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Travertine occurrences along major strike-slip faultzones: structural, depositional and geochemicalconstraints from the Eastern Anatolian Fault System(EAFS), TurkeySerap Çolak Erola, Mehmet Özkulb, Ercan Aksoyac, Sándor Kelede & Bassam Ghalebf

a Department of Geological Engineering, Fırat University, TR-23119 Elazığ, Turkeyb Department of Geological Engineering, Pamukkale University, TR-20070 Denizli, Turkeyc Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Bitlis Eren University, TR-13000 Bitlis, Turkeyd Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences,Institute for Geological and Geochemical Research, H-1112 Budapest, Budaörsi 45,Hungarye ETH Zürich, Sonneggstrasse 5, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland.f Geotop-Uqam-McGill, Université du Québec à Montréal, P.B. 8888, Succ. Centre-Ville,Montréal, QC H3C 3P8, CanadaPublished online: 09 Feb 2015.

To cite this article: Serap Çolak Erol, Mehmet Özkul, Ercan Aksoy, Sándor Kele & Bassam Ghaleb (2015): Travertineoccurrences along major strike-slip fault zones: structural, depositional and geochemical constraints from the EasternAnatolian Fault System (EAFS), Turkey, Geodinamica Acta, DOI: 10.1080/09853111.2014.979530

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09853111.2014.979530

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Travertine occurrences along major strike-slip fault zones: structural, depositional andgeochemical constraints from the Eastern Anatolian Fault System (EAFS), Turkey

Serap Çolak Erola, Mehmet Özkulb*, Ercan Aksoya,c, Sándor Keled,e and Bassam Ghalebf

aDepartment of Geological Engineering, Fırat University, TR-23119 Elazığ, Turkey; bDepartment of Geological Engineering,Pamukkale University, TR-20070 Denizli, Turkey; cFaculty of Engineering and Architecture, Bitlis Eren University, TR-13000 Bitlis,

Turkey; dHungarian Academy of Sciences, Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences, Institute for Geological andGeochemical Research, H-1112 Budapest, Budaörsi 45, Hungary; eETH Zürich, Sonneggstrasse 5, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland.;

fGeotop-Uqam-McGill, Université du Québec à Montréal, P.B. 8888, Succ. Centre-Ville, Montréal, QC H3C 3P8, Canada

(Received 12 February 2014; final version received 2 July 2014)

The Eastern Anatolian Fault System (EAFS) is a left-lateral strike-slip fault zone, 30 km wide and 700 km long, that isthe second most important neotectonic structure of Turkey. In this study, relationship between travertine precipitationand tectonic activity of some segments along this major strike-slip fault zone has been investigated by a multidisciplinaryresearch. Structural, sedimentological, geochemical and geochronological studies were conducted on several travertineoccurrences along the Karlıova-Bingöl segment (KBS) and the Adıyaman Fault Zone (AFZ) of the EAFS. The Baltaşıtravertine mass on the AFZ was cross-cut by many extensional fractures that were filled by calcite veins. Geochemicalanalyses of the calcite veins indicate that some are hydrothermal in origin, whereas others are non-hydrothermal. Hydro-thermal circulation in the crust was caused intermittently by the left-lateral strike-slip movements that have oblique- tonormal-slip components in both the (KBS) and the (BYS) segments. Our results suggest that, from at least 325 ka untilpresent, tectonic activity was consistently accompanied by travertine deposition. Based on dating of the travertine occur-rences in the valley of the Göynük Stream around Hacılar and Elmalı, it is concluded that the NE-trending KBS is cur-rently still active.

Keywords: Eastern Anatolian Fault System; strike-slip faulting; travertine; vein calcite; U-Th dating

1. Introduction

Spring carbonates such as travertine and tufa can providetectonic, climatic and environmental records. Conse-quently, in recent years there has been a significantincrease in the number of studies on these precipitates(e.g. Andrews, 2006; Hancock, Chalmers, Altunel, &Çakir, 1999; Jones & Renaut, 2010; Mesci, 2004, 2013;Özkul, Gökgöz, & Horvatinčić, 2010; Özkul et al., 2013,2014; Pedley, 2009; Uysal et al., 2007, 2009). Althoughthere is little consensus on the use of the terms travertineand tufa (Capezzuoli, Gandin, & Pedley, 2014; Jones &Renaut, 2010), tufa is herein considered to be a productof CaCO3 precipitation from cool (near ambient tempera-ture) water regimes that typically contain remains ofmicro- and macrophytes, invertebrates and bacteria. Incontrast, the term travertine is used for the spring car-bonates that form from hydrothermal waters (Ford &Pedley, 1996; Jones & Renaut, 2010; Kele et al., 2011).

In many studies, a close relationship has been estab-lished between travertine and tectonic activity in differ-ent extensional (e.g. normal faulting and fracturing) andtranstensional tectonic regimes (Altunel & Hancock,1993a, 1993b; Altunel & Karabacak, 2005; Brogi &Capezzuoli, 2009; Çakır, 1999; De Filippis et al., 2012;Faccenna et al., 2008; Hancock et al., 1999; Mesci,2013). Faults and fracture network in these settings play

an important role in the circulation and upwelling ofhydrothermal fluids (Alçiçek et al., 2013; Brogi, 2004;Brogi & Capezzuoli, 2009; Faccenna et al., 2008; Uysalet al., 2007).

Most studies on the travertine–tectonic relationshipare concentrated on extensional provinces (Altunel &Hancock, 1993a, 1993b; Altunel & Karabacak, 2005;Brogi & Capezzuoli, 2009; Brogi, Capezzuoli, Alçiçek,& Gandin, 2014; De Filippis et al., 2012; Hancocket al., 1999; Renaut et al., 2013; Selim & Yanik, 2009;Uysal et al., 2007; Van Noten et al., 2013) where traver-tines are deposited at the tip zone of fault segments, inextensional stepover zones between fault segments(Çakır, 1999), at the intersection point of normal andstrike-slip faults (Brogi, 2004; Brogi et al., 2012, 2014)or along normal faults (Mesci, Gürsoy, & Tatar, 2008).

With a few notable exceptions (Faccenna et al., 2008;Temiz, Gökten, & Eikenberg, 2013), studies on travertinesthat are located along (major) strike-slip fault zones arelimited. The Tivoli travertine, situated about 25 km eastof Rome, Central Italy (Chafetz & Folk, 1984), is one ofthe best examples related to strike-slip faulting (Faccennaet al., 2008). Travertine formation along the western sec-tor of the North Anatolian Fault System (NAFS), i.e. amajor right-lateral strike-slip fault system in Turkey,occurred on pressure ridges, releasing/restraining bends,

*Corresponding author. Email: mozkul@pau.edu.tr

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and around the intersections of different trending normalfaults that bound the western end of the Bolu Basin(Temiz et al., 2013).

In the northeastern part of the left-lateral EasternAnatolian Fault System (EAFS), i.e. between Karlıovaand Elazığ, travertine occurrences with different deposi-tional morphologies, are found along some of the left-lat-eral strike-slip fault segments. From the northeast to thesouthwest, these occurrences are the Hacılar and Elmalımasses that are developed on the Karlıova-Bingöl seg-ment (KBS) and the Baltaşı mass on Adıyaman FaultZone (AFZ) (Figure 1). It is thought that these traver-tines are quite important to interpret the tectonic evolu-tion of the EAFS during the Quaternary. However, untilnow such a research has not been carried out using ana-lytical data from the travertine bodies.

Therefore, this study investigates the relationshipbetween travertine formation and strike-slip deformationcompared to the extensional tectonics by using a multi-disciplinary approach that includes tectonics, depositionalarchitecture, geochemistry and U-series dating. Toachieve this aim, several travertine masses mentionedabove along the northeastern segments of the EAFS havebeen selected (Figure 1(a) and (b)).

2. Geological framework

Along the EAFS (Figure 1(a) and (b)) metamorphic,magmatic and various sedimentary rock units areexposed. This sucession began to form during the LateCretaceous when northward subduction of the ArabianPlate caused the closure of Tethys Ocean. The magmaticand sedimentary rocks of Palaeozoic to Mesozoic ageswere metamorphosed during this subduction period. TheBitlis Metamorphics are the most widespread metamor-phic rock unit in the region (Robertson et al., 2006;Yilmaz, Yiğitbaş, & Genç, 1993). Recrystallised lime-stone and marble, which are the dominant rocks of themassif, show brittle deformation and play a significantrole in the travertine formation. Also arc magmatics ofcalc-alkaline character, which developed during this sub-duction period (Parlak, 2006; Parlak & Rızaoğlu, 2004;Robertson, Ünlügenç, İnan, & Taslı, 2004; Robertsonet al., 2007; Yazgan & Chessex, 1991; Yılmaz et al.,1993), are exposed extensively along the EAFS.

On the otherhand, ophiolitic masses are emplaced onthe continental crust (Beyarslan & Bingöl, 2000; Parlak,Höck, Kozlu, & Delaloye, 2004; Parlak & Robertson,2004; Robertson, 2002, 2004; Yalınız, Floyd, &Göncüoğlu, 1996, 2000). Tertiary units deposited inback-arc basins are most common (Aksoy, Türkmen, &Turan, 2005; Aktaş & Robertson, 1984; Cronin et al.,2000; Özkul & Kerey, 1996; Yazgan, 1984). At the onsetof continent-continent collision in the late Miocene, vol-canic and continental sedimentary rocks developed andnow cover large areas of the Eastern Anatolian region(Akay, Erkan, & Ünay, 1989; Koçyiğit & Beyhan, 1998;Koçyiğit, Yılmaz, Adamia, & Kuloshvili, 2001). From

the late Pliocene onwards, strike-slip deformation initi-ated at the Eastern Anatolia became dominant, and manybasins developed along the strike-slip faults (Koçyiğitet al., 2001; Aksoy et al., 2005; Çolak, Aksoy, Koçyiğit,& İnceöz, 2012).

The studied travertine occurrences are located on thenortheastern part of the EAFS (Figure 1(b)). The EAFSis a 30-km-wide, 700-km-long and NE-trending sinistralstrike-slip megashear system that developed between theAnatolian Plate in the NW and the African-Arabianplates in the SE (Aksoy, İnceöz, & Koçyiğit, 2007;Çetin, Güneyli, & Mayer, 2003; Çolak et al., 2012;Koçyiğit, Aksoy, & İnceöz, 2003). The EAFS, whichextends between Karlıova County in the NE and Karataş(Adana)-Samandağ (Antakya) in the SW, is one of themost important tectonic structures in Turkey.

The EAFS has been divided into several segmentsbased on restraining stepover, relasing bends and bifurca-tions (Aksoy et al., 2007; Çetin et al., 2003; Çolak et al.,2012; Herece, 2008; Koçyiğit et al., 2003).

Measured offsets along the EAFS vary from segmentto segment. Even for the same segment, very differentslip values have been proposed. In studies carried out onvarious parts of the Sivrice fault zone (SFZ) of theBingöl-Yarpuzlu segment (BYS), for example, offsets of9–27 km have been proposed for the EAFS (Aksoyet al., 2007; Dewey, Hempton, Kidd, Şaroğlu, & Şengör,1986; Hempton, 1985; Herece & Akay, 1992).

Near Palu, the BYS bifurcates into many fault zones(Figure 1(b)). The SFZ comprises the master fault of theEAFS. The SFZ forms a 5-km wide and 32-km long,lens-like depression, which includes Hazar Lake to theSE of Elazığ. The Baltaşı travertine mass is situated onthe AFZ at the NE end of the depression (Aksoy et al.,2007; Çolak et al., 2012; Herece, 2008).

The AFZ, separating from the EAFS west of Palu,extends to the southwest in a N50ºE direction (Aksoyet al., 2007, their Figure 2). This active deformationzone, characterised by a sinistral strike-slip faulting, isapproximately 210-km long and 3-km wide. At the placewhere the AFZ seperates from the master fault, exten-sional deformation has arisen within the strike-slip sys-tem causing travertine depositions both in the strike-slipbasin and along the boundary faults (Çolak et al., 2012).

3. Sampling and analytical procedures

3.1. U-series dating

Dating of travertine and associated carbonate veins isimportant because it places constraints on the timing oftectonic and palaeoseismic activity (Hancock et al. 1999;Temiz et al., 2013; Uysal et al., 2007, 2009). For U-Thdating, light-coloured, dense and apparently non-porousprimary samples (mostly banded/vein, crystalline crustand raft lithotypes) have been selected in order to avoidsecondary contaminations from void-filling calcitecements.

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U-series determination of travertines samples was car-ried out at GEOTOP research centre of the University ofQuebec at Montreal, Canada. A small piece of travertinewas cut using an abrading device (Dremel® rotary tool).The external layer of the sample was removed in order toreduce the risk of contamination by 230Th-bearing detrital

particles. The travertine sample was then burnt in a cleancrucible in order to destroy organic matter before beingdissolved in 7 N HNO3 in Teflon beakers. A knownamount of a spike (233U, 236U and 229Th) was added sothat the U and Th isotopes could be determined by isotopedilution technique. To this solution around 15 mg of Fe

Figure 1. (a) Geographic setting of the study area and (b) locations of the travertine fields on the EAFS. NAFS, North AnatolianFault System; SFZ, Sivrice Fault Zone; AFZ, Adıyaman Fault Zone.

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carrier was added. In order to concentrate the U and Thelements from the bulk solution, a Fe(OH)3 precipitatewas created by adding a solution of ammonium hydroxideuntil obtaining a pH between 7 and 9. The precipitate wasrecovered by centrifugation and then dissolved in 6 MHCl.

The U-Th separation based on Edwards, Chen, &Wasserburg, (1987) was conducted using AG1X8 anionicresin bed. The Th and U-Fe fractions were retrieved byelution with 6 N HCl and H2O, respectively. The purifi-cation of the U fraction was done using .2 ml U-Teva(Eichrom® Industries) resin volume. The U-Fe separationwas performed by elution using 3 N HNO3 (Fe fraction)

and .002 N HNO3 (U fraction). The purification of Thwas performed by elution using a 2 ml AG1X8 resin in7 N HNO3 and elution with 6 N HCl. A final purificationof Th was carried out on a .2 ml AG1X8 resin in 7 NHNO3 and Th was eluted with 6 N HCl. The U and Thfractions were deposited on a Re filament between twolayers of graphite and measured using a VG-sector massspectrometer (TIMS) fitted with an electrostatic filter anda Daly ion counter. Mass fractionation for U was cor-rected by the double spike 236U/233U (1.132), while massfractionation for Th was considered negligible withrespect to analytical error. The overall analytical repro-ducibility, as estimated from replicate measurements of

Figure 2. (a) Local geological map of the HTFR developed on the Riedel (R) fractures in the KBS of the EAFS during Holocene.(b) NW-SE trending geological cross section along the A-A’ line.

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standards, is usually better than .5% for U concentrationand 234U/238U ratios, and ranges from .5% to 1% for230Th/234U ratios (2 sigma error range).

The presence of 232Th indicates that there is still adetrital fraction in the samples despite the steps taken toavoid that component. This indicates that a part of themeasured 230Th is related to a detrital contamination thathas been added to the 230Th produce by the authigenicuranium of the CaCO3. Thus, the calculated age must beolder than the true age. In order to account for the 230Threlated to the detrital fraction, a correction was doneusing a process similar to that used by Ludwig andPaces (2002). Specifically, we used 232Th as an indexand assumed a typical crustal Th/U ratio, with 234U/238Uand 230Th/238U activity ratios near secular equilibrium.In this model, the isotope and the activity ratios usedwere (232Th/238U) = 1.21 ± 50%, (234U/238U) = 1 ± 10%and (230Th/238U) = 1 ± 10%. The corrected 230Th/238Uand 234U/238U activity ratios were then used to calculatethe corrected ages (Table 1). Such corrections, however,produced higher errors on the corrected age and in par-ticularly for the young and/or ‘dirty’ samples.

3.2. Stable isotope geochemistry

Stable isotope signatures of spring carbonates and veinformation have the potential of yielding information ontheir origin (Arenas-Abad et al., 2010; Özkul et al.,2013; Pentecost, 2005; Uysal et al., 2011). In order toevaluate the origin of the carbonate veins in the fracturenetwork of the Baltaşı travertine mass, stable isotopeanalyses of 12 vein samples were performed at theIGGR-HAS (Institute for Geological and GeochemicalResearch, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, ResearchCentre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences). Carbon andoxygen isotope analyses of bulk carbonate samples werecarried out using the continuous flow technique (Spötl &Vennemann, 2003). 13C/12C and 18O/16O ratios weredetermined in CO2 gases using a Finnigan Thermo deltaplus XP mass spectrometer. All samples were measuredat least in duplicate and the isotopic compositions areexpressed in δ notation per thousand (‰) relative toVienna Pee Dee Belemnite (VPDB; δ13C and δ18O). Re-producibilities are better than ±.1‰ for δ13C and δ18Ovalues of carbonates.

3.3. Mineralogical composition

Mineralogical composition of travertines and associatedveins, which are precipitated by hydrothermal or non-hydrothermal fluids circulating in damage zones in tec-tonically active regions (Özkul et al., 2013; Uysal et al.,2007, 2011; Verhaert et al., 2004), was controlled by acomplex set of interrelated parameters (Jones & Renaut,2010).

In order to determine the carbonate minerals thatform the travertine and vein precipitates, mineralogicalcomposition of 30 samples was analysed by the X-ray

powder diffraction (XRD) technique using a PhilipsPW1730 diffractometer at the Institute for Geologicaland Geochemical Research (Budapest, Hungary) withCuKα radiation at 45 kV and 35 mA. For this purpose,randomly oriented powders obtained from fresh,unweathered samples were used, and semi-quantitativemineral composition was determined according to themodified method of Bárdossy, Bottyán, Gadó, Griger,and Sasvári (1980).

4. Field descriptions of the travertine sites

4.1. Hacılar siteTravertine occurrences around Hacılar village(Figure 1(b)) are located on the KBS of the EAFS thatforms a tectonic boundary between the Palaeozoic–Mesozoic metamorphics and Pliocene Solhan volcanics(Figures 2(a) and (b) and 3). The Bitlis Metamorphicsare divided into lower and upper groups (Ustaömer,Ustaömer, Gerdes, Robertson, & Collins, 2012). Thelower group is composed of high-grade metamorphics(e.g. gneiss, amphibole and schist), whereas the uppergroup is formed of low-grade metamorphics such as mi-caschist, quartzite and marble (Figure 4). Around Hacı-lar, marble that displays brittle deformation is thedominant rock type, which is intensely brecciated. Thisbrecciated structure provides a convenient environmentfor the circulation and upwelling of hydrothermal fluids.The Solhan volcanics, unconformably overlying themetamorphic bedrocks, consist mostly of pyroclastics ofbasaltic to andesitic composition and have a cover unitrole (Figure 4).

At Hacılar, travertine precipitation includes two fis-sure ridges that occur between 1560 and 1585 m abovesea level (Figures 2 and 3). One of the fissure ridges, sit-uated close to the northeastern boundary of Hacılar vil-lage (Figure 3), has been destroyed by human activity.This travertine fissure ridge has not been considered forstudy. The other ridge, located ~1 km southwest of thevillage (here named the Hacılar Travertine Fissure Ridge(HTFR), was studied in detail (Figures 2 and 5). Hereconjugate faults developed between a strike-slip faultpair with a certain thickness that bound the fault zone.The HTFR developed on one of these conjugate faults(i.e. Riedel shear) that have an angle of ~15°(Φ/2) withthe main fault trace of the KBS (Figure 2(c)).

The 28 orientation measurements that have been per-formed along its crest axis indicate a NE–SW-trendingfor the HTFR (Figure 6). The ridge is 510 m long, 7 mhigh and 80 m wide at the base in the central area.Along the ridge axis, a single fissure (Figure 7(a)), multi-ple fissures arragned in en-echelon (Figure 7(b)) andbifurcated fissures occur. Total fissure width is up to70 cm (Figure 6), whereas individual fissure aperturesvary from 3 to 12 cm. Fissure walls are covered by thevertically banded travertines, with thickness of a few cmthat are light coloured and compact (Figure 7(c)) andcontain non-porous calcite crystals.

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Table

1.U-Thdatin

gresults

ofthetravertin

esamples

from

Hacılar,Elm

alıa

ndBaltaşı.

Sam

ple

238U

(ppm

)±

232Th

(ppm

)±

234U/238U

±230Th/

234U

±230Th/

238U

±230Th/

232Th

±Calculatedage

(ka)

Err.

Corrected

age

(ka)

Err.

Hacıla

rHA-1

.505

.002

.602

.007

4.12

4.022

.082

.002

.339

.006

.870

.019

9.24

6.179

.485

4.94

2HA-7

.404

.002

.032

.000

4.54

9.029

.008

.000

.034

.001

1.30

2.024

.820

.015

.300

.283

HA-12

.442

.002

.030

.000

4.47

7.030

.004

.001

.018

.002

.799

.095

.438

.051

.000

.000

HA-14

.440

.003

.010

.000

4.49

5.038

.056

.001

.253

.004

35.697

.638

6.26

3.110

6.12

3.127

HA-15

.485

.002

.001

.005

4.75

5.021

.064

.001

.303

.002

38.248

.328

7.112

.062

6.96

5.089

Elmalı

EL-1

.690

.004

.030

.000

1.56

4.013

.024

.000

.037

.001

2.62

3.038

2.60

8.042

1.79

3.445

EL-4

.347

.001

.006

.000

1.46

9.010

.169

.002

.248

.002

4.77

6.455

19.927

.261

19.559

.319

EL-5

.322

.002

.019

.000

1.51

8.012

.351

.003

.533

.004

28.070

.243

45.766

.579

44.686

.749

EL-9

.367

.001

.093

.000

1.45

7.007

.494

.004

.719

.001

8.71

3.078

7.95

6.511

66.077

2.22

2EL-10

.441

.002

.004

.000

1.50

0.010

.489

.005

.733

.007

279.18

83.51

669

.817

1.12

069

.672

1.12

1EL-12

.538

.002

.004

.000

1.45

5.008

.132

.002

.192

.002

71.085

.938

15.281

.200

15.117

.217

Baltaşı

BB-21

.364

.002

.010

.001

1.06

6.012

.933

.011

.994

.007

113.24

11.05

626

9.13

617

.131

268.44

117

.173

KF-1

.036

.001

.030

.001

1.25

4.007

1.01

3.012

1.27

1.013

4.66

0.056

324.88

221

.077

308.63

510

1.89

6KF-3

.009

9.000

0.001

7.000

01.31

65.0116

.944

8.014

31.24

38.015

8.055

1.000

323

7.43

613

.232

234.32

914

.482

KF-7

.023

8.000

1.000

1.000

01.08

34.010

4.961

8.023

21.04

20.023

310

08.159

024

.197

130

3.96

652

.535

303.88

039

.551

KF-8

.006

.001

.005

.001

1.12

5.010

.950

.044

1.06

9.049

37.765

1.74

527

4.43

853

.354

272.41

753

.600

KF-9

.063

.001

.004

.001

1.28

4.011

.224

.004

.287

.005

13.092

.241

27.250

.601

25.732

.985

KF-11

.015

.001

.001

.001

1.12

0.009

.910

.009

1.01

9.007

38.417

.342

234.53

59.10

123

2.58

59.50

9KF-11b

.009

.001

.008

.001

1.19

4.012

1.01

0.052

1.20

6.061

4.38

1.224

343.76

910

6.24

832

5.87

615

2.87

0KF-19

.036

.001

.008

.001

1.08

3.010

.972

.019

1.05

3.019

13.860

.264

322.25

839

.020

316.43

843

.472

KF-27

.020

.001

.020

.001

1.30

8.009

.926

.011

1.21

8.012

3.53

7.039

224.51

68.37

920

2.79

951

.539

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At some points along the fissure axis, there are bowl-shaped spring orifices that are 15–220 cm in diameter. Inseveral spring orifices, pisoids up to 2 cm in dimension

were attached to the fissure wall and it is thought thatthey are resulted from bubbling hot waters. Previously,these kind of coated grains have been reported from theDenizli extensional basin (Özkul et al., 2013; Richter &Besenecker, 1983).

Fissure slopes are formed of bedded travertines.Crystalline crust travertine layers, the most common typeof bedded travertines (Figure 7(d)), are precipitated bothon slope surfaces out of turbulent flow of hot springwaters (Guo & Riding, 1998, 1999). Locally, microter-race pools are developed on the upper surfaces of thesebeds. Growth of the crystalline crusts is probably con-trolled by high levels of supersaturation as a result ofrapid CO2 degassing (Jones & Renaut, 2008, 2010).Beds dip away from the ridge axis with angles up to 40°and reach up to 10 cm in thickness.

Along the ridge axis, U-Th ages, which wereobtained from five vertically banded travertine (i.e. lightcoloured, dense and non-porous samples) range fromModern to 6.96 ± .09 ka (Figures 2 and 5; Table 1). Theages of 6.12 ± .13 ka and 6.96 ± .09 ka (Table 1) corre-spond to the older part of ridge.

4.2. Elmalı siteThis site is located to the north of the Elmalı village(Figure 8) and developed along the KBS of the EAFS(Figure 1(b)).

Travertine occurrences in this site range from 1230to 1360 m in elevation (Figure 8(a) and (b)), cover anarea of ~.035 km2 and unconformably overlie the mar-bles and schists of the Palaeozoic–Mesozoic Bitlis Meta-morphics (Figure 9). The metamorphic rocks are in atectonic contact (Figure 8) with the Pliocene pyroclasticsdue to left-lateral strike-slip faulting. A lateral offset of14.5 km was proposed based on the metamorphic rock

Figure 3. Panoramic view of the NE–SW-trending Karlıova-Göynük segment (marked with black arrows) near Hacılar. Along thefault trace, the metamorphic units of the Bitlis Massif (PzMzb) are in contact with Pliocene volcanics of the Solhan Formation (Plso).Adjacent to the village, a NE-trending travertine fissure ridge is exposed in the middle of the picture. The elongated ridge within thestrike-slip damage zone is approximately parallel to the fault trace. View to the east.

Figure 4. Stratigraphic relationships between the Quaternarytravertine, underlying uncomformably Pliocene volcanics andPalaeozoic–Mesozoic metamorphic rocks of the Bitlis Massif.

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Figure 5. Field image of the HTFR located to ~1 km west-southwest of Hacılar (Karlıova, Bingöl). Volcanic rocks of the SolhanFormation (Plso) in the background. View to the south.

Figure 6. (a) Plan view of the HTFR and (b) rose diagram of fissures in the ridge based on the fissure strikes (28 measurements).

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units exposed on the eastern and western blocks of thesame fault segment at the Hacılar and Elmalı fields,respectively (Herece, 2008). Travertine precipitationoccurs conformably on the W–NW-trending steppedslope topography of the Göynük Stream valley (Figures8(a) and (b) and 10(a)). Travertine occurrences display afew depositional morphologies. The first one is aNW-trending travertine fissure ridge (Figure 10(a) and(b)) that is developed along an X-fracture (Figure 8(c))situated on a pressure ridge of the KBS (Figure 8(a) and(b)). The bedded travertines diping away on both flanksof the fissure ridge (Figure 10(c)) are dominated by crys-talline crust travertine layers (Guo & Riding, 1998;

Özkul et al., 2013, 2014). In some cases, the beddedtravertines include detrital intercalations that are formedof coarse-grained and angular clasts up to 30 cm long(Figure 10(d)) that were derived from the marblebedrock.

The second type of depositional morphology is asuccession of thin and horizontally bedded travertine,precipitated in ponds that extend laterally up to severaltens of meters in close setting to the Göynük Streamfloor (Figure 10(a), (b) and (e)). Third type is a recenttravertine precipitation that formed at the seeps of warmthermal waters at the slope apron adjacent to the GöynükStream floor (Figure 10(f)).

Figure 7. Field images of the HTFR. (a) Simple fissure, (b) en-echelon fissures, (c) close view of a simple fissure. Fissure walls arecovered by vertically banded travertines up to 2 cm in thickness and (d) light coloured crystalline crust travertine layer in the middle,10 cm thick, alternating with other beds.

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Figure 8. Local geological map of the Elmalı travertine exposure (a) and the NW–SE-trending geological cross section (b).

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Six samples from the Elmalı travertine mass, whichare mostly crystalline crust or banded, light coloured anddense (Figure 7(c) and (d)), were U-Th dated. The U-Thages range from 69.67 ± 1.12 to 1.79 ± .45 ka (Figures 8and 10; Table 1). The travertines at higher elevations areolder than those at lower elevations (Figure 10(a) and(b)). The EL-10 and EL-9 samples at elevations of~1345 and 1314 m, correspond to the U-Th ages of69.67 ± 1.12 and 66.08 ± 2.22 ka, respectively (Table 1).In contrast, the EL-12 sample close to the presentGöynük stream (1243 m asl) yielded the youngest age of1.8 ± .5 ka (Figure 10(a)).

4.3. Baltaşı siteThis site is located on the AFZ approximately 45 kmeast of Elazığ (Figure 1(b)). The Baltaşı travertine massconsists of two exposures, with a total area of ~.57 km2,namely the Bağlarbaşı and Kaf exposures (Figure 11(a)),which rest unconformably on the Guleman ophioliticbedrocks that were tectonically emplaced on the meta-morphic rocks of Palaeozoic-Mesozoic Bitlis Metamor-phics (Figures 11 and 12). Since both exposures rest onthe same bedrock and have a similar tectonic setting,they have been investigated together. Similar to the

Hacılar and Elmalı sites, the metamorphic rocks of theBaltaşı site are composed mainly of marble, micaschistand quartzite, of the Bitlis metamorphics (Figure 12).

The Baltaşı travertine mass is located from 890 to1100 m above sea level (Figure 11(a)–(c)). The massexperienced uplift with respect to the base level of thenearby strike-slip basin that developed between the AFZand SFZ with oblique- and normal-slip components,respectively (Figures 11 and 13). Consequently, the trav-ertines are precipitated in earlier stages of the strike-slipbasin formation and subsequently have been uplifted andtilted mostly to the south with an angle up to 30° basedon the ongoing left-lateral strike-slip faulting that controlthe basin (Figures 11 and 13). The Baltaşı travertinesextend laterally for several hundreds of metres andare mostly horizontally to subhorizontally bedded(Figure 14(a)). The sequence, up to 35 m thick, includessome intercalations of green claystone (i.e. mostly smec-tite) (Figure 14(b)), red mudstone, paleosols and erosionsurfaces. Karstification is common on the bedding sur-faces and fractures, especially in the upper part of thesuccession.

In the Baltaşı travertine mass, some tectonic struc-tures such as fault and fractures are observed. The karsticcavities and fractures (up to 40 cm wide) following thesestructures were partially or completely filled by vein, sta-lagmite, stalagtite and flowstone (Figure 14(c) and (d)).The filling material is calcite based on the XRD mea-surements. However, according to the Sr and δ13C con-tents, two different generations of calcite have beendetermined in the travertine mass. In the first type, theSr and δ13C values range from 754 to 1646 ppm and+2.3 to +5.9‰ (V-PDB), respectively, while in the sec-ond type, the Sr concentration varies between 52 and83 ppm, and the δ13C is between −11.0 and −2.7 ‰(V-PDB) (Table 2, Figure 15).

The travertine mass was cross-cut by numerousfractures that follow NE–SW and NW–SE trends(Figure 11(d)). Settings of the primary fractures with335° striking and secondary fractures with 25° strikingcoincide with the structural forces (i.e. N–S compression)that constitute the AFZ. This indicates that the compres-sional forces affecting the region continued their activityafter the travertine formation, i.e. the fault zone is cur-rently active.

Ten samples from the bedded and vein travertines ofthe Baltaşı area, which are mostly compact and less por-ous, were dated. The U-Th ages range from 325.88± 152.87 ka at higher elevation in the south (~1050 m)to 202.80 ± 51.54 ka at lower elevation (890 m) in thenorth (Figures 11 and 13; Table 1). Meanwhile, one sam-ple, which was precipitated as an exception like a raftlithotype in a fracture space, gave 25.73 ± .98 ka age inthe south. At the Baltaşı travertine area, a renewed activ-ity is observed towards the north based on the U-Th agedata (Figures 11 and 13).

Figure 9. Stratigraphic relationships between the Quaternarytravertine and Palaeozoic–Mesozoic metamorphic rocks of theBitlis Massif near Elmalı. Note that the travertine precipitatesrest directly on the marble of the Bitlis Massif that weresubjected to brittle deformation due to left-lateral strike-slipfaulting.

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Figure 10. Field images of the Elmalı travertines with U-Th dates. (a) NW-trending travertine fissure ridge developed on a X-frac-ture and associated horizontally bedded travertine in front of the image. (b) Close-up view of ‘a’. (c) The bedded travertines form thefissure ridge dip to the east towards the Göynük Stream floor. (d) Detrital interlayers at the bottom are overlied by bedded travertines(above the white dashed line). Coarse and angular marble clasts are derived from the metamorphic bedrock. (e) Travertine sequenceup to 10 m thick that consists of mostly thin and horizontal beds. Precipitation in a close setting to the Göynük Stream bed. View tothe northeast (i.e. upstream). (f) Recent travertine curtain precipitated from the seeping warm thermal waters at the lower slope,adjacent to the Göynük Stream floor.

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Figure 11. Geological map of the Baltaşı travertine mass (a) and geological cross sections (b, c) along the A-A′ and B–B′ linesacross the Bağlarbaşı and Kaf exposures, respectively. U-Th ages range from 325.9 to 202.8 ka.

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5. Discussion

5.1. Extensional tectonics versus strike-slip tectonicsin terms of fluid circulation and travertine deposition

Travertine deposition is more common in provinces thatare affected by extensional tectonics (Altunel & Hancock,1993a, 1993b; Altunel & Karabacak, 2005; Çakır, 1999;De Filippis et al., 2012; Kele et al., 2011; Özkul et al.,2002, 2013, 2014; Selim & Yanık, 2009; Van Noten et al.,2013). Damage zones in these provinces, which resultedfrom normal faulting, accompanied often by numerousextensional fractures, are appropriate environs for circula-tion of thermal fluids and consequently have a significantpotential for travertine deposition (Brogi & Capezzuoli,2009; Brogi, Capezzuoli, Buracchi, & Branca, 2012).

In contrast, travertine precipitation along majorstrike-slip fault zones is less common, being restricted topressure ridges, releasing/restraining bends and the inter-section of the normal faults that encircle some part ofstrike-slip basin, as in the western end of the Bolu Basin,the NAFS, NW Turkey (Gökten et al., 2011; Temizet al., 2013).

Fluid circulation is controlled by intensely fracturedrock masses, which give rise to hydraulic conduits.Hydrothermal systems and spring cabonates are thereforecontrolled by brittle structures (Brogi et al., 2012).Consequently, in both extensional and strike-slip tectonicsettings, prerequsite parameters for travertine precipitationare: (1) a fracture system in permeable bedrocks that all-low fluids to circulate and (2) overpressured hydrothermalwaters rich in CO2 and bicarbonate. Fractures and faults

Figure 12. Tectonic and stratigraphic relationships betweenthe Quaternary travertine, Guleman Ophiolites and Palaeozoic–Mesozoic metamorphic rocks of the Bitlis Massif near Baltaşı.

Figure 13. Panoramic view of the Baltaşı site. (a) Travertine exposure overlies uncomformably the ophiolitic bedrock near the Bal-taşı town. Travertine deposits occur on higher elevations as uplifted and hanged fault terraces compare to the adjacent strike-slip basinbounded by the AFZ and SFZ. The SFZ and AFZ are indicated by black and white arrows, respectively. View to the northwest. (b)Stepped morphology of the travertine exposures at the Kaf subsites. View to the northeast.

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Figure 14. Field images from the Baltaşı travertines. (a) Horizontally bedded travertine with some erosion surfaces that are visibleon the quarry wall, Bağlarbaşı subsite. (b) Green claystone layer, with a thickness of 80 cm, overlain by a horizontally bedded traver-tine, Bağlarbaşı subsite. (c) The lower half of a karstic cavity that is developed in the travertine mass is covered by speleothems (e.g.stalagmite, stalagtite and flowstone). (d) A vertical fracture in travertine filled by calcite, dated as 305.06 ± 39.69 ka (sample KF-7).The uppermost terrace of the Kaf exposure, Baltaşı. Hammer (32 cm) as scale in b, c and d.

Table 2. Stable carbon and oxygen isotope composition of hydrothermal and non-hydrothermal vein samples from the Baltaşı site.

Sample ID Sample typeSr δ13C δ18O

(ppm) (‰V-PDB) (‰V-PDB)

KF-5 Hydrothermal vein 1440 2.3 −1.2KF-7 Hydrothermal vein 754 3.5 −11.3KF-10 Hydrothermal vein 1646 3.2 −11.2KF-13 Hydrothermal vein 3.7 −11.0KF-12a Non-hydrothermal vein −11.0 −7.0KF-12b Non-hydrothermal vein −9.7 −8.1KF-14 Non-hydrothermal vein −5.1 −8.1BB-5 Flowstone −7.1 −9.0BB-6 Flowstone 409 3.9 −13.3BB-7 Flowstone 83 −9.0 −8.6BB-9 Flowstone 52 −7.8 −7.8BB-12 Flowstone −2.7 −8.8

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in the carbonate bedrocks are natural pathways that allowmeteoric waters to descend into the subsurface andhydrothermal fluids to come up to the surface (Dilsiz,2006; Minissale et al., 2002; Özkul et al., 2013).

Gas and fluid discharge and accompanying travertineprecipitation in some places along the EAFS were reportedfrom a few localities (e.g. Bağın, Golan and Hacılar) inrecent studies (Italiano, Sasmaz, Yuce, Okan, 2013;Italiano et al., 2013; Öztekin Okan & Çetindağ, 2005).Where travertine precipitation occurred at Hacılar, Elmalıand Baltaşı localities along the KBS and the BYS to thenortheastern part of the EAFS, intensely fractured recrys-tallised limestones and marbles of the Bitlis Massif, thatare resulted from left-lateral strike-slip movement, formideal rock units for hydrothermal circulation (Figure 16).

In the Hacılar and Elmalı sites, travertine precipita-tion in various depasitional settings such as fissureridge, slope and pond (Figure 16(a) and (b)) arose onthe conjugate faults (Rao et al., 2011) that developedbetween strike-slip fault pair that bound the KBS(Figures 2(a) and 8(a)), whereas travertine precipitationat Baltaşı emerged along the fault segments character-ised by left lateral strike-slip to oblique-slip movement(Figure 16(c)).

5.2. Hydrothermal and non-hydrothermal fracture-filling veins

In tectonically active regions, vein formation is wide-spread and are associated with fluid circulation and faultreactivation (De Filippis et al., 2012; Özkul et al., 2013;Uysal et al., 2009, 2011; Verhaert et al., 2004).

Veins, that are composed of calcite and/or aragonite,are often present as filled fissures emplaced in travertinebodies and in the underlying bedrock. The origin ofthese veins can be different. Some of them, such as thosein southwest Turkey, have been named as ‘non-hydro-thermal vein’ (Uysal et al., 2011) and/or ‘extension vein’similar to speleothems (e.g. stalagmite, stalagtite andflowstone) that resulted from shallow-seated surface

waters circulating within the fracture network (Verhaertet al., 2004). It is known that speleothems grow mostlyduring warm/wet periods (Baker, Smart, & Edwards,1995; Baykara, 2014; Fairchild et al., 2006; Wang et al.,2004). However, in some cases, the hydrothermal andextensional carbonate veins occurred intermittently as aresponse to episodic rupturing and subsequent sealingevents during cold/dry periods as evident from SWTurkey (Uysal et al., 2011).

Other veins originated from upwelling hydrothermalwaters (Altunel & Hancock, 1993a, 1993b; Altunel &Karabacak, 2005; Mesci et al., 2008; Rihs, Condomines,& Poidevin, 2000). For instance, at Pamukkale andKırşehir geothermal fields of the Turkey, high Sr andδ13C values, up to 7392 ppm (Özkul et al., 2013)and +9.2‰ V-PDB of the hydrothermal veins (De Filippiset al., 2012; Uysal et al., 2007, 2009) have beenmeasured.

The Baltaşı travertine mass along the BYS containsin some places fracture-fill veins (Figure 14(d)) that areformed of calcite. However, depending on some elementand isotope compositions, two different vein sets (type-1, type 2) are differentiated. For the type-1 vein set, ahydrothermal origin is attributed to their high Sr andδ13C contents. In contrast, the other vein set (e.g. non-hydrothermal veins), with low Sr and negative δ13C val-ues (Sr: 52–83 ppm, δ13C: −11.0 to −2.7‰ V-PDB)(Figure 15, Table 2), has been precipitated from shallowcirculated surface waters, as in speleothems (Fairchildet al., 2006; Uysal et al., 2011; Verhaert et al., 2004).

Carbonate veins of hydrothermal origin, which arisein seismically active geothermal systems of extensionalprovinces, are ascribed mostly to cold/dry climate events(De Filippis et al., 2012; Uysal et al., 2009). However,this is not universally valid. Indeed, some vein forma-tions correspond to warm /wet periods (Kampman et al.,2012; Özkul et al., 2013; Rihs et al., 2000). Two sam-ples of hydrothermal origin, with the U-Th ages of303.88 ± 39.55 and 325.87 ± 152.87 ka (Table 1), corre-spond to a warm period (Marine Isotope Stage 9). Thehigh contents of Sr and δ13C coincide with those veins(or vertically banded travertine) precipitated by deeplycirculated thermal waters upwelling along fractures andfault zones in geothermal fields (Altunel & Karabacak,2005; De Filippis et al., 2012; Mesci, 2013; Özkul et al.,2013; Uysal et al., 2007, 2009).

5.3. Relationship between travertine deposition andthe age of tectonic activity

In previous studies, U-series age data obtained from trav-ertine deposits, and particularly from vein travertines (orvertically banded travertines) have been used for someneotectonic interpretations such as the calculation of dila-tion in fisssure ridges, the lateral propagation along thelength of travertine-filled fissures (Altunel & Hancock,1993a, 1993b; Altunel & Karabacak, 2005; Hancocket al., 1999; Mesci et al., 2008) to determine fault activity

Figure 15. The δ13C and δ18O values of the hydrothermalveins, non-hydrothermal veins and flowstones filling the frac-tures and karstic cavities in the Baltaşı travertine site.

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(Brogi et al., 2012; Temiz et al., 2013) and seismicity(Uysal et al., 2009, 2011). In geothermal fields, circula-tion and upwelling of hydrothermal fluids and conse-quently travertine precipitation become easy duringfaulting and fracturing periods (Brogi & Capezzuoli,2009). Accordingly, absolute dating results, yielded fromtravertines, correspond to the periods of tectonic activityor faulting (Altunel 2005; Brogi et al., 2012; Hancocket al., 1999).

U-Th age data of Recent to 6.965 ka from the HTFR(Table 1) indicates the latest strike-slip deformation alongthe Karlıova-Bingöl fault segment that occurred inHolocene. The oldest U-Th ages of 69.67–66.08 ka at theElmalı site were obtained from the higher elevations,whereas the youngest travertine precipitation (e.g. 1.8± .5 ka) is adjacent to the recent valley floor of theGöynük Stream (Figures 8 and 10). This downslope dis-placement of the travertine precipitation from 69.67 ka tothe Recent resulted from the uplifting or incision along thevalley floor. A similar displacement has been reportedfrom the fluvial travertines of the Aksaz geothermal field(Uşak), Western Anatolian Extensional Province, Turkey(Özkul et al., 2014).

Age data of 324.60–202.80 ka, retrieved from thetravertines of Baltaşı, imply that strike-slip faulting inthe AFZ is older with respect to the Karlıova-Bingölfault segment and the travertine mass becomes youngerfrom high elevation in the south to low elevation in thenorth (Figures 11, 13 and 16).

6. Conclusions

In the EAFS, travertine precipitation occurred along sev-eral left-lateral strike-slip segments that have smallextensional components (i.e. oblique-to normal-slip com-ponents). In those places along the fault segments wherebrittle structures developed, marble and calcschist pro-vide an appropriate environment for the circulation ofhydrothermal fluids. The observed travertine masses pre-cipitated in different depositional settings such as fissureridge, slope and pond. The fissure ridges developedalong conjugate faults (e.g. Riedel (R)- and X-type frac-tures). The precipitation along slopes and in pond set-tings could correspond to uplift and oblique movementwithin the left-lateral strike-slip deformation system.

U-Th dating results show that travertine precipitationoccurred intermittently for at least the last 325 ka (LateQuaternary to Holocene) in the fault system, both in theKarlıova-Bingöl and in the Adıyaman fault segments.The Holocene travertine formations around Hacılar repre-sent the youngest strike-slip movements. Fractures withinthe older travertine bodies that were created intermit-tently by strike-slip faulting and accompanying seismicrupturing, were sealed by two kind of vein calcites.Based on their geochemical characters, first vein setincluding speleothem is non-hydrothermal in origin thatwas precipitated by meteoric near-surface waters,

Figure 16. Block diagrams showing a relationship betweentravertine formation and strike-slip deformation. (a) Travertinefissure ridge emerged along the KBS, around Hacılar. (b) AtElmalı, various travertine exposures in different depositionalsettings such as fissure ridges and ponds. The pond travertinesare characterised by horizontal beds close to the Göynük Stream.(c) The Baltaşı travertine occurrences on the AFZ, 45 km east ofElazığ, rest uncomformably on the ophiolitic bedrocks ofGuleman that were tectonically emplaced on the metamorphicrocks of Palaeozoic–Mesozoic Bitlis metamorphics.

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whereas the second vein set is of hydrothermal originresulted from deeply circulated thermal waters.

AcknowledgementsThis work has been financially supported by the Scientific andTechnological Research Council of Turkey – TÜBİTAK (grant110Y172). We are grateful to the guest editor Şule Gürboğa,Andre Brogi and two anonymous referees for their criticalreviews and helpful suggestions. Brian Jones, Koen Van Notenand Halim Mutlu are thanked for their valuable contributionsand linguistic revisions.

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