Abdul Karim Issifu, M.Phil. Student, Peace and Development Studies, Institute for

Development Studies, University of Cape Coast, Ghana.

Email: akissifu@gmail.com

+233 243133069

To cite: Abdul Karim Issifu, 2014

Theories Underpinning Conflict and Its Implications for the Socio-Political

Development of Ghana

Abstract

Conflict is part of human existence and it cannot be prevented entirely. The only way to

survive it is to adapt to it. Many internal conflicts are seen in countless countries around the

world with Africa having the largest share. Ghana is described as the gate way to Africa

because of the peaceful atmosphere of the country and the desire not to be tag as

warmongers. However, Ghana should not allow complacency to take away the hard earn

international reputation as far a peace is concern. This paper tries to analyse the theories

underpinning conflict and how the implications of these theories can help strengthen the

socio-political development of Ghana.

Key Words: conflict, development, theories of conflict, socio-political implications of the

theories for development.

Introduction

There are numerous definitions for conflict. However, considering the context in

which it is used, how it is used and where it is used would give a comprehensive

understanding of the term conflict. Hence, conflict is context specific. Conflict occurs when

two or more parties pursue incompatible interests or goals through actions that the parties try

to weak or damage each other. These parties could be individuals, groups or countries. The

party‟s interests can differ over access to resources, the control of political or chieftaincy

authority, identity and recognition, values or ideology. In this paper, I argue that conflict is

seen as the aggressive or negative manifestations in the form of physical destruction of

property, loss of human lives, and the destruction of the ecosphere.

Development (social or political) on the other hand, is generally about a progress in

human well-being. This includes well-being in the general life of human beings such as

peoples‟ health, education, security, happiness and peace. The relationship between conflict

and development (social or political) is such that underdevelopment can cause violent

conflict. Thus, development reduces the potential of violent conflict. Conflicts are driven by

underdevelopment, poverty and inequality (Subrke & Chaudhary, 2007). In several studies on

the nexus between violent conflict and development, the World Bank has emphasized that

conflict is a bane to development since it tends to reverse development efforts. Any type of

conflict; resource based conflict, ethnic conflict, political conflict, economic conflict,

chieftaincy conflict, religious conflict and the likes have effects on socio-political

development and are underpinned by certain theoretical perspectives. In this paper, I am

going to assess critically the theories underpinning conflict and analyse its implications for

the socio-political development of Ghana.

Concept of Conflict

Conflict is inevitable in human existence and is a necessary part of human life

(Bukari, 2011). It is also a characteristic of human endeavour that cannot be prevented

completely. Kendie (2007) argues that conflict cannot be avoided in social life but it can only

be contained. Conflict might be at the class level, local government level, state or even

international level. Conflict usually occurs primarily as a result of a clash of interest in the

relationship between parties, groups or states, either because they are pursuing opposing or

incompatible goals (Oyeniyi, 2011). Usually, conflict is assumed to be present when two or

more parties perceived that their interest are incompatible, express hostile attitudes or pursue

their interest through actions that damage the other parties. Conflict is normally assumed to

have occurred when individuals fail to live according to their values, or when their values are

threatened (Kendie, 2010). Conflict is seen as the struggle between individuals and groups. A

broad definition of conflict that would apply to many of the types of conflicts referred to in

this paper has been provided by Coser. Coser (1956) defines social conflict as a struggle over

values or claims to status, power and scarce resources in which the aims of the conflicting

parties are not only to gain the desired values, but also to neutralise injury or eliminate their

rivals.

Bujra (2002) notes that, any attempt to conceptualise conflict should place emphasis

on disagreement between wider aggregate of society as well as the incidence of violence and

injury. Awedoba (2009:5) on the other hand, explains conflict as “a relationship between two

or more parties that centre on difference, disagreements, incompatibilities and clash of wills”.

Johnson (1991) further defines conflict as a real or perceived difference which may affect

actions or outcomes that we believe are important. These definitions emphasise the

importance of difference as it demonstrate the action that people in agreement need to take.

Thus, the element of difference in social life must be seen as valid even though some of the

agreement may not eventually lead to violent conflict since they may be tangential to the

motives for collective action and may require different responses or outcomes. The outcomes

of conflict depend on the choices that are available to social actors and these choices can lead

to different outcome in different situations. People make choice every time they respond to

the other party in a conflict and these choices dictates what happens in any conflict situation.

According to Avruch (1998), conflicts between two or more parties are not static,

time-bond events, but rather on-going processes that vary in intensity, scope, and duration.

With this definition, Avruch explicitly bridges the gap between two approaches to

understanding conflict: one based on the idea of scarcity (Coser, 1956) and the other related

to perception or belief (Pruitt & Rubin 1985). Seeing conflict from such a perspective reveals

the process nature of conflict (Rice, 2000). Thus, conflict between two parties is not static,

time-bond events, but rather on-going processes that vary in intensity, scope and duration

(Sriram & Wermester, 2003).

Although, the term conflict can be explained from different schools of thought, this

paper focuses mainly on violent conflicts as stipulated at the introduction. The reason is that

Wam and Sardesai (2005) thinks research must pay attention to violent conflict due to the

proliferation of small arms and light weapon, and the diffusion of the international

technology of destruction. Bujra (2002) also provides a broad working definition of conflict

to mean a violent and armed confrontation and struggle between groups, between the state

and one or more groups and between two or more states. Bujra writes that in such

confrontation and struggles, some of those involved are injured and killed with many people

displaced, while property is destroyed. Hence, violent conflicts have negative impact on

socio-political development of every country which Ghana is no exception.

However, it should be noted that conflict need not necessarily be violent. Hence,

conflict arising as a result of incompatible goals may not be a bad ideal but may give clues as

to the dissatisfaction or uneasiness that may exist in an important relationship that needs to be

addressed promptly (Dissanayake & Arno, 1984). Thus, conflicts are supposed to be

frameworks for resolving internal difference, as well as transforming hidden difference to

open tension (Ross, 1993). Conflict only becomes violent when it is not well handled either

by the authorities or parties concerned. Conflict becomes aggressive or negative when it

manifests in some form of physical destruction of property and high value symbols. It tend to

be violent when parties go beyond seeking to attain their goals peacefully, and try to

dominate or destroy the opposing parties‟ ability to pursue their own interests. This is why

Burton (1990), argues that the potential for conflict being destructive of person‟s properties

and systems makes it more deeply rooted in aspect of human behaviour. What Burton seems

to be considering is that when people‟s needs and desires are frustrated in a given situation by

others irrespective of whether they are closer to them or not, this may manifest in violent

conflicts that may have negative consequences on development. Different parameters

distinguish violent conflict. These dimensions include the parties involved in the conflict, the

main substantive issues in contention between the conflicting parties, the nature of force or

coercion employed by the conflicting parties as well as the geographic scope of the conflict.

Types of Conflict

In trying to get a comprehensive knowledge and understanding about violent conflict, I argue

in this paper that, it is prudent to identify the different categories underlying it. Among them

include;

Ethnic conflict: This is the type of conflict that exists between and among ethnic groups. It

can be cause by the struggle for power or authority, chieftaincy, land or boundary,

dominance, exclusion or marginalisation as well as, superiority and recognition. There are

two main categories under ethnic conflict. These are intra-ethnic conflict and inter-ethnic

conflict. The former is the type of conflict that exist between the same ethnic group for

example the Dagbon violent conflict between the Abudu‟s and the Andani‟s which led to the

death of the Yaa Na (Yakubu Andani), overlord of Dagbon in 2002. Brukum (1995)

described it as a war of emancipation or secession. The latter, is the type where conflict exists

between and among different ethnic groups. Kendie & Tuffour (2014) argued that, inter-

ethnic conflicts are mostly caused by feelings of superiority by one ethnic group (mostly the

indigenes) overs others. For example, Nkoya vs. Alavayo conflict, Dagomba vs. Kokomba,

Manprusi vs. Kusase and many more. The underlying interest is either over land ownership,

chieftaincy succession, competition over land usage or location of institutions and services.

Ethnicity has been a major source of violent ethnic conflict despite the existence of

peaceful and cooperative ethnic groups in Ghana (GSS, 2010). Richardson and Sen (1996)

have noted that ethnic conflicts have the potential of undermining economic and socio-

political development. This is because it slows down growth and advancement as resources

are diverted to maintaining peace and security. It also destroys physical infrastructure; causes

brain drain; and curtails foreign investments (Bukari, 2011). Above all, ethnic conflicts have

generated internecine wars of grave effects and truncating development and democratic

institutions in many pluralistic societies, thereby destabilising the nation-state in many

African counties which Ghana is no exception (Tuffour & Obeng, 2008).

Religious conflict: This type of conflict exists between and among religious groups with

diverse beliefs, practices, traditions and rituals. It could be the disagreement between

Muslims and Muslims, Christians and Muslims, between Christians and Muslims and

between Christians and followers of traditional and primitive idols worshipers. A typical

example is the much debated religious conflict between the Ga traditional authority and the

Christian council of Ghana. Some Christian churches in Ghana see no reason why they

should respect the annual prohibition on drumming and dancing in churches which precedes

the Homowo festical of the Ga community. Not more than four cases of conflict are reported

every year about attack by organised unofficial enforcers of the ban on some Christian

churches who failed to respect the ban. Moreover, the Tijanniya Muslims and the Al-Sunni

Muslims clash at Tamale in the northern region, where one person died and several injured is

a typical example of religious conflict. The dispute between Muslims at Chereponi in the

northern region over who should become the next Imam after the serving Imam died

according to Tsikata and Seini (2004) are all examples of religious conflict in Ghana.

Political conflict: This type of conflict comes about when political parties tend to compete

for political power. It occurs as a result of violent clashes between rival political groupings

mostly party supporters (Kendie, 2014). In the process of political strategies, party

supporters sometimes tend to use aggressive methods and illegal means to help their party

leaders capture political power. Meanwhile, it could lead to violent political clash. State

repression, civil strife, coup d‟état, electoral violence and disputes are some of the

characteristics of the nature of political conflict in Ghana. A typical example is the Gushiegu

conflict in northern Ghana. A post-election violence occurred on the 30th

December 2008 at

Kpatinga electoral area when the National Democratic Congress (NDC) supporters were

hoisting a flag to celebrate the victory of their party in the December 2008 elections.

Unfortunately, the ceremony was taking place at a location which was not far from where the

rival party supporters of the New Patriotic Party (NPP) were also constructing their party

shed. As part of the jubilations, hooting and chants of mockery ended up in stone throwing.

It later escalated into a physical fight and the police had to intervene to calm the situation

after many activist sustaining injuries. Therefore, political conflicts emanating from the

processes of politics and governance are a major source of conflict in sub-Saharan Africa.

Natural resource based conflict: This type of conflict emanate as a result of interests and

increasing attention over the advantages and benefits within a nation and between states over

natural resources. These natural resources can be land, gold, diamond, tin, iron ore, oil etc.

Kendie and Tuffour (2014) argues that, resource based conflicts are the misunderstanding in

the utilisation and ownership of resources which could be state own, private own, communal

own or open access. Khortari (1979) also see resource as a major cause of conflict between

individuals and groups within political systems and between nations. Parties struggle over

natural resources exploitation, usage and ownership rights. Conflict in the Niger Delta in

Nigeria is a typical example of natural resource based conflict. More so, the Sierra Leone war

in the 1990s has a part to blame on diamond. The recently discovered oil in Ghana if not well

manage can result into violent conflict between residents and government or between Ghana

government and Ivory Coast. The numerous natural resource based conflict in Africa

challenged me to ask on several occasions whether natural resources are blessing or curse.

Chieftaincy conflict: This type of conflict is where ethnic groups or individuals compete

over who has the rights and legitimacy to assume chieftaincy succession and the power to

exercise authority. Struggle over land right, recognition and supremacy are all underlying

interest of chieftaincy conflict. Chieftaincy in Ghana for instance is the causative agent of

several communal conflicts, particularly those related to succession to traditional political

office and the struggle over land ownership. In Ghana, chieftaincy succession disputes often

are protracted and violent serving as major causes of violent conflict (Kendie, 2007). In

northern Ghana it is mostly about succession rules to skins, practises and processes. For

example, the chieftaincy conflict between Abudu‟s and Andani‟s in northern Ghana.

Effects of conflict

Conflict may lead to loss of confidence and trust in each other especially with

reference to the parties‟ involved. This is very likely to happen where people have been

betrayed, where agreements and contracts, established rules, laws or procedures have been

disregarded. This may also lead to insecurity most especially if the conflict had involved loss

of life and property. Nyalemegbe (2011) argues that Tsito and Awudome communities are

enjoying fragile peace because of fear and insecurity that exists between the two ethnic

groups. Conflicts tend to create tension in people and relationships become strained and as a

result, things that could be done within a short time have to go through lengthy procedures or

any not be done at all. Parties become suspicious of each other and the situation saps a lot of

energy and may drive people displaced. Not much can be achieved in such countries unless

steps are taken to bring down tensions and deal with the conflict situation.

Conflict makes individuals and groups unable to act and function properly. This is

the ultimate cost that a conflict may exact on development. Nothing works as desired and

social structures become more affected. Conflict also may divide a community, individuals

and groups into sharply contrasting positions with reference to beliefs, opinions or ideologies

on how things should be done. These tend to bring development to a standstill. This is likely

to occur in situations where the conflicting parties do not want to have anything in common

and mutually exclude each other in development activities. Socio-political development

involves cooperation or working together to achieve goals and objectives. Cooperation

between actors in development has become a necessary condition for development activity.

In an instance where individuals, groups or communities do not show the spirit of

cooperation, not much can be achieve on socio-political development.

During conflict times schools are interrupted; children and teachers fear for their

lives, and this retards educational development. Meanwhile, education is the engine of social

development and economic growth of every country including Ghana. The effects of conflicts

are often pervasive, affecting all aspects of a person or community‟s social, political and

economic life and tend to also affect institutions such as education and health (Coleman,

2000). In the event of conflicts, agriculture is seriously hampered affecting crop yields and

animal production (Zaur, 2006).

Benefits of Conflict

Having analysed the cost of conflicts, it is fair to discuss the positive aspect of conflict

so that we can make the best use of it for socio-political development (Cox, 1972). Conflicts

are necessary for change in human society since they help to build relationships in groups,

establish a group‟s identity, build internal cohesion in groups and can lead to balance of

power in society as well as create new rules and laws (Coser, 1956). Conflict contributes to

development and growth. It brings about progress. Liberia went through a period of eight

year civil war and after, the country is being rebuilt with modern development planning

designs. Apart from that, the aftermath of Liberia‟s civil war have given women the

opportunity to fully participate in governance and democracy which is one of the reasons why

a woman is the head of State.

Rwanda used not to have a constitution but after the 1994 genocide of mass killing of

Tutsi by Hutus, there has been a need to have a constitution to govern the country. Again, in

the aftermath of the Rwandan genocide women‟s lives have been transformed through the

opportunity given them to participate in decision making processes. Women have been

empowered to assume leadership roles at top government levels which prior to the conflict

they were relegated to the background (Mzvondiva, 2007).

In Ghana, Alavanyo and Nkonya refused to have a road built between the towns

because of ethnic conflict but after the parties brokered peace they have now built the road

which is serving the interest of the two towns (Nyalemegbe, 2011). These scenarios above

clearly underpin the fact that conflict in itself is beneficial but only tend to be bad when it

escalate into violence.

Dynamics of Conflict

Every conflict has its properties and dynamics. Just as development planning is cyclical in

nature and goes through various stages so as conflict.

According to Fisher (2000), the first stage of conflict is the pre-conflict stage. Here,

goals between parties become incompatible, communication is broken and they try to hide it

from public notice.

The second stage is the stage of confrontation. Under this stage, conflict starts to

manifest, there is fighting sometimes but at low level. Parties tend to search for allies,

mobilize resources, strained relations and polarization begins.

The crisis stage is where the conflict reaches its peak. Here, situation are often intense

and fighting lead to killing, maiming and large scale of population displacements occur, and

the use of small arms and light weapons are manifested.

The fourth stage is often the outcome of the violence. One of the parties winning or

losing or a ceasefire may be declared and peace accord signed. One party may surrender or

the third party intervening uses forces stronger than the warring parties to impose a solution

to stop the fighting. At this stage, violence is often decreased and allows room for some

discussion to commence or alternative means of settling the conflict.

The fifth stage is the post-conflict stage. Here, violence is either reduced or ended.

This is when the causes of the conflict are mostly underlined; the goals of the conflicting

parties such as needs, fears, positions and interests are identified. However, if these issues are

not well addressed, the conflict may re-escalate and return to the first stage with consequent

re-eruption of violence. A careful analysis of the stages will bring out areas of agreement and

relationships which could constitute to common grounds to assist in either building peace or

managing conflict for socio-political development.

Theoretical Underpinnings of Conflict

Conflict can be explained and classified from various perspectives including those of

the classical social theorists (Karl Marx & August Comte) and the structural conflict theorist

(Collier, 2000). In this paper, seven (7) out of the numerous theories underpinning conflict

are explored. First of all, is the structural conflict theory attempts to explain conflict as a

product of the tension that arises when groups compete for scarce resources. This theory has

two main sub-orientations; the first is the radical structural theory represented by the Marxist

dialectical school with exponents like Mark and Engels, V.I Lenin etc., the second is the

liberal structuralism represented by Scarborough, and the famous Johan Garltung on

structural violence. Structuralisms thus sees incompatible interests based on competition for

resources which in most cases are assumed to be scarce, as being responsible for social

conflicts. People and groups exploit open access natural resources and when the resource is

depleting, they then to compete over it which most often result into conflict. The argument of

the theory is also that conflict is built into the particular ways societies are structured and

organised. It looks at political and economic exclusion, injustice, poverty, exploitation and

inequality as source of conflict (Tuffour & Obeng, 2008).

Secondly, Economic theories see the occurrence of conflict in human society as

basically arising from human‟s tendency to fight over things that are material (Faleti, 2006).

Thus, economic theories attribute the existence of conflict in society to the contest for

resources, employment, economic equalities and wealth. Some conflicts which arise from

economic factors such as the fight over resources tend to affect development negatively

because these conflicts become violent leading to destruction of property, social amenities,

and livelihoods. The theorist further argues that, some few people commonly referred to as

„conflict entrepreneurs‟ actually benefit from conflict, chaos, mayhem, civil war, strife,

hostility, upheaval etc. while majority of the people are negatively affected by the conflict

instigated by these conflict entrepreneurs. These conflict entrepreneurs could be politicians,

business tycoons and unemployed youth who take advantage in conflict. Politicians

sometimes mobilise unemployed youth who see the system as not favouring them to cause

conflict so that they can benefit. When conflict becomes violent and severe, conflict

entrepreneurs tend to make profit thereby supplying small arms to the conflicting parties.

Other entrepreneurs often participate in the violence because it offers them immediate

economic gains. Some tend to steal and loot. A critical example of conflict entrepreneurs is

the Boko Haram group in Nigeria. This is why Collier (2006) argues that conflicts in societies

are a way caused by some people called conflict entrepreneurs.

Thirdly, the Realist conflict theory originates from the classical political theory and

shares both theological and biological doctrines about an apparent weakness inherent in

human nature. It thus traces the roots of conflict to a flaw in human nature which is seen to be

selfish and engaging in the pursuit of personalized self-interest defined as power. Morgenthau

(1973) argue that the imperfection in the world, namely conflict, has its roots in forces that

are inherent in human nature, that human nature is selfish, individualistic and naturally

conflictive and that such interest will come into conflict with those of others leading to the

inevitability of conflict.

Furthermore, the Biological conflict theory has given rise to what may be referred to as

the innate theory of conflict which contends that conflict is innate in all social interactions,

and among all animals, including human beings. Human beings are animals, albeit higher

species of animals, and would fight naturally over things they cherish (Dollard, 1939). The

thinking is that since our ancestors were instructively violent beings, and since we evolved

from them, we too must bear destructive impulses in our generic make up. Thomas Hobbes

and St. Augustine of Hippo are classical biological theorists. Conflict under this category is

produced as a result of the biological motivation actions of human beings (Sandole, 1990).

Besides, the position of Human needs theory is that, all human beings have basic

needs which they seek to fulfil in life, and the denial of these needs by other agents including

government, groups or individuals could affect them immediately or later, thereby leading to

conflict. „Basic human needs‟ in this sense comprise physical, psychological, social and

spiritual needs. In essence, to provide access to one (e.g. food, water, clothing) and deny or

hinder access to another (e.g. freedom of worship) will amount to denial and could make

people to resort to violence in an effort to protect these needs. The denial of these needs

hampers the actualization of the potentials of groups and individuals, subsequently leading to

violent conflict.

Nevertheless, Relational theories attempt to provide explanations for the violent

conflicts between groups by exploring sociological, political, economic and historical

relationships between such groups. Thus, the belief here is that cultural and value differences

are as well as group interests all influence relationships between individuals. A number of

conflicts grow out of a past history of conflict between groups that has led to the development

of negative stereotypes, racial intolerance and discrimination. Such a history of negative

exchanges between groups may make it difficult for efforts to integrate different ethnic and

religious groups within the society to succeed because their past interactions make it difficult

for them to trust one another. In the West African sub-region for instance, it has been difficult

to get groups like the Hausa/Fulani, Igbo and the Yoruba in Nigeria and in Ghana between

the Ewe‟s and Ashanti‟s to let go their past.

The Frustration-aggression theories argue that frustration has a variety of sources and

can take two forms. First, it can be absolute, which happens when people do not have enough

to survive, and second, it can be relative, which happen when people have enough to survive

but have less than those around them. The theories argues that human beings have basic

needs (food, water, shelter, clothe, employment etc.) which they intend to enjoy, therefore the

moment they are denied, marginalised, discriminated and deprived of such basic needs they

become frustrated and then aggressive on the very structures that is denying them access to

their basic needs. It is obvious that, naturally human beings do not want to be frustrated for

too long, if it happens so; they tend to forget about their relations with whoever is frustrating

them and they end up acting furiously.

Analysing the Theories for Socio-political Development

In assessing the structural conflict theory for socio-political development, I want to

argue that solution to this type of conflict in our society is to eliminate structural defects with

policy reforms and paradigm shift. Conflict occurs among groups and that groups have

structures which define the group. For the purpose of social and political development of

Ghana, governments must place pragmatic mechanism that tends to remove structural

deficiencies. There should be community management committees at local levels whose role

should be to ensure that social exclusion and ethnic discrimination, inequality and

marginalisation between individuals and among groups in accessing scarce resource are dealt

with. In so doing competition over scarce resources leading to violent conflict can be minimal

since conflict cannot be avoided completely in human existence.

Evaluating economic conflict theory for socio-political development, I want to argue

that, conflicts; civil wars, ethnic wars, religious conflict, etc. in West Africa, and for that

matter Ghana are seen from the worldview of the economic rationality in which William

Reno‟s words become an instrument of enterprise and violence as a mode of accumulation.

The basis of violent conflict is the economic industry that it generates in which mineral and

agricultural products, diamonds, oil, cocoa and coffee goad rebels into rebellion. There are

two basic elements in the theory which I intend to explain in detailed in this paper. First of

all, looting is the purpose of conflicts and during conflict rebels begin their tactics as ordinary

robbers. Ordinary robbers are influenced by economies of scale, after certain threshold of

killing and looting they attain the status of rebels. Governments should ensure that the

redistribution of the nation‟s natural resource revenue is evenly distributed and most

especially should targets vulnerable communities by providing them with adequate safety

nets; social amenities to enable them develop in order to avoid chaos and conflict. For me, I

see conflict at the Niger Delta in Nigeria as the cause of unequal redistribution of the oil

revenues and corruption hence, frustrated individuals forcibly becomes aggressive rebels who

tend to fight the government in order to have access to the national cake. This is why Berdal

and Malone (2000) argue that economic factors such as poverty, economic disparities and

unemployment are the main factors that compel people to violence although a lot of other

factors do exist. The contest for the control of economic assets, resources and systems are the

basic causes of conflicts in human society. Therefore assessing critically, the theory tends to

advice government to ensure equal redistribution of state revenues. Creating employment for

the youth as well as putting pragmatic measures in place to check corruptions will in the long

run ensure socio-political development.

Examining the realist conflict theory for socio-political development, I want to

contend that, human being is by nature selfish and would want to have everything at all cost

without considering others. This is why Ademola (2006) argued that the starting point of

conflict is the individual level. Therefore governments should put in place effective measures

that can check the activities of especially public workers in order not to misappropriate public

funds. The recent corruption allegation of the acting national service director, the Tamale

DVLA boss, Ghana Customs service, Alfred Agbeshie Wayome, Victoria Hummer and

Muntaka Mubarak- all former public servants and former ministers of state, etc. raised the

source of conflict in incompatible of ideals between the NPP and NDC. The opposition NPP

accused the ruling government NDC of not only misappropriating state fund but also

nurturing political thieves. However, if the realist conflict theory is considered and that

human beings are by nature selfish and would use any strategy to accumulate wealth and

other vital resources to themself and their family‟s alone, incompatible ideals between and

among politicians, organisations, institutions and civil society leading to conflict would be

minimal. I want to support my argument with the fact that in economics we often hear human

wants are unlimited so therefore human beings become selfish because they are not satisfied

with what they have, and sort to have everything through any channel without thinking about

others and the consequences attached to their actions. The implication of this theory for the

socio-political development of Ghana is that, effective check and balance measures,

monitoring and evaluation mechanism and legal action should be put in place to monitor the

selfish nature of individuals who would want to have everything through every means at all

cost, which in the long run may lead to conflict.

Arguing on the biological conflict theory for socio-political development, I want to put

on record that, human beings by no means can end violent conflict. This is why Kendie

(2010) argued that social conflict in our society cannot be prevented entirely. This is because

humans possess the generic features of violence and we cherish conflicts. Over 2000 years

ago BC, Aden and Eve were governed by heavenly city of God. One of the laws of the city of

God was not to touch nor eat the fruit of evil and knowledge but because of the conflicting

nature of humans and the desire to break laws disobeyed God and ate the fruit. More so, in

the same Bible Cain killed his brother Abel out of jealousy. What about the coup d‟état in

heaven leading to Lucifer‟s thrown down from heaven. These are all manifestations of man‟s

desire to break law and cause violence. Human beings are born law breakers from creation?

Interested researchers can look at it to advance knowledge. The thinking is that since our

ancestors were instructively violent beings, and since we evolved from them, we too must

bear destructive impulses in our generic make up. The basic implication of this theory for the

socio-political development is that Ghana governments should recruit more security

personnel to boost security and defence since human beings are unpredictable and can cause

violence at any point in time. Considering the theory critically will have a significant

influence for human security and social development.

Human beings have basic needs that make them feel complete in life. The denial from

realising their basic needs such as food, water, clothing, freedom, participation, spiritual

needs, psychological needs, peace and security and the likes, they become frustrated and then

aggressive towards the hindrance against their basic needs. The Frustration-aggression

theories underpin most of the conflicts in human existence. More often than not people tend

to question the status quo that hinders them their basic needs. In the process of questioning

sometimes lead to violent conflicts. This theory suggest that inasmuch as every country want

to develop and have violent conflict free society, basic human needs including water, food,

access to health care, social security, education should not be denied. I want to emphasized

that one of the reasons why Africa and for that matter Ghana is a conflict zone is that peoples

basic needs are denied them. Are European countries and USA not recording violent conflict

because basic human needs are provided? I believe most readers will quickly say yes of

course. If so, I want to argue further that, socio-political development can in a way be

ensured when people‟s basic needs are not denied them. In a nut shell, the theory advice that

basic human needs should not be denied. Social amenities including, schools, affordable

housing, hospitals, roads, markets, recreation, potable drinking water, security etc. should be

provided by the state thereby targeting especially the vulnerable, weak, and marginalised

groups in society so that people will not be frustrated to cause violent conflict.

Rational conflict theories thinks that lack of trust and past history is the basis of most

violent conflict. A number of conflicts grow out of a past history of conflict between groups

that has led to the development of negative stereotypes, racial intolerance and discrimination.

Most of the ethnic discrimination leading to conflict is as the result of ethnic groups relying

on past events. Citizens tend to follow other political parties because of an unfair treating

against them by another political party. For example, in Ghana many Akan ethnic groups are

NPP supporters because of a past event during the military era where former President

Rawlings an Ewe from the Volta region punished several Akans. The Ashanti-Ewe rivalry

has persisted into Ghana‟s Fourth Republic, with Ashanti-Ewe exceptionalism in voting

patterns. While other regions distribute their votes, Volta and Ashanti Regions concentrate

their votes on their home-based parties in all the elections held in the 4th

Republic. I want to

argue that, for the benefit of socio-political development, Ghana needs to adopt a holistic and

pragmatic ethnicfication approach. Also, the identity configuration of the Ghana need to be

critically examined vis a vis the western democracy we have adopted so as to develop ethnic

policies for the country. A national framework with which all can identify without any

distinction based on ethnicity and tribe needs to be put in place. A few states in Africa such

as Botswana and Benin have been able to pragmatically manage their relatively

inconsequential diversity to reflect exemplary cohesiveness, democracy, stability and

sustained growth. Hence, Ghana should learn from these countries through a policy transfer

to help prevent ethnic discrimination which the rational theories thinks is source of violent

conflict in our society.

A significant element of the frustration-aggression theory concerns the redirection or

displacement of aggression. Human beings do not want to be frustrated for too long. The

longitudinal nature of their frustrations harbours aggressiveness leading to conflict. I want to

debate that individual and groups should not be caused to be frustrated for too long else they

may become aggressive and misbehave or put to a standstill their services. It is for this reason

why in Ghana, the University Teachers Association of Ghana (UTAG) became frustrated by

the government over the denial of their books and research allowances which made them

aggressive and went on strike. The theories further on contend that a particular frustration

instigates aggression primarily against the source of the frustration and also instigates

aggression against targets that are to some degree related to that source. Employers must

ensure that they fulfil their promises to their employees, heads of institutions and

organisations should equally ensure that they do not frustrates their members because the

frustration can lead to conflict when they become aggressive. For the purpose of socio-

political development, memorandum of understanding should be signed and promises should

be fulfilled when individuals and groups begin to raise sentiments. This is because failure

disappointments lead to groups or individuals expressing their anger through violence geared

towards those they hold responsible or people who are directly or indirectly related to them

(Tuffour & Obeng, 2008).

Conclusion

Conflicts are part of social life and daily activities of human beings. It is not entirely

wrong because it create awareness and brings about changes and development. It only

becomes bad when it metamorphoses into violence conflict. Generally, speaking the term

conflict describes a situation in which two or more actors pursue incompatible, yet from their

individual perspectives entirely just goals. Just as planning undergoes through stages so do

conflict also undergoes through stages that is from the precondition stage to post conflict

stage. There are various types of conflict including religious, chieftaincy, political, and

resource based etc. which defines the categories of conflicts. Also, any type of conflicts is

underpinned by certain theory. Among these theories include the biological, realist, human

need, frustration aggression etc. Above all, theories of conflict have implication for socio-

political development of every country including Ghana and if critically examined can

promote peace and sustainable development.

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