Tumulto de Aves contra Glaucidium brasilianum (caburé) e Athene cunicularia (coruja-buraqueira) -...
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Catalogação: [email protected]
C972t Cunha, Filipe Cristovão Ribeiro da. Tumulto de aves contra Glaucidum brasilianum (caburé) e Athene
cunicularia (coruja-buraqueira) [manuscrito] / Filipe Cristovão Ribeiro da Cunha. - 2012.
113f.: il. color.; grafs.; tabs.; mapas.
Orientador: Prof. Dr. Julio Cesar Rodrigues Fontenelle.
Dissertação (Mestrado) - Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto. Instituto de Ciências Exatas e Biológicas. Departamento de Biodiversidade, Evolução e Meio Ambiente. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia de Biomas Tropicais. Área de concentração: Ecologia.
1. Animais - Comportamento agressivo - Mobbing - Teses. 2. Etologia - Teses. 3. Comportamento antipredatório - Teses. 4. Ornitologia - Teses. I. Fontenelle, Júlio César Rodrigues. II. Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto. II. Título.
CDU: 591.5:598.279.25
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!"#$%&'&(&$%&'()!*+,-.&'/)!01%1!2.3.41&&
)*+,-./0-&1*&23435.0&*4&!6*-&70&8/9-,5:&349&/*6,-;0&3-9710&9&<59.9=0/49&>,?,96*-& Filipe Cristovão Ribeiro da Cunha1, & Julio Cesar Rodrigues Fontenelle2
1 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia de Biomas Tropicais Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, campus Bauxita, 35400-000, Ouro Preto, MG. [email protected] 2 Laboratório de Meio Ambiente Instituto Federal de Minas Gerais, campus Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, MG. Resumo - Registros de Tumulto em Aves no Brasil: uma revisão usando a plataforma Wikiaves Tumulto é um tipo de comportamento antipredatórios, no qual a potencial presa se exibe e/ou enfrenta o potencial predador detectado. As aves reconhecidamente são um dos grupos no qual esse comportamento se faz mais notório. Apesar de muito difundido, o tumulto é pouco estudado, principalmente na região Neotropical, onde os estudos existentes até os dias atuais se limitam a observações anedóticas de eventos de tumulto. Dessa forma, aproveitou-se o extenso banco de dados do site www.wikiaves.com.br, e fizemos uma compilação dos registros fotográficos que capturaram eventos de tumulto, apresentando novas oportunidades para as pesquisas na era digital, bem como novos registros do comportamento para o país. Apresentamos os primeiros registros de tumulto de aves contra lagartos e serpentes, bem como, uma compilação dos potenciais predadores que são tumultuados por aves brasileiras. Palavras-Chave: Wikiaves, Tumulto, Aves, Predador, Presa INTRODUÇÃO Tumulto ou mobbing, é um típico comportamento antipredatório exibido por vários animais quando identificam um potencial predador (Altamann 1956). Esse comportamento é amplamente difundido nas aves (Altmann 1956, Shedd 1982, Chandler & Rose 1988, Proudfoot et al. 2002, Reudink et al. 2007). No clado Aves, esse comportamento é muito evidente, sendo comum registros de eventos de enfrentamento a um ou mais predadores. Tumulto pode ser executado por um ou mais indivíduos de uma ou mais espécie envolvendo manifestações sonoras e/ou visuais (Altmann 1956, Curio et al. 1983, Caro 2005), com o objetivo primordial de evitar a predação afastando o predador (Curio 1988, Arnold 2000, Deppe et al. 2003, Betts et al. 2005, Ellis 2009, Griesser 2009), além de outras funções descritas para esse comportamento como defesa do ninho/prole (Ghalambor & Martin 2002, Krams et al. 2008), ou aumentar o fitness reprodutivo (Arnold 2000, Clode et al. 2000). Tal comportamento parece ter surgido independentemente em vários táxons ao longo do processo evolutivo, não apresentando nenhuma relação taxonômica (Altmann 1956). Contudo, o comportamento de tumulto representa uma exposição do tumultuador a um risco de predação (Curio & Regelmann 1986, Sordahl 1990, Motta-Junior 2007), em especial quando o mesmo encontra-se de fronte ao seu potencial predador. As aves parecem ser capazes de
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identificar seus predadores, sendo os eventos de tumulto direcionados a reais predadores de aves (Miller 1952, McPherson & Brown 1981, Caro 2005, Amo et al. 2008, Amo et al. 2011, Motta-Junior & Santos-Filho 2012). No entanto, pesquisadores ainda debatem sobre a origem dessa habilidade, se é inata ou aprendida (Vieth et al. 1980), ou, ainda, se mesmo que inata, necessite de experiências prévias para que esse comportamento seja desencadeado (Altmann 1956, Griesser & Ekman 2005). O tumulto ainda é um comportamento relativamente pouco estudado e, como vários temas da etologia, apresenta lacunas em seu conhecimento. Isso ocorre principalmente na região Neotropical, onde atualmente poucos autores se dedicaram ao estudo de tal comportamento em aves. As primeiras publicações sobre o tema abordavam descrições dos eventos de tumulto relatando os personagens (potencial predador e tumultuadores) envolvidos. Apesar de existirem alguns relatos, ainda é necessário um maior volume de observações desse comportamento para melhor compreendê-lo. Os observadores de aves ou birdwatchers são uma excelente fonte de registros. E foi essa fonte que usamos no presente trabalho. O Brasil ainda carece de informações de história natural referentes ao tumulto. São raros os trabalhos que tratam do tema no país (Ruschi 1960, Motta-Junior 2007, Cunha & Vasconcelos 2009, Cunha et al. 2010). Não só no Brasil mas no restante da região Neotropical estes estudos também são raros (Reudink et al. 2007, Ellis 2009). O Wikiaves é uma plataforma digital criada em 2008, na qual observadores de aves, guias de birdwatching, ornitólogos, ornitófilos e pesquisadores podem compartilhar seus registros, adicionando fotos e/ou sons, criando um banco de dados sobre as aves brasileiras. Existem registros de todo território nacional e, apesar de certo amadorismo e até a baixa qualidade de algumas imagens e gravações, o Wikiaves tem um importante papel de reunir informações sobre aves brasileiras, contemplando não apenas registros comportamentais, mas, também, dados biogeográficos, migratórios, reprodutivos e informações sobre a história natural das espécies de aves brasileiras. Esse trabalho tem por objetivo apresentar os registros de tumulto presentes na base de dados Wikiaves.com.br, verificando que informações são adicionadas ao conhecimento do comportamento de tumulto para o Neotrópico, listando os tumultuadores e predadores tumultuados. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS Utilizando a base de dados on line do Wikiaves (http://www.wikiaves.com.br/) fizemos um levantamento dos eventos de tumulto registrados por usuários da plataforma. Para isso utilizamos os registros presentes no Wikiaves de janeiro de 2008 até 04 de janeiro de 2012. O website oferece em seu sistema de busca avançada uma série de filtros. Para essa pesquisa, utilizamos apenas os registros fotográficos que se enquadravam nos seguintes filtros de comportamento: “brigando”, “cuidando/defendendo ninho”; “voando”, “vocalizando”, “outra ação” e “sem ação”. Isso porque entende-se que dentro desses comportamentos podem ter sido incluídos eventos de tumulto, uma vez que não existe a opção “tumulto” para o comportamento executado pela(s) ave(s) fotografada(s). Consideramos apenas registros feitos no Brasil.
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Selecionamos apenas as fotografias nas quais era possível confirmar a identificação feita pelo autor da foto referente ao predador e/ou a presa, e que fossem notórios os personagens “tumultuador(es)” e “potencial predador”, além do evento de tumulto. As imagens que claramente se referiam ao mesmo evento foram contabilizadas apenas uma vez. Foram considerados o mesmo evento, caso as fotos tivessem sido realizadas na mesma localidade, na mesma data e pelo mesmo autor, além dos ambientes ao fundo da imagem serem idênticos (em casos nos quais o mesmo evento fora captado por diferentes autores). Os eventos de tumulto ainda foram separados em grupos de acordo com a Ordem do potencial predador. RESULTADOS Foram analisadas 321.996 fotos e em apenas 62 destas haviam eventos claros de tumulto seguindo os critérios previamente estabelecidos (Tabela 1). A maioria dos registros foi feita na região Sudeste (Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, n=38). Os demais registros foram feitos na região Sul (Paraná, Santa Catarina e Rio Grande do Sul, n=15), Norte (Amapá e Amazonas, n=3), Nordeste (Bahia e Ceará, n=3) e Centro-Oeste (Mato Grosso, n=1) do Brasil.
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Tabela 1. Registros de Tumulto no Wikiaves.
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Legenda: qntde. – Número de indivíduos; n.i – Não identificável na fotografia, ou não passíviel de confirmação da identificação.; AM –Amazonas; BA – Bahia; CE – Ceará; GO – Goiás; MG – Minas Gerais; MT – Mato Grosso; PR- Paraná; RJ – Rio de Janeiro; SC – Santa Catarina; SP- São Paulo; RS – Rio Grande do Sul.
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Predador – Tumultuado Ao todo, 22 predadores distintos foram identificados por meio dos registros de tumulto, sendo 19 aves, um mamífero e dois répteis. Em todos os eventos apenas um indivíduo do predador estava visivelmente presente no registro fotográfico. Apenas em um registro não foi possível confirmar a identificação do predador, contudo percebe-se pela silhueta que trata-se de um rapinante. Dos 62 registros de tumulto, 16 deles tiveram como predador tumultuado o gavião-carrapateiro (Milvago chimachima) (25,8%). Entre os predadores mais comuns nos registros, além do gavião-carrapateiro, encontra-se o caracará (Caracara plancus) (presente em oito registros) (12,9%) e o gavião-carijó (Rupornis magnirostris) (presente em sete registros) (11,2%). Já o caburé está presente apenas em cinco imagens (8%). No presente estudo, encontrou-se também potenciais predadores que nunca se observara antes como objeto de tumulto de aves: o lagarto teiú (Tupinambis sp.). e a jibóia (Boa constrictor). Outro predador que não pertence ao clado Aves teve um registro de tumulto: o mico (Callithrix sp.) (Callitrichidae). Contudo, sabe-se que esses primatas alimentam-se de aves e o próprio autor Cunha, F.C.R. já presenciou eventos de tumulto direcionados a esse gênero de primatas. Tumultuadores Todos os tumultuadores pertecem ao clado Aves e em sua maioria pertencem a ordem Passeriformes (41 eventos de tumulto). Contudo, existem registros de tumultuadores das ordens Apodiformes, Psittaciformes, Cuculiformes, Falconiformes, Charadriiformes e Gruiformes. A espécie tumultuadora mais frequente foi a tesourinha (Tyrannus savana), presente em 17 eventos. Um dos registros apresenta evento singular onde é possível observar um bando de 15 indivíduos de periquito-do-encontro-amarelo (Brotogeris chiriri) realizando tumulto contra um indivíduo de gavião-carrapateiro. Foram registradas 15 diferentes espécies de tumultuadores. Predadores x Tumultuadores O encontro mais comum nos registros foi entre gavião-carrapateiro sendo tumultuado por sabiá-do-campo (Mimus saturninus), eventos de tumulto envolvendo com essas espécies foram registrados em seis imagens (9,6%). Tipo de Comportamento Os autores das fotos, ao inseri-las na plataforma Wikiaves, selecionam um comportamento principal que os indivíduos fotografados estão exibindo no momento da imagem. Com base na análise dos registros o comportamento mais selecionado para ilustrar o tumulto foi “brigando” selecionado em 55 dos registros (Fig. 1). Os comportamentos “voando” e “outra ação” foram selecionados em duas imagens, e três registros estão inseridos como comportamento principal “sem ação”.
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!Figura 1. Gráfico do número de registros por comportamento selecionado pelo usuário do Wikiaves. DISCUSSÃO A busca por registros de tumulto na plataforma do Wikiaves permitiu encontrar casos novos desse comportamento para o Brasil, como tumulto contra lagartos (Pim 2011) e serpentes (Quenó 2012). Não haviam sido registrados tumultos de aves contra esses predadores no país. Contudo, alguns autores já registraram tumulto contra lagartos (Salmon 1976, Kaplan et al. 2009) e serpentes (Curio 1975, Blem 1979, Buskirk 1981, Matheus et al. 1996, Naguib et al. 1999, Maklakov 2002, Mercado et al. 2002), fora do Brasil. Alguns autores registraram aves como sendo item da dieta de teiú (Tubinambis sp.) (Williams et al. 1993, Kiefer & Sazima 2002) e da jibóia Boa constrictor (Henderson 1993, Bernarde & Abe 2010, Begotti & Marcos-Filho 2012), confirmando esses dois animais como ao menos parcialmente ornitófagos. Esses uns dos poucos registros de tumulto contra répteis para o Brasil. A maioria dos tumultos foram direcionados para aves predadoras. Em estudos e registros de tumulto pouco se aborda a ótica do predador, sendo mais comum abordagens sob o ponto de vista dos tumultuadores. Ainda são raros os estudos de dieta em aves para delimitar quais desses potenciais predadores são mais ornitófagos. Dentre estas as que possuem registros como predadoras de aves são: M. chimachima (Moojen et al. 1941), caracará (Vargas et al. 2007), M. chimango (Biondi et al. 2005), R. magnirostris (Santos & Rosado 2009), E. forficatus (Azevedo & Di-Bernarno 2005). F. sparverius (Cruz 1976, Cabral et al. 2006, Zilio 2006), C. cristatellus (Lopes et al. 2005), P. castanotis, P. aracari, R. toco, R. vitellinus, C. buffoni (Bó et al. 1996), G. brasilianum (Miranda & Faria 2001). Em espécies como R. sociabilis não se tem registro da aves em sua dieta, sendo constituída praticamente por gastrópodes (Magalhães 1990, Santos et al. 2007). O “formato geral” de Falconiformes/Accipitriformes pode, neste caso, estar induzindo algumas aves a exibir tumulto. O maior número de registros de tumulto se deram contra gavião-carrapateiro, gavião carijó e caracará. Estes três rapinantes são espécies presentes em todo o país, de hábito generalista e de fácil observação, fatores estes que contribuíram para que os predadores fossem os mais comuns
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nas imagens. Contudo, predadores que tipicamente são associados ao comportamento de tumulto e reconhecidamente são ornitófagos como o caburé (Ruschi 1960, Motta-Junior 2007, Cunha & Vasconcelos 2009, Cunha et al. 2010) não são tão comuns nos registros analisados. Outros predadores de aves como o mico (C. penicillata) (Miranda & Faria 2001) também tiveram eventos de tumulto registrados na plataforma Wikiaves. Tumulto de aves contra o mico (C. penicillata), já é um comportamento conhecido na natureza (Alexandrino et al. 2012, Cunha obs. pess.). Apesar das 15 diferentes espécies de tumultuadores, raros são os registros demonstram mais de um indivíduo realizando o tumulto. Ora por não ter sido registrado na fotografia, ora pelo tumulto ter sido realizado por uma única espécie. Isso reforça o fato de que esse comportamento pode ser executado por um único indivíduo (Altmann 1956, Shields 1984, Bildstein 1982; Shedd 1982). Existe uma notável diferença no número de registros por região geográfica do Brasil. O fato desses registros apresentarem essa diferença regional é um reflexo do número de usuários do Wikiaves serem maiores na região sudeste e sul do Brasil. As atividades de birdwatching também estão mais disseminadas nessas regiões do país, bem como o turismo de observação de aves. O alto número de usuários reflete em um grande fluxo de informação da plataforma, alguns detalhes fugindo do controle dos moderadores do Wikiaves. Existem algumas identificações de espécies errôneas e imagens de baixa qualidade, que impedem seu uso em futuras pesquisas. Para que o Wikiaves torne-se cada dia mais uma importante ferramenta não apenas de consulta, mas uma fonte de informação científica, critérios mais detalhados devem ser adotados para filtrar as publicações dos usuários. Registros de aves realizando comportamentos tem aumentado com a criação de plataformas como o wikiaves. A contribuição de amadores à ornitologia é notória. Porém, para que seja mais completa e possa contribuir com a ciência, sugerimos que seja incluído no wikiaves opções mais específicas de comportamentos, com suas definições, para determinar mais claramente o comportamento que a ave fotografada executava no momento do registro. A opção de tumulto deve ser inserida para permitir um registro mais fiel deste comportamento, bem como para facilitar que os usuários do website identifiquem tal comportamento, ampliando seus registros. AGRADECIMENTOS Somos gratos à UFOP pela bolsa de pós-graduação cedida ao FCRC, e também ao Gustav Specht e ao José Carlos Motta-Junior pelas valiosas sugestões e contribuições a esse trabalho. Agrademos Marcelo F. Vasconcelos e ao Cristiano Schetini de Azevedo pelas correções e contribuições ao manuscrito. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS Alexandrino, E.R., D.T.A. Luz, E.V. Maggiorini & K.M.P.M.B. Ferraz (2012) Nest stolen: the first observation of nest predation by an invasive exotic marmoset (Callithrix penicillata) in an agricultural mosaic. Biota Neotropical 12: 211–215.
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Almeida, H. (2010) [WA265297, Milvago chimachima (Vieillot, 1816)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/265297> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Altmann, S.A. (1956) Avian mobbing behavior and predator recognition. Condor 58: 241–253. Amo, L., I. Galván, G. Tomás & J.J. Sanz. (2008) Predator odour recognition and voidance in a songbird. Function Ecology 22: 289–293. Amo, L., M.E. Visser & K. van Oers (2011) Smelling out predators is innate in birds. Ardea 99:!177–184. Andrade, F.P. (2010) [WA189946, Glaucidium brasilianum (Gmelin, 1788)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/189946> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Andrade, P.F. (2010) [WA227267, Tyrannus savana Vieillot, 1808]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/227267> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Angelo, I. (2010) [WA125237, Leucochloris albicollis (Vieillot, 1818)] Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: < http://www.wikiaves.com.br/125237> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Arnold, K.E. (2000) Group mobbing behavior and nest defence in a cooperatively breeding Australian bird. Ethology 106: 385–393. Avelino, E. (2009) [WA126257, Vanellus chilensis (Molina, 1782)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/126257> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Azevedo, M.A.G. & M. Di-Bernardo (2005) História natural e conservação do gavião-tesoura, Elanoides forficatus, na Ilha de Santa Catarina, sul do Brasil. Ararajuba 13: 81–88. Backes, H. (2011) [WA437018, Caracara plancus (Miller, 1777)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/437018> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Begotti, R.A. & Marcos-Filho, A. (2012) Fatal attack on an adult Chestnut-fronted Macaw Ara severus by a Boa constrictor in the Brazilian Amazon. Cotinga 34: 106-107. Bernarde, P.S. & A.S. Abe (2010) Hábitos alimentares de serpentes em Espigão do Oeste, Rondônia, Brasil. Biota Neotropica 10: 167–173.
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Bessa, R. (2010) [WA282796, Cariama cristata (Linnaeus, 1766)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/282796> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Betts, M.G., S.H. Adam & J.D. Patrick (2005) Avian mobbing response is restricted by territory boundaries: experimental evidence from two species of forest warblers. Ethology 111: 821–835. Blem, C.R. (1979) Predation of Black Rat Snakes on a Bank Swallow colony. Wilson Bulletin 91: 135–137. Bó, M.S., S.M. Cicchino & M.M. Martínez (1996) Diet of long-winged harrier (Circus buffonii) Buenos Aires province, Argentina. Journal of Raptor Research 30: 237–239. Biondi, L.M., M.S. Bó & M. Favero (2005) Dieta del Chimango (Milvago chimango) durante el periodo reproductivo en el sudeste de la provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina. Ornitología Neotropical 16: 31–42. Boso, M. (2010) [WA250170, Milvago chimango (Vieillot, 1816)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/250170> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Briso, A.L. (2011) [WA498027, Milvago chimachima (Vieillot, 1816)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/498027> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012 Buskirk, W.H. (1981) Ochraceous Wren fails to respond to mobbing calls in an heterospecific flock. Wilson Bulletin 93: 279–280. Cabral, J.C., M.A.M. Granzinolli & J.C. Motta-Junior (2006) Dieta do quiriquiri, Falco sparverius (Aves: Falconiformes), na Estação Ecológica de Itirapina, SP. Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia 14: 393–399. Caro, T. (2005) Antipredator defenses in birds and mammals. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Carneiro, C.H. (2010) [WA518231, Caracara plancus (Miller, 1777)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: < http://www.wikiaves.com.br/518231> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Carvalho, M.C. (2011) [WA393383, Cacicus haemorrhous (Linnaeus, 1766)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/393383> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012.
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Chandler, C.R. & R.K. Rose (1988) Comparative analysis of the effects of visual and auditory stimuli on avian behavior. Journal of Field Ornithology 59: 269–277. Clode, D., J.D.S. Birks & D.W. Macdonald (2000) The influence of risk and vulnerability on predator mobbing by terns (Sterna spp.) and gulls (Larus spp.). Journal of Zoology, London 252: 53–59. Colombi, F. (2010) [WA242329, Mimus saturninus (Lichtenstein, 1823)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/242329> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Corrêa, J.C. (2010) [WA208398, Pitangus sulphuratus (Linnaeus, 1766)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/208398> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Covolan, C. (2011). [WA498212, Tyrannus savana Vieillot, 1808]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/498212> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Cruz, A. (1976) Food and foraging ecology of the American Kestrel in Jamaica. Condor 78: 409–412. Cunha, F.C.R., M.F. Vasconcelos & G.V.A. Specht (2010) Alerta vermelho! Caburé na área!. Ciência Hoje 43: 26–29. Cunha, F.C.R. & M.F. Vasconcelos (2009) Aves que são atraídas pela vocalização do caburé Glaucidium brasilianum (Strigidae). Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia 17: 144–149. Cunha, L.M. (2010) [WA226749, Tyrannus savana Vieillot, 1808]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/226749> Acesso em: 06 Ago 2012. Curio, E. (1975) The functional organization of antipredator behavior in the Pied Flycatcher. A study of avian visual perception. Animal Behaviour 23: l–115. Curio, E. & Regelmann, K. (1986) Predator harassment implies a real deadly risk: a reply to Hennessy. Ethology 72:75–78. Curio, E., G. Klump, & K. Regelmann. (1983) An anti-predator response in the great tit (Parus major): Is it tuned to predator risk ? Oecologia 60: 83–88.
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Daffonseca, J.A. (2010) [WA148869, Falco deiroleucus Temminck, 1825]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/148869> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Dal´Osto, E. (2011) [WA498051, Mimus saturninus (Lichtenstein, 1823)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/498051> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Damasceno, V.P. (2011) [WA507304, Xolmis irupero (Vieillot, 1823)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/507304> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Dario, M.A. (2011) [WA414371, Milvago chimachima (Vieillot, 1816)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/414371> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Deppe, C., H. Denver, J. Tewksbury, L. Broberg, J. Petersen & K. Wood. (2003) Effect of northern pygmy-owl (Glaucidium gnoma) eyespots on avian mobbing. The Auk 120: 765–771. Dultra, M. V. (2011) [WA500226, Glaucidium brasilianum (Gmelin, 1788)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/500226> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Ellis, J.M.S. (2009) Anti-Predator Signals as Advertisements: Evidence in White-Throated Magpie-Jays. Ethology 115: 522–532. Eiterer, M. (2010) [WA229827, Pteroglossus aracari (Linnaeus, 1758)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/229827> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Ferreira, M. (2010) [WA218360, Caracara plancus (Miller, 1777)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/218360> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Ferreira, M. 2010. [WA221789, Turdus leucomelas Vieillot, 1818]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/221789> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Figueiredo, N.S. (2011) [WA504657, Tyrannus savana Vieillot, 1808]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/504657> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012.
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Filho, L.G. (2011) [WA279225, Anhinga anhinga (Linnaeus, 1766)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/279225> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Filho, L.G. (2011) [WA279227, Anhinga anhinga (Linnaeus, 1766)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/279227> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Freitas, M.L. (2011) [WA315023, Milvago chimachima (Vieillot, 1816)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/315023> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Freitas, J.A. (2011) [WA532197, Pteroglossus castanotis Gould, 1834]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/532197> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Ghalambor, C.K. & T.E. Martin (2002) Comparative manipulation of predation risk in incubating birds reveals variability in the plasticity of responses. Behavioral Ecology 13: 101–108. Griesser, M. (2009) Mobbing calls signal predator category in a kin group-living bird species. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 276: 2887–2892. Griesser , M. & J. Ekman (2005) Nepotistic mobbing behaviour in the Siberian jay, Perisoreus infaustus. Animal Behaviour 69: 345–352. Grupilo, C.E. (2011) [WA513484, Rostrhamus sociabilis (Vieillot, 1817)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/513484> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Guedes, M.A. (2010) [WA259761, Tyrannus melancholicus Vieillot, 1819]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/259761> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Guerra, P.E. (2010) [WA224931, Rupornis magnirostris (Gmelin, 1788)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/224931> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Henderson, R.W. (1993) On the diets of some arboreal boids. Herpetological Natural History 1: 91–96. Kallen, F.V. (2011) [WA536627, Circus buffoni (Gmelin, 1788)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/536627> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012.
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Kaplan, G., G. Johnson, A. Koboroff & L.J. Rogers (2009) Alarm calls of the Australian Magpie (Gymnorhina tibicen): predators elicit complex vocal responses and mobbing behaviour. The Open Ornithology Journal 2: 7–16. Kaseker, E.P. (2009) [WA84171, Tyrannus savana Vieillot, 1808]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/84171> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Kaseker, E.P. (2010) [WA252351, Legatus leucophaius (Vieillot, 1818)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/252351> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Kiefer, M.C. & I. Sazima (2002) Diet of juvenile tegu lizard Tupinambis merianae (Teiidae), in southeastern Brazil. Amphibia-Reptilia 23: 105–108. Krams, I., K. Tatjana, I. Kristine & R. Mänd (2008) Experimental evidence of reciprocal altruism in the pied flycatcher. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 62: 599–605. Lima, B. (2010) [WA255376, Brotogeris chiriri (Vieillot, 1818)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/255376> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Lima Jr., A. (2011) [WA292122, Milvago chimachima (Vieillot, 1816)] Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <!http://www.wikiaves.com.br/292122> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Lima, N.K. (2011) [WA371785, Rupornis magnirostris (Gmelin, 1788)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/371785> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Lobo, D. (2010) [WA476990, Rupornis magnirostris (Gmelin, 1788)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/476990> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Lopes, L.E., A.M. Fernandes & M.Â. Marini (2005) Predation on vertebrates by Neotropical passerine birds. Lundiana 6: 57–66. Magalhães, C.A. (1990) Hábitos alimentares e estratégia de forrageamento de Rostrhamus sociabilis, no Pantanal de Mato Grosso, Brasil. Ararajuba 1: 95–98. Maklakov, A.A. (2002) Snake-directed mobbing in a cooperative breeder: anti-predator behaviour or self-advertisement for the formation of dispersal coalitions? Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 52: 372–378.
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Manfredini, F.N. (2010) [WA240504, Milvago chimachima (Vieillot, 1816)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/240504> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Manfredini, F.N. (2011) [WA307442, Rostrhamus sociabilis (Vieillot, 1817)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/307442> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Matheus, J.C., U. Wittmann, O. Jahn, M. Leutfeld, & K-L. Schuchmann (1996) Reactions of birds to nestling predation by a snake. Ornitología Neotropical 7: 163–164. McPherson, R.J. & R.D. Brown (1981) Mobbing responses of some passerines to the calls and location of the Screech Owl. Journal of Raptor Research 15: 23–30. Mercado J.E., E. Terranova, & J.M. Wunderle Jr. (2002) Avian Mobbing of the Puerto Rican Boa (Epicrates inornatus). Caribbean Journal of Science 38: 125–126. Miller, L. (1952) Auditory recognition of predators. Condor 54: 89–92. Miranda, G.H.B. de & D.S. de Faria (2001) Ecological aspects of black-pincelled marmoset (Callithrix penicillata) in the cerradão and dense cerrado of the Brazilian Central Plateau. Brazilian Journal of Biology 61: 397–404. Monferrari, L.V. (2010) [WA241580, Rupornis magnirostris (Gmelin, 1788)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/241580> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Moojen, J., J.C. Carvalho, & H.S. Lopes (1941). Observações sobre o conteúdo gastrico das aves brasileiras. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 36: 405–444. Motta-Jr., J.C. (2007) Ferruginous Pygmy-owl (Glaucidium brasilianum) predation on a mobbing Fork-tailed Flycatcher (Tyrannus savana) in south-east Brazil. Biota Neotropica 7: 2. Motta-Junior, J.C. & Santos-Filho, P.S. (2012) Mobbing on the Striped Owl (Asio clamator) and Barn OwL (Tyto alba) by birds in southeast Brazil: do owl diets influence mobbing? Ornitología Neotropical 23: 159-168. Naguib, M., R. Mundry, R. Ostreiher, H. Hultsch, L. Schrader & D. Todt (1999) Cooperatively breeding Arabian babblers call differently when mobbing in different predator-induced situations. Behavioral Ecology 10: 636–640. Okada, K. (2011) [WA488243, Milvago chimachima (Vieillot, 1816)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia
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das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <!http://www.wikiaves.com.br/488243> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Oliveira, E.L. (2011) [WA311304, Milvago chimachima (Vieillot, 1816)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/311304> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Otaviano, J.S. (2009) [WA98636, Glaucidium brasilianum (Gmelin, 1788)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/98636> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Pim, F. (2011) [WA528183, Crotophaga ani Linnaeus, 1758]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/528183> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Prado, T.A. (2010) [WA207646, Tachycineta leucorrhoa (Vieillot, 1817)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/207646> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Proudfoot, G.A., L.S. Beasom, F. Chavez-Ramirez, & J.L. Mays (2002) Response distance of Ferruginous Pygmy-Owls to broadcasted conspecific calls. Journal of Raptor Research 36: 170–175. Quéno, L. (2012) [WA535681, Furnarius rufus (Gmelin, 1788)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/535681> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Ramos, D.A. (2011) [WA454177, Milvago chimachima (Vieillot, 1816)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/454177> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Reudink, M.W., J.J. Nocera & R.L. Curry (2007) Anti-predator responses of Neotropical resident and migrant birds to familiar and unfamiliar owl vocalizations on the Yucatan peninsula. Ornitología Neotropical 18:543–552. Ribenboim, L.C. (2008) [WA117154, Glaucidium brasilianum (Gmelin, 1788)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/117154> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Rodrigues, N. (2010)! [WA239013, Milvago chimachima (Vieillot, 1816)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <! http://www.wikiaves.com.br/239013> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012.
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Ruschi, A. (1960) Métodos de capturar e transportar pássaros vivos à longas e curtas distâncias e alguns tipos de gaiolas e viveiros para mantê-los em condições de reprodução em cativeiro. Boletim do Museu de Biologia Mello Leitão 2: 1–32. Salles, G.M. (2011) [WA510394, Rostrhamus sociabilis (Vieillot, 1817)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/510394> Acesso em: 06 Ago 2012. Salmon, L. (1976) Dusky-capped Flycatchers. Gosse Bird Club Broadsheet 27:16–17. Santos, R.A.S., B.G.Ç. Pita, P.O. Máximo & D. Mucugê (2007) Hábitos alimentares e estratégia de forrageamento do gavião caramujeiro Rostrhamus sociabilis (Vieillot, 1817), em Arembepe, Bahia-Brasil. Anais VIII Congresso de Ecologia do Brasil. Santos, W.M. & F.R. Rosado (2009) Dados preliminares da biologia do Gavião-carijó (Rupornis magnirostris, Gmelin, 1788) na Região noroeste do Paraná. Revista em Agronegócio e Meio Ambiente 2: 421–430. Schmidt, E.D. (2011) [WA512177, Buteo brachyurus Vieillot, 1816]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/512177> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Shedd, D.H. (1982) Seasonal variation and function of mobbing and related antipredator behaviors of the American robin (Turdus migratorius). The Auk 99: 342–346. Silva, C.A. (2010) [WA188313, Heterospizias meridionalis (Latham, 1790)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/188313> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Silva, C.A. (2010) [WA217253, Milvago chimachima (Vieillot, 1816)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/217253> Acesso em: 06 Ago 2012. Silva, M.D. (2008) [WA474834, Elanoides forficatus (Linnaeus, 1758)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/474834> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Silva, M.D. (2011) [WA380089, Sterna hirundinacea Lesson, 1831]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/380089> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012.
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Slompo, O. (2011) [WA499510, Milvago chimachima (Vieillot, 1816)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/499510> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Sordahl, T.A. (1990) The risks of avian mobbing and distraction behavior: an anecdotal review. Wilson Bulletin 102(2):349-352 Sousa, C.R. (2010) [WA159096, Ramphastos toco Statius Muller, 1776]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/159096> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Souza, A.C.( 2011) [WA439420, Falco sparverius Linnaeus, 1758]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/439420> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Taparo, P. ]C. (2010). [WA247534, Cariama cristata (Linnaeus, 1766)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/247534> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Teixeira, L.D. (2010) [WA173535, Rupornis magnirostris (Gmelin, 1788)]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/173535> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Vargas, R.J., M.S. Bó, M. Favero & J.L. Morrison (2007) Diet of the southern Caracara (Caracara plancus) in Mar Chiquita Reserve, southern Argentina. Journal of Raptor Research 41: 113–121. Vieira, B.P. (2011) [WA508251, Tyrannus savana Vieillot, 1808]. Wiki Aves - A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.wikiaves.com/508251> Acesso em: 04 Jan 2012. Vieth, W., E. Curio & U. Ernst (1980) The adaptive significance of avian mobbing. III. Cultural transmission of enemy recognition in blackbirds: cross-species tutoring and poperties of learnig. Animal Behaviour 28: 1217–1229. Williams, J.D., O.E. Donadio & I. Ré (1993) Notas relativas a la dieta de Tupinambis rufescens (Reptilia: Sauria) del noroeste argentino. Neotropica 39: 45–51. Zilio, F. (2006. Dieta de Falco sparverius (Aves:Falconidae) e Athene cunicularia (Aves: Strigidae) em uma região de dunas no sul do Brasil. Revista Brasleira de Ornitologia 14: 379–392. !
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Foto 1. Glaucidium brasilianum (caburé), taxidermizado em posição natural.
Foto 2. Fêmea de Lanio pileatus (tico-tico-rei-cinza), tumultuando o modelo de Glaucidium brasilianum.
Foto 3. Macho de Euphonia chlorotica (fim-fim) tumultuando o modelo de Glaucidium brasilianum.
Foto 4. Fêmea de Euphonia chlorotica (fim-fim) tumultuando o modelo de Glaucidium brasilianum.
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Foto 5. Aves aquáticas na Fazenda Cauaia. Observam-se oito Dendrocygna viduata (irerê) e dois Himantopus himantopus (pernilongo).
Foto 6. Um macho de Chlorostilbon lucidus (besourinho-de-bico-vermelho).
Foto 8. Ammodramus humeralis (tico-tico-do-campo).
Foto 9. Macho de Volatinia jacarina (tiziu).
Foto 10. Glaucidium brasilianum (caburé).
Foto 11. Modelo de Glaucidium brasilianum (caburé), durante os
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experimentos.
Foto 12. Athene cunicularia (coruja-buraqueira).
Foto 13. Modelo de Athene cunicularia (coruja-buraqueira), durante os experimentos.
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