee to open up over theemail and the conversations can also be saved for future reference. Thoughthere are a number of disadvantages as well, like issues related toconfidentiality. Further, the counsellor is not able to observe the non verbalbehaviour of the employee and as such the therapeutic relationship that isrelevant to the counselling process may not adequately develop betweenthe counsellor and the employee.

2) Group counselling: Though group counselling is predominantly used inother settings, this can be effectively used in an industrial set up to help deal

40


with certain common issues and problems faced by the employee. In groupcounselling, the individuals need to come from similar background or needto display similar problems/ issues. In industries where the employeesexperience greater amounts of stress and burnout, relaxation techniques,meditation etc. can be used. Further, group counselling can also be usedwith senior employees who are about to retire so that they can be preparedfor life after retirement. Thus employees can not only be trained but alsocounselled using group counselling.

3) Counselling to promote positive mental health: Besides using counsellingas a remedy, it can also be used to prevent psychological problems. Theemployees can be encouraged to vent out frustration from time to time or anenvironment of open communication can be promoted where the employeescan speak out the difficulties, issues, problems faced by them.

4) Counselling for the family members of the employees: Counsellingservices of the organization can also be extended to the family members ofthe employees. As discussed above the roots of the problems/ issues facedby the employees could also be in his/her personal life, and it may be possiblethat certain family member (s) may also require help/ counselling. It mayalso be possible, for example, in case of employee suffering from substanceabuse, that the involvement or support of the family members is necessaryfor the counselling process to be successful. Counselling family membersand gaining their trust will also help in dealing with absenteeism and lowproductivity on part of the employees. Though in this regard it is veryimportant that counselling is perceived positively and there is no stigmaattached with it. Counselling can also help the employees achieve work lifebalance, thus pay equal attention to work as well as his/ her family.

5) Diversity and Multicultural counselling: This has become requirementof the day as in any industrial set up there will be employees from all walksof life, from different religions, caste, region, males and females andindividuals belonging to different age groups. The counsellors needs to beaware in this regard and should possess necessary skills to help such diversegroup of individuals. The counsellor should also be able to respects andaccept the diversity and be non judgemental in his/ her approach.

6) Use of technology, online training programmes, Massive Open OnlineCourses to train employees in counselling skills: In order to train theemployees, especially the managers and supervisors, in counselling skills,technology and online training programmes can be used.

Besides MOOCs can also be used in order to train the employees in theseskills.

Activity 7

A) Identify any two issues and challenges in counselling in an organisationalset up.

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

41

Counselling and BehaviourModificationB) Explain E-counselling.

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

C) What is diversity and multicultural counselling?

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

14.9 BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

Ashok was recently transferred to ABC firm’s office in Mumbai. Though theManager did not know much about Ashok she realised that, Ashok was a littleaggressive in his approach and whenever he was expected to work in a team, hewould end up arguing. This was having grave impact on the other team membersand the employees in the firm.

Udit worked as a clerk in accounts department of an organization. Any time ajob was assigned to him, though he would try to do his best, he could nevercomplete in time and would make lots of errors. This would not only affect hisperformance but would also impact the overall work of that department.

In the above case studies it can be seen that something is wrong with thebehaviours of Ashok and Udit that may call for behaviour modification.

Before we try to understand what is behaviour modification, we first need tounderstand the term behaviour. Behaviour can be described as any overtmanifestation of the individual. It can be related to what is said or done by theindividual behaviour can be further described in terms of behaviour deficit orbehaviour excesses. Behaviour deficit indicates absence or lack of something,where as behaviour excesses indicates certain behaviour that is not under controland is excessive. For example, in a work set up, if an employee is not been ableto adequately interact with others which has resulted in lowering of teamproductivity and performance then it can be said that there is behaviour deficit.On the other hand is an employee has been very aggressive, which has resultedin damage to the organisational property then this can be termed as behaviourexcessive. Such behaviours can cause problem and need modification.

Behaviour Modification is mainly based on learning theories and there are fivemain principles underlying this technique (Rao, 2003):

42


1) As human behaviour is mainly learned (except in case of maturation process),it is possible to modify it.

2) Behaviour can be changed based on the changes in the environment.

3) The principles of social learning can be effectively used to change or modifybehaviour, for example, modelling can be used effectively to changebehaviour (as is done in various advertisements).

4) The behaviour change can be an indicator of effectiveness of counselling orthe behavioural modification process.

5) The counselling or the behaviour modification technique used needs to bebased on the needs of the individual whose behaviour is to be modified.

Behaviour modification involves encouragement of desirable behaviour andremoval or minimisation of behaviour that is undesirable. This can also be donewith the help of reinforcement, which can be positive or negative. Behaviourmodification thus involves techniques that are scientifically tested and can beused to reduce certain behaviours that are maladaptive in nature and increasebehaviours that are healthy or adaptive.

The first reference to behaviour modification can be traced to an article writtenby Thorndike in 1911 titled “Provisional Laws of Acquired Behaviour or Learningin which he referred to ‘modifying behaviour’. Various learning theories likeClassical conditioning by Pavlov, Operant Conditioning by Skinner and sociallearning theory by Bandura further contributed to the development of this field.Various experiments were carried out by Skinner that indicated that behaviourcould be modified with the help of reinforcements (both positive and negative).

Concepts in Behaviour Modification

Let us understand the significant concepts in this regard

• Law of effect: One of the main principles of behaviour modification is thatthe behaviour mainly depends of its outcome. Thus if the outcome iscontrolled or manipulated the behaviour can also be managed. For example,if the out come of tantrums by a child is gaining of the toy he/she wantedthen the likelihood of this behaviour (of throwing tantrums) being repeatedis high. But if the outcome is manipulated then this behaviour can be changed.Thus the law of effect has significantly contributed to behaviour modification.Law of effect states that “a person tends to repeat behaviour that isaccompanied by favourable consequences and tends to not repeat behaviourthat is accompanied by unfavourable consequences (Newstrom and Davis,1997, pg 132). Thus this also requires the counsellor or the immediatesuperior or manager of the employee to identify the possible consequencesthat need to be modified or manipulated. In this regard either positive ornegative reinforcement can be suitably used.

• Positive reinforcement and shaping: Using positive reinforcementincreases the likelihood that the behaviour that is reinforced will be repeated.“A positive reinforcement is a stimulus or event which, when it follows aresponse, increases the likelihood that the response will be made again(Morgan et al, 1996, pg 149). For example, if an employees is punctual thenthis behaviour can be reinforced by his/ her manager/ supervisor by

43


recognising it and even verbally complementing the employee. Yet anotherconcept in this context is that of shaping. This mainly involves applicationof positive reinforcement in a more systematic and gradual manner. Thiscan help shape the behaviour of the employee. For example, when a newrecruit joins, the manager can systematically and gradually shape his/herbehaviour towards becoming more productive by giving positivereinforcement as and when the right behaviour is displayed by him/her.Rewards can also be effectively used to promote right behaviours.

• Negative reinforcement and punishment : Using negative reinforcementincreases the likelihood that the behaviour that is reinforced will not berepeated. “A negative reinforcer is a stimulus or event which, when itscessation or termination is contingent on a response, increases the likelihoodthat the response will occur again” (Morgan et al, 1996, pg 149) This mainlyinvolves removal of an outcome that is not favourable. For example in orderto avoid the smell of chemicals the employee is encouraged to use a mask.In this case the use of a safety device that is mask is reinforced due to thenegative reinforcement that is created by the smell of the chemicals.

Punishment is not same as negative reinforcement and in punishment, thebehaviour is followed by outcome that is not favourable. “ A punisher is astimulus or event which, when its onset is contingent on a response, decreasesthe likelihood that the response will occur again” (Morgan et al, 1996, pg150). For example, if an employee has not been following the safety normsthen he/ she has to pay a fine. Punishment have its own advantages anddisadvantages. Whee on one hand it conveys strong message, on the other,the punisher may not be liked by others or the employee or subordinates.

• Extinction: It is also to be noted that if a particular reinforced behaviour isnot reinforced, extinction of that behaviour could take place due to lack ofreinforcement. For example, an employee who was earlier awarded for his/her innovative ideas, was not reinforced recently when he/ she came upwith a creative solution to an impending problem, then this behaviour islikely to become extinct. Thus the managers also need to be cautious in thisregard so as to avoid certain favourable behaviours of the employees fromgoing extinct.

Schedules of reinforcement

When we talk about reinforcement, it is also necessary to understand that thereare two types of reinforcement, continuous reinforcement that is received everytime a correct response is given, which may not be practically possible in day today life, esp. in an organisational setup. The other is intermittent schedules ofreinforcement where reinforcement is given after a particular period of time orafter a number of responses. There are four main schedules of reinforcement thatcan be discussed in this context.

1) Fixed interval: In this the reinforcement is provided after a particular periodof time. In this the reinforcement is provided only after a certain time period,no matter how many times the response or behaviour has occurred duringthe time period. Thus there is a fixed time period after which thereinforcement is given. For example, receiving the salary end of every month.

44


The salary is given on the monthly basis whether or not the person hasperformed to his/ her best once or more than once.

2) Variable interval: In this, as the name suggests, the the interval varies. Inthis case the interval may be provided in certain cases after one month orafter 15 days or after two months and so on. There is no fixed time period.That is, the reinforcement is provided during varied time periods. Forexample, on a workshop floor where the employees are working, the manageror the superior may visit any time, if the employee is working hard (or atleast seems to be working hard), he/ she will get recognition. Thus, here thereinforcement received is completely random.

3) Fixed ratio: In this the reinforcement is given only after there are a particularamount of correct responses. Thus in this case it is pre decided that if thedesired response or behaviour occurs say 20 times then the reinforcement isprovided. For example, if the employee achieves his/ her target of say, selling1000 units of a product then he/ she is given an incentive.

4) Variable ratio: In this case the reinforcement is given after a particularamount of correct responses but this is not fixed and can vary. Thus in thiscase sometimes the reinforcement is given after the desired response orbehaviour is displayed once or after ten times or after 20 times and so on.There is no fixed number of times as in fixed ratio. For example, the bonusor incentive will be received by the employee either after he/she achieves atarget of selling 100 units or a product or 1000 units or 5000 units.

Using each of these has its own advantage and disadvantage and these shouldbe used in an organisational set up based on different desired and undesiredbehaviours. For example, with regard to reinforcing effective performance,a fixed ratio reinforcement can be used especially, in sales related jobpositions. Where as while for continued use of safety devices, variableinterval can be used where there could be checking any time and theemployees who are using safety devices would be reinforced.

Further, in this context it is also necessary to mention that the reinforcementcould be monetary or non monetary. This will again depend on a number offactors like the job position, and the value that is attached by the employeeto the reinforcement or the reward.

The principles and techniques of behaviour modification can be effectivelyused in an industrial setup in order to modify the behaviour of the employees.

Activity 8

A) Explain Law of Effect.

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

45

Counselling and BehaviourModificationB) Differentiate between positive and negative reinforcement.

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

C) Give examples for the fours schedules of reinforcement.

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

14.10 BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION PROCESS

The behaviour modification process is discussed as follows:

1) Setting of the goal: The main goal of behaviour modifications is bringingabout a change in behaviour, as discussed before, this change can be interms of a behaviour that is newly developed like learning a new skill orfurther strengthening of a behaviour, for example, a person may haveleadership skills but they can be further enhanced. It can also includemaintenance of a particular behaviour like safety related behaviour andpractices or hygienic behaviour and last but not the least, decreasing oreliminating the unwanted behaviour, aggressive behaviour, for example,can be completely eliminated.

2) Behavioural Assessment: As discussed above, before the behaviourmodification process is started, the goal has to be whether behaviour is tobe strengthened or reduce or a new behaviour is to be developed or aparticular behaviour is to be maintained is to be decided. This can be decidedbased on the behavioural assessment. A behavioural assessment will helpunderstand the problem in a better manner. This assessment includes thefollowing:

– Frequency: How frequent is the behaviour. For example, if a personhas been aggressive just once, we can say that it was due to the situationand the person may not be as such aggressive by nature. But if the personhas been aggressive a number of times then this is a matter of concern.

– Duration: For how long the behaviour has been persistent is alsoimportant to be noted. For example, the duration that the employee hasbeen aloof or upset or displaying lack of interest in job related activities.

– Intensity: This has to do with the severity of the behaviour. For example,how extreme was the aggressiveness displayed by the employee.

46


The behaviour is further analysed with the help of functional analysis, thatcan be done using ABC,

A, that stands for Antecedent, that is, what happened before the behaviour

B, stands for Behaviour, the behaviour of the employee

C, stands for consequences. What happened after the behaviour.

3) The intervention or techniques that could be used are specified: Tosuggest or specify a particular intervention or technique it is necessary that

– the antecedent factors are mentioned and described,

– the consequences are also noted down,

– the goals of behaviour modification are specified and,

– target response that requires to be changed is noted

Once this is done then suitable technique for behaviour modification can beused.

4) Evaluation and followup: Evaluation and follow up are carried out to seeif any change in the behaviour has taken place or not. If there are no changesin the behaviour after use of a particular intervention or technique, the samecan be changed or modified.

Activity 9

Explain behavioural assessment.

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

14.11 ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOURMODIFICATION (OBM)

OBM can be defied as “a programme in which manager identifies a work relatedbehaviour and encourages the same by suitable intervention strategy havingpositive motivation till the undesirable behaviour is weakened and desirablebehaviour is strengthened” (Singh, 2003 pg 330).

Organisational Behaviour Modification (OBM) can be described as a form ofoperant conditioning that mainly used by Lutherans and Kreitner in order toshape the behaviours of the employees (Quick, Nelson and Khandelwal, 2013).Stajkovic and Lutherans (1997) carried out a meta analysis of the effect of OBMon task performance. The review indicated that OBM had a positive and significanteffect on the task performance of employees in both service and manufacturingorganisations.

47


OBM can be effectively applied in an organisational set up in order to:

• Improve employee productivity

• Promote discipline amongst the employees

• Ensure and enhance the safety related behaviour of the employees.

• Development of training programs

• Employee self management

OBM also helps the immediate supervisors or managers to carry out an analysisof the employees’ behaviour, the reasons for its occurrence and consequences sothat it can be changed. Thus the manager/ supervisor can become more observantand learn to carefully monitor employee behaviour. In this context some of thegeneral principles to be followed by the manager/ supervisor (Newstrom andDavis, 1997) are highlighted as follows:

1) The behaviour that needs modification has to be identified: The manager/supervisor has to first identify the behaviour that requires modification. Forexample, if the employee has been frequently smoking in the workshoparea, thus violating the norm of not smoking, this is the behaviour that needsmodification.

2) Using positive reinforcement whenever possible and sparingly usingpunishment: Positive reinforcements should be used more often andpunishments should be avoided and to be used only when absolutelynecessary.

3) Certain minor behaviours that are undesirable could be ignored: Certainbehaviours that do not have major repercussions or negative consequencescould be ignored. This again will depend on the judgement of the manager/supervisor.

4) Shaping can be adequately used: Systematic and gradual positivereinforcement can be used effectively to reinforce desirable behaviour.

5) The time between the correct response or behaviour and thereinforcement should be minimal: This is especially important as theemployee will then associate the reinforcement with the behaviour and onlythen the likelihood of desirable behaviour being repeated and undesirablebehaviour being avoided will increase. For example, if an employee achieveda target given to him in given time, then he/ she should be immediatelyrewarded.

6) Reinforcement should be frequently provided: This is also to be done toavoid extinction of behaviours besides to encourage desirable behavioursand discourage undesirable behaviours.

Role of Manager in application of OBM

The role of the manager and is extremely important in this context and besidesabove there certain other guidelines are to be followed by them (Furnham, 2005),these are discussed as follows:

1) All the employees should not be reinforced or rewarded in the same manner.In this regard there is no doubt that the manager has to be fair and just.However, the reinforcement or the reward should be linked to the individual

48


performance or based on some criteria also needs to be informed to theemployees before hand. Further, the reinforcement provided should alsomatch the behaviour or the performance output.

2) The employees need to know what is expected of them, only then they willbe motivated to work in that direction. They should have a fair idea aboutwhether quality, quantity or both is expected and how exactly they performwill be measured. There should be great transparency in this and further nodiscrimination should exist to ensure successful behavioural modification.

3) Besides informing the employees about what they are doing in a right manner,they also need to be informed of what they are doing wrong. For example, ifan employee is not using safety devices, he/ she needs to be informed that itis wrong. Such feedback will help in bringing about behavioural change.

4) As it is said, praise in public but criticise in a closed room. In same lines anyunwarranted behaviour preferably should be criticised or punished in absenceof others as otherwise there could be detrimental effects as the employeemay feel insulted and the necessary change will not be in the direction thatit was expected.

The managers/ supervisors need to be adequately trained to use the principlesand techniques of OBM in order for it to be effective. Besides the managers/supervisor as well as the employees and the management should have positiveattitude towards OBM and its application.

Criticisms of Organisational Behaviour Modification

Though to a greater extent organisational behaviour modification can beeffectively used to modify behaviour, it has also been criticised. Most often theprinciples of behaviour modifications can be applied to very controlled situation,however, when it comes to situations involving subtle interactions andperformances that are necessarily interdependent, it may not be possible to applybehaviour modification. This can be effectively used with workers or employeesat lower levels, but not mush evidence is available with regard to how it can beused successfully with higher level employees (Mckenna, 2012). OBM has alsobeen criticised due to ethical issues, as it mainly involves manipulation ofbehaviour or even punishment and in this context what is right or wrong dependson the manager or superior. This can also be misused by the managers and theymay abuse this power to control the behaviours of their subordinates. It is thusnecessary that the manipulation of the behaviour is done in a constructive andpositive manner.

Activity 10

A) Define Organisational Behaviour Modification.

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

49

Counselling and BehaviourModificationB) Discuss the role of managers in application of OBM.

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................

14.12 SUMMARY

To summarise, in the present unit we discussed about counselling and behaviourmodification.

Counselling can be described as interaction between two individuals, one of thethem is a counsellor who posses the necessary expertise and competence and theother is the individual, who is having certain issues and problems and needs helpin dealing with them. Counselling plays an important role in an organisationalset up in helping employees deal with various personal and work related issues.Availability of counselling services in an organisation can help deal withabsenteeism, stress and anxiety experienced by the employees, depression andpsychological issues faced by the employees, work place conflict, aggressionand so on. The performance and productivity of an employee can also be increasedwith the help of counselling. Though there are a number of challenges and issuesthat a counsellor may face in an industrial set up. The present unit covered thedefinition of counselling along with its functions and types. The differencebetween counselling and guidance and psychotherapy was also discussed. Further,various approaches to counselling were also dealt with. The unit also coveredthe stages in counselling and counselling skills essential to help the individuals.The ethical issues like autonomy, beneficence and non maleficence, informedconsent, confidentiality and privacy and justice, that are significant in counsellingset up were also discussed. The unit also described how counselling is effectivelyapplied in an organisational set up and the issues, challenges and trends in thiscontext.

In the next section of this unit, yet another significant topic of behaviourmodification was discussed. Behaviour Modification is mainly based on basedon learning theories and as such B. F. Skinner has made significant contributionsto this filed. Behaviour modifications follows the use of reinforcements inmodification of behaviour. It can be effectively used in an organisational set upto promote desirable behaviour and discourage undesirable behaviour. Forexample, safety related behaviours of the employees can be promoted andbehaviours that may affect the productivity and interfere or compromise theproduction or functioning of the organisation. In behaviour modification varioussignificant concepts along with the schedules of reinforcement, namely, fixedinterval, variable interval, fixed ratio and variable ratio were discussed. The stagesof behaviour modification were also discussed.

The unit also focused on the role of manager and the management is of extremeimportance in this context as they have to firmly believe in these practices and

50


also support in its effective implementation. Further, the need for adequateawareness (about counselling and behaviour modification) also needs to be createdamongst the employees, was also highlighted. The organisational behaviourmodification that mainly focuses on the application of behaviour modificationto an organisational set up was also discussed in the unit.

14.13 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS1) Define counselling and differentiate it from guidance and psychotherapy.

2) Describe various functions and types of counselling.

3) Explain various stages in counselling process.

4) Describe various approaches to counselling.

5) Discuss the ethical issues in counselling.

6) Discuss issues and challenges in counselling in organisational set up.

7) Explain behaviour modification.

8) Describe Organisational Behaviour Modification (OBM).

14.14 FURTHER READINGS

Farnham, Adrian (2005). The Psychology of behaviour at Work: the Individualin the Organization. East Sussex: Psychology Press.

McKenna, Eugene. (2012). Business Psychology and Organisational behaviour.New York: Psychology press page 631).

Morgan, C. T; King, R. A; Weisz, J.R and Schopler, J. (1996). New Delhi: TataMcGraw- Hill Publishing Company Limited.

Nelson-Jones, Richard (2012). Basic Counselling Skills: A Helper’s Manual.New Delhi: Sage

Neukurg, Ed. (2012). An Introduction to the Counselling profession. UnitedStates: Brooks/ Cole Cengage Learning.

Newstrom, J. W and Davis, K. (1997). Organizational Behaviour: HumanBehaviour at Work. New Delhi: Tata McGraw- Hill publishing company limited.

Perez, J. F. (165). Counselling: theory and Practice, Reading: Addison- Welleypage 15. Pepinsky, H. B and pepinsky, P. (1954). Counselling: theory and Practice.New York: The Ronald Press page 3.

Quick, J. C; Nelson, D. L and Khandelwal, P. (2013). Organisational behaviour.New Delhi: Cengage Learning.

Rao, S. Narayana. (2003). Counselling and Guidance. New Delhi: Tata McGrawHill.

Scott, D.A; Royal, C. W; Kissinger, D. B. ( 2015). Counsellor as Consultant.New Delhi: Sage.

Singh, Nirmal. ( 2003). Organisational behaviour: Concepts, theory and Practices.New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd.

51


Strajkovic, A. D and Lutherans, F. (1997). A Meta- Analysis of the Effects ofOrganisational behaviour Modification on Task Performance, 1975- 1995.Academy of Management Journal. 40. 1122-1149.

Thorndike, E.L. (1911). Provisional Laws of Acquired Behavior or Learning.Animal Intelligence. New York: The McMillian Company.

Gelso, Charles and Fretz, Bruce. (2001). Counselling Psychology: Practice, Issuesand Intervention. United States: Cengage Learning.

Nelson- Jones, Richard. ( 2015). Theory and Practice of Counselling andPsychotherapy. New Delhi: Sage.

Parsons, R. D and Zhang Naijian. (2014). Counselling Theory: Guiding ReflectivePractice. New Delhi: Sage

UNIT 14 COUNSELLING AND BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

Documents

Transcript of UNIT 14 COUNSELLING AND BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION