The Veda and Ved Rel G On - Forgotten Books

THE

VEDA and VED

REL G ON

WITH

READ INGS FROM THE VEDAS

A . C. CLAYTON

Author of The Paraiyan (Madras Governmen t Museum Bullelt’

n),

Ganga i’

s Pilgrimage, The Tamil Bible D ictionary , clc.

CHRISTIAN LITERATURE SOCIETY FOR INDIA

LONDON AND MADRAS

l 9 l 3

Th is Book may be h ad f rom

THE C. L. S . DEPOT, MEMORIAL HAL L COMPOUND ,

P . 0 . Box 3 , MADRAS .

D HURRAMTOL LAH S TREET,

CAL CUTTA .

CL IVE ROAD , AL LAHABAD .

D AM S TREET, COL OMBO .

3 5 JOHN STREET, BEDFORD

ROW , LONDON , W . C .

CON TE N TS

THE ARYAN S

THE VEDAS OF THE ARYAN S

THE NATURE OF VEDIC GODS

A CLAS S IFIED ACCOUNT OF THE VEDIC

GODS

THE S ACRIF ICES OF THE ARYAN S

THE PRAYERS OF THE ARYAN S

THE MES SAGE OF THE R I G -VEDA

READINGS FROM THE VEDA

APPENDICES .

I . TRADITIONS CONCERNI NG THE

ORIGIN OF THE VEDAS

I I . THE METRES OF THE VEDAS .

I I I . VEDIC S AN SKRIT

IV. THE CONTENTS OF THE R I G

VEDA n .

V. THE CONTENTS OF THE S AMA

VEDA 0 0 . 0 0 .

V I . T H E C O N T E N T S O F T H E

YAJUR -VEDA

V I I . T H E C O N T E N T S O F T H E

ATHARVA-VEDA

B IBL IOGRAPHY

INDEX

E RRATUM

On page 121 , in the ten th l in e

page , th e reference should read : R z’

ABOUT two years ago the writer was asked to prepare

for the Chri stian Literature S oci ety for India a revi sed

edi tion Of the late D r . Murdoch ’s Accou n t of th e Ved as

and con sen ted to do so . But he soon found that no

revi sion Of that book, useful as i t had been , could be

m ade that would adequately represen t m odern kn ow

ledg e an d m odern methods Of in terpretat ion of the

Veda s . Con sequen tly the presen t volum e,though con

tain ing all tha t was of perman en t value in D r. Murdoch ’s

h andbook , i s a dist in ct an d n ew treatm en t Of the

subj ect . But it makes no claim to be orig inal . I t i s

on ly a care ful compilat ion Of what i s known of th e l i fe

and rel ig ion and Hymn s Of Vedi c t imes, an d the

bibl iography and the footnotes wi l l show to how

many teachers the writer i s , most gratefully , a debtor .

H e has ven tured on independen t statem en ts on ly when

referen ce i s made to the influen ce Of the Dravidian on

the Aryan rel ig ion , or to the rel ig ious practi ces Of

D ravidian s in S outh India at the presen t t im e—subj ectson which he has had special Opportun i t ies Of Ob ser

vat ion S in ce 1 892.

By the perm i ssion of Messrs . E . J . Lazarus CO .,

Benares, the Readings from the Vedas are taken from

the adm i rable seri es Of tran slat ion s of th e Vedas prepared

by the late R . T . H . Gri ffith and publi shed by that firm .

A . C . CLAYTON .

N OTE ON THE S PE LL I NG AND

PRONUNC IAT ION OF SAN SKR IT WORDS

A S th is book is written for th e average studen t-reader rath er th anfor th e spec ial ist , techn ical ities have , as far as poss ib le. beenavoided , b u t th e tran s l iteration of San skrit words wil l general lyb e found to agree with th e sch eme accepted by th e GenevaCongress of Orientalists an d th e Royal A siatic S ociety .

S ome kn ow ledge Of th e S an skrit alph abet is n eeded to graspth e sounds Of letters distingu ished by diacritical marks such as

n , r, t , s’

. Bu t th e distinction between long and short vowe lsis more easy to Observe . A l l vowels are pronounced in I tal ianfashion rath er th an in Eng lish , i .e . l ike th e vowe ls in do. re , m i,fa of th e mu sica l scale. Long vowe ls have been g iven in th e textwith a long mark Over them , e g . Indran i , Surya.

Th e sh ort vowe l a is never pronounced l ike th e a in‘ that

I t h as always a sound correspon ding to th e a in‘

era’

. For

I nstance , th e first syl lab le in Varuna ’

is pronounced someth ingl ike th e first syl lab le in th e word curren tMany S an skrit names , l ike Krishna, Rama , S ita an d words l ike

upan ishad , rishi, veda , R ig-veda have become so wel l-known th at

u sual ly it h as not seemed n eedfu l to in sert diacritical marks inthem.

T H E R I G -V E D A

A N D

V E D I C R E L I G I O N

I. THE ARYAN 5

I N the dawn ing t im e of hi story , somewhere in the lands

b eyon d Afghan i stan an d n orth Of Persia roam ed bold

t r ibes Of fa i r - com plexion ed m en an d

wom en w i t h their horses an d cattle .

From stori es that have com e down to

us about them , from words that they used which have

sti l l place in our speech , and from ri te s of worshi p st i l l

Observed by man y Of the ir descendan ts to -day som e

thin g can be kn own Of the ir l i fe an d thoughts . They

were a rough , brave , hardy , adven turous race , Of hon est

The

early Aryans

an d simple soul .

S om e Of them gradua l ly l im i ted the ir wanderin g s to

I ran ,the land of Persia . There they settled an d there

they stayed , becom ing the an cestors Of the Parsi s now

in I ndia ; an d their speech becam e the Old Z en d lan

guage and the ir rel ig ion , wi th i ts sacred l iterature , the

Aves ta Of Z oroaster , developed in to Z oroastrian i sm .

Others of these tribes, more daring , by long marches ,an d through man y gen erat ion s approached an d en tered

In d ia from the n orth -west . These were the m en who

ca l led them selves‘

Aryas’

, Aryan s, a word m ean ingkin smen ’

as di st in ct from the aborig ina l tr ibes a lready

dwel l ing i n the land .

1An d though much con cern ing

them i s Obscure , n ot a l i ttle i s eviden t, an d to -day i t i s

MACDON NELL , S a n s kr i t L i tera tu re , p 1 52.

4 THE RIG -VEDA AND VEDIC REL IG ION

possible to look back across the man y cen tur ies that

s eparate us from those n omads an d learn what man n er

O f men they were . Having som e con cept ion Of th e

m en them selves, rem embering that they were on ce a l ive ,

and vast ly con cern ed with matters that fi l l m en ’s l ives ,e ven tod ay , i t wi l l be possible to go on to som e survey

of their hym n s an d their bel iefs , the ir hopes an d the ir

fears , their gods and the i r demon s , not as to a dry

study Of abstract ion s but in hope Of findin g the v ital

beginn ing s Of fai ths that st i l l sway the heart s Of m i l l ion s

in Ind ia .

F rom the nam es of the rivers m en t i on ed in the i r

h ymn s i t i s clear that about the t im e that they were

The home of t hecompos

ed , the

.

chief settlem en ts of th e

‘ ryansAryan s I n Ind ia were in the n e ighbour~

hood Of the S indhu , the m odern Indus ,a r iver which after receivin g the waters Of its tributar ie s

i s so wide that people on on e bank cannot see the

Opposite bank . The H imalayas would preven t them

f rom turn ing towards the n orth , an d i t i s thus clear

that before they crossed the Yamuna , the m odern

J umna , an d made their way to the Ganges, the Aryan s

dwelt ma in ly in E ast Kabu listan an d the Pan jab . Th e

S araswat i was the ir southern boundary during that

period .

As to other races that were in the lan d there i s l itt le

in format ion in the hymn s Of the Aryan s an d the scien ce

o f ethn ology has to help us . From i t we l earn that

before the Aryan s cam e India was sparsely peopled by

som e of the races that are now Often cal led‘

j ung le

t ribes’

. Among them the maj ori ty would be Dravi

d ian s . The Gonds, Bhi l s an d San tal s are modern

I . THE ARYANS 5

survivors of those races . S ome were very humble in

the sca le Of human i ty burying the ir dead in the cel l s

made Of ston e - slabs, ca l led K is tvaen s by sc ien t i st s and

Pandava vidu’ —the houses Of the Pandava brothers

when in ex i l e—by the Tam i l people Of the south to

thi s day . Those in the south were n ever so subj ect to

t he Aryan s as the tribes Of the n orth an d g rew in to the


powerful an d civi l i z ed Tam i l and Telugu nat i on s , but

there i s no hin t Of th i s in the R ig -veda . There these ab

orig in es are n am ed‘

D asyu’ ‘

destroyers ’

or Dasa ’

, or‘

in j urious ’

. Their sk in s

were m uch darker than those of the Aryan s an d so

they were st igmat ized as‘

black ’ or‘

black - sk in s ’

From the shape Of their broad n oses they were cal led‘

goat -nosed’

. They possessed herds, they h ad stron gholds cal led

‘

pur ’

. Those wh o were captured were

made slaves , an d the very word‘

d as a’ cam e to mean

‘

slave ’

in later San skri t an d cognate languages . Th e

referen ces to their rel ig ion describe them as Offerin g no

sacrifices , bein g unbel i evers in the gods Of the Aryan s,and thus grievously impious . There are two passages

in which they are cal led s’

is'

n a -d evah , whose god i s th e

phal lus ’

(R ig -ved a vii . 21 . 5 ; x . 99 . an d I t wil l b e

rem embered that the phal lus , as the l inga , cam e to b e

the chie f symbol of the god S i va I n later H in du ism . lFrom the first these Dasyus were the en em i es Of th e

Aryan s, but their demon worship great ly aff ected th e

Aryan s, especia l ly in the simpler dom est ic rel ig ion that

h as always been that Of the ordinary folk .

Probably the con dit ion s Of cl imate an d soi l were then

much as they are now an d the Aryan s wh o had l ived

in ten ts wh i le they were n omads becam e dwellers in

houses . The roofs Of these houses were Of long bam

boos la id on rafters supported by pi l lars or corn er posts .

The spaces between the pi l lars were fi l led in with straw

or reeds , t ied in bundles . I n places where ston e was

The Dasyus

1 M AGDON N E L L , S a n s kr i t L i tera tu re . p . 1 53 ; Ved z’

c I n d ex

ii . 3 82 D r . Mu ir does not agree in th is in terpretation . S a n skr i t

Texts I V . 41 1

I . THE ARYANS 7

readi ly obta inable i t was som et im es used, and Indra i s

sa id to have destroyed a hundred cit ies Of ston e . The

roof would be of thatch , and the various

t imbers were fasten ed together w i th

bars , pegs , ropes an d thong s . The house had a door

fasten ed by a strap . A number Of these houses made

a vi l lage . S uch vi llages were n ear to stream s or rivers

for the sake Of crops an d catt le . There were rampart s

an d ditches to protect the vi l lage from en em i e s or from

flood . But there were no cit ies , i f by c i ty i s m ean t a

collect ion of houses n ear to each other surrounded by

a wal l

Bread , m i lk an d products from m i lk , such as butter,cakes of flour and butter, vegetables and fruits were

the usua l art icles Of food . But m eat ,roasted or boi led , was eaten , though

probably on ly at great feasts and fam i ly gatherings .

The late Dr . Rajend ralala Mitra occupied the highest

rank among Indian scholars , and in hi s [ ad o -Arya n s ,

he h as a chapter headed , Beef in An cien t India .

’ I t

beg in s as fol lows

The t itle Of th i s paper wil l , doubtless , prove highlyOff en sive to m ost Of my coun trym en ; but the in terestattached to the inquiry in conn ex ion with the earlysocia l h i story of the Aryan race on th i s side Of theH imalaya , will , I trust , plead m y excuse . The ideaOf beef— the flesh Of the earthly represen tat ive Of thed ivm e Bh agavat i

—as an arti cle Of food i s so shock ingto the H indus, tha t thousands over thousands Of themore orthodox am ong them n ever repeat the coun terpart of the word in the ir vern aculars , and man y an d

dire have been the sanguinary con fl i cts which the Shedding Of the blood Of cows has caused in th is coun try .

And yet i t would seem that there was a t im e when

Aryan houses


not On ly no compun ct ion s, visi t ing s Of con scien ce ,h ad a place in the m in d O f the people in slaughteringcattle—when not on ly the m eat Of that an ima l wasa ctua l ly esteem ed a va luable a l imen t—when not on l ywas i t a ma rk of gen erous hospi tal i ty , as among thean cien t J ews, to slaughter the fatted cal f

’

in hon ourOf respected guests—but when a supply O f beef wasdeem ed an absolute n ecessity by pious H indus intheir j ourn ey from thi s to an other world , an d a cow

was invariably ki l led to be burn t with the dead .

Dr . Rajen d ralala Mitra quotes Coleb rooke’

s Opin ion

as follows

I t seem s to have been an cien t ly the custom to slaya cow on that occasion (the recept ion Of a guest) anda guest was therefore cal led a gogh n a , or

‘

cow ki l lerI n the Ut ta ra Rama Ch a r itra the ven erable Old poetan d herm i t Va lm iki , when preparing to rece ive hi sbrother sage Vas ista , the author Of on e Of theorig inal law books (S m r it z

’

s) which regulates therel ig ious l i fe Of the people, and a prom in en t charactereven in the Vedas, slaughtered a lot Of calves expresslyfor the en terta inm en t Of h is guests . Vas ista , in hi sturn , l ikewi se slaughtered the

‘

fatted cal f’

whenen terta in ing ViSvam itra , Janaka, Satanan da , Jamadagnya , and other sages and fri ends . 1

Cows an d oxen were sacrificed on certa in occasion s

even in later Vedic t imes and on such occasion s priest

and sacrificer would eat part Of the flesh Of the victim .

9

Sa lt i s not men t ion ed in the hymn s, though it abounds

in the Northern Pan jab .

For drink the Aryan s used s n ra, a brandy made from

corn or barley , and s oma , the sap Of a herb of the

1 I n d o-Aryan s , vol . i , pp . 356- 8 .

9 S ee S ection v . Th e S acr ifi ces of th e A rya n s , also M ACDON

N ELL . Ved ic I n d ex ii . 1 45 .

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1 0 THE R IG -VEDA AND VEDIC REL IG ION

be an indicat ion Of very early in tercourse between India

and the western S em it i c races . S hips are m en t ion ed .

The fam i ly was the un i t and the father Of the fam i l y

was i t s high - priest an d head , an d con trol led the worsh ipOf the an cestors Of the fam i ly in all de

ta i l s . H e kn ew the pecul iar ritual which

was tradit ional in hi s fam i ly , an d which h ad to be ma in

tain ed un changed , i f the favour Of the dead was to b e

reta in ed . H e a lon e h ad the power to pass on the r i tes

to hi s son . The reveren ce an d the power which h i s

priestly posit ion brought h im made h im suprem e in the

household . H e had ful l power over h i s w i fe an d h is

young chi ldren , an d hi s g rown -up son s were under hi s

authority . The property Of the fam i ly was a ltogether in

hi s hands . Thi s was the source Of the paternal authority

(pa tr z'

a potes ta s) of the Roman father, an d Of the prom i

n en t place held by the father in Greece , Persia , I n dia ,

an d among Teuton i c an d S lavon i c peoples as wel l . Thi s

type Of fam i ly , whi ch i s kn own as the patriarcha l , suc

ceeded an earl ier an d less developed type . 1

Youths an d ma iden s saw each other at fest iva l s .

S hould the youth be attracted he gen erall y but not a lway s

asked for the ma iden in marr iage from

her father through a frien d . I t was

con sidered improper for the marr iages Of youn ger son s

or daughters to be arran ged before those Of the ir elder

brothers an d si sters . I f the suitor was approved h e

occasional ly had to purchase hi s bride by g iving g i ft s to

her father . A dowry was som et imes g iven with the

bride . The marriage was perform ed in the presen ce Of

The father

Marriage

l FAROUHAR , Pr im er of H in d u ism , pp . 5-6.

I . THE ARYAN S 1 1

both fam i l ies an d the ir frien ds in the house Of the bride ’s

paren ts . The fire was kindled on thedom est ic a ltar an dthe bride was handed by her father to her husban d . Th e

bridegroom took hold of the right - han d of the bride with

hi s right -hand repeat ing the formula

By thy right -hand for happin ess I take thee ,That thou m ay

’

st reach Old age wi th m e ,thy husband .

Aryaman , Bhaga , Savitar , Puram d h i,Gave thee to m e to ru le ou r hom e together .

R z'

g -ved a x . 85 . 36

After repeat ing other verses he led hi s bride roun d

the a ltar , from left to right (prad aks h in a), an d she wasthen h i s wi fe , and he her husband . Then fol lowed a

feast an d the W i fe was taken to her husband’s house on

a wagon decked w i th flowers and drawn by white catt le .

H ere hymn s or parts Of hymn s were chan ted,ful l Of

goodwi l l to the wi fe , an d her authority was solemn ly

declared .

H ere now rema in , nor ever part ;E n j oy the whole expan se Of l i fe ,W i th son an d gran dson j oyous sportBe g lad in heart w i thin your house .

SO rule an d govern in thy homeOver thy husband ’s paren ts both ;H i s brother an d hi s si ster, too,Are subj ect l ikewi se there to thee .

R ig -ved a x . 85 . 42, 46.

C learly the Aryan bride was Of an age fitting her to

be wife an d mother an d m i stress Of a hom e when she

was married . I n the hom e the wi fe took part w ith her

husban d i n the da i ly sacr ifice .

S om e kin gs an d n obles m ight have m ore than one

wife . The two Asvin s had together on e wi fe , S urya,

1 2 THE RIG -VEDA AND VEDIC REL I G ION

the daughter Of the sun -

god . But the ord inary condi

t ion was‘

a un i ted pa i r , wi th one heart an d on e m ind ,free from di scord ’

. The marriage Of blood relat ion s was

thought wrong . The birth Of a daughter i s n owhere

s ought , but son s are earn estly desired .

There i s no eviden ce in the R ig- veda that when her

husband died the Aryan widow had to burn herself on

hi s fun era l pyre . The eighteen th hymn

of the ten th Book Of R ig -veda refers to

the death Of a husban d , to the vic i ssi tude of l i fe an d

to the fun eral cerem on i es . The seven th verse run s as

fol lows in Kaeg i’

s tran slat ion .

1

Widows

The wom en here , sti l l happy wives, not w idowed ,shal l com e an d bring ri ch Oil an d precious Oin tmen t ;an d tearless, bloom in g , ri ch adorn ed , may they firstapproach the rest ing -place of the departed .

R ig—ved a x . 1 8 . 7 .

The words may they fi rs t approach the place are a

t ran slat i on Of the San skr i t words

a roh a n tu yon im agre .

By the most awful crim e in the hi story Of l iterature

thi s phrase was al tered in later t im es . I t then read

a roh a n tu yom’

m agn eh

m ean ing let them en ter the place Of fire’

, an d by thi s

t errible fa l sificat ion the verse was made to j usti fy the

burn ing Of widows .

The exact oppOS i te was the fact . Among the early

Aryan s the widow m ight marry aga in . The very n ext

verse Of the sam e hymn cal l s on the widow to ri se from

b eside the bier or pyre an d take the hand Of her n ew

l KAE G I , R z’

g-veda , p . 77 .

I . THE ARYAN S 1 3»

husband ,i

doub tless says Prof . Macdon n el l (S a n skr i tL itera tu re , p . 126)

‘

a brother Of the decea sed , in accord

an ce with an an c ien t marriage custom Of which a trace

rema i n ed among the Hebrews . I quote his tran slat ion .

R i se up ; com e to the world Of l i fe , 0 woman

Thou l ie'st here by on e whose soul h as left h im .

Come : thou ha st now en tered upon the wi fehoodO f th i s th y lord who takes th v hand an d woos thee .

R z'

g -ved a x . 1 8 . 8

There m av have been i n stan ces Of widow burn ing i n

early Aryan t im es but i t was during a much later period

(A.O . 650—1200) that the custom Of burn ing a w idow wi th

her husban d’

s body cam e gradua lly in to force . S uch a

w idow i s highly pra i sed in the Ga r u d a Pa ran a ; she was .

cal led a sa t ! (pronounced s u t tee) emphat i ca l ly a good

woman . Hen ce the modern name Of the custom . At

the sam e time i t becam e customary for a widow who did

not ascend her husband ’s pyre to l ive a l i fe Of ascet ici smand privation , an d precepts san ction ing the pract ice werein serted in the later sacred books . Farquhar quotes on e

I f a woman’

s husband dies, let her lead a l i fe of

chasti ty , or else moun t hi s pyre .

Vis h n n sm r it i xxv . 14.

S in ce the head O f the fam i ly was a man and every

clan an d fam i ly wan ted m en to protect it from its

en em ies , there was a tenden cy to set lessPosit ion of womem

va lue on women . The gen eral Op in ion

Of the fema le sex seem s to have been that put in to th e

m outh Of Indra : Indra him self hath sa id, The m ind Of'

woman brooks n ot d i scipl in e . H er in tel lect hath l ittle~

weight’

(R ig - t ied a vi i i . 33 . andi

the hearts Of womeir

1 4 THE RIG -VEDA AND VEDIC REL IG ION

are those of hyenas (x . 95 . From a very early

date prost itution was an in stituti on .

That wom en were not debarred from hearing the

Vedas i s clear, for the authors Of some Of the hymn s Of

t h e Aryan tribes were wom en . Apala composed a hymn

t hat i s now the eighti eth in the eighth book Of the R igveda , an d Ghosha, a leper ma iden , was author of two,the thirty -n in th an d the fort ieth in the ten th book .

Beyon d saying that the king , raj a , was a ruler i t i s

not possible to defin e hi s exact rank an d authority .

Probably i t en t irely depended on the

in dividual . H e was the chief Of a group

Of fam i l ies . S ometim es he was chosen . S om etim es h is

rank was hereditary . I n t im e Of peace he was j udg e

an d protector’

Of hi s people, wh o brought to h im volun

tary gifts . I n t im e of war he was the leader of the

warriors , an d before a battl e he would Off er sacr ifice for

h i s tribe , or cause a priestly singer to Offer i t . This was

the beg inn ing Of that di ff eren ce Of Office which lay at the

root Of the later di st in ct ion Of the warrior and priest

castes amon g the Aryan s .

Mora l i ty was a fam i ly and triba l matter . Truth ,r ight - con duct , kindl in ess, loyalty to on e

’s n eighbour an d

com rade , ~bravery , an d—later—carefulObservan ce of rel ig ious ri tes an d l iber

a l i ty to priests were coun ted high virtues . Fraud , mal ignan t speech , ly ing and treachery were roun dly condemn ed .

Violen ce to defen celess ma iden s an d the adultery Of a

wife were regarded as grave crimes .

S uch crim es as one would expect to find am on g triba l

peoples en tering on a n ew civi l i za t ion are men t ion ed inthe hymn s . Ra iders carry Off cattle . Robbers are foun d

The king

Morality and crime

I . THE ARYAN S 1 5

on highways . A thief steal s an hon est man’

s clothes .

There are sorcerers wh o utter harm ful spell s , and sedu

cers Of wom en .

For protect ion from hi s en em i es the Aryan trusted the

gods an d hi s own r ight arm . For crim es in the com

mun ity there were j udgem en ts, ordeal s an d pun i shm en ts ,and the vengean ce Of the gods .

Gambl ing was a terrible curse to the Aryan . The

hymn s say that the father’

s pun i shm en t Of the d i ssolute

son i s Of n o eff ect ; the player i s un

moved by the destruction Of hi s hom e ;he rema in s ind i ff eren t though hi s wi fe becomes the pro

perty Of others ; he rises early an d indulges in the passion

of p lay t i l l even in g ; defeat in play i s equiva len t to

s tarvation an d thirst .

I n on e Of the hymn s l a gambler V ividly descr ibes hi sown experi en ce

Gamb ling

1 . The tumbl in g , a ir -born (products) of the greatV ibh idaka tree ( i . e . the dice) del ight m e as they con

t inn e to rol l on the dice board . The excit ing dice seemto m e l ike a draught of the soma -plan t growing on

moun t Pujavat .

7 . Hooking , piercing , dece itful , vexat ious, del ighting to torm en t , the dice di spen se tran si en t g i fts , an daga in ruin the W in n er ; they appear to the gamblercovered W i th hon ey .

1 3 . N ever play with dice ; pract i ce husban dry ; rej oice in thy property , e steem ing i t su ffiC I en t .

At a sacrifice , the Kshatr iya in part icular used to play

at dice with h i s wife , or W ives, an d son s .

l R ig-ved a x . 34, quoted in th e section R ead ings f rom th e

Ved a s .

16 THE R IG -VEDA AN D VEDIC REL IG ION

Dan cers or actors a ff orded en terta inmen t to th e

Aryan s . U shas i s sa id to d i splay herself l ike a dan cer

wh o decks herself with ornam en ts . Al~

lu s ion i s made to the l iving go ing forth

to dan ce an d laugh after a fun era l . Drum s are m en

t ion ed , an d a hymn in the Atharva -veda i s addressed

to that musica l in strumen t .

The Aryan s de l ighted in chariot races . The S i xty

n in th hymn i n the eighth book Of the R ig -veda i s a

prayer to Indra , ca lled Satakratu the god

Of a hundred ri tes, for success in a

c om ing chariot race . I t reads as fol lows in Gri ffith’

s

tran slat ion

Dancing

Chariot races

l . O Satakratu , truly I have made non e elsemy. com forter .

Indra , be gracious un to us .

2. Though who hast ever a ided us kindly Of Old towin the spoi l ,

As such , 0 Indra, favour us .

3 . What now ! As prompter of the poor thouh elpes t h im who sheds the j u ice .

Wilt thou n ot , Indra , stren gthen us !

4. O Indra, help our chariot on , yea, thun derer,though i t lag behind

G ive th i s my car the forem ost place .

5 . H O there ! W h y si ttest thou at ease ! Makethou my chariot to be first :

An d brin g the fame Of victory n ear.

6. Assi st our car that seeks the prize . What canbe easier for thee !

So make thou us victorious .

1 8 RIG -VEDA AND VEDIC REL IG ION

inadequate and prim i t ive ; an d though Aryan med ical

scien ce di st ingui shed several d i seases , i ts remed ies were

charm s and amulets and herbs used in con j un ct ion wi th

in can tat ion s . The world was very won derful to the

Aryan s as they l ived an d fought in the Land of the

F ive R ivers . But theirs was a very l im i ted l i fe , un so

ph isticated in i t s aim s, direct an d frank in i ts act ivit ies,l ived in the Open air, ful l Of heal th from sun an d W in d

and ra in s . As Max Mul ler says

I n the hymn s Of the Veda we see man left tohim self to solve the riddle Of thi s world . We see h imcrawl ing on

'

l ike a creature Of the earth w i th all thedesires and weakn ess Of hi s an imal n ature . Food ,wea lth an d power, a large fam i ly an d a long l i fe , are thethem e of hi s da i ly prayers . But he beg in s to l i ft up hi seyes . H e stares at the ten t of heaven , and asks whosupports i t ! H e Open s hi s eyes to the W inds

, an d asksthem when ce an d Whither ! H e i s awaken ed fromdarkn ess an d slumber by the l ight Of the sun , an d h im

whom hi s eyes cannot behold, an d wh o seem s to gran th im the da i ly p ittan ce Of hi s ex i sten ce , he cal l s h i sl i fe

,hi s breath, his bri l l ian t Lord an d Protector

And i t i s on ly as th i s i s remembered that i t i s possible

to appreciate the hopes and fears, the prayers an d aspi

rat ion s, the courage an d the pat ien ce of the bards who

san g, in those far away cen turi es , the very heart’s

thoughts of the men Whose pi lgrimage in to India was to

have such a m ighty eff ect on the hi story an d the thought

of the world .

They were the direct an cestors Of many of the tribes

compri sed in the great Brahman ca steTheir hymnsOf m odern Ind ia. The i r speech was the

1 MAX M ULLE R , Ch ips , vol . i , 2nd ed . , p . 69 .

I . THE ARYANS 1 9

m other language Of man y Of the languages spoken in

India to-day , and from i t all have borrowed the term s of

p hi losophy , worship and fai th . Their rel igion was the

b eg inn ing Of relig ion s that have stirred the heart s of

m i l l i on s . TO know how they prayed and built thei r

e arl iest altar -fires and Off ered sacrifice with song i s to

k now how the forefathers Of H indu an d Greek and

Briton sought divin e grace and divin e protection . On e

O f the most precious h e ir - loom s Of the ages for all think

ing men are the hymn s which were first sung by the

poets among those prim i t ive warriors an d herdsmen .

For those hymn s have com e down to us, an d however

much they may have been changed between the mom en t

t ha t the in spired bard chan ted them to hi s tr ibesmen

and the t im e when they were wri tten down to abide for

ever, they bring those far away days back to us.

Through them the hopes and fears of the singer and his

hearers ring in our ears . I n them we com e face to face

with the j oys and sorrows , the War an d peace , the

f un eral s an d fest ival s of forty cen turie s ago.

II. THE VEDAS OF THE ARYANS

PRECI SEL Y how and when the hymn s Of the Aryan s

were first composed we shal l n ever kn ow . Much in them

i s an d always wil l be Obscure . What scrupulous scribe

first toi lsom ely wrote them out i s not recorded . Bu t

thereafter , though the lan guage Of those hym n s becam e

less an d less fam i l iar the psa lm - books in to which they

were gathered were pract i ca l ly n ever a ltered an d th e

studen t tod ay h as l itt le doubt that the text before h im is

almost syllable for syllable , as i t was three thousan d years

ago ; Often as i t was when i t was composed an d sung at

som e sacr ifice in the years before the Aryan s had don e

more than make ra ids in to the lan d Of the F ive R ivers .

The ex i sten ce Of a sacred l i terature in San skrit was

known to som e Of the first Roman Cathol ic m i ssionari es

in India , and men l ike Robert de Nob i li“

Izaiiigdwo

‘

i'fl wh o arr ived in Madura in 1606 an d

t he hymns Con stan t i n e B esch i a cen tury later

acquired sufficien t knowledge of i t to

compose an d argue in it .

But the tran slat i on Of the B h agavad G i ta, by Charles

W i lk in s , publ i shed in 1 785 , an d Of Saku n ta la , by S ir

Will iam s J on es, publ i shed in 1 789, were the real com

men cemen t Of the scien t ific study Of the San skrit language ,an d the publ icat ion an d tran slat ion Of the most impor

tan t works in that language . Yet i’for a long t im e i t was

I I . THE VEDAS OF T HE ARYANS 21

di ff i cult to Obtain accurate knowledge of the Vedas.

Very few manuscript copies were in exi sten ce , and

Whi le the pandits were wi ll ing to commun icate the manu

scripts Of the later and less sacred San skrit works Of law,

phi losophy and drama to E ng l i shm en residen t in India,they were not will ing to show them the manuscript s

of the more an cien t and infin i tely more holy Vedas . I n

some cases where the manuscripts Of the Vedas had

com e in to western hands, the pandits would not tran slate

them . Colebrooke ( 1 765— 1 837) a lon e seem ed able to

overcome these prej udices and hi s essays On the Ved as ,

or th e S acred Wr i tings of th e H in d u s though publi shed

in 1 805 are Of permanen t va lue .

Nearly a quarter Of a cen tury later a young German

scholar named Friedrich Rosen began to work at an

edi t ion Of the S a n s k r i t text of theThe “ 1,“t

R ig-veda for publ i cat ion . Max Muller of the you ,

relates an in ciden t which Shows the

Opin ion Of the in trin sic value of the hymn s of the Vedas

held by a highly - educated H indu thinker, an d probably

by not a few others, at that t ime . The Ra ja Rammohun

Roy was in London and saw Friedrich Rosen at the Bri

t i sh Museum busi ly engaged in copying manuscripts Of

the R ig -veda . The Ra ja was surpri sed , and told Rosen

that he ought not to waste hi s t im e on the hymn s, but

that he should study the Upan ishad s .

l Rosen pub

lish ed a specim en of the hymn s Of the R ig -veda in 1 830,but he d ied before he h ad n early com pleted h is task .

On ly the first book Of the R ig -veda, with a Lat in

1 MAX M ULLE R , B iog raph ica l E ssays . p . 39 .

22 R IG -VEDA AND VEDIC REL IG ION

tran slat ion , was fin i shed by h im and publ i shed after h is

death in 1 838 .

I n 1 845 M ax Muller was at work in Pari s, copy ingfrom manuscripts the text Of the R ig -veda together with

the comm en tary Of S ayana Acharya . S ayana died in

1 387 at Vijayanagara , the capital of the famous H indu

kingdom foun ded about 1 340 which i s now a longstretch Of ruin s kn own as Hampi in the Bellary di strict

of the Madras Presiden cy . H e was teacher and m in is v

ter Of on e Of the king s of that dynasty , and was younger

brother Of Madhava Acharya , the author Of the compen

d ium Of phi losophica l system s cal led the S a rva -d arsan a

samgrah a .

1Sayana

’

s comm en tary no doubt embodied

the Opin ion of the m ost learn ed pandits Of the t im e , and

though composed perhaps alm ost three thousand years

la ter than the hymn s con tain s exceeding ly va luable tradi

t ional in terpretat ion s . The E ast India Company author

iz ed Max Mul ler to bring out an edit ion Of the hymn s

with thi s comm en tary at i ts expen se . The first volum e

appeared in 1 849 . The publ i cat ion of the edit ion was

completed W i thin about twen ty years . The price of

the si x volum es was £ 1 5 . The secon d edit ion , in four

volum es, was brought ou t at the expen se Of the then

Maharajah of Vizianagaram , and sold at 8 . Thi s i s

regarded as the stan dard edit ion both Of the text of th e

R ig -veda and Of Sayana’

s comm en tary .

The text '

of th e R ig -veda was publi shed in roman

letters at Berl in in 1 861 .

The text of the S ama -veda, with a German tran slat ion ,

was publi shed by Ben fey in 1 848 .

l M ACD‘

ON E L L , S an skr i t~L i tera tu re , pp . 59 , 275 , 406.

I I . THE VEDAS OF THE ARYANS 23

Various texts of th e diff eren t recen sion s Of the Yaj ur

veda have been edited by A . Weber, and L . von S ch ro

eder .

The text Of the Atharva -veda was publi shed by Roth

and W hitn ey in 1 856 ; and another recen sion from a

S ing le an cien t birch -bark man uscript di scovered by Pro

f essor Buhler in Kashm i r i s being prepared by Dr .

Maurice Bloomfield .

An E ng l i sh tran slat ion Of the R ig -veda ,based on the

in terpretat ion s con tain ed in t h e commen tary of S ayana

was comm en ced in 1 850 by Professor

H . H . Wilson , the first professor Of Into English

San skri t at Oxford . Part of i t was

publ i shed after hi s death . Professor E . B . Cowell in

his preface to the fifth volum e says that this work does

not pretend to g ive a complete tran slat ion Of the R igveda , but on ly a fa i thful image of that part icular phase of

i ts in terpretat ion which the m ediaeval H indus, as repre

sen ted by Sayana have preserved

A tran slat ion Of many Of the hymn s Of the R ig -veda

en t it led Th e S acred Hym n s of th e B ra hman s was

prepared by Max Muller , an d publ i shed in Trubn er’

s

Orien tal S eries , in two volumes.A tran slat ion Of many Of the hymn s en t it led Ved ic

Hymn s , by Max Mul ler and O ldenberg appears in th e

series Of tran slat ion s kn own as Th e S acred Books of th e

E as t , publ i shed by the U n iversi ty of Oxford .

Perhaps the most helpful of all man ual s of Vedic

teaching are the five volum es of Or igin a l S an skr i t

Texts , by Dr. J ohn Muir (Trubner They con »

tain classified collect ion s Of Vedic and later texts with

accurate tran slat ion s and a vast collect ion of notes an d

24 RIG -VEDA AND VEDIC REL IG ION

comm en ts . Dr . Muir ’s method enables the studen t to

see for himsel f the evolution S an skri t teaching from the

earl ier ideas, the orig in Of myths, the develOpmenm f

custom s, an d the influence of later environmen t . I t i s anotable treasure -house Of exact scholarship .

Mr . R . T . H . Grifl‘ith , form erly Prin cipal Of the San

skrit Col lege , Benares, made complete tran slat ion s Of all

four Vedas, Mr . Gri ffith had the great advan tage Of long

resi den ce in Benares, and som e Of the m ost learn ed

pan dits in India were hi s fel low -workers . The notes that

accompan y hi s tran slat ion s are Of high value . For the

E ng l i sh studen t thi s i s the most useful rendering , and i t s

completen ess makes i t m ore serviceable than an y other .1

By reprin ts Of the San skri t text , by accurate tran

s lation s , an d by many commen ts and d i scussion s am ong

scholars in E urope and Am eri ca and India durin g the

last si xty or seven ty years i t h as rapidl y becom e

possible to appreciate the preci se value and sign ifican ce

Of these an cien t hymn s, to understand the gen era l

c i rcum stan ces in which they were composed , an d the

mot ives that in spired the ir authors ; and thus to becom e

acqua in ted with Aryan singers and priests at the be

g inn ing Of Indian civi l izat ion .

1 Th e fo l lowing are th e editions Of Mr . Gri ffi th '

s tran s lationsTh e Hym n s of th e R ig -ved a . S econd edition . Two volumes .

Price fourteen rupees .

Th e Hym n s of th e S a n t a -ved a . On e volume . Price fourrupees .

Th e Hym n s of th e Wh i te Yaj u r -ved a . One volume . Pr iceth ree rupees twe lve annas .

Th e Hymn s of th e A th a rva -veda . Two volumes . Pricetwe lve rupees . All th ese tran s lation s are publ ish ed by Messrs .

E . I . L az arus Co . , Benares .


designates‘

sacred lore ’

as a bran ch Of l iterature ; and

i s al so appli ed to the book con ta in ing the sacred lore .1

I t i s thus used in a gen eral sen se to denote the Whole

body Of the most an cien t San skri t l i terature , but it

part i cularly refers to the four great col lect ion s of hymn s

that con ta in the divin e W i sdom nam ed the R ig -veda , th e

Yaj ur -veda , the Sama -veda and the Atharva -veda .

These names Of the four Veda s are derived from terms

which refer to the di fferen t styles Of composit ion foun d

in them . These four nam es, according to D r . Maurice

Bloomfield , belong to a som ewhat later Vedic t im e ; they

do not comcid e exactly with the earl ier nam es, nor do

they fully correspon d to the con ten ts Of the collect ion s

them selves as they now stan d . The earl ier term s refer

red to the diff eren t sty les of composit ion ,They were

ricah , stan zas of prai se

yaj i‘

i n s h i , l i turg ica l stan za s and for

mulas ;saman i , melodies ;and a th a rva

'

ng irasah , blessing s and cur

ses . But the collect ion which now goes by the nam e of

R ig -veda con ta in s—in i ts later part s blessings and

curses ’

, as wel l as stan za s Of prai se’

, together with

most Of the stan za s which form the text to the Saman

melodies of the S ama -veda . S im i larly the Atharva -veda

con ta in s ricah , stan zas Of pra i se an d yaj un s h i ,‘

l i turg i cal stan za s’

m ostly worked over for i ts own

purposes, as Wel l as i ts characteri st i c‘

blessing s and

curses ’ . The Yaj ur -veda al so con ta in s matter of th e

other Vedi c types in add i t i on to l i turg i cal form ulae .

1 MACDONELL , S a n skr it L itera tu re, p . 29

i i . THE VEDAS OF THE ARYAN S 27

The S ama -veda i s merely a collect ion of certain r icah ,

or’

stan zas Of prai se’

, taken with variat ion s and addi

t ion s from the R ig -veda , an d set to tun es indicated

by musica l n otat ion s .‘

Careful exam inat ion shows that these four collect ion s

Of hymn s fal l in to two groups . I n the form er are the

R ig -veda , the S ama -veda an d the Yaj ur -veda . I n the

other the Atharva -veda stands alon e . This dist in ction

i s based on differen ces in con ten ts , character and date .

The relat ion Of the R ig , Sama and Yaj ur -veda s i s not

very complex . The Sama and Yaj ur -vedas were not

independen t Of the R ig -veda , and both

were Of later date . The orig in Of the

three may be outl ined som ewhat as fol

lows : I n the earl iest t imes an y on e

m ight perform sacrifice . Then a priestly class aros‘

e

di st in ct from the ord inary people , and i t may be sup

posed that i t was during thi s period that the hymn s Of

the R ig -veda were collected . S peedily , however, as

sacrifice and ceremon ia l was elaborated d i fferen t orders

cam e in to ex i sten ce among the priests . The highest

order was that Of the H otris who reci ted hym n s in

pra i se Of the god to whom the sacrifice was being

off ered While the ceremon y was being perform ed . They

recited hymn s from the R ig -veda but no special collec

t ion Of hymn s, no samhita , was ever made for them .

For two other classes Of priests such col lection s, or

psa lm books were made . I t was the duty Of th e

Udgatri priests to chan t according to certa in tradi

t ional ru les d uring the sacrifice Of Soma, and for this

‘ R el ig ion of th e Ved a , p . 26.


purpose a n umber Of hymn s were col lected from the

R ig -veda, especial ly from the E ighth and N in th Books.

These hymn s form the S ama -veda, and Of the 1 549

v erses in i t on ly seven ty - eight are not found in the

R ig -veda .

Another collection Of hymn s was in corporated in

a sacrificial service book along with a n umber Of prose

d irect ion s for perform ing the sacrifice . I t was the

man ual of the Adhvaryus and con tain ed the verses

to be muttered by them and their assi stan ts who pre

pared the space of ground and the altar, Off ered the

sacrific ial v ict im s and poured ou t the l ibat ion s . Thi s

was‘

th e Yajur-veda . Two dist inct form s of th is Veda

have com e down to us . I n the Oldest, the in struct ion s

about ritual are m ing led with the original verses from

t he R ig -veda . The chief recen sion . Of thi s i s that

taught by a school Of teachers cal led the Taittiriyan s .

At a later date other scholars cal led the Vajasan eyins

s eparated the dogmat i c or explanatory matter from the

verses to be recited and the n ame of‘

clear ’ or‘

Wh i te ’

(S u kla) Yaj u r -ved a , was appl ied to thei r

recen sion , th e other be ing ca l led the B la ck (Kr is h n a)Yaj u r -ved a .

The prose passages Of the Yaj ur -veda are, Of course ,n ew matter . The verse port ion i s chiefly taken from

the R ig -veda,but there are som e n ew verses in cases

where i t was not possible to extract from the R ig -veda

verses suitable to the complex ritua l that had been

e laborated by the later priesthood Of the debased form

o f the Aryan faith curren t before the ri se of the phi lo

S opt schools an d Buddhi sm an d Jain i sm .

I t i s di fficult to ascerta in clearly the date Of the


Yajur -veda . I t makes use Of the R ig -veda , but th e

verses quoted are taken ou t Of their

connexion and adapted to d i fferen t pur

poses . There are man y n ew verses about the ri tua l Of

th e sacrifices . I ts characteri st ic elemen t are the prose

formulae , the yaf a s , which are in prose , an d thi s i s th e

Oldest prose l iterature of the Indo -E uropean peoples .

These are somet im es brief prayers or sacrifiC Ial phra ses

an d som et im es they are long sen ten ces, ful l of repeti

t ion s, con cern ing the sa crificia l vict im s or the cerem on y .

D r. Bloomfield quotes on e that i s typica l

M ay l i fe prosper through the sacrifice .

May l i fe’s breath prosper through the sacrifice .

May the eye prosper through the sacrifice .May the ear prosper through the sacrifice .

May the back prosper through the sacr ifice .

May the sacrifice prosper through the sacr ifice .

Many thousand formulae Of thi s kind are collected in

the g reat con cordan ce Of the Vedas prepared by Dr .

Bloomfield . Apart from the ir lack Of m ean ing ,they Show says he ,

‘

a forma l i sm and m en ta l decay

upon the very brink of d i ssolution’

. An d both it

and the Brahmanas belon g to a period in the history

Of rel ig ion in India when ceremon ial and sacrifice h ad

almost destroyed the simpler rel ig ious ideas of th e

early Aryan s .

The Sama -veda i s a problem to scholars for i ts orig in

and purpose are not clear . There are no conn ected

hymn s but verses, gen eral ly derived

from the R ig -veda , mean t to be chan ted ,and when accompan ied by the ir m usic these were cal led

s dman i , melod ies . The chan t ing Of these verses was

al so in terrupted by cryin g aloud formal exclamatory

The Yaj ur-veda

The Sama-veda


s yllables , such as om ,h a i at certa in poin ts or at the end

O f the stan zas, perhaps som ething l ike the Shouts that

a ccompan y rel ig ious procession s in In dia tod ay . The

Sama -veda was not held in the sam e repute as the R igveda an d Yaj ur -veda an d the recitat ion Of e i ther Of them

h ad to cease when the shout Of sa‘

ma n s was heard .

E xcept that i t represen ts the use of chan t in g in later

Aryan worsh ip the S ama -veda adds very l ittl e to the

in format i on that i s to be Obta in ed about the rel ig ious

p ract ices O f the Aryan s . And l ike the Yaj ur -veda i t

belongs to the t im e when priestly forma l i sm dom inated

t h e worship Of the Aryan s .

The last book , Book XX , of the Ath arva -veda, i s

a lmost en t irely made up Of hymn s taken bodi ly from

the R ig -veda and Of hymn s compi led

from verses Of the R ig -veda . E v iden tly

thi s sect ion h as been added to con n ect the Atharva -veda

with the R ig -veda and so to g ive i t m ore author i ty , for

a s a whole the Atharva -veda i s pla in ly Of quite a differ

en t orig in to the rest Of the Vedas . I t i s real ly a collec

t ion Of spells, an d i t may represen t the popular bel iefs

O f the comm on people am ong the Aryan s in som e

passages , espec ial ly as those beli efs were m odified by.t h e influen ce Of the demon -worship Of the aborig in es

whom the Aryan s conquered . I t a l so con ta in s . ideas

a bout the gods belong ing to a later period than that Of the

R ig -veda . While the R ig -veda i s the psa lm -book of

t h e worship Of the Bright Gods, the most sal i en t teach

ing Of the Atharva -veda i s sorcery Of various sorts .

S om e spel ls are ben evolen t, such as those for heal th

a nd prosperity , for safety from demon s, for estab

l ish ing harmony in vi l lage and fam i ly l i fe, and for the

The At harva-veda

I I . THE VEDAS OF THE ARYAN S 3 1

r econ ci l iat ion of en em i es, but there i s much that i s born

O f fear and horror .

Madam e Ragozin j ustly says

We have here , as though in Opposition to the bright ,cheerful pan theon Of beneficen t de it ies, so trustin g lyand g rate fully addressed by the R i shis Of the R ig ,

a weird repulsive world Of darkly scowl ing dem on s ,in spi ring abj ect fear, such as n ever sprang from Aryanfan cy . We fin d ourselves in the m idst O f a goblinworship , the exact coun terpart Of that w i th which webecam e fam i l iar in Turan ian Chaldea . E very evi lthing in n ature , from a drought to a fever or bad

qua l i ties Of the human heart , i s person ified an d madethe Obj ect of terror - str icken propit iat ion , or Of attemptsat circumven t ion through wi tchcraft , or the in strum en t Of harm to others through the sam e com pellingforce . H ere an d there , worship takes the form ofcon j ur i n g , not prayer ; i t s m in i sters are sorcerers , not

priest .1

The trad it ional H indu view i s that the Ath arva -veda

i s in ferior to the other Veda s and modern scholarship i s

convin ced that i t i s not Of the sam e an t iqu i ty as the

R ig -veda .

Gri ffi th , who h as tran slated i t, g ives hi s own Opin ion

and those Of other em in en t scholars on thi s poin t as

follows

I have ca l led the Atharva -veda a comparat ivelylate addit ion to the three an ci en t Vedas, Of which ,i t may be Observed, on e on ly , the R ig -veda, i s orig ina land hi storical , the other two being m erely l iturg i ca lcom pilat ion s . The Atharva i s l ike the R ik , in thema in h i storical an d orig ina l , but its con ten ts cann ot , asa whole , lay claim to equa l an t iquity .

1 Ved ic I nd ia . p. 1 1 7.


H e also q uotes Professor Whitn ey , one Of the m ost

l earn ed Of S an skrit scholars, wh o wrotes

The greater port ion Of the hymn s are pla in ly shown ,

both by the ir lan guage an d in terna l character,to b e

Of much later da te than the g en eral con ten ts Of theother hi stori c Veda , an d even than i ts ten th book withwhich they stand n early conn ected in import an d orig in .

Thi s , however , would n ot imply ‘ that the ma inbody Of the Atharva hymn s were not a lready in ex i sten ce when the com p i lat ion of the R ik took p lace . Thei rcharacter would be g round en ough for the i r rej ect ionan d exclusion from the canon un t i l other han ds werefoun d to undertake the i r separate gathering in to an

independen t collect ion .

Professor Weber con cludes that the origin Of the

Atharva Samhita dates from the period when Brahma

n i sm had becom e dom inan t . I n i t he finds the worshipper

oppressed by an xious dread Of the evi l sp irits Of nature

and Of their mag i c powers, seek in g refuge in ceremon i

alism . H e suggests that , whi le the R ig -veda con tain s

the songs Of the higher Aryan fam i l i es, the parts of the

Ath arva -veda that are pecul iar to i t may belong to th e

lower ranks, that i s to the common people , most l ikely

to be aff ected by the demon worsh ip Of the Dasyus .

The Oldest name Of the Ath arva -veda i s a th arvd r'

igi

ras ah , a compound word made up Of the nam es Of two

fam i l ie s Of pri ests , the Atharvan s and the Ang irases .

’

Th e form er nam e was thought to indicate holy charm sor

’

blessing s’

an d the latter‘

witchcraft charm s ’ or

curses Thus it i s the book Of blessing s and curses

I t i s som et im es cal led the Bhrigvang irasah , a name in

1 G R IFF ITH , A th a rva -ved a Preface , iv .

Q BL OOMF I ELD , R el ig ion of th e Ved a . p . 39 .

34 THE R I G -VEDA AND VEDIC REL I GION

prim i t ive fa i th as i t came in closer relat ion to the demon

worship Of the aborig inal peoples Of India, they do

not g ive much help to the un derstan din g of the earl i er

rel ig ion . For that appea l must always be made to the

R ig -veda , an d con sequen tly referen ce wi l l here be made'

almost exclusively to the R ig -veda .

E ach of the four Veda s i s divided in to two part s, the

Man tras an d the Brahmanas .

Man tra m ean s‘

in strum en t Of thought’

, speech , a

sacred text or saying, a prayer or song of pra i se , a Vedic

hymn in part icular , or a sacrificral for

mula . I n m odern vem acu lars the word

i s now used to den ote a mag i c spel l or in can tat ion and ,

th i s m ean ing i s derived from the Older idea that the

Vedic hymn sung or recited would secure the favour Of

th e gods or avert i l l - fortun e from them or from human

en em i es .

The hymn s are al so cal led Suktas : a term derived

from s u -u kta‘

that which i s wel l or properly recited .

’

Thi s term i s used Of a Vedic hymn as a whole as di st in

gu ish ed from a rich or sing l e verse .1

E ach en t ire collection Of Man tras form s a Samhita .

The Samhita, in the case Of the R ig -veda , an d Of the

Sama and Yaj ur -vedas so far as they

are borrowed from i t , con si st of the

songs Of the early Aryan sages as they have been handed

down by tradit ion . I n the R ig -veda they are n earest in

form to the spon tan eous utteran ces of the bards wh o first

sung them . I n the S ama and the Yaj ur -vedas the

poetry of the an cien t p sa lm i sts i s moulded by the usage

Of a later ri tual , and does not vibrate with the an cien t

1 M ON IER WILL IAM S S an skr i t-E ngl is h Lexicon , 786, 101 5 . 1 240.

The Mantras

The Samh itas


fervour. The Man tras in the Samhita Of the Atharva

veda are Of a diff eren t order. In can tat i on s, spells,mag i ca l formulae form i ts Samhita , and , as appl ied toi ts con ten ts, the term man tra h as preci sely the m ean ing

which i t gen eral ly has when used in the S outh Indian

vernaculars .

The secon d part of each Veda , the Brahmana, was

d rawn up for ceremon ial in struct ion Of the Brahman s .

They are rea lly d i rectorie s for the priests

who used the Vedas in worship . They

c on tain regulat i on s regarding the employmen t Of the

man tras , an d the celebrat ion Of the various rites of

sacrifice , and a l so in clude treat i ses ca l led Ara nyakas ,

and others cal led Upa n is h ad s or Vedan tas (so cal led

from their being the con cluding port ion s of each Veda),which expound the myst i ca l sen se Of some Of the c ere

m on i es, and di scuss the nature of the godhead , and final

l iberat ion .

1

The Brahmanas as they now ex i st are of much

later date than the hymn s Of the Vedas , and g ive a

p i cture Of the rel ig ion Of the Aryan s that belong s to the

time when priest - craft h ad elaborated rel ig ious cere

m on ial to an almost impossible degree . On thi s accoun t

an y clear picture Of the rel ig ion of the early Aryan s

i s not to be expected in the Brahmanas . But Wh i le the

Brahmanas in their presen t form belong unm i stakably

to a later age than the collect ion s Of hymn s to which

they are appended , there i s in them much Of very great

an t iquity. Dr . K . S . Macdonald summari ses their value

wel l in hi s B ra hman a s of the Ved as

The Brahmanas

‘MU I R'

s S an skr it Texts , vol . i , p . 2. (Second edition .)


I n the Brahmanas there i s much that i s Older thanany Of the man tras , things, such as m yths, legends ,stories

,to which the man tras clearly a l lude . I n the

man tras the an cien t R i sh i s do not tel l the storie s theyrefer to, because to them they are thing s wel l kn ownrequi ring no tel l ing—as , for example , the story OfS unahSepha, the various accoun ts Of the creat ion , etc .The R i shi s kn ew these and took for gran ted that theiraudien ces kn ew them , so they merely al lude to themin the ir songs or hymn s . Thus, some Of the con ten t sof the Brahmanas, con sti tuting folk - lore an d mythica land legen dary stories, som e others Of the sacrifices , asal so their ideas of the gods, may be an d m ost l ikely areolder than any Of the hymn s which have com e downto us . But thi s m uch i s certa in , that the Brahmanasare the Oldest prose, composi t i on s now extan t , of theAryan fam i ly .

1

The Ar anyakas and Upan i shads are the suprem e con

t ribu tion Of Brahman i sm to the thought Of the world .

and Upanishad s

Professedly the Aranyakas , or‘

forest

teaching s’

, were design ed to prepare

the pupi l for the l i fe Of a devotee

Aranyakas

secluded from the distract ion s Of worldly ex isten ce in

SOme forest . The term upan is h ad seem s to den ote‘

secret in struct ion on ly g iven to a ful ly -

qualified pupi l

by hi s teacher, to in troduce h im t o the highest m odes Of

ph ilOSOph ic thought , leading up to that supreme knowl

edge which in sures l iberat i on from human ex isten ce .

A lthough by conven t ional opin i on the Upan i shads are

part Of the Veda , the end Of the Veda, or Vedan ta, they

belong to a date m uch later than the hymn s Of th e

R ig -veda, and represen t phi losophic“

and rel ig ious con

CCption s diff eren t from those of the Aryan s . E ven

1 K . S . M ACDONALD , Brahmanas of th e Vedas , p . 7 .


the earl i est , the B r ih ad d ranyaka , Ch h d ndogya , Ta it

t ir iya , A ita reya , Kau sh i taki an d Ken a Upan i shads,though always held to belong to Sru t i or Revelat ion

are outside the scope Of an inquiry in to the rel ig ion

of the early Aryan s . The composi t ion Of hymn s must

have ceased at an early date , and though som e hymn s

not in cluded in the R ig -veda gain ed acceptan ce among

the pri ests and appeared in the later Samhitas , they are

comparat ively few . On the other hand apparen tly

no hesi tat ion was felt about the exten sion of the

Brahmanas, and though some , perhaps many Of them

have been lost , they form a large literature by them

selves . They are som et im es spoken of as sixty ' or

seven ty in number and the Upan i shads connected with

them are sa id to be as many .

The Brahmanas being in prose , they were , therefore

not so readi ly learn ed by rote as i f they had been in verse .

I t wi l l be Obvious, then , that , as they

increased in n umber, and as the number

of subj ects taught by the sages were multipl ied , their

di sciples h ad to find a method that would in sure the

fai thful memory Of essen t ia l rules and doctr ines . H en ce

series Of aphori sm s, strings Of aphori sm s, or S utras were

formulated , reduced to the utmost brevity , indeed so

conden sed that they are al l but un in tel l ig ible .

They are not con sidered parts Of the direct divin e

revelat ion (sru t i). Tradit ion (smr it i) beg in s with them .

These a ids to memory are not l i terature in an y true

sen se . They are simply outl in e manual s for keeping

al ive in the pupi l’

s memory the deta i l s of the subj ects

that they dea l with, the subj ects Of a H indu San skrit

studen t’

s educat ion . They were usual ly summ ed up

The Sutras

38 THE R IG -VE DA AND VED I C REL I GION

under six heads, ca l led the Vedanga s , or‘

m embers of

th e body of the Veda . Of the six , ka lpa , ceremon ial , i s

the most importan t , in cluding three groups Of S utra s

the Srau ta S utras , which deal with sacrifices, sum

mariz ing the teaching Of the Brahmanas ; the Gr ihy'

a

or Smarta S ti tras , which deal with the ceremon i es con

nected with fam i ly l i fe ; an d the D h arma S utras , which

provide rules Of con duct for the various classes Of men

arid the various stages Of their l i fe .

1

I t may be n oted that as the Brahman i cal schools grew

in number each drew up its own seri es of Sutras, an d that

the S utra s Of the San skrit grammarian Pan in i , wh o

l ived about three hun dred years before the Chri st ian era

are in cluded in the tradit ional l i terature Of Brahman ic

H in dui sm . From their date and character i t i s clear

that these Sutras cannot help to the understand ing Of the

early Aryan fa i th .

Ti l l a short t im e ago, perhaps even at the presen t day ,

the popular bel ief am ong H indus as to the orig in Of the

Vedas was that they were eternal ly

ofh

t

e

he

o

vegdgs exi sten t in the m in d Of the S upreme , and

made man i fest by h im in each ka lpa .

The ka lpa s here referred to are the periods in to which ,according to H indu reckon ing , the t im e i s divided .

S uch a ka lpa i s a‘

day of Brahma ,’

and a day Of

Brahma con si sts of a thousan d y ugas or ages, amoun t

ing altogether to four hundred and thi rty - two m i l l i on

years of mortal s .”

At the beg inn in g of each ka lpa all the exi st ing un iverse

is created an d the Vedas are supposed then to be reveal

1 FARQUHAR . Pr imer of H ind u ism , p . 59 .

2MON IER WILL IAMS , S an skr it -E ngl ish D ict ion ary , p . 21 3 aw

I I . THE VEDAS OF THE ARYAN S 39

ed by Brahm a through the ri shi s . At the close of th e

ka lpa all the exi st ing un iverse i s destroyed and then there

i s a new creat ion and a new revelat ion in the n ew ka lpa .

The sacred books Of H indui sm con tain many var ia

t ion s Of thi s popular bel i ef, and som e theories Of th e

orig in Of the Vedas that are quite di ff erTrad it ions in the

en t . Some Of these are matter Of fact , Sacred Books

as when the poets speak Of them selves

as having made and framed their hymn s as a vi l lage

j oiner makes a cart . S ome of them belong to the vast

collect ion of stori es con cern ing the gods, which makes

them the authors Of the sacred books in the sam e waythat they were the creators Of the world . S om e are

pla in ly symbolic, such as that which cal l s Vach , the

goddess Of speech , the mother Of the Vedas or says that

they sprang from the l eavings Of sacr ifice’

. The sages

them selves di st ingu i sh between new hymn s and Old ; but ,as i t i s not possible to di scern posit ively wh i ch Of the

Vedic hymn s are the Oldest , i t i s not possible to arrange

the various assert ion s that they con ta in in an y hi stori ca l

order , or even to trace with any confiden ce , the relat ion

of the var ious legends, an d the on ly con clusion to which

impart ial in vest igat ion leads i s that among al l these

various, and Often in con si sten t statemen t s there i s no

one accoun t Of the orig in Of the hymn s tha t was gen eral ly

received when or soon after the hymn s were composed .

1

And yet , though there i s not suffi cien t eviden ce toshow the exact occasion of any sing le hymn in the wholecoll ection , there are many hin ts and al lusion s in the

hymn s, and when n oted they give at l ea st some gen eral

A somewhat detailed account of th ese.trad ition s wil l be found

in Appendix I .

40 THE RIG -VEDA AND VEDIC REL I G ION

idea Of the way in which the various collection s cam e

in to exi stence i s reached . What happen ed seem s to

have been as fol lows .

Al l nat ion s in the earl ier stage Of the ir c ivi l i zat ion

regard the utteran ces of the man wh o has the g i ft of

poet ic song with awe, con sidering such songs to be the

expression Of the wi l l of the beings of the mysterious

spiri t world, or a m ean s to aff ect the ir will .

When the bard’ s songs took the form Of prayers

and en treat i es for the favour Of the god on the tribe

in hun t ing or war, or for ra in in t im e Of

Ifhe

th

c

e

mllii

g

'

isiiii’

a

ndrought , or f or chi ldren to in crea se the

streng th Of the tribe before i ts enem i es,or for health in - t im e of pesti len ce an d there was what

s eem ed to be an an swer to the peti t ion , the fam e of

the poet grew g reat and the won derful words that h ad

secured blessing were treasured as a spell , or man tra ,

an d so it cam e about that V i ctory in batt le was Often as

cribed to the vi rtue Of som e hymn . Thus it i s sa id in the

R ig -veda, vi i . 33 . 3 , S O did Indra preserve S udas in the

battle Of the ten king s through your prayers, O Vas isthas .

’

S om et im es such hymn s were remembered an d chan ted

on other occasion s by the singer him sel f . S om et imes i t

was a follower or servan t or pupi l or di sciple who

learn ed them by rote . Many of these spells were lost

after a gen erat ion or two . But those that were iden ti

fied with some special occasmn , especia l ly those that

had been first uttered at some recurrin g sacrifice were

repeated when the sacrifice was aga in perform ed .

The Aryan s from the m ost an cien t t im es had Off ered

such sacrifices, though they h ad no temples and no

images, and hymn s Were always reci ted at them .


and therefore l iable to alterat ion . Thus the R ig -veda

was compi led .

There waS'

more than one edit ion Of thi s great collec

t ion , but the one that has come down to us i s that Of th e

Sakalas .

Probably at first non e of these edit ion s was written .

"

Dr . Buhler argues that wri t in g may have been in tro

duced in to In dia by Phoen ic ian traders com ing by wayof Mesopotam ia in to In dia about 800 B . C but refer

ences to writ ing in an cien t India are late and rare , in no

case earl ier than the fourth cen tury before Christ , and

perhaps not very long before the date Of the Asokan

in script ion s (257 to 23 1 B . D i scussing thi s Max

Mul ler says that there i s not one sing leThe

of

t

fizs

vézg'o"

a l lusion in the hymn s Of the R ig

veda to an ything conn ected W i th wri t ing .

Pure Brahman s n ever Speak of their gran th as or

books . They speak of their Ved a , which m ean s knowl

edge’

. They speak Of their S ru t i , which m ean s what

they have heard wi th their ears. They speak Of Smr i ti ,

which m ean s what their fathers have declared un to

them . We m eet with B rahmanas , i . e . the sayings Of

Brahman s ; W i th S u‘

tras , i . e . the strings of rules ; with

Vedangas , i . e . the m embers Of the Veda ; with Prava

ch an as , i . e . preachings ; with S as tras , i . e . teachings ;with D a rs

’

an a s , i.e . dem on strat ion s ; but we n ever m eet

W i th a book , or a volum e , or a page .1

As Professor Macdon el l poin ts out sacred learn ing in

India was for very man y cen tur ies , indeed un t i l m odern

t im es, quite indepen den t Of writ ing . And D r. Bloomfield

l MAI: M ULLE R , An c ien t S an skr it L itera tu re. pp . 497 , 5 12.

I I . THE VEDAS OF THE ARYAN S 43

holds that Vedic tradit ion i s in thi s respect the most

remarkable in recorded history . There i s not on e in

scription , bui lding , monum en t , coin , j ewel , or uten si l from

Vedic t imes . The man uscripts Of the Vedas that exi st

are ‘ of comparat ively recen t da te for the early manuscripts

peri shed cen turies ago i n the furious In dian cl imate , and

Of those now exist ing on ly a few date back to the four

teen th cen tury Of our era and on ly a very f ew go back to

the twelfth . Yet here i si

one Of the curiosit ies of H in du

rel ig ious l i fe .

’ The adheren ts Of each Veda or Vedic

school , no matter whether the text of tha t school was re

d uced to writing or not , in theory ought to , an d in fact

many do, actual ly kn ow the i r texts by hea rt . These are

the so-ca l led S rotr iyas or Ora l Tradit ion i sts’

. They

l ive to th i s day , be i n g , as i t were , l iving manuscripts of

their respect ive Vedas . The em in en t H indu scholar, the

late Shankar Pandurang Pand i t , te lls us in the preface to

hi s great Bombay ed i t ion Of the Atharva -veda how he

used three Of these oral reciters of the Atharva -veda out

Of a tota l Of on ly four that were at that t im e st i l l al ive

in the D ekkh an ; and h ow the ir ora l authori ty proved to

be quite as we ighty as the wr i tten authority of h i s manu

scripts . These l iving manuscr ipts were respect ively ,Messrs . Bapuj i Jivan ram ,

Kesava Bhat b in Daj i Bhat ;and Venkan Bhatj i , the last the most celebrated Atharva

Vaid ika in the D ekkhan .

’ 1

I t i s in thi s way that sacred learn ing in India ,through

all the cen turies t i l l modern t im es, has been independen t

of wr i t ing . Hymn s, rules , speculat ion s have always beenlearn ed from the l ips Of a Spiritua l teacher (gu ru) notfrom a manuscript .

1 BLOOMF IELD , R el ig ion of th e Ved a , pp . 21—2.


The later sacred books, especial ly the Upan i shads

g ive g l impses of how thi s learn ing was imparted, and i t i s

easy to picture What took place . MaxHow

lzge‘nzhsclple Muller ’s descript ion i s true Of di sciples

in the sacred col leges to day , as i t was

O f their predecessors in the forest herm i tages three

t housan d years ago.

How then was the Veda learn t ! I t was learn tby every Brahman durin g twelve years Of hi sstuden tsh ip or B rahmacharya . This, accord ing toGautama , was the shortest period, san ct ion ed on lyfor men wh o wan ted to marry an d to becom eG r ih asthas . Brahman s wh o d id not wi sh to marrywere a l lowed to spen d forty - eight yea rs as studen ts .The Prat isakh ya gives us a glimpse in to the lectureroom s Of the Brahman i c Colleges .

‘

The Guru ,’

i t i s sa id ,‘

who h as him self form erly been a studen t , should make hi s pupi ls read . H e h im selftakes hi s seat e i ther to the east , or the n orth , or then orth - east . I f he h as no more than one or two pupi ls,they si t at hi s r ight -han d . I f he h as more , they placethem selves according as there i s room . They thenembrace the ir master an d say ,

“

S ir read ! Themaster gravely says, Om ,

”

i .e . Yes ” . H e thenbeg in s to say a pra s

'

n a (a question), which con s i st Ofthree verses . I n order that no word may escape thea tten t i on Of hi s pupi l s, he pron oun ces all with thehigh accen t , an d repeats certa in words twice , or hesays so (i t i) after these words .

’

I t does not seem as i f severa l pupi l s were al lowedto recite together , for i t i s stated dist in ctly that theGuru first tel ls the verses to hi s pupi l on the right , an dthat every pupi l , after h i s task i s fin i shed , turn s to ther ight, an d wa lks roun d the tutor . This must occupy along t im e every day , con sidering that a lecture con si stsOf sixty or more pras

'

n a s , or of about 1 80 verses.The pupi l s are not di sm i ssed t i l l the lecture i s fin i shed .

I i . THE VEDAS OF THE ARYAN S 45

At the end Of the lecture , the tutor , after the last hal fverse i s fin i shed says , S ir,

’ the pupi l repl ie s Yes, sir .’

H e then repeats the proper verses and formulas , whichhave to be repeated at the en d Of every reading, embraces hi s tutor, and i s al lowed to w i thdraw .

A Brahman was not on ly commanded to pass hi syears Of studen t l i fe in the house Of a Guru an d tolearn from hi s mouth all that a Brahman ought tokn ow, he was al so accused i f b e presumed to acquiresacred learn ing from written sources . I n the Mahabharata we read : Those who sel l the Veda s, and eventhose who write them , those al so wh o defi le them , theyShal l go to hell .

’

Kumarila says : That knowledge Ofthe truth i s worthless which has been acquired fromthe Veda , i f the Veda has not been rightly comprehended, i f i t has been l earn ed from writ ing, or has beenreceived from a S udra.

’ 1

I t was in thi s way that the R ig -veda grew out of the

i solated song s and spel ls’

Of the bards or singers Of the

first smal l clan s of Aryan invaders of the n orth -west

Pan jab ti l l i t in cluded , as i t i s to day , hymn s and1 1 supplemen tary hymn s ; hymn s in all, the

supreme S cripture of the priest s an d thinkers of a

con t in en t .

From what has already been sa id i t W i l l be eviden t

that no dates can be assign ed to the orig in of the hymn s

that make up the Vedas . Indeed i t i s

n ecessa ry to go further and to say that

there i s not su ff icien t eviden ce to show with any preci

s ion when the hymn s of the four Vedas were col lected

together and the Vedas them selves, as we have them

were formed . Max Mul ler estimates that the hymn s Of

R ig -veda were already much , as we now have theml MAX MULLER . An c ien t S an skr it L i tera tu re , pp . 502—6

(abridged).

Date of Vedas


about 1 500 B . C .

1 I n hi s H ibber t L ectu res he expresses

t h e Opin ion that the col lection was closed about 1000

B . C . The Brahmanas may date from 800 to 600 B . C .

T h e Sutras may ran ge from 600 to 200 B .

Macdon el l i s con ten t to say that the Vedic period

perhaps beg in s as early as 1 500 B . C that the kern el Of

Vedic tradit ion , as represen ted by the R ig - veda ,h as

Com e down to us, with a high degree Of fixity and re

markable care for verba l in tegri ty , from a period which

can scarcely be less remote than 1000 B . C . ; and that the

S amhita text m ust have been as we have i t about

600 B . c .

3

D r . Maurice Bloomfield, who compi led the huge Con

cordan ce Of the Vedas wh i ch was publ i shed in 1 906after

m en t ion ing that the Buddha d ied about 487 B . C . says

U nquest ionably a cen tury or two must have passedbetween the con clusion Of the Vedic period and thebeg inn in gs Of Buddhism . Buddhist l i terature presupposes Brahman i cal l i terature an d rel ig ion in a stage Ofcon siderable advan cem en t beyon d the Vedas . W e

are , therefore , reasonably safe in saying that the realVedic period was con cluded about 700B . C . We arefurther on safe groun d in deman d ing a n umber Of centu ries for the m uch strat ified language , l i terature , an drel ig ion Of the Veda . But how man y I t i s as easyto imag in e three as th irteen or twen ty - three . On ly on e

thing‘i s certa in . Vedic ideas are very Old . I have

n oted the fact that the con cept ra t , cosm i c or un iversal order

’ i s found in cut an d dried I ran ian names inWestern Asia as early as 1600 B . C . I am , for mypart, and , I think I voice man y scholars, now much

I n d ia , wh a t ca n i t teach u s 2p . 5 3 .

H i bber t L ectu res , p . 340.

S an skr i t L i tera tu re , pp . 8 , 47. 50.


m ore in cl in ed to l i sten to an early date , say 2000 B . C . ,

for the beg inn ing s of Vedic l iterary product ion , and toa much earl i er date for the beg inn ing s Of the in st itut ion s an d relig ious con cepts which the Veda has

derived from those prehi stori c t im es which cast ‘ thei rshadows forward in to the records that are in our hands .Anyhow, we must not be begui led by that kind Ofcon servat i sm which m erely salves the con scien ce in tothinking that there i s better proof for any later date ,such as 1 500, 1 200, or 1000 B . C . rather than theearli er date Of 2000 B .C . On ce more , frankly , wedo not kn ow .

‘ 1

The following table wi l l probably g ive as cl ear a

view Of the growth of Vedic l i terature , wi th an approxi

mate idea of the tim e when i t was created, as with our

presen t knowledge it i s possible to ga in

1 BLOOM F IELD , R el ig ion of th e Ved a . p . 1 9 .


Gradual

O

the

and

Hymns

composi

III. THE NATURE OF VEDIC GODS

N ATURE’

S d rama i s on an imposing scal e in In dia .

S an d - storm and cyclon e , in ten se l ightn ing, terrific thun

id er - claps, the heavy rush Of ra in in the mon soon , the swi ft

flood in the stream that com es down from the hi l ls, the

scorch ing heat Of the sun , the crackl in g red flam es Of

the fire in the j ung le, a ll Wi tn ess to power beyondman

’s power .The singers Of the Aryan s fel t their own l i ttlen ess

Before these forces, an d‘

in the fai th Of l ittl e chi ldren ’

they in stin ct ively thought that act ion

m ovem en t , creat ion , change and d estruc

tion in nature were the resul t Of superhuman forces.

An d because they saw that all action in human l i fe was

caused by men and wom en , by person s,the act ion that they saw in nature to divin e person s.

There are thus man y gods in the Veda s to accoun t for such

var ied natural phenom ena as the g lorious brightn ess of

the sun , the blaze Of the sacrificial fire , the sweep Of the

ra in - storm across the skies, the recurren ce of the dawn ,

the steady curren tsd

of,

the win ds, the violence O£ .the

t ropical storm . S pecial in terest attaches to the my th o

logy of these gods as g iven or di scern ed in the Veda,i

becau se i t represents an earl i er stage of thought than i s

to be foun d in any oth er l i terature .’ 1

Nature worsh ip

1 MACD'

ONELL , S an skr i t L i tera tu re , p . 67.

I I I . THE NATURE OF VEDIC GOD s 5 1,

S peaking gen eral ly, the hymn s appear to be th e

u tteran ces Of simple men , who, un der the influen ce of

t h e most impressive phenom ena Of nature, saw every

where the presen ce and agen cy of divin e powers . Theyimagin ed that each Of the great provin ces Of the un iverse

was ruled and pervaded by its own separate deity , an d

t hey ha d not yet ri sen to a clear idea Of one supreme

c reator and govern or Of all th ings. Thi s i s shown not

on ly by the special fun ction s assign ed to part i cular

g ods, but in man y cases by the nam es which they bear ,c orresponding to those of som e Of the elem en ts or Of the

c elestial lum inaries .

Four things strike the studen t of Vedic rel ig iou s

t hought at on ce

( i) There i s complete absen ce Of system in th e

th eolog ica l ideas and the mythology Of the hymn s .

There are over a thousand hymn s in the R ig -veda .

O f these about 250 are addressed to In dra , an d 200 to

Agn i , whi le other gods have on ly a sing le hymn . B ut

t h e most careful investigator cann ot draw up a sat is fac

tory reason ed statem en t of Vedic fai th from an y or all

o f them .

( i i) I n th is immen se amoun t Of verse , there are an.

enorm ous number Of repeti t ion s, in con si sten cies an d

even con trad ict ion s .

( i i i) I n spite Of the man y a llusion s to the gods there i s

a great lack Of clear description s Of the separate deit i es .

Th e Vedic gods are not defined . Attributes of one are

a scribed to an other. S peaking gen eral ly, the person i

fi cat ion s being but slightly developed , lack defin iteness

o f outl in e and individua l i ty of character. The

c haracter Of each god i s made up Of onl y a few essen tia 1


qual i t i es combin ed wi th man y others which are commorr

to all the gods, such as br i l l ian ce , power , ben eficen ce,.

wisdom . These common attributes tend to Obscure '

those which are dist in ct ive .

’ 1

( iv) A careful exam inat ion Of the Ved i c hymn s .

shows a lso that the Aryan s thought ou t for them selves

d i ff eren t con cept ion s Of the gods in the course Of th e

cen turies . Gods l ike Dyaus an d Prithivi are passingaway . In dra replaces Varuna . Vishn u i s not as yet Of im o

portan ce . Siva , Mahadeva, D i‘

I rga , Kali , Rama ,Kri shna,.

Lakshm i , Ganapat i are not as yet kn own . The triad

(Tr imur ti)of later H in dui sm : Brahm a , Vishnu an d S iva,.

i s as yet unheard of . There are traces , perhaps the b e

ginn ings of the idea developed in the Upan i shads that

all the gods are on e under diff eren t names, an d there is .

the beg inn ing of the bel ie f in abstract deit i es, such as

S hraddha , devot ion , Kama , desire and especial ly in

P rajapat i , the Lord Of Creatures, which are di st in ct fromthe person ified forces Of fire and wind and rain and sun

and sky that were the chief gods of the earl ier Aryan s

The speculat ion s of the Upan i shads are, of course ,declared to be part of the Veda , but though verses an d

phrases may be extracted from the Vedic hymn s to

j usti fy even the most advan ced mon i sm there i s a real

gul f between the bel ie fs en shrin ed in the hymn s and th e

teach ing of the sages Of later days .

The ordinary word in the Vedas for god i s D eva , and 1

the original i dea Of the word d eva i s bright’ The un i

versa l I n dO -E uropean word for god was ‘

d eivos , which appears in very archaic

1 M ACDONE LL , S an s kr i t L i tera tu re , p 69 .

I I I . THE NATURE OE VEDIC GODS 5 3

L at in as d eivos , an d later becomes d eu s . D evos in th e

Gal l i c proper nam e D evog-n a ta i s it s Celt ic form . I n

O ld S can dinavian t iva r m ean s gods’

. I n Lithuan ian the

form d e‘

vas i s found,which i s in San skrit d eva . This noun

i s con n ected with the verb d iv , dy u , shin e the shin ing Of

th e sun an d of the moon . I ts use shows that the In do

E uropean s derived the ir first an d most pervasive con cept i on of d ivin e power from the brightn ess Of the sun .

‘

Max Mul ler expla in s p icturesquely how thi s wordc ame to be used to designate the gods .

D eva m ean t orig inal ly bright , an d nothing else .Mean ing bright , i t was con stan tly used Of the sky , th estars, the sun , the dawn , the day , the spring , the rivers ,.the earth ; and when a poet wished to speak of all these.by one and the same word —b y what we should ca l l ag en eral term—h e ca l led them all D eva s . When thath ad been don e , D eva did no longer mean the Brighton es ,

’ but the nam e comprehen ded all the qua l it i eswhich the sky and the sun and the dawn sha red in com

m on excluding on ly those that were pecul iar to each .

H ere you see how, by the simplest process, th eD eva s , the bright on es, m ight become an d did becom e the D evas , the heaven ly , the kind, the powerfu l ,the invisible , the immorta l—an d in the end somethingvery l ike the th eoi or d ii Of Greeks and Roman s . 12

I t i s useless to attempt to say how many gods were

worshipped by the early Aryan s . They are gen eral ly

s poken of as‘

thrice - eleven or‘

thi rty number of

t hree .’ 3 t he Dam

Ye gods, who are eleven in the sky , who are elevenon earth , and who in your g lory are eleven dwel lers

l B L OOMF I E L D , R el ig ion of th e Ved a , p . 109 .

2M AX MULLER , I nd ia : Wh a t can i t teach u s pp . 21 8 -9 .

” R ig -v ed a ,i . 34. 1 1 ; V i i i .

THE RIG -VEDA - AND VEDIC REL IG ION

in th e (atmospheric) waters, do ye welcom e thi s ourOff ering . l

-The thirty -three did not in clude all.

With all the deit ie s, three t im es'

eleven , here in closea l l ian ce W i th the Maruts, Bh rigu s , F loods ;Accordan t , Of on e m ind with Surya and with dawn .

O Asvin s, dr ink the S oma - j uice .’

Amuch larger n umber i s m en t ion ed by a seer who

is hon ourin g Agn i , wh o declares

Three t imes a hun dred gods an d‘

thr ice a thousan d,an d three t imes ten an d n in e have worshipped Agn i .3

An other says

The de it ies,three thousand and three hund red and

th i rty -n in e have served an d hon oured Agn i .4

Probably the gen era l con cept ion was m erely that

there were man y gods and i s better expressed in an i

earl ier hymn .

G lory to gods the m ighty and the lesser , g lory to

gods the younger an d the elder ;Let us, i f we have power, pay the gods worship ; no

better prayer than that , ye gods, acknowledge .

s

One other pecul iarity of Aryan mythology deserves .

not i ce . The names Of two gods, such as Mitra and

Varuna wh o had som e characteri st ics .

al ike were Often form ed in to on e com

p ound n oun (with a dual term inat ion) and thi s com~

pound becam e the nam e Of a n ew deity . Thus there

are hymn s to M itra an d Varuna, and also to Mitra

l R ig-ved a i . 1 39 . 1 1 .

2R ig-ved a , viii , 3 5 , 3 .

iii . . 9 . 9 .

R ig-veda x . 52. 6.

“R ig-ved a i . 27 , 1 3 .

I I I . THE NATURE OF VEDIC GODS 5 5

varunau as on e . The name of’

H eaven and E arth ’

(Dyava prith ivi) i s the m ost comm on Of these com

pounds, of which there are about e ighteen a ltogether .

I t wi l l be remembered that , in the later Puran i c

m ythology, the legend Of a dei ty hal f Vishn u and ha l f

S iva kn own as Harihara has an importan t place . The

earl ier Vedic pract ice may have furni shed a preceden t

for i t .

S om et imes all the gods are compre

hended by On e common name , VisveThe

ogt

i

i

t

l

i

l

gt lve

D eva s , the A l l -gods , and prayers are

addressed to them in thei r collect ive - capacity .

The Vedi c poets con stan t ly speak Of the gods as

immortal , j ust‘

as the Greek poets did . On the other

hand, immortal i ty i s sa id to have been

con ferred on the d eva s by individua l

m‘

iir

iitgdl'

ity

mgfi

fieg ods l ike Agn i and Savi tri or Obta in ed

by drinking S oma , or won by pract is

ing austerity ( tapas) or by sacrifice .

Indr a and other gods are spoken Of as unag ing, but

whether their immortal i ty was con sidered by the poets'

to

be un ending th ere is, says Macdon ell , no clear eviden ce

in the Vedas . I n the later l i terature the ex i sten ce Of

the devas, l ike that of the Whole un iverse , i s l im i ted to a

cosm i c age or ka lpa .

l

There i s S im i lar vaguen ess about the orig in Of the gods .

I n many passages the gods are descr ibed as the Off springOf the earth, som etimes as the Offspring of other gods .

U shas, the dawn , i s cal led the mother Of the gods and

B rahmanaspat i thei r father . S oma i s sa i d to be the

1 S an skr it L i tera tu re; p . 7 1 .

56 THE RIG -VEDA AND VEDIC REL I GION

g en erator Of H eaven , E arth , Agn i , Surya , Indra and

Vishnu . By an extrem e paradox , In dra i s sa id to have

begotten hi s father an d m other from hi s own body .

There i s no settled order . The sam e god i s som et ime s

described as suprem e over all other gods, and at other

t im es as ben eath them . There are as yet no regular

gen ea logies, or marr iages such as on e finds in the

Puranas . The father in on e hymn may be the son in

another ; the brother becom es husban d ; the goddess

de scribed as the mother Of a god in on e,'is hi s wi fe in

another . N O gen eral statemen t can , therefore , be made .

I t was le ft to la ter t im es to trace all to a common origin

in Brahma, the creator or to I Svara the creat ive per

sonal force Of the impersonal Parab rahma .

The Physical appearan ce Of Vedic gods i s supposed to

be l ike that Of m en . H ead, face , eyes , arm s, hands , feet

an d other port ion s Of human frame are

all ascribed to them . But their form s

are shadowy an d their features or l imbs

are Often used figurat ively for thei r activit ies . Thus

the ton gu e and l imbs Of Agn i , the fire -

god , are flam es ;the arm s Of S urya ,

the sun -god , are rays Of l ight . There

i s no reason to think that the Aryan s made images ; cer

tain ly idols or images of the gods, or temples imply in g

images are not nam ed in the R ig -veda .

An thropomorphism s are very common . S om e of the

gods are described as ma i l - clad warriors, helmeted, arm ed

with mace an d spear and bow, riding in lum in ous cars .

S om e Of them ,especial ly In dra , del ight in the in toxicat

ing S oma j uice an d in war . They are angry , seek to

revenge in sults or n eg lect , rejoice in sacrificia l Off ering s .

They go ou t on mart ia l expedit ion s . They help th e

Character of the’

Devas

58 THE RIG -VEDA AND VE D Io RE LIGiON

0

place i s in the sky .

’ ‘

These gods m ight all be'

one

as a priest rece ives various names at various sacrifices . ’‘

Or,’ says he,

‘

i t may be , these gods are all d i st inct‘

beings, for the pra i ses addressed to them are di st in ct,and thei r appellat i on s al so .

" These theosophi c specu

lation s certain ly were not accepted by most of the Ved ié

ri sh i s, sti l l l ess by the people who heard the ir songs at'

fa i rs and fest iva l s . They divided their chief gods in td

three groups, according as they h ad their prin cipal"

act ivity in the upper region of l ight , in the atm osphere;or on the earth . These three groups were ca l led th é

U pper, Middle an d Lower . There were however man y

other divin i t i es whom they worshipped or feared , and a

seven - fold classificat ion i s, perhaps, as useful as any;provided that i t i s always rem embered that such a

classificati on i s not rig id an d does not m ean that th e

Aryan s bel ieved in so man y separate orders of divine

beings. According to i t the Vedic gods rank as

fol lows

i . Gods of the Upper W orld : Dyaus, Varuna,

Surya , Savitri , Pushan , Vishnu , U shas, Mitra , Aryaman

and the Asvin s .

i i . Gods of the A i r : Vata, Indra, Rudra, Parjanya ,

the Bh rigus and the Maruts.

i i i . Gods of the E arth : Agn i , S oma, Yama, and

Pri th ivi .iv . Abstract deit ies : Adit i , Praj apat i , S raddha, Vach,

Brihaspat i , Ka, Kama, Visvedevas .

v . In ferior deit ies such as Tvastar , the Ribhus, th e .

Gandhavars .

vi . Demon deiti es such as the Rakshasas .

vu . An cestral spiri ts or Pitri s .

‘

1 1 1 . THE NATURE OF VEDIC GOD S . 59

But though such a classificat ion i s just ifiable , eaclr

Vedic poet seem s to exalt the part icular god whom h e

happen s to be sing ing to a posit ion of

supremacy an d to endow h im with all Henotheism

the attributes of supremacy . I t would

be easy to find , in the num erous hymn s of the Veda ,.

passag es in which almost every sing le god i s represen ted

as suprem e and absolute . I n the first hymn of th e

second book of the R ig -veda , Agn i i s ca l led the ruler

of the un iverse, th e lord of men , the wise king , th e

father, the brother, the son , and friend of m en ; nay ,

all the powers and names of the others are di st in ctly

a scribed to Agn i . In dra i s celebrated as the strongest

god in the hymn s as well as in the Brahmanas, an d th e

burden of one of the songs of the ten th book i s ;Viéva smé d I nd ra u t tam h . Indra i s greater than all.

"

O f S oma i t i s sa id that he was born great , an d that h econquers every one . H e i s ca l led the kin g of the world ;he h as the power to prolong the l i fe of m en , and i s th e

maker of heaven and earth , of Agn i , of S fi rya , of Indra .

and Vishnu . I n the very n ex t hymn , addr essed to

Varuna , i t i s Varuna who i s, to the m ind of the poet ,.

suprem e an d all -m igh ty .

l

I n his writ ings Max Mul ler con stan t ly re ferred to thi s .

and coin ed the word, h en oth e ism , or ka th en oth eism to

express what he regarded as a‘

pecul iar character “

of the an cien t Vedic rel ig ion .

’ I t denotes that each of

severa l d ivin i t i es i s regarded as suprem e, an d worship

ped without referen ce to the rest ; or that the seers held at

th e bel ief in individua l gods al ternately or for the t ime :

MAX MULLER , An c ien t S a n skr it L i tera tu re , pp . 534

6 0 THE RIG -VEDA AND VE DIC REL IG ION

being regarded as highest the on e that was beingworshipped

, and that they therefore treated h im as i f he

were absolutely indepen den t and supreme , alon e presen t

to the m in d of his worsh ipper . More m odern scholars do

not , however, con sider th is pract ice so remarkable as M ax

Mul ler did . They regard i t more as a species of poeti c

l icen se , by which a singer magn ified the god whom he

was invoking , rather than an eviden ce that the poe t

a ctua l ly cla im ed that the god whom he was then re :

verencing was the superior of all others .

I t m ust a l so be rem embered that the m inds of those

early singers were not un l ikely to attr ibute to the god

whom they were adoring the characteri st i cs Of other gods

O f the same group when all were m uch al ike .

For in stan ce , Dyaus was the sky as the ever -presen t

l ight ; Varuna was the sky as all -embracing or all con ta in ~

ing ; M i tra was the sky as l ighted up by the morn ing.

S arya was the sun as shin ing in the sky . S avi tri was

the sun as brin g ing light and l i fe . Agn i was fire and

l ight . Vishnu was the sun as striding w i th three steps

a cross the sky . In dra appeared in the sky as the g iver

o f ra in ; Rudra an d the Maruts passed along the sky in

thunder - storm s ; Vi ta and Vayu were the winds of

the air .

H en ce i t happen s con stan t ly that what i s sa i d of one

d eity can be and i s appropriately sa id of another ; the

s am e epi thets are shared by man y ; the sam e storie s

a re told of d i ff eren t gods .

I n react ion aga in st such con fusion a kin d Of

m on othei sm , an an t icipat ion of the later Vedan ta ,

a ppears in a few verses . I t am oun ts to a suggestion

t hat in rea l i ty all the gods are on e .

1 1 1 . THE NATURE OF VEDIC GOD S er

One poet says

They cal l h im Indra , Mitra , Varuna , Agn i , and he i sheaven ly , n obly -winged Garu tman ( i . e . the sun).TO what i s on e , sages g ive many a t i t le : they cal l i t

Agn i , Yama , Matar isvan .

And a verse in the Atha rva -veda i s as empha t i c

I n the even ing Agn i becom es Varuna ; he becom esM itra when rismg in the morn ing ; having becomeSavitri he passes through the sky ; having becom eInd ra he warm s the heaven in the m iddl e .

I t thus becomes quite natural that S arya, the sun ,

should be iden t ified w i th Indra an d Agni ; Savitri with

Mi tra an d Pushan ; Indra with Varuna : and Dyaus the

sky, with Parjanya, the rain -god .

52

R ig-ved a i . 164. 46 .

2.o'i th cz rva -veda xii i . 3 . 1 3 .

IV. A CLASSIFIED ACCOUNT OF THE

VEDIC GODS

I . THE GODS OF THE U PPER WORL D OR HEAVEN

T HE oldest among the gods that the Aryan s worshipped

was Dyaus, and he was probably revered by the

an cestors of the Aryan s ' long before an y Aryan s had

j ourn eyed to India . The word Dyaus i s iden t ica l with

the Greek Z eu s , and D yau sh -p ita r , the‘

heaven ly

father ’ i s the sam e as the Greek Z eu s -pa ter an d the

Lat in J upi ter . The same nam e in a d i ff eren t form ,

Tiu or Z ia , was used by the Aryan s wh o made thei r

way in to the forests of Germany . The an cien t Norse

men worshipped the sam e god as Ty r

I n the R ig -veda Dyaus i s the sky regarded as the

father Of all . Prithivi , the earth, i s Often nam ed as

hi s con sort , the pa i r being celebrated in six hymn s as

un iversa l paren ts of gods and men . I n a few passages

Dyaus i s cal led a bull , ruddy an d bellowing, referring

t o the l ightn ing an d the thun der . I n al lusion to the

starry sky he i s called a black steed decked with pearl'

s .

But the fam e Of Dyaus was on the wan e even in very

early Vedic t im es and the names of other less an cien t

_g ods took the place of his in Vedic worship .

IV . THE VEDIC GODS 63

Varuna

Varuna ,l ike Dyaus, i s another god of the earl iest

A ryan s . H e i s the sky , as en compassing all thing s,~0ne who envelops l ike darkn ess .

’ The nam e is iden t i

c a l with the Greek Ou rem os ,‘

the heaven s . ’

Varuna, i s the great upholder of order, physica l and

m oral (r im) ; he dwell s in all worlds as ruler ; hesordain s the change of day and n ight, open s paths for

the sun , causes rivers to flow, provides that the r ivers

s ha l l not overfill the ocean , knows the fl ight Of birds,b eholds all thing s Open and secret, watches over the

world, pun i shes the evi l doer, and forg ives the sin s of‘ those who implore hi s pardon .

Varuna h as a moral character higher than that of anyo ther deity .

While in hymn s to the other divin it i es long l i fe ,w ealth, power are the Obj ects common ly prayed for

p urity , forg iven ess of s in , freedom from further sinn ing

i s sought from Varuna wi th humble con fession s of gui lt

a n d repen tance . I t i s a sore grief to the singers to

kn ow that man da i ly tran sgresses Varuna’s commands

t hey acknowledge that w i thout his aid they are not

masters Of them selves for a sing l e momen t ; they fly to

.h im for refuge from evil , expressing at the sam e t ime all

c onfiden ce that their prayers wil l be heard and g ran ted .

Thus one seer sings

O Varuna whatever the Off en ce may be i

That we as m en comm i t aga in st the heaven ly folkWhen through our wan t Of thought we violate theC hast i se us not , O God, for that in iquity .

1[laws

l R ig-ved a , vu 89 . 5 .


O ther beaut i ful prayers from the R ig -veda are quoted

in th e'

Read ings . I n the Atharva -veda , also i l l im i table

knowledge i s ascribed to Varuna

Varuna , th e g reat lord Of these worlds, sees as i f h ewere n ear . When an y man th inks he i s doing aughtby stealth , the gods kn ow it all ; (an d they perceive)every on e who stands or walks or hides, i f he goesto l ie down or in to any lurk ing place . W hat twopeople sitt in g together whisper to each other, KingVaruna kn ows it ; he i s there as the third . Thi searth , too, belon gs to Varuna, the King , an d thi swide sky with its en ds far apart . The two seas

(the sky an d the ocean) are Varuna’s loin s ; he i s

al so curta in ed in th i s sma ll drop of water . H e whoshould flee far beyon d the sky , even he would n ot

escape Varuna , the King . H i s spi es proceed fromheaven towards th is world ; w i th thousand eyes theyoverlook thi s earth . King Varuna s ees all this, whati s between heaven and earth , and what i s beyond .

H e has coun ted the twinkl ing s of the eyes Of men .

As a player throws down the dice , he sett les a ll

th ings . 1

I n later H induism Varuna, l ike Dyaus, ceases to be

the supreme beneficen t an d righteous ruler and appears

m erely as a god of the ocean . W ith hi s di sappearan ce

there would seem to have gon e from Indian re l igious

l i fe what m ight have been a great impul se towards

righteousn ess . The sign ifican ce Of th i s i s more ful ly

deal t with in the sect ion on the Legacy of Vedic rel ig ion .

M i tra,‘

the frien d ’

, the k indly sun , i s Often worship

ped with Va runa in the Vedic hymn s . They then

j oin t ly rule day and n ight , uphold the heaven s and th e

earth, guard the good and pun i sh the gui lty .

‘A th a r'va -veda , iv . 16. 1 - 5 .


mares . H e rolls up darkn ess l ike a hide . Pi’

i sh an goes

a s hi s m essen ger with hi s golden ships , which sa i l in the

a erial ocean . S urya i s the preserver an d soul Of all

thing s stat ionary an d m oving an d i s, therefore , ca l led a ll

c reat ing’

; en l iven ed by h im m en perform thei r work ;he i s far- seein g, all - seeing , beholds all creatures, an d the

good an d bad deeds Of morta l s . By his greatn ess he i s

the divin e leader of the gods . H e i s Often described as

a bird or eag le flyin g through space . The epithets

architect of the un iverse’

Visvaka rm an , an d possessed

O f all divin e attributes’

, Vis’

vad e'

vya t , are appl i ed to

h im .

I n man y passages, however, the dependen t pos i t ion

o f S i‘

i rya i s asserted . H e i s sa id to have been caused to

s hin e by In dra , who a lso on ce carried Off on e of the

wheels Of hi s chariot . Mitra and Varuna som et im es

c on cea l h im by clouds and ra in .

I n the Ramayana, San jna, the daughter of Visva

karma, i s the wi fe of S ti rya . The Asvin s an d Yama

and Yam i are among hi s chi ldren . As h i s brigh tn ess

was too great for hi s wife , V isvakarma cut part of

h im away . The fragm en ts fel l blazin g to the earth ,an d from them Visvakarma form ed the d i scus Of

V i shn u , the triden t Of Si va , an d the weapon s Of the

o ther gods .

Savitri

Savitri i s som etim es dist ingui shed from S fi rya, som e

t im es iden t ified with h im . The two names are som e

t im es employed in discrim inately to den ote the sam e

d ei ty . S ayana says that the s un i s cal led Savitri , b e

f ore hi s ri sing and Sarya from hi s ri sing to hi s sett ing .

THE VE D i c com 67

The name i s supposed to m ean Gen era tor , or S t im u la tor

and refers to the l i fe -g ivmg power of the sun .

S avitri i s pre - em in en tly the golden dei ty , beinggolden - eyed, golden -handed , golden - tongued , the yellow

hai red . H e wears golden armour an d bright in his

a spect , he ascends a golden car, drawn by radian t ,brown , white - footed horses , an d beholding a ll crea

tures,he persues an ascen d i n g an d descending path .

H e i s lord Of a ll desirable thing s an d sends blessings

from the sky , from the atmosphere , an d the ea rth .

H e removes ev i l dream s an d drives Off demon s an d

s orcerers . He bestows immortal i ty on the gods and

prosperity on hi s worshippers .

The worship Of Savitri has con t inued to the presentt im e . I t i s to h im that the Gayatri i s addressed at hi s .

r i sin g by every devout Brahman in h i s da i ly prayers,

( sa n d hya van d h an am). This short verse i s as fol lows

Ta t S avi ta r va ren yam bh a rgo d eva sya d h imoh i

d h iyo yo n ah prackod ay at

May we atta in that excel len t g lory of Savi tri the godS O may he st imulate our prayers .

1

This verse was in i ts orig inal use , a simple invocat i on

o f the sun to shed a ben ignan t influen ce upon the cus

tomary Offi ces Of worship . But it cam e to be looked

on as an omn ipoten t rel ig ious form ula , sure to secure

sa lvat i on from the roun d .O i births to the man who

un derstands its inn er m ean ing . I n later H in dui sm i t i s

c on stan tly extolled . Thus the S kan d a Pa ran a d ec

laresNothing in the Vedas i s superior to the Gayatri .

N O in vocat ion i s equal to the Gayatri , as no city i s

l R ig-rveda . ii i . 62. 10.

68 THE RIG -VEDA AND VE DIC REL IG ION

equal to Kasi . The Gayatri i s the mother Of th e

Vedas and of Brahmans. By repeat ing it a man is

saved. What i s there in deed tha t cannot be eff ectedby the Gayatri ! For the Gayatri i s Vishnu , Brahma,and Siva an d the three Vedas.

E leven hymn s are addressed to S avitri in th e

R ig-veda .

Pushan

The word Pi'

i shan com es from the root pu s h , of which

the primary idea i s to n ourish Pfi shan i s the protect

or an d n ourisher Of catt le H e was orig inal l y

the sun as a god kin d to shepherds . As a cowherd h e

carri es an ox goad, and hi s car i s drawn by goats . H e

i s a gu i de and guardian of travellers on roads an d jour

n eys . H e con ducts the dead on the way to the fathers

H e i s ca l led the lover of his si ster S fi rya a female form

Of the god S fi rya .

I n later books he i s represen ted as toothl ess, feedin g

on a kin d Of gruel , an d the off er ings made to h im are ,

therefore , Of groun d in a m i l l . The cause Of hi s beingtoothless i s variously expla in ed . One accoun t i s that at

the Daksha sacrifice Rudra kn ocked ou t hi s teeth whi le

he was eating the j mrod as'

a off ering .

Pfi sh an i s adored in eight hymn s Of the R ig -veda .

Vishnu

I n the R ig -veda Vishnu i s a deity Of the fourth rank,less frequen t ly adored than Pi

'

i shan , and he i s the on ly

one of the great gods of the later H indu triad (tr imfi r ti)whose m odern nam e appears in the Vedas . The name

Vishnu seems to mean‘

pervading H e seem s to have

THE VE D ic c om 69

b een the sun thought of as swi ftly traversing the thr ee

worlds or as r i sing , culm inat ing and sett ing. Vishnu’

s

thr ee steps, two n ear the world of men an d one, the

highest , in the heaven of‘

the fathers ’ and the devas ,refer to these stat ion s, or to h im as passing over and

protecting all. From thi s grew the story Of the dwarf

in carnat ion of Vishn u (vd man a ava tara) at the court of

the arrogan t king Ba l i . I n Manu the nam e of Vishn u

appears, but i t i s on ly in the later H induism of th e

Mahabharata an d the Puranas that Vishn u’s supremacy

i s asserted . I t n eed hard l y be sa id that the R ig -veda

con ta in s no accoun t of the in carn at i on s Of Vi shnu .

Ushas

U sha s the goddess of dawn , the goddess E os of the

G reeks, i s the on ly femal e deity invoked in the Veda

wi th any frequency , and the on ly on e to whom en t ire

hymn s , about twen ty , are addressed . U shas m ean s‘

shin ing on e’

. U shas i s daughter of the Sky , si ster

Of the Adityas, elder si ster of N ight , loved by S i'

i rya,

but van i shing at the momen t that he seeks to lay hold

of her with his rays . Agn i and the gods are sa i d to

wake at the sound Of the hymn s sung to her at daybreak .

The worship Of the Aryan began at daybreak ;U shas, the dawn , i s the earl iest Obj ect of his morn ing

songs an d worshippers sometimes cla im credi t for arous

ing her . The prom i se of the day i s hai led with over

flowing and in sp i ring j oy ; the feel ing Of rel ie f as the

burden Of darkn ess i s l i fted Off the world, as the demon s

are driven away , and as the freedom and cheerfuln ess of

the day comm en ce again , prompts wonderfu l poetry , and

70 THE R I G -VE DA AN D VEDIC REL IG ION

the song s to U shas are am ong the fin est in the Veda .

S h e i s addressed as a virg in in g l it tering robes , wh o

chases away the darkn ess , or to whom her si ster N ight

wil l in g ly y ields her doma in , wh o prepares a path for the

Sun ; her appearan ce i s the signa l for the sacrifice sh e

rouses all being s from slumber , g ives sight to th e

darken ed , and power Of moti on to the prostrate an d

helpless . I n the m i dst of such g ladsom e greet ings , how

ever the poet i s rem inded , by the thought Of the many

dawns that have thus shon e upon the earth , an d the

man y that are to fol low them , of those , who, havin gwitn essed the former on es are n ow passed away , and of

those who shal l welcom e them when he is no m ore . S O

he i s led to m ourn ful reflect ion s on the wast ing away

of l i fe , as one day a fter an other i s subtracted from the

t im e al lotted to each m ortal . lTwo

'

Hymn s (R ig -veda i . 1 1 3 and vii. 77) are quoted

in“

the Reading s from the Vedas and wil l g ive som e idea

of the devotion of the early Aryan s towards thi s

goddess . I t i s to be n oti ced that she received no share

of the soma -off ering ; that there are few referen ces to

sacrifice in the hymn s addressed to her ; and that Indrais sa id to have cru shed her chariot with hi s thunderbolt .

Aryaman

The name Aryaman m ean s‘

a devoted frien d ’

. H e

i s on e Of the son s Of Adit i and i s comm on ly invoked

a long w i th Varuna and Mitra . Like them he i s a god Of

light , golden , pure , sin less , sleepless, man y - eyed, a hater

1 WH IT NEY , O r ien ta l a n d L ingu is t ic S tu d i es ,

‘

l s t series ,pp . 37—3 8 .

THE VE D i c GOD S 7 1

of fal sehood . H e i s better kn own than the Adityas

Bhaga , Amsa an d Daksha, but has not the sam e em i

n en ce as the g reat Ad i tyas, Varuna , Mitra , S fI rya and

S avitri .

The As’

vins

The As’vin s are the twin gods of m orn ing an d even ingtwi l ight , or the m orn ing and even ing stars, son s of

Asvin i the wi fe of S arya who took the‘

form Of a

mare .

The word m ean s‘

possessed of horses a rider They

are descr ibed as riding in a golden car , in wh i ch they are

accompan i ed by the sun -ma iden S i'

i rya, of whom they

were the j oin t -husbands . They appear at dawn , yoke

thei r car, and bring blessing to their worshippers . They

are young and beauti ful , swi ft as youn g fa lcon s, and

the ir car i s drawn by birds or golden -winged horses .

They are the guard ian s of the slow, an d Of the woman

growing ' Old unmarried . They are physician s givin g

sight to the bl ind , an d hea lth to the infirm . They are

ca l led the physician s Of the gods . They ren ewed the

youth Of the sage Chyavana , an d when the leg of the

royal lady -warrior Vispala had been cut Off in batt le they

gave her an i ron on e in stead . Many other sim ilar

m iracles are related of them . I n the Satapath a Brahmana ( iv . the Asvin s are rebuked by the other

gods, because they have wandered about very fam il iarly

among m en ,

’

an d in the Mahabharata , Si n t i parva ,

verse 75 89 , they are cal led the Sudras among the gods .

But they are adored w ith ferven t pra i ses by the .Vedic

se ers an d they are even cal led the paren ts Of Pi'

i shan ,

the sun , because they precede hi s appearing .


I I . THE GODS OF THE AI R

Vayu or Vata

Both Vayu an d Vi ta mean‘

win d ’

an d Vayu i s

g od of the win d . H e does not occupy a prom in en t

p lace among the Vedic gods . I n the Purusha - sukta

Vayu is sa i d to have sprung from the breath of Purusha.

Vayu i s a l so cal led the son -in -law of Tvastr i H e

i s sa id to travel in a shin ing car drawn by a pa i r of

red or purple horses or by n in ety -n in e or even by a

t housan d horses, but to be invisible . Indra and Vayu

Often occupy the sam e car . I n con jun ct ion with Indra

Vayu ha s the right to the first draught of the soma

l ibat ion . H e can protect or prolong l i fe .

The soul of gods, and of the world the Off spring ,

This god according to his l ik ing wanders ,H i s soun d i s heard, but n e

’er i s seen hi s figure .This Vata l et us now with Off erings worship .

R ig -ved a , x . 1 68 . 3 .

And , Vata, thou art our father, our brother, an d

our fr ien d ; cause us to l ive .From the trea sure of immortal i ty, which i s depos

i ted yonder in thy house , 0 Vi ta , give us to l ive .R ig-ved a , x . 1 86. 2.

Indra

Max Muller argued that because drops of ra in were

cal l ed in d n , the god who sen t them was ca l led In dra,

.th e’

ra in er’

, the‘

i rr igator’

. But i t i s perhaps more

l ikely that the nam e Indra mean s‘

strong, powerful’

.

I ndra does not seem to have been worshipped by the

Aryan s before they cam e to In dia, but in In dia as lord

of the thunderstorm he was the prin cipa l god Of the

74 THE RIG -VEDA AND VE D I c REL IG ION

Ribhus, an d hi s weapon i s the thun derbolt forged for

h im by Tvastri . I t i s of gold'

Or i ron , an d som et im es

i s sa id to have a thousand poin ts . Indra i s a l so sa id to

have bow an d arrows , and a hook or goad (a n kas a).

H e uses a n et to enm esh hi s en em i es . H e drinks great

draughts Of soma - j ui ce , even from the day of hi s birth,l ike a th irsty stag The in tox i cat ion of the soma stirs

h im‘

l ike violen t blasts ’

. H e hurries Off , escorted by

the Marut s an d som et im es accompan i ed by Vishn u to

do battle w i th hi s en em i es, especial ly with Vrittra .

H eaven an d earth quake with aff right at the sound of

hi s thun der . H i s en emy i s pierced an d shattered . The

ra in descen ds an d the land i s blessed . S om et imes the

clouds are described as cit ie s or fortresses of hi s en e

m i es and In dra i s sa i d to overthrow them .

And so hi s pra i ses are sun g in coun t less passages

There i s n othing un conquered by thee no on e l ikethee i s kn own among the gods . N o one yet to beborn , or yet born , can r iva l thee . D O, great god,whatever thou wil le st to do .

R ig-ved a , 165 . 9

H i s wi fe i s In drani , but he h as man y other con sorts .

On e hymn describes the exultat ion Of In drani Over h er

r ival wives .

The two characteri st i cs that stand out m ost clearly in

the picture of Indra g iven in the Vedas are hi s del ight

in war an d hi s love for the in toxicat ing soma- j ui ce .

As soon as he was born , the slayer of Vrittra grasped hi s arrow and a sked hi s mother : Who are theythat are ren own ed as fierce

R ig-ved a , viii 45 . .4 .

THE VEDIC GODS 75

On the day that thou wast born , thou didst , fromlove of i t , drink the moun ta in juice of the S oma -plan t .O f Old , the youthfu l m other who bore thee , sat iatedthee with i t in the house of thy m ighty father .

R ig-ved a , iii . 48 . 2.

The sen sat i on s Of the god a fter drinking soma are

described in one of the hymn s :

The draughts which I have drunk impel me l ikeviolen t blasts . The five tribes Of m en appear to me

not even as a mote : I have quaffed the soma . Th e

two worlds do not equa l on e -hal f Of me I have quaffed the soma . One -hal f of m e i s in the sky , and Ihave drawn the other down . I have quaffed the soma ,

R ig-ved a , x . 1 1 9 .

H i s victori es are ascribed to the eff ects of the soma

j u ice .

These draughts in spired thee , O lord of the brave ,these were vigour, these l ibat i on s, in batt les, when forthe sake of the poet , the sacrificer, thou s truckest

down i rresist ibly ten thousands Of en em ies .

From batt le to battle thou advan ces t bravely , fromtown to town thou destroyest all thi s w i th m ight , whenthou , In dra , with h im who makes the foe bow down( i.e . the thun derbolt) as thy friend , s truckes t downfrom afar the dece iver N amuch i (a demon of drought).

R ig-ved a , i 5 3 .

I n the later l iterature In dra becom es k ing in S varga

and many in stan ces Of adultery are told Of h im , n otably ,tha t , in which he corrupted Aha lya, the w i fe of Gautama ,

by which he becam e kn own as Ahalya’

s lover-Then i t cam e about that , as Indra h ad superseded

Varuna , he too was superseded . H e had at first seem ed

to the Aryan warrior in a dry lan d the very em bodimen t

O f their own valour , possessed o f the ir own love for

76 THE RIG -VEDA AND VE D I C’

RE L IG I ON

s oma, and gran t in g them the ra in that t hey n eeded .

When men Of diff eren t character grew up in a later

c i vi l izat i on the presen tat ion of the supreme in In dra nO

longer sat i sfied them , an d Indra became on ly a figure in

the crowded verses of the Mahabharata or in the stori es

in the Puranas .

Rudra

The nam e Rud ra m ean s‘

the howler ’ or‘

the roarer’

.and in the R ig -veda i t al so Often seem s to m ean ruddy

o r‘

red Rudra i s the god of storm s and father Of thefi

Rud ras or Maruts . H e i s celebrated in on ly three or

four hymn s in the R ig -veda and hi s name i s not men

t ion ed quite SO Often as that of Vishnu . H e i s gen era l ly

a rm ed wi th bow an d arrows an d somet im es w i th a

t hun derbolt and hi s terrible arrows bring death or disease

On men an d cattle . H e i s cal led terrible as a wi ld

beast ’ an d the ruddy boar of heaven’

.

But he i s not an en t irely malevolen t demon . H e can

preserve from calam i ty an d give prosperity to man an d

b east . H e i s term ed possessor of heal ing remedies’

a nd greatest Of physician s’

.

But the ma in in terest in the study of the character Of

Rudra as drawn in the R ig -veda i s that Rudra receives

t h e epithet .s‘

iva , an d i s the l ink between the gods Of the

Aryan s and the dem on worship of the races that were in

I ndia before the Aryan s reached it .’

The orig in Of this

word s' iva i s d i fficult to trace i f i t i s sought among purely

S an skrit ro ots . But i t i s derived quite natura l ly from

t he D ravid ian root,

se, sev'

, S iva m ean ing red ruddy

an d S O‘

beauti ful arid right’

. Whatever i ts derivat i on

Th e word s zva i s n ot used in the Vedas as the nam e of an y

THE VEDIC GODS 77

god ,but it i s used as an adj ective m ean in g propit ious

auspic ious‘

favourable ,’

an d in th i s sen se i t i s appl ied

to Rudra ,to placate h im ,

for he was the m ost te rr ible

god that the Aryan s kn ew . I n the later Vedas this

ep i thet i s almost exclusively reserved for h im though

i t is st i l l used occasional ly Of other gods . I t i s in terestingto not ice , especial ly i f Rudra m ean s

‘

red ’

, tha t in Tam i l

verse, a thousan d years Old , the ep i thet s eyy a n ,

‘

the

red on e '

(ara l pol s eyya’

, red on e l ike fire i s sim i larly

regularly applied to the god Of destruct ion . (Tiru o

vd sagam As the Ved ic peri od advan ced

Rudra began to be thought Of not on ly as a god of

storm s in g en eral , but as an un i versa l destroyer . Then

the epithet S iva becam e a proper nam e an d m en spoke

of Siva in stead Of Rudra as the god wh o caused des

truction . As the Aryan s and the Dravidian s cam e i n to

closer relat ion , the Aryan s foun d that these people ,.

whom they cal led Dasyus ,worshipped destruct ive demon s

som ewhat l ike R ud ia with blood Off erings , as they do at

certa in great fest ival s all through S outh India to th i s

day . An d i t may be guessed that as the Dravidian s

learned a l i ttle Of the rel ig ion of the ir conquerors theya l so found that Rudra , who was beg inn ing to be ca l led

Siva, resembled their own dei t ies in som e ways . An d so

it m ight come about that Rudra , now ca ll ed Siva ,the

‘

Mahadeva’

or‘

great god’ of the Aryan s, and Si va , th e

red god of the Dasyus were iden t ified by both Aryan s

an d Dasyus and h en ceforth were on e de ity . I f S ivawas origina l ly a Dravidian word th is wou ld

,happen

all the m ore natural ly . As larger and larger n umbers

Of non -Aryan s were in cluded in the fourfold S imple

caste - system Of earl i er H induism the nam e of Rudra ;


the Aryan storm -

god , passed away , an d Siva , the god of

d estruct ion , in con trast w i th Vi shnu , the preserver, and

Brahm a the creator , took hi s place an d becam e on e Of

the suprem ely importan t triad of gods (tr im fi r t i) of laterH in duism . Thi s may not have happen ed everywhere ,an d i t i s on ly possible to guess at the process , but i t

must have been in som e such way that non -Aryan

malevolen t demon de i t i es becam e iden t ified with Siva ,

m ost terrible Of gods, an d Durga, m ost awful of

g oddesses, in later H in duism . lAn in terest in g example of th is on en ess of the S iva of

later H in dui sm with the m ore an cien t dem on deit ies of

the Dravidian s i s found in'

the nam e g iven to demon

temples in the Tam i l D i stricts of S outh In dia . I n

i diomat ic Tam i l a dem on shrin e i s ca l l ed pey -kavil‘

dem on palace . ’ S uch a shrin e i s often dedicated to

d emon dei ti es with such en t irely Dravidian names as

Vappa ma ra t ta karnppan , the black god dwell in g in the

n eern - tree ’ or MaUad iyal she who dwell s in the man go

t ree ’ . I n Tam i l that h as been aff ected by S an skri t the

term used i s f s’

varan kovil , which m ean s‘

the palace

o f I Svaran .

’

f s’

va ra n i s a Tam i l form of the San skri t

word m ean ing Lord’

and i s appli ed in Tam i l part icularl y

to Siva . S O that in common Speech v aran‘

the

lord Siva —an Aryan term—an d the Dravidian word

pey the demon’

are treated as syn on ym ous. An d so i t

may be that the l i tt le dem on deit ies of S outh In dia are

l inked through S ivan‘

the Red One ’ with Rudra and

the god s, of the early Aryan s .

1 S ee Mr . R . W . FRAZ ER ’

S artic le on th e Dravidians of S outhIn dia in th e E n cyclopaed ia of R el ig ion a n d E th ics , vol . v . p 22.

THE VEDIC GODS 79

Parjanya

Parjanya i s a god wh o sheds ra in , i nvoked in on ly

three hymn s and on ly men t ion ed about thirty tim es in

the R ig -veda . I n severa l passages the name simply

m ean s a‘

ra in cloud ’

. H e i s cal led the lord of all

moving creatures, the soul of all th in gs , the son of

Dyaus, the father Of the soma -plan t .

Parjanya 1 8 rea l ly one of the Older dei t ies whom the

Aryan s ven erated before they en tered India and Persia .

I n curious proof of thi s we fin d that thi s god was wor

shipped as a god of thunder under the nam e Perkunas inLithuan ia, on the shores of the Ba lt i c , far away fromIndia ,

by qui te another bran ch of the Aryan s . Like

Dyaus Parjan ya was fading ou t Of the mem ory of

the Indian Aryan s when the hymn s of the Vedas were

composed . H en ce Parjan ya does not stand out clearly

an d in later t imes he gave place to Indra to whomhi s nam e was appl ied .

The Bh rigus

The Bh rigu s were probably an an cien t tribe Of pri ests .They are sa id to have cheri shed the sacred fire and to

have made chariots . Though m en t ion ed as d ivin e being s

along w i th Agn i , and classed with the gods Of the a ir,they are Of in ferior importan ce , l i tt le higher tha n the

Ribhus with whom they are som etim es associated .

Maruts

The nam e Ma ru t was thought by MaxMul ler to m ean‘

the sma sher ’

an d to be appl ied to the gods Of the

cyclon e or tornado . Ben fey con sidered that they were


the person ificat ion s Of the souls of the dead and that

thei r nam e was conn ected w i th m a r, m r i , to die . The

nam e may a l so be con n ected wi th an Old S an skri t root

m ean ing to shin e .

The Maruts are thrice - sixty or on ly twen ty - seven in

n umber, an d are the son s of In dra an d speckled cow

Prismi which represen ts the clouds . They are also sa id

to be son s of Rudra, an d son s Of H eaven . They are

frequen t ly associated w i th Indra in hi s expedit ion s as

h i s al l i es an d fri en ds .

S pears rest upon your shoulders, ye Maruts ; yehave anklets on your feet , golden ornam en ts on yourbreasts, lustre in your cars, fiery l ightn ing s in yourhan ds, an d golden helm ets placed upon your heads .

R ig-veda , v . 54. 1 1 .

They cause the earth and the m oun ta in s to quake .

They ren d trees and devour forests l ike wild elephan ts.

They have iron teeth . They ride with whips in their

han ds. They aid Indra in h is conquest of Vrittra .

They are the favourite de it ies of som e of the R i sh i s

and are Often prai sed in the hymn s .

I I I . THE GODS OF THE EARTH

Agni

Agn i i s the god of fire , the I gn i s Of the Lat in s, and

the Ogn i of the S lavon ian s . N ext to In dra he i s the

m ost importan t god in the R ig -veda , bein g celebrated in

more than two hun dred hymn s . The first hymn in the

R ig -veda i s addressed to h im , an d the other Books , all

but two, beg in with hymn s to h im .

Agn i , is the sacrificial fire of the Aryan s, and all the

ri tual of the sacrifice cen tred roun d the sacred fire;

THE R I G -VEDA AN D VEDIC REL I G ION

waters . As there i s a fire in every house , Agn i i s sa id

to have man y births and to dwel l in every hom e .

Agn i i s an immortal who takes up hi s abode gra

ciously among men . H e i s the household priest (pn roh ita ,

ritvij , h otri or brahman) who wakes the Dawn .

He i s the most adorab le Of sacrificers , divinest am ong

sages, wise director and accompl i sher Of all sacrifices,knows all the t imes of the cerem on i es and can put

r ight the m i stakes of men , i s‘

father!

of sacrifices ’,a swi ft m essenger between heaven and earth , convey

ing the hymn s and Off er ings of the worshippers, cal l ing

th e gods to the sacrifices, and he i s somet im es described

as the mouth or tongue through which gods an d men

part icipate in the sacrifice . H e i s the king of men,

th e lord of the household (gr ih apa ti) and the gu est

Of every house, fri en dly to all, father, mother, brother ,sOn , kin sman and fri end . H e dr ives away demon s,rakshasas, watching over men with hi s thousan d eyes ,and con sum ing the enem i es of those who are the en em i es

Of hi s worshippers. A l l blessings com e from h im , even

rain ,

“

but h is chief gifts are household prosperity and

children .

H e i s cal led gobl in -slayer, butter - fed, destroyer of

darkness, br ight -flam ing, tawn y -ha i red . H e has burn

ing teeth , i s all devouring, roars l ike a l ion , i s born e

on a char iot Of l ightn ing, or on a golden car .

As he i s endowed with all these characteri st ics h is

worshippers ascribe to h imthe production Of the two

Worlds, say that b e caused the sun to ascend the sky ,

prai se h im as creator Of all l iving and moving creatures,declare

”

that all . Obey his commands, that the gods

Worship h im, that those who venerate h im will prosper,

THE VEDIC GODS 83

that he wi ll g ive renowned son s, that he protect s in

battle , con fers immortal i ty, carries men across calam i ty,an d can g ive forg iveness from whatever s in the wor i

shipper may have comm i tted through folly .

H e is occasional ly iden t ified with other gods and even

g oddesses, Indra, Vishnu , Varuna, Pi'

i shan , S arasvatiand others .

Agn i was worshipped by the Aryan s in the fire kin

d led each m orn ing whi le the fam i ly gathered roun d i t

in awe. As the cla rified butter (g h i) was poured _on ,

and the flam e rose i t was a sign that Agn i was presen t

and received the Off ering . At n ightfal l when the fam i ly

gathered round the fire for warm th or l i ght Agn i seemedpresen t in the flames, a kindly god , ready to guard

and bless hi s worshipper through the long hours of

darkness when the other gods h ad di sappeared and

all sorts of evi l demon s an d gobl in s were abroad .

Agn i was n ear men and stayed with them . Thus he

typified to the earl iest th inkers in India the lovingk indn ess of God .

I n two poin ts the H indus of to -day differ great ly

from their Aryan an cestors. The an cien t Aryan s occa

sionally ate meat, even beef, and they del ighted in

d rinking the in toxicat ing juice of the soma plan t .

N early'

a whole book Of the R ig -veda, con tain ing

1 14 hymn s, i s devoted to the prai se of this soma,e ither as the juice of the plan t or that juice deified,and con stan t referen ces are made to soma in other

hymn s.


Professor W hitney explain s that the Aryan s thought

in tox icat ion to be a sort Of divin e in spirat ion ; and so

worshipped an d deified its cause .

The simple -m inded Aryan people , whose wholerel igion was a worship Of the wonderful powers an d

phen om ena of nature , h ad no soon er perce ived thatthi s l iquid h ad the power to elevate the spiri ts, and

produce a temporary fren zy , under the influen ce Of

which the in dividua l was prompted to, an d capableof , deeds beyond hi s natura l

’ powers, than they foun din i t something divin e ; i t was to their apprehen siona god, en dowmg those in to whom i t en tered with

godl ike powers ; the plan t which aff orded it becam eto them the king of plan ts ; the process Of preparingi t was a holy sacrifice ; the in strumen ts used there forewere sacred .

1

N or were the Aryan s who came to India the first

to worship S oma . The Aryan s who foun d their wayi n to Persia al so adored it as H aoma , an d sa id man y

of the same things about it that the In dian Aryan s sa id,so that i t i s clear that S oma was a divin i ty reveren ced

by the Aryan s before they were divided in to these two

races, an d belongs to a very early t im e in the hi story

Of the prim i t ive Aryan s.

The soma plan t from which the in sp i r ing mi ce i s

pressed grew on moun tain s and has been supposed

to be one Of the‘

m i lk -weeds ’, or as clepiads, perhaps

that call ed sarcos temma vim in a le or the asclepias acid a ,

which al l con tain a m i lk - l ike juice . But the referen ces

in the Vedas do not enable us to iden t i fy i t with any

pertain ty . N O modern plan t has the attributes Of th e

de ified plan t Of f th e Vedas .

1JAOS , iii. 299 .

THE VEDIC com 85

SO long as Vedic worship lasted the an cien t bel ief in

the divin e power of the soma - juice con t inued . The

h ymn s addressed to S oma the god were in tended to be

sung to h im to gain hi s favour whi le the soma plan t was

(being crushed in the press an d the j uice extracted.

Then the worshippers drank an d rej oiced, pra i sing the

plan t , i ts j uice and the god wi thout di st in ction , as may be

seen in the fol lowing verses and in the readings from

the Vedas .

We have drunk the soma , we have becom e imm ortal , we have en tered in to l ight , we have kn own the

gods . What can an en emy n ow do to us, or whatcan the mal i ce Of any mortal eff ect , 0 thou immortalgod

R ig-ved a , V i i i 48 . 3 .

A l l the gods del ight in the soma - j u ice .

Indra hath drunk , Agn i hath drunk ; all deit ies havedrunk the ir fil l .

R ig-ved a ,

V i i . 5 8 . 1 1 .

O S on ia, g ladden Varuna and M i tra ; cheer IndraPavamana ! Indra Vishn u .

Cheer thou the gods, the company of Maru ts : Indu,cheer m ighty Indra to rej oicing .

R ig-ved a , ix. 90. 5 .

Make Vayu g lad, for furtheran ce an d boun ty cheerVaruna and Mitra as they clean se thee .G ladden the gods, g ladden the host of Maruts ;

make H eaven an d E arth rej oice , O God , 0 S oma.

R ig-ved a , ix. 97 . 42.

But Indra i s the dei ty especial ly addicted to love Of

the soma.

E ven as a thirsty steer wh o roam s the deserts, may

he drink eagerly the m i lked -out soma .

R ig-ved a , v . 36. l .


Then In dra at a sing le draught drank the con ten tsof thi rty pai l s, pa i l s that were fi l led w ith soma - j u ice .

R ig -ved a , viii. 66. 4 .

H i s bel ly , drinking deepest draughts of soma, l ikean

'

ocean swel ls .R ig

-ved a , i . 8 . 7.

The soma plan t i s sa id to have been brought to th e

earth from the sky by a fal con , or to have been foun d on

a moun tain . I t i s som et im es sa id to have been con

ducted to the Gandharvas by the daughter of S i'

i rya, or

to be the Off spring of Parjan ya , the ra in -

god .

I n the Satapatha Brahmana the Gayatri i s sa id to

have become a bird an d to have brought S oma from th e

sky . I n the Taittiriya Brahma

—

na Praj apat i i s sa id to

have created the divin e soma and the three Vedas after

h im .

S oma as a god i s said to have h ad the thirty - three

daughters of Prajapat i as hi s wives .

S oma i s sa id to clothe the naked, heal the sick , to

bestow sight on the bl ind , to give heaven to hi s worship

pers, an d to exh ilirate even such gods as Varuna , Mitra

and Indra . H e‘

h as a car and weapon s, an d destroys

foes . S oma in sp ires In dra to conquest

Impetuous as a bull , he chose the soma , and quaffed in three - fold sacrifice the j uices .In dra with hi s own great and deadly thun der smote

in to p ieces Vritra , worst of Vritras .

R ig-ved a , i . 32. 3 and 5 .

S oma i s the gen erator of the hymn s, creator of th e

gods,k in g of gods an d men , elevated over all worlds,

thousan d - eyed . S oma i s‘

priest Of the gods, the leader

o f s ingers, a ri sh i among sages, a bul l among wi ld

an imal s, a falcon among ki tes , an axe in the woodsR ig -veda ,

ix. 96. 6.

THE VEDIC com 87

The hymn s to S oma describe the purification and pre

paration of the j uice with much fan ci ful imagery . The

god i s sa i d to fly l ike a bird to sett le in the vats. Th e

sound of the flowing juice i s l ike that of a roaring’

bull .

I n later t imes S oma i s iden t ified with the moon . I n

the Atharva -veda S oma m ean s the m oon .

I n Aryan worship l ibat ion s_

Of soma -j uice were poured

out by the worshipper as drink for the gods . I n later

t imes when worship had becom e e laborate , the hymn s

orig inal ly sung during the extract ion of the soma -juice

from the plan t were collected from the R ig -veda and

made the basi s Of the S ama -veda and were chan ted by

the Udgatri priests, whi le the S oma sacrifice was being

prepared .

Yama and Yami

Yama and Yami (m ean ing’

the twin s were the son

and daughter Of Vivasvat , the sun , and Sarany i'

i , th e

dawn . They are sa i d to have been the first human

beings . I n the ten th hymn Of the ten th book Of th e

R ig-veda , Yama i s described as re fusing to treat Yam i as

his wi fe . I n th e Atharva-veda Yama i s the first Of men

who died , and he foun d the way to the celest ia l world.

H e gives abodes in that heaven to the piOUS .

H e i s sa id to have two fierce dogs which guard the

way to hi s abode and wander about among men as’

h is

m essengers, and he sends a bird as the herald Of doom‘

.

I n the Atharva -veda Mrityu or Death is sa id to be h i s

messenger . But n owhere in the R ig -veda i s Yama

regarded as having anything to do with the pun i shmen t

of the wicked .

'

That i s an fidea that became curren t in


later H in dui sm , in which he i s the judge an d pun i sher of

the dead like the Greek Pluto an d Min os .

Prith ivi

The earth -goddess, or the earth person ified under the

nam e Prith ivi the broad one —has on ly on e short

hymn addressed to hersel f. S h e i s gen eral ly associated

with Dyaus, an d invoked along with h im . Sh e i s the

m other Of all beings .

IV . THE ABSTRACT GODS

Aditi and the Adityas

Adit i m ean s that which i s unbound, free , and so

freedom ’ i s the name Of a goddess, often m en t ion ed,t hough there i s no hymn expressly in her hon our. S h e

s eem s to be a person ificat ion of l ight as the cause of th e

u n iverse .

Adit i i s the heaven s ; Adit i i s m id -air ; Adit i i s themother an d the sire and the son . Adit i i s all gods ;Adit i i s men in the five classes ; Adi t i i s all that hathbeen born an d shal l be born .

R ig-ved a , i . 89 . 10.

Adit i i s asked for blessings of chi ldren and catt le and

for protect ion , but her two most n otable characteri st ics

are that : ( i) she i s the mother of the Adi tyas an d (i i) thatl ike Varuna the chief of her son s, she can heal suff ering

and forg ive sin .

The Adi tyas , the son s of Adit i , are more frequen t ly

m en t ion ed than their mother . I n R ig -ved a , i i . 27. 1

s ix are men t ion ed : Mitra, Aryaman , Bhaga, Varuna,Daksha, an d Amsa . I n x . 72. 8 . 9 , i t i s sai d that Adi t i

90 THE R IG -VEDA AND VEDIC REL IG ION

Purusa i s iden t ified with h im . I n the S i'

i tras he i s

ident ified with Brahm a ;"

I n the Satapath a Brahmana Praj apat i i s sa id to have

been him self hal f mortal and hal f immortal .

Praj apat i created l iving creatures . From hi s highervital breath he created the gods ; from hi s lower vitalbreath he created men . Afterwards he created Deaththe devourer for all l iving creatures . O f that Prajapat i one -ha l f was m ortal , the other immorta l , and withthat hal f which was morta l he was a fra i d of Death .

Sa tapa th a Brah man a , x . 1 . 4. 1 .

M i sery , death, smote Prajapat i when he was creat in g l iving beings . H e perform ed austerity for a

thousand years to get free from m i sery .

Sa tapa th a Brahm an a , x . 4. 4. 1 .

I n reading the texts about Praj apat i i t i s clear that

whi le he i s som et im es treated as a god of secon dary

importan ce, later on he represen ts the attempt to express

the abstract idea of the suprem e first cause Of all things .

Sraddha Sarasvati and other Goddesses

I t was powerful , war - l ike, gen erous gods tha t appealed

most to the imag inat ion of Vedic singers and l i ttl e i s

Sa i d about the goddesses . Nearly all the great gods

have wives , Agn i’

s wife i s Agnay i , Indra’s w i fe i s

Indrani , Varuna’

s wife i s Varunan i , and so on . . But

goddesses as wives of the great gods are scarcely n ot iced

in the Vedas, and such goddesses as are special ly.men t ion ed—Pri th ivi , Adit i , U shas, Vach are worship

ped for the special character i st ics that have been men

tioned in the accoun ts already g iven Of them .

THE VEDIC GODS 9 1

I n the R ig~veda Sarasvati i s a r iver, and a river

goddess, in voked to be presen t a sacrifice Off ered on her

banks, an d her influen ce helped the sages to compose

hymn s . S h e i s ca lled the be st of mothers, Of rivers and

of goddesses (R ig -veda , i i . 41 . I n the R ig -veda

Sarasvati an d Vach are di st in ct, and i t was in later t imes

that the two were iden t ified , and that Sarasvati becam e

un der diff eren t names the wife of Brahma and the

goddess of wisdom .

Apas, the waters , Aranyan i , the goddess Of forest

sol i tude and Sraddha , rel igious fa ith are m en t ion ed withsevera l other goddesses, but not in an y noteworthy

fashion . The word Lakshm i occurs in the R ig -veda

on ce as m ean ing‘

auspic ious ’ but not as the nam e of

the goddess Of good fortun e . I n the A th arva -ved a ,

vi i . 1 1 5 . 1 , man y Lakshmis , som e good and some bad ,are spoken of . I t was le ft to later an d debased H indu

i sm to accept the worship of such de it ies as Durga and

Kali , and to san ct ion the excesse s Of Sakt i -worship .

Vach, m ean ing speech, i s a goddess person i fy ing

Speech as the m ean s by which man may Obtain kn owl

edge . S h e i s represen ted as crea ted by Prajapat i and ,in a legend, that i s repuls ive, as his mate . Vach was

sold by the gods to the Gandharvas in exchan ge for

soma .

‘

S h e i s the mother Of the Vedas and i s al so the

wi fe Of Indra .

I n later l i terature Vach i s iden t ified with Sarasvati‘

an d was wife of Brahma un der - various nam es. As

S arasvati she was the goddess of wisdom and eloquence .


Two hymn s in the t en th book Of the R ig -veda are

addressed to her.

Brihaspati and Brahmanaspati

I n the R ig -veda Brihaspat i an d Brahmanaspat i are

equivalen t an d m ean‘

lord Of prayer ’ . Brihaspat i i s

a de ity , in whom the act ion of the worshipper upon the

gods i s person ified . H e i s the suppl ian t , the sacrificer,t h e priest who in tercedes with the gods on beha l f of

m en , and protects them from the wicked . H e represen ts

t he priests an d the pri estly order . H e i s al so designated as the puroh ita Of the gods . H e i s the lord an d

protector Of prayer . H e i s described as destroying

the demon Vala and driving forth the cows, i .e . causing

th e clouds to yi eld the ir ra in .

H e i s al so described as the father Of the gods ; and

c reator of the gods l ike a black - sm i th ; to have a hundred

W ings ; to be arm ed with an i ron axe. I n som e passages

he i s i den t ified with Agn i , but thi s Opposed by others .

I n later t imes he i s a ri sh i an d regen t Of the plan et

Jupiter.

The one hundred and twen ty -first hymn of the ten th

book of the R ig-veda h as as the refra in Of each Of the

first n in e verses :

W hat god shal l we adore with our Oblat ion P

The word’

ka i s the San skri t in terrogat ive pron oun‘

what ! ’

I n later t imes thi s in terrogat ive was treated

a s a proper nam e, the quest ion becam e an as sert ion , an d

the refrain Of the hymn reads


V . INFERIOR DEITI ES

Tvastri

Tvastri i s the Vulcan of the Roman s . H e i s th emost sk i l ful of workmen , who is versed in all won derful

con trivan ces . H e”

sharpen s and carri es the great iron

axe of Brahmanaspat i an d forges the thun derbolts Of

Indra. H e form s husban d and wife for each other . H e

h as given to the heaven and earth and to all thing s their

form . H e i s master of the un i verse , the first -bom

protector and leader . H e bestows long l i fe, puts speed

in to the legs of a horse , g ives b lessings, and i s possessed

Of abun dan t wea l th .

I n later t im es Tvastri i s regarded as on e of the

Adityas. H e i s sa i d to have h ad twin chi ldren . One

was a daughter, S aranyu , who marr ied Vivasvat and

became mother Of the Asvin s . The other was a son ,

Vis‘var i'

ipa, who had three heads, si x e yes, and three

month s, and was slain by Indra.

H e i s connected with the Ribhus who fashioned

I ndra’s chariot an d there Was enm i ty between h im‘

and

them because they made a single sacrificial cup of h is

manufacture into four cups .

The Ribhus

The name Ribhu m ean s sk i lful and the Ri bhus are

said to be three son s of Sudh anvan , a descendan t Of

Aug iras, cal led Ribhu , Vibhvan an d Vaja . They are

celebrated in th e c R ig -veda as ski l ful workmen , who

fa sh ioned In dra’s chariot and horses, th e car of the Asvin s

and the cow of Brihaspat i, and made thei r paren ts

THE VEDIC GODS 95

young aga in . By comman d Of the gods, an d with

a prom i se of exaltat ion to divin e honours, they made

a sing le sacrificia l cup fashion ed by Tvastri in to four.

They are also spoken of as supporters Of the sky . E leven

hymn s are addressed to them .

Visvakarman

The name ViSvakarman simply m ean s‘

all creator

all doer and was orig inal ly an epithet Of any powerful

god ; but in course of t ime it cam e to designate a special

god, Viévakarman , the great archi tect Of the un iverse .

AS such, two hymn s are addressed to h im .

I n later books he i s iden t ified with Tvastri. I n the

Ramayana he i s represen ted as having bui lt the city of

Lanka for the rakshasa s .

H e presides over man ua l labour as well as over th esixty - four manua l arts . H e i s represen ted in one hymn

as the Al l -Father, the one all - seeing God , with eyes,faces, arms and feet on every side , who blows forth

heaven and earth with hi s arm s and wings.

Gandharvas and Apsarases

Apsaras was a celest ial water nymph and the Apsarases are heaven ly nymphs loved by a class Ofmale gen ius

ca l led Gan dharvas . S om e of the Apsarases mated with

mortal men . Thus U rvaéi was loved by Pur i'

i ravas,

and there is a hymn from h im to her in the R ig -veda

(x . I n the later l iterature the Apsarases are celest ialcourtesan s and the Gan dharvas are attendants on the

greater gods,


Divine Priests

Man u the first sacrificer and the an cestor Of the

human race i s among the pri ests an d heroes m en t ion ed

in the R ig -veda . There are a l so g roups Of an cien t

pri ests cal led Ang irases and Bh rigus , an d the seldom

men t ion ed S even R i shi s, afterwards regarded as the

seven stars in the con stel lat ion Of the Great Bear .

V I . DEMON S AND DEIFIED AN IMAL S AND OBJECTS

Demons

There are many kin ds of demon s, and many individual

demon s special ly nam ed in the hymn s .

Roughl y speaking all may be div ided in to two classes .

There are the asuras, or l iving spiri ts the opponen ts

Of the devas in their eff orts to help the ir worshippers .

Natural ly the early invaders con sidered that the gods of

their en em i es the Dasyus were asuras . In deed, the words

dasa and d asya are Often used in the sen se of demon .

The demon Vritra, who held Off rain an d caused dr ought,i s the most notable of these asuras .

The rakshasas are the secon d class . They are gob l ins

that in fest the earth and are as host i le to men as the

asuras are to the gods . They have all sort s of horrible

shapes, are deform ed and Of dreadful colours . The

pisachas Of the later Vedas—the pey Of the southern

Tam i l Dravidian s—are among the most dreaded Of

rakshasas in the later l i terature, but they are scarcely

men t ioned in the R ig -veda, which may be an indicat ion

that as yet th e invaders had not acquired th e knowledge


and the Atharva-veda that the worship Of the cow is

ful ly recogn ized .

Sacrif icial and other implements

Sacrificial implemen ts, the sacrificial post to which

the vi ct im was t i ed, the plough and weapon s of war are

Occasional ly deified. This i s practi ca l ly .the same as the

modern ayn th a paj a , the worship of weapon or tool on ce

a year—a ceremon y common to all ranks of H indus

a very an cien t pract ice indeed as the Ma habhara ta

shows.

VI I . THE PITRI S : ANCESTOR SERV I CE AND WORSHIP

Apar t f rom the worship Of the devas the respect foi'

the Spi ri t s of th e departed an cestors was an other form

Of p iety ever presen t in the m inds Of the earl y Aryan s,as i t i s in that of all prim i t ive peoples in on e form or

an other. I t i s Often referred to in the R ig -veda, an d in

the Sraddha ceremon i es of modern H indui sm has

become a -very importan t part of the popular rel ig ion ,

which it i s Ob l igatory on even the most lat i tudinarian

H indu to Observe annual ly at all costs .

I t has two distin ct stages .

There i s first that stage in wh i ch early peoples bel ieve

that the soul of the departed, l ike the man al ive , depends

on food and dr ink for i ts con t inued exi sten ce . Those

who hold thi s bel i ef in th i s s imple form of course

con sider the soul to be a mater ia l substan ce , or at most

have but a d im idea of a non -material spir i tual ex isten ce.

And just as they felt i t thei r duty to provide their father

or mother with food whi le sti l l al ive, so they thought i t

thei r duty _ to con t inue to provide . them with sustenance

THE VE D ic GODS 99

after they were dead . Food was therefore la i d out in the

Open , and the soul s of the dead were cal led to take i t .

The Dravidian s, even the lowest of them , practi sed thi s

piety as well as the Aryan s, and to th i s day the Tam i l

Para iyan bel ieves with all hi s heart that i f for any

r eason , such as death away from hi s relat ives or quarrels

about the property among the dead man ’s heirs,the

d eparted spiri t i s not cared for, i t must become a mal ig

nan t demon .

Here an other idea i s foun d which goes back to the

very earl iest t imes among the Aryan s . They thoughtthat the dead an cestor h ad to make a j ourn ey in to somerealm s beyond thi s exi sten ce , either in the east wh en ce

the bright gods seemed to com e or in the west, where

lay the kingdom of Yama. And so in the days immed i

a tely after a man had died Off ering s were made to

provide h im with strength , and , in later thought, to

provide‘

the spiritual essen ce Of h i s soul with a bodi ly

form , so that he m ight accompl i sh the j ourn ey to the

r ealm s of the fathers .

Up to thi s poin t piety to the dead i s an act Of serv ice

rather than worship .

An cestor -worship proper beg in s when the natural awe

O f the dead , or the tradi t ion s Of the prowess or wi sdom

O f some an cestor leads to the convict ion that the dead

man possesses power st i l l to influen ce the affa i rs of h i s

d escendan ts . The memory of their great deeds or Of

thei r j udic ious sayings was invoked to in spire courag e

or to settle di sputes . I t was a simple tran si t ion to the

bel ief that the man who im i tated their valour in battl e

was helped by them , or that the man wh o obeyed thei r

precepts was blessed by them, while the man who


di sregarded them was accursed . An d so the presen ta

t ion of Off erings ceased to be m erely dut i ful service and

becam e rel ig ious worship ; the spiri ts of the an cestors

thus becam e gods in the fam i l i e s of thei r descen dan t s ;

and the offerings made to them were in ten ded to secure

their care for the fam i ly or tribe to which the dead h ad

belonged .

The an cien t Aryan race , before i t h ad l eft i ts origina l

hom e an d separated in to di ff eren t lan ds,h ad reached thi s

stage of bel ief about an cestors an d so alongside th e

worship Of the gods there was the worship Of the auces

tors, Or the Fathers,’ the Pi tris . Many passages m ight

be quoted in proof of th i s

May the ri sing Dawn s protect m e , may the flowingR ivers protect m e, may the firm Moun ta in s protectme, may the Fathers protect me at th i s in vocat ion ofth e gods.

R ig-ved a , vi . 52. 4.

Let not the gods in jure us here , nor our earlyfathers, who kn ow the realm s .

R ig-ved a , ii i . 55 . 2.

There i s an other di st in ct ion that i s.

worth atten t ion .

The an cestors of the great Aryan fam i l i es , though hi s

torically n ext to n othing was kn own about them , were

exalted in tradit ion t i l l they becom e almost as great as

the gods, whi le the fathers but late ly departed are

scarcely more than rem embered . I n accordan ce with

thi s di st in ction the term Pi tr i somet im es m ean s an cestor

of a tribe or race or even of mankind , as mankin d seem ed

to the Aryan singer, but when used of an ordinary man’

s

fathers, the term in cludes on ly hi s father, grandfathers

and great -grandfathers .


I n that realm , by the favour of Yama, he en ters on a

new l i fe of happin ess in the presen ce of the gods an d

ful l of del ights.

Thi s was the thought of Yama when he an sweredThis man i s m in e . Let h im com e here to riches .

Ath arva -ved a , xviii 2. 3 7 .

Yama him sel f i s som et im es addressed as i f he were

one of the Fathers, the first of m ortal s that di ed or that

t rod the path Of the Fathers leading to the common

sun set in the West . But hi s real nature i s n ever

completely forgotten an d , as the god Of the sett ing sun ,

though he i s the leader Of the Fathers, he i s not one’

of the Fathers him self .

The fol lowing verses from one Of the hymn s of th e

R ig -veda shows how an cestors were invited to come to'

th e sacrifice

1 . May the soma - loving Fathers , the lowest , th ehighest , an d the m iddle, ari se . May the gen t le andrighteous Fathers who have come to l i fe (again) protect us in these invocati on s !

4. Com e hither to us wi th your help , you Fatherswho sit on the grass ! W e have prepared these oblat i on s for you , accept them Com e hither with yourmost ble ssed protect ion , and give us hea lth and wealthwithout fa i l !

5 . The soma - loving Fathers have been cal ledhither to the ir dear vian ds which are placed on the

grass . Let them approach , l et them l i sten , let themb le ss, let them protect us !

R ig-ved a , x. 1 5 .

The ful l developm en t of the worship Of the an cestors

and the appoin tm en t of the three kinds Of srad d h a for

an cestors in gen eral (n i fya) ; for the spiri tual embod i

THE VEDIC GODS

men t of a recen t ly deceased father (n a im z t tika) ; or as

a work of meri t (kamya) belong to later H induism .

There are ful l descript ion s Of thi s worship in the

Brahmanas and S i‘

i tras . The E pics, the Law-books and

the Puranas con stan t ly re fer to i t . I t i s at th e root Of

the worship Of many a modern de ity who i s in real i ty

som e hero or sage de ified .lH indu customs of inheri tance and marr iage are closely

related to ancestor worship . S peak ing gen eral ly, he who

has the right to perform the funeral ceremon i es and the

annual srad d h a for the dead has part in th e dead man ’s

possession s.

1 Th e deification of a h ero or h eroine is sim ilar to th e d eifi

cation Of ancestors . Thus th e god of a tribe of basket-weavers inD h arapuram in th e M adras Presidency is th e general of a rajaperh aps of Appaj i N ayak

'

s t irne and their goddess is Viramattih is W i fe , who threw herse lf in to a pit of fire th at sh e might attainh eaven with h er husband ’

s spirit wh en sh e heard that h e wasslain .

V. THE SACR IFICES OF THE ARYANS

THE careful study of the rel ig ious l iterature of the

Assyrian , Baby lon ian , H ebrew or other rel igion s Of the

S em i t i c races, or of the ideas of the early

Greeks or Of the bel i efs and practices of

the early Aryan s, shows that all these

people Offered sacrifices of man y k inds. The Off erings

g rain Or oi l or soma-j uice or the flesh of an imal s or even

the l i fe Of man—were not the sam e in all lands and

on all occasion s an d the rites according to which

the Off er ing was given to the god di ffered in di ff eren t

coun tries, and were di ff eren t in the same coun try at vari

ous t im es. But all sacrifice was performed because of

one or other of two main i deas or because of a comb i

nat ion Of the two ideas in the m ind of the sacrificer.

The early worshipper wished to have a strong‘

bond Of

un i on between him self an d hi s god , and to secure that i t

seem ed to h im best that he and his god should feast

together an d especial ly that they should feast together on

som e an imal sacred to the god an d often con sidered to be

of kin with the sacrificer .

Or the worshipper was moved to off er sacrifices because h e fel t that hi s god required from h im some g i ft,great or smal l , either to expiate divin e wrath or to win

divin e favour .

The Vedic hymn s show that although the Aryan s

d rank soma- juice with their gods, and though priest and


year when the fruit or gra in r ipen ed the ripe first~fru its‘

were off ered in a rustic fest ival to the gods . On ce a

year, when the rainy season set in , a h e-goat was

sacrificed in the house of the sacrificer.

S oma - j uice was part of every Off ering Of any impor

tance , especial ly in invocat ion s of Indra. Apparen tly i t

was simply poured ou t on to the bundles of the sacred

kn sa'

grass which were provided as seats for the invisi

bl e gods .

The greater sacrifices were off ered in special em ergen ‘

The greatciesor by k ings or sages to ga in extra

m fi fim ord inary en ds . They became as W i l l be

seen later , costly and elaborate beyond

bel i ef.

The chi ef of the great sacrifices were

the soma sacrificethe sacrifices of cows an d oxen and other an imal s ;the horse sacrificethe human sacrifice .

The prim i t ive fam i ly worship grew speedi ly more

complex , and even before the hymn s in the R i g -veda

were col lected the idea of sacrifice had SO ful ly lai d hold

on the m ind of the Aryan s that all the thousand hymn s

in the R ig -veda refer directly or indirectly to sacrifice .

The main reason for this was the bel ief m en t ioned

above that i f a hymnwas rightly sung or chan ted and

i f a sacrifice was duly performed, i t

was an in fal l ible m ean s of securing the

Obj ect Of the sacrificer, however audacious . I t was

thus of the utmost ‘ importan ce that the sacrifice i f

i t were any but the m ost ordinary , should be per

formed by one who kn ew every detai l Of the ritual .

Rise of priest t

THE SACRIF I CES OF THE ARYAN S 107

H en ce the man with ski l l in the performan ce of sacrifice

or in the wording of pet i t ion s came to be a person of

importan ce . H e was the spell -monger, the sooth - sayer

(the ma n tra -kara), the master of charm s, the Brahman

or’

prayer maker ’ of the Aryan s, perhaps the sam e as

theflamen of the Lat in s . The socia l value of the priest ,because he could pray or sacrifice more acceptably than

Others natural ly led the priest him sel f to exaggerate and

emphasize his own office an d so a professional priest

hood and a regular priestcraft came in to ex isten ce .

With the ri se of this priesthood the performan ce of

the greater sacrifices became thei r special duty , and

though a Kshatriya l ike King Janaka, the raj - r is h i ,

might in si st on the right to off er his own sacrifice , thepriesthood gradual ly acquired the monopoly of cele

b rating all such sacrifices, and added ceremon y to

ceremony ti ll i t became impossible to Observe the ritual

and the whole system collapsed .

A hymn in the Atharva -veda ( i i i . 1 9) sets forth the

power of the priest to secure the prosperity Of those

who are hi s friends and the destruction of his en em i es,

and i s an indicat ion of the growing preten sion s of the

priests as a class.

1 . May thi s prayer of m in e be successful ; may

the vigour and strength of m in e be complete , may

the power be perfect , undecayin g, and victorious Ofthose of which I am the pu roh ita .

2. I fortify their kingdom , and augm en t theiren ergy , va lour and force . I break the arm s Of theiren em ies with thi s Oblat ion .

3 . May all those who fight aga in st our wise andprosperous (prin ce) sink downwards and be prostrated .


W i th my prayer I destroy hi s en em i es and rai seup hi s friends .

4. May those of whom I am the pu roh i ta besharper than an axe, sharper than fire

,sha rper than

Indra ’s thun derbolt .

0

5 . I streng then their weapon s ; I prosper theirk ingdom ri ch in heroes . May thei r power h e undecaying an d victorious . May all the gods foster theirdesign s .

A th a rva -ved a , i i i . 19 .

Max Muller g ives a long accoun t of

the prin cipa l orders of priests an d their

dut ies which may be summarized as

Priests and their

duties

follows

The Adhvaryus were the pri ests who were in trusted

with the materia l performan ce Of the sacrifice . They

h ad to m easure the ground , to bui ld the a ltar , to prepare

the sacrificia l vessels, to fetch wood and water, to l ight

the fire , to bring the vict im an d slay i t . They form ed,as i t would seem, the lowest class of pr iests, an d their

acquiremen ts were more Of a pract ica l than an in tellec

tual character . S om e of the dut i es of the Adhvaryu s ,were con sidered so degrading , that other person s besides

the priests were frequen tly employed in them . The

Sam itri, for in stan ce , who h ad to slay the an ima l , was

n ot a priest, he n eed not even be a Brahman , and the

sam e remark appl ies to the Vaikartas ,th e butchers, and the

so- ca l led Chamasadhvaryus . The n umber of hymn s and

invocat ion s which the Adhvaryu s h ad to use at the

sacr ifices were sma l ler than that of the other pri ests .

These , however, they had to learn by heart . But as the

ch ief di ffi culty con si sted in the exact reci ta t ion Of hymn s

and in the close Observan ce Of all the euphon i c rul es, as

1 10 THE R IG -VEDA AND VEDIC REL I G ION

The Hotris , as a class, were the most highly educated

order of pri ests . They were supposed to kn ow both the

proper pron un ciat ion and the m ean in g of the ir hymn s,the order and employmen t of which was taught in the

Brahmanas Of the Bahvrichas . But, while both the

Adhvaryu s and Udgatris were con fessedly unable to

perform their dut ies without the help Of thei r Prayer

Books, the Hotris were supposed to be so wel l versed

in the an cien t sacred poetry , as con tain ed in the ten

Mandalas of the R ig-veda , that no separat e Prayer

Book or Samhita was ever arranged for their special

ben efit .

The Hotri learn t , from the Brahmana, or in later t im es ,from the S i

‘

i tra, what special dut ies he had to perform“

.

H e knew from these sources the beginn ings or the nam es

of the hymn s which he had to recite i t every part of the

service .

The most an cien t name for a priest by profession was

Pn roh ita , which on ly m ean s on e placed before . The ori s

g inal occupat ion of the Pn roh ita may simply have been

to perform the usual sacrifices ; but, with the ambit iouspol icy of the Brahman s, it soon became a stepping-ston e

to pol it ical power. -Thus we read in the Aitariya

Brahmana

Breath does not leave h im before t ime ; he l ives toan Old age ; he goes to hi s full t im e , and does not dieaga in , wh o has a Brahman as guardian of hi s land, asPuroh ita . H e conquers power by power ; obtain sstren gth by stren gth ; the people Obey h im , peacefuland of on e m ind .

1

1 Abridged from MAX M ULLER , An c ien t S an skrit L itera tu re.pp . 47 1 - 487 .

THE SACRIFICE S OF THE ARYAN S 1 1 1

Bri efly put the three defin i te orders among th e

Brahman s, their Vedas and their names are

l . h otr i means ‘

sacrificer from h a 2 pour on th e fire . Th e

h otri recites r ieka s , praises’

: h ence comes th e R ig-ved a .

2. u dgatr i mean s singer'

from u dga i s ing . Th e udagatri

raises Saman i‘

chan ts ’

: h ence comes th e S ama—ved a .

3 . ad h va ry u mean s working priest from a d h vara 1 : a

r itual act . Th e ad h va ryu mutters yaj u n si , sacrificial formulaeh ence comes th e Yaj u r -ved a .

I t i s not worth whi le to attempt to draw up a l i st of

all the implemen ts and uten si l s that were used in sacr i

fices , after sacrifice had been developedThe sacri f icial

i n the t imes of the Brahmanas . Man y instruments

pots, three kinds Of ladl es for pouring

clar ified butter on the fire, a smal ler ladle or spoon for con‘

veying the butter from the pot to larger ladles, caldron s,beakers, the sacred kusa grass, on which the gods m ight

s it and on which soma - juice was poured out are all

men t ion ed in the Atharva-veda (xvi i i . The yapawas the post to which the an imal vi ct im was t ied . There

were , Of course , kn ives an d choppers for cutt ing up th e‘

victim . The sphya was a wooden in strumen t shaped

something l ike a sword for sti rr ing the boi l ing rice , or

perhaps for trimm ing the mound used as an altar . One

of the priests had to hold i t up high so long as the chief

c eremon i es lasted to keep Off evi l spi ri t s 1

There was also the press - ston e for crushin g the soma

plan t . A l l of these were multipl ied or modified as the

ri tual Of the great sacrifices was developed .

The first of these great sacrifices, original ly a very

simple act , was the soma sacrifice . Though a book of

l M URDOCH , Accoun t of Ved as , p . 54.

1 12 THE R I G -VEDA AND VEDIC REL IG ION

the R ig -veda and the whole of the S ama -veda were

even tual ly devoted to the chan ts to be rai sed during

the performan ce of the soma sacr ificesThe soma sacr i

flee no clear idea of the ceremon i es can be

ga in ed from those books . I t i s from

the Brahmanas Of the S ama -veda that the n eedful in for

mat ion h as to be Obta in ed , an d when i t has been

Obtain ed it i s not of very clear sign ifican ce . I n fact

there i s l itt l e Of in terest in these soma sacrifices . They

were celebrated in a var i ety of ways . I t may be imag in ed

that original ly the juice of the plan t was m erely crushed

from i ts stem s and collected , an d then part was poured

out for the gods an d‘

part was drunk by the worshippers .

But thi s S implic ity soon departed .

On e soma sacrifice, the Agn ish toma, celebrated in

spring - t im e was in pra i se of Agn i i t required the m in i s

tration s of sixteen pri ests. I t occupied on ly one day ,

durin g which the soma juice was pressed from the plan t,the essen t ial part Of the ceremony , three t imes ; but there

were detai led preparatory ri tes, in cluding the in i t iat ion

(d iksh a) of th e man

'

wh o made the sacrifice and hi s

wi fe.

There i s on e classificat i on of the soma sacrifices

according to the leng th of t im e which they lasted which

Shows that they exten ded to as man y as twelve days inone case . This last sacrifice could on ly be performed

by Brahman s, which i s an indicat i on that i t belongs to

the later Vedic t im es ; a large number of Brahman s must

j oin to perform i t, an d they m ight lengthen ou t the ri tes

to a hundred days, or to som e years . The Obj ects for

which the sacrifice was Off ered were Off spring, cattl e,wealth, fam e, theological learn ing, sk i l l to perform cere

1 1 4 THE RIG -VEDA AND VE D I c REL IG ION

book to Dr . Rajendralala Mitra’

s careful papers on the

whole subj ect of m eat -eat ing, an imal sacrifices and

human sacrifices collected and publ i shed in 1 88 1 in two

volum es under the t i t l e Th e I n d o -Ary an s .

1 H i s inves

t igation s an d those of other scholars on the subj ect seem

to establ i sh the fol lowing facts .

The ASvalayana S i'

i tra men t ions several sacrifices of

which the slaughter Of cattl e formed a part . One Of

them , in the Grih ya S i'

i tra, i s worthy of special not ice . As

i t i s cal led Salagava , or spi tted cow.

’

I n the Brahmanas there are man y rules laid down for

many k inds of Cow - sacrifices . Going back to the

ancien t Taittiriya Brahmana, Of the Black Yaj ur -veda,‘

that gran d store -house of Vedic ri tual s which aff ords

the fullest in sight in to the rel ig ious l i fe Of an cien t India,’

as Dr . Rajendralala Mitra cal l s i t , many ceremon i es are

named, which required the m eat of cattle for the ir per

formance and con siderable stress i s la id on the kin d and

character of the cattle which should be slaughtered for

the supply of m eat for the grat ificat ion of part icular

d ivin i t i es.9 The fol lowing summary presen ts the main

facts

Thus, am ong the Kamya I stis , or m inor sacrificeswith special prayers , we have to sacrifice a dwarf oxto Vishnu ; a drooping -horn ed bull w i th a blaze on

the forehead to Indra as the author of sacr ifices or asthe destroyer of Vritra ; a th ick - legged cow (Prién is akth a) to the sam e as the regen t of wind ; a whiteblazed drooping -horn ed bull to the same , as thedestroyer of en em i es, or as the wielder of the thunderbolt ; a barren cow to Vi shnu and Varuna ; a bull that has

l Pub l ish ed by Newman, Calcutta, in 1 88 1 .

9 I n do-Aryan s ,see vol .

\

i , pp. 361- 3 , 374

- 6.

THE SACRIFICES OF THE ARYAN S 1 1 5

been already san ctified at a marriage or other ceremon y to Indra an d Agn i ; a pol led ox to Brahmanaspati ; a black cow to Pi

‘

i shan ; the cow that hasbrought forth on ly on ce to Vayu ; a brown ox toI ndra, the invigorator Of our facult ies ; a speckled or

piebald Ox to Savi ta ; a cow having two colours toMitra and Varuna ; a red cow to Rudra ; a whitebarren cow to S i

'

i rya ; a white ox to Mitra ; a cowfi t to con ce ive to Bhaga , etc . I n a rul e in conn exionwi th the ASvamedha, the sam e authority lays downthat sacrificia l an ima l s should diff er in caste , colour ,age, etc . , according to the gods for whom they are

design ed .

l

I n the larger ceremon i es, such as the Rajasuya,the Vajapeya , and the ASvamedha, the sla ughter ofcattle was an invariable accompan imen t . O f the firsttwo the GO - sava formed an in teg ral part, and i t ensured to the perform er independen t dom in ion in thi sworld , and perfect freedom in the n ext to saun terabout as he l iked , even as the cow roam s un trammel led in the forest .9

I n i ts accoun t of the ASvamedha , the TaittiriyaBrahmana recomm ends 1 80 dom estic an ima l s to besacrificed , in cluding horses, bull s, cows , goats, deer,n ilgaos .

3 A n umber Of wi ld an ima l s were,l ikewi se

,

on such occasion s, brought to the sacrificial posts, butthey were invariably let loose after con secrat ion . Theauthori ty , however, does not d i stin ctly say how man yheads of cattle were requi red for the purpose ; thenumber, perhaps, varied according to the exigen cies ofthe guests, among whom crown ed heads wi th thei runwieldy retin ues form ed so prom in en t a part , andwhose requirem en ts were regulated by a royal standard . But even the strictly ceremon ia l offering was not ,eviden tly , completed with a sol i tary cow or two. Out

1 Ta itt ir‘

iya B rahman a ,iii . p . 658 .

9 Ta ittir lya Ara nyaka .

3 Ta it t i riya Brahman a , ii. 65 1 .

1 16 THE R IG -VEDA AN D VEDIC REL IG ION

of the‘

ten t imes e ighteen’ heads required, a great

many must have been bulls, cows and hei fers Ofdiverse colours an d ages .The Brahmana not ices another cerem ony in which

a large n umber of cattle were immolated for the grat ification of the Maruts an d the en j oym en t Of their worshippers . This was call ed the Panch a s arad iya s ava ,

or the quinquenn ium Of autumna l sacrifices . ’ I t eviden tly held the sam e posit ion in an cien t India whichDurga Pi

‘

i ja does in the calendar of m odern H indus .I t used to be celebrated , as i ts nam e impl ies, for fiveyears successively , the period Of the ceremon y beingl im ited to five days on each occasion , begin n ing withth e n ew moon which would be in con j un ction with th eVisakha con stellat ion . This happen ed in S eptemberor October . The m ost importan t elem en ts of theceremony were seven teen five -year Old , humpless,dwarf bulls, an d as man y dwarf hei fers un der threeyears . The former were duly con secrated, and thenl iberated , an d the latter, after proper invocat ion s and

ceremon ial Observan ces , immolated three on each day ,the remain ing two being added to the sacrifice on thelast day , to celebrate the con clusion of the ceremon yfor the year . The Tandya Brahmana of the S amaveda n oti ces thi s ceremony , but i t recomm ends cattl eOf a di ff eren t colour for each successive year . According to i t the seven th or eighth of the wax ing m oon inASvin i for the first year , and the 6th of Kritt ika for thefol lowing years were the more appropriate for i t . Theorig in of the sacrifice , according to a Vedic legend , i sdue to Prajapat i . On ce on a t im e he wished to berich in wealth an d depen den ts ; he perceived the Panch a s arad iya ; he se ized i t , an d perform ed a sacrificewith i t , and thereby becam e great in wea lth and

dependen ts . W hoever wishes to be great ,’

adds theVeda , let h im worship through the Pancka s arad iya .

Thereby , veri ly, he wil l be great .’ 1

E lsewhere i t i s

1 Tai ttir iya Brahman a . ii . 2.

1 1 8 THE RIG -VEDA AND VEDIC REL IG ION

ven ture to depart from th i s order of di stribut ion . The

shares d iff ered but all were al lowed plen t i ful l ibat ion s

of soma j u ice .

I t i s impossible to think that such an elaborate ri tual

was ever Observed in m ore ancien t Vedi c t imes . But ,on the other hand , i t i s Obvious that sacrifices of cows

must have been off ered in those m ore an cien t days for

they would not have been carried on in a later age

without the san ct ion Of earl ier usage an d i t may fa i rly .

be con cluded that these an imal sacrifices were simple

sacrificia l feasts in which the god and h i s worsh ipper

shared together the flesh of the sacred an imal were part

of the orig inal worsh ip of the earl iest Aryan s .

The As’

vam ed h a or horse - sacrifice was one Of th e

most imposing of the great sacrifices (mahakra tn). Twohymn s in the R ig -veda Show that i t was

The Horse

sacrifice performed from the very earl iest t imes

(R ig -ved a , i . 162 an d I t i s ful ly

described in the White Yajur -veda and in the Satapathaan d Tait tiriya Brahmanas, and was regarded as the most

im portan t and e fficacious of an imal sacrifices . I t was

a sacrifice that in later t im es could on ly be offered by a

k ing of undisputed authori ty , for the sacrificial horse

was allowed to wander for a whole year at wi ll , followedby the army of the kin g perform ing the ri te . I f anychief dared to in terfere wi th the horse hi s terr i tory

was se ized ; i f he did not , he acknowledged him sel f to

be a feuda tory of the k ing .who had sen t out the

horse . I n ei ther case the horse showed the way to

conquest and i f i t survived the year i t was clear

proof of i ts own er’

s undisputed power . I n earl ier t imesit may have been a sacrifice Off ered before a chief set

THE SACR I F i cEs OF THE ARYAN S 1 19

ou t on an invading expedit ion in to the terri tory Of rival

Chiefta in s, but in the R ig -veda the Obj ect of the ASva

med h a i s l ike other rel igious rites, the acquirin g of wealth

and posteri ty

May thi s good steed bring us all- susta in ing riches,wea l th in good kin e , g ood horses, man ly off spring .

Freedom from s in may Adit i vouchsafe us : the steedwith our Oblat ion s gain us lordship.

R ig-ved a , i . 162. 22.

I t was in the later r i tual that i t was gen eral ly in tended

to secure victory and prosperi ty to the king who per

formed it , and man y kings are said to have celebrated

i t for thi s purpose .

Yudh is t ira sacrificed a horse after the great war wi th

the Kurus, to expiate all the s in Of the war, and th e

ASvamedha Parva of the Mahabharata describe s i t . I t

was also performed to secure an heir to a king, and th e

Bal akanda of the Ramayana tel l s how D asaratha th e

father of Rama celebrated i t before the birth of Rama.

Pract i ca l ly our knowledge of the ri tua l i s derived from

these later accoun ts.

According to them the sacrifice began in the spring or

summer . Then the an ima l after selection roam ed with

i ts body -

guard of a hundred prin ces , a hundred. n obles

and a hundred servitors , while thanksg iving and the

recital Of the Vedas occupied those who remain ed in the

king’s ci ty . When the year had expired the sacrifice

was completed . I t took three days, during which soma

j u ice was pressed , the horse was bathed , an d other

an imal sacrifices were perform ed . On the third day th e

horse was boun d to the sacrificial post covered with

a cloth and ki lled or suff ocated . I f the king wan ted an


heir the chief queen had to remain under the cover with

the dead horse all n ight .

Thus in the Ramayana the horse -sacrifice i s employed

by the chi ldless D asaratha as the mean s Of obtain ing

son s . I n the Balakan da i t i s said that h i s pr in cipa l

queen , Kausalya,‘

with three strokes slew that horse,experi en cing great g lee . And with the view of reaping

meri t, Kau salya, with an undi sturbed heart, passed one

n ight with that horse .’ According to the Ramayana,

sh e acquired so much meri t in th is way that she bore

Rama . There i s no trace of thi s Obscen i ty in the R ig

veda, and i t may be cited as a con spicuous in stan ce

of the degradat ion of worship that was possibl e in th e

t im e Of the Brahmanas .1

W hen the queen had l e ft the horse i t was cut up androasted . On the third day the k ing who had celebrated

the sacrifice bathed, and gave gi fts to the Offician ts .

That the horse was ki l led an d i ts flesh cooked i s

eviden t from the fol lowing extract from the R ig -veda

W hat from thy body which with fire i s roasted,when thou art set upon the spit , d istilleth ,

Let not that l i e on earth or grass n eglected , but tothe longing gods let all be off ered .

They who, Observing that the horse i s ready, cal lout an d say , The sm el l i s good remove i t ,And , craving m eat, awai t the di stribut ion ,

—maytheir approving help promote our labour .The trial - fork of the flesh -cooking caldron , th e

vessels ou t of which the broth i s sprinkled,The warm in g -pots, the covers of the di shes, hooks,carving-boards,—all these atten d the charger .The four -an d - thirty ribs of the swi ft charger, kin tothe gods, the slayer

’s hatchet pi erces .

1 WILSON , R ig-ved a , ii . 1 3 .


indigen ous deit ies worshipped by the Dravidian tr ibes .

I t was to such gods that human l ives were Off ered when

a n ewly excavated tank fa i led to produce suff i c ien t

water , or when a temple wal l cracked, or the foundat ion

of a bridge gave way . The fierce and cruel goddesses

Of later H indui sm , Chamunda , Chan di , Durga, Kali ,Mari and their s isters were real ly exal ted Dravidian goddesses , an d are declared to be appeas ed by human l ives .

I n mod ern t im es the Off ering to these goddesses i s

usua l ly the blood Of sheep , goat s or fowls, but occasion

al ly a devoted worshipper wi ll Off er a few drops of blood .

The Off er ing of on e ’s own b lood says Dr . Raj endra

lala M itra,‘

to the goddess i s a m ediaeval and m odern

Blood off eringsri te . I t i s made by women , and there

i s scarcely a respectable house in all

Bengal , the m i stress of which h as not , at one t ime

or other, shed her blood under the n otion of sat i sfying

the goddess by the Operat ion . When ever her husband

or a son i s dangerously i ll , a vow i s made that , on

the recovery of the pat ien t , the goddess would be

regaled with human b lood , and in the first Durga

Puj a ‘ fol lowing, or at the temple at Kalighat , or at

som e other sacred fan e, the lady perform s certain

ceremon i es , and then bares her breast in the presence of

the goddess, and with a na i l -cutter (n aru n a ) d raws a fewdrops of blood from between her busts, and Offers them

to the divin i ty .

’

I n the sam e way women pierce the ir cheeks with

si lver skewers in hon our of the defin i tely Dravidian god

dess Kurumay i at W oriur n ear Trich in opoly .

S uch Off ering s are vest iges Of the t im es when human

l ives were once Off ered to these D ravidian goddesses.

THE SACRIFICES OF THE ARYAN S 123

These were cal l ed n a raba li , the sacrifice of men . Th e

Vedic human sacrifice has the more honourable t itl e

pu r usamed h a‘

the sacrifice of human i ty or’

Of th e

hero but the two cannot easi ly be di st ingui shed .

O f human sacrifices (n a ra ba l i) the Kal ika Puranacomposed in honour Of Kali or Durga Devi Says : By

a human sacrifice attended by the form s la id down ,

Devi remain s grat ified for a thousand years, an d by

a sacrifice of three men one hun dred thousand years . ’

The human sacrifice i s described as a t iba l i , the highest

of all sacrifices.

Im India to th is day the bel i e f ex i sts and strange

stories of such sacrifices find ready acceptan ce . A case

now and then com es in to court whichHuman sacrifice

shows that from t im e to t ime human

be ings actual ly are sla in in sacrifice .

I n 1 900 in the Bombay Presiden cy the H igh Court

upheld the convict ion of three men for the murder of a

ch ild nam ed Dagdi as a sacr ifice to persuade a de i ty to

reveal to the m urderers the place where treasure was hid

den . I n Bellary in 1 901 a Kuruba , a man belon g ing to

on e of the m ost an cien t Dravidian t ri bes in S outh India

was convicted of the murder Of hi s own son in order to

Obtain treasure that the god Kona I rappa had prom i sed

to h im on that condi t ion . I n the Bombay Presiden cy

a charge Of the murder of a g i rl -chi ld to propiti

ate the mal ice of certa in water -deit ie s cal led‘

mavlis’

was proved and upheld on appeal again st a H indu woman

named Bhagu , wi fe of L axman ,in November, 1 9 10 and

again st Um i, wife of Jayaj i in March , 1 9 1 1 . I n 1 9 1 2 th e

qui et town of Bezwada in the Madras Presiden cy was

thrown i n to commotion because the Governor of Madras


was bel ieved to have perform ed a human sacrifice at thefoot Of a hi l l in the n eighbourhood in order to ga in posses

sion of hidden treasure . The orig in of the rumour was

that on hi s vi si t to Bezwada the Govern or attended a

meet ing Of Freemason s, held of course with closed doors .

The extreme meri t Of such a sacrifice i s eviden t

in man y a vernacular l egend . On e such was g iven by

M r. H . R . S cott , M .A.,in a paper on Th e Guj era ti

Poets 1 in which he relates a legen d which appears in

a poem by a Guj erat i poet nam ed Akho .

Akho was n o Brahman or Van iyo, but aworking gold

sm i th . H e began by being an en thusiast i c Va i shnava

of the Vallabhacharya sect, but he was di si l lusion ed , and

in bittern ess Of soul he compared hi s Guru—the head Ofthe sect—to an Old bullock yoked in a cart he could not

draw, a useless expen se to hi s own er ; nay , he compares

h im to a ston e in the embrace of a drown ing man ,which

S inks where i t i s expected to save . H e defies curren t

views about d efilemen t , an d says i t i s not external

bathing but in ternal puri ty that i s n eeded .

This story as reci ted by Akho i s about Sagalsha S heth ,a very devout man wh o had an equal ly devout wi fe ,S an dhyavat i, and the pai r had on e loving an d much

beloved son S elaiya . I t was their pract ice n ever to eat

a m eal un less they could share i t wi th som e poor S adhu

or sain t .

On ce in the rainy season , there came a tremendous

downpour, and i t lasted for eight days and n ights,during which i t was not possible for

G erat'

I and“j I egany Sadhu to be found , an d the pai r

Part of th is was prin ted in th e I n d ian S oc ia l R ef ormer ,

Bombay , of Jan uary 28 , 1 9 12.


Besides, look at what others have don e , and he goes over a

l i st of those who h ad gladly died or suff ered for the sake Of

piety , such as Karna , Harischand ra . S O the boy i s sacr i

ficed , wil ling ly subm i tt ing him self to the kn i fe . H i s

mother i s ordered by the inhuman S adhu to put on h er

j ewels, an d dress in her brightest clothes, an d show no

sign of grief, or of reluctan ce to let her son he sacrificed .

An d so the story goes on , t i l l the cl imax i s reached,and the god reveal s him self, and prai ses the devot ion of

hi s servan ts and restores their son to l i fe . Then he asks

Sagalsha to choose a boon Ask what you wi ll and

I shal l give i t un to thee .’

And the an swer of the pious

man i s quite the fin est thing in the poem , H e asks

nothing for him self, but says I on ly ask, my Master,that you may n ever again put any on e to such a test .’

There can be no doubt , then , that in the H induism

that has been influen ced by Dravidian bel iefs, and that

as far back as Puran i c t imes, the practice of human

sacrifice was Observed , though probably on ly on rare

occa sion s.

The pract ice can further be traced back through th e

Brahmanas to Vedic t imes, when human sacrifices were

Off ered to Vedic de i t ies to secure rel ig i ous m erit .

The whole subj ect of human sacrifice in Vedic t imes

has been carefully investigated by Dr. Rajend ralala

M i tra in a paper orig inal ly publi shed in the J ou rn a l ofth e As ia tic S ociety of Benga l . S ome Indian scholars

had main ta in ed that human sacrifices were not authorized

in the Vedas, but were in troduced in later t imes, but Dr .

Rajend ralala Mi tra says : As a H indu wri t in g on th e

action s of my forefathers—remote as they are —it wouldhave been a source Of great sati sfaction to me i f I could

THE SACRIFICE S OF THE ARYAN S 27

adopt thi s conclusion as true ; but I regret I cannot do so

con si sten t ly with my al leg ian ce to the cause of hi story .

’

H i s paper on the subj ect occupies e ighty - four pages in

hi s Di d o -Aryan s , with man y quota t ion s both in San skri t

an d E ng l i sh . The following i s a brief summary . F i rst

there i s a descript ion of the prevalen ce of human sacri

fices in all parts of the world , both in an cien t and modern

t imes, and Dr . Mitra finds that ben ign and human e as

was the spiri t of the ancien t H indu rel ig ion , i t was not

opposed to an imal sacrifice ; on the con trary , most of

the prin ci pa l ri tes required the immolat ion of large

numbers of various kinds of beasts an d birds . One of

th e ri tes en j oin ed required the performer to wa lk delib

erately in to the depth of the ocean to drown him se l f to

death . This was ca l led Ma h dpras th an a , and i s for

bidden in the presen t age . Another, an expiatory one ,required the sinn er to burn himself to death , on a blazing

pyre . Thi s has not yet been forbidden except by

Brit i sh law. The gen tlest of beings , the simple -m inded

women of Bengal , for a long time used to throw

their first -born babes to the sacred river Ganges at

Sagar I slan d , an d th i s was preceded by a rel igious

ceremony , though i t was not authorized by any of the

an cien t ri tua l s . I f the spiri t of the H indu rel ig ion has

tolerated , coun tenan ced or promoted such acts, i t i s not

un reasonable or in con sisten t , to suppose that i t should

have , in prim i t ive t imes, recogn ized the slaughter of

human being s as calculated to appease , grat i fy , and

secure the grace of the gods.

The clear eviden ce recorded in the Vedas i s n ext

exam in ed . The earl iest re feren ce to human sacrifice

occurs in the first book of the R ig-veda . I t con tain s


seven hymn s supposed to have been recited by one

Sunah sepa when he was bound to a stake preparatory tobeing immolated . The story i s g iven in the AitareyaBrahmana of the R ig -veda .

King Hari schandra h ad made a vow to sacrifice hi s

first -born to Varuna, i f that deity would bless h im

with chi ldren . A chi ld was born , nam edT

gsngt

ggpgf Rohita, an d Varuna claimed it but the

father evaded fulfi l l ing hi s prom i se

under various pretexts un t i l Rohita, grown up to man’s

estate , ran away from hom e in to the forest an d wandered

there for six years, while Varuna afflicted the father with

dropsy . At last Rohita m et a starving Brahman named

Aj igarta wh o con sen ted to sel l to h im hi s son Sunah sepafor a hun dred cows, to be off ered as a substi tute for

h im se lf. Varuna accepted the subst itute saying‘

a

Brahman i s worth more than a Kshatriya .

’ W hen

Sunah sepa had been prepared , they foun d n obody to

bind h im to the sacrificial post . Then Aj igarta sa id ,G ive me an other hundred cows, an d I wil l b in d h im .

’

They gave h im an other hund red cows, and he boun d h im .

W hen Sunah sepa had been prepared and bound , when

hymn s h ad been sung, and he had been led roun d the

fire , they foun d n obody to k i l l h im . Next Aj igarta said,G ive m e another hundred cows and I wil l k i l l h im .

’

They gave’

h im another hundred cows , and he came

whetting the kn i fe to slay his son . Then Sunah sepai s said to have recited hymn s prai sing Agn i , Indra,

M i tra, Varuna, an d other gods .

One may be quoted .

1 I ts con cluding verses deserve

special atten t ion .

I R ig-ved a , i t 25 .


1 3 . Varuna, wearing golden ma i l , hath clad h im in

a shin ing robeH i s spi es are seated round about .

14. The god whom en em i es threaten not , nor thosewho tyrann ize o

’er men ,

Nor those whose m in ds are ben t on wrong .

1 5 . H e who gives g lory to mank ind, not g lory thati s in complete ,

To our own bodies g iv ing i t .16. Yearn ing for the wide -seeing on e, my thoughtsmove onward un to h im .

As k in e un to thei r pastures move .1 7. On ce more together l et us speak , because mym eath 1 i s brought pri est - l ike ,

Thou eatest wha t i s dear to thee .1 8 . N ow saw I h im whom all may see , I saw hi s

car above the earthH e hath accepted these my songs .

1 9 . Varuna, hear th i s cal l of m in e : be graciousun to us thi s day

Longing for help I cri ed to thee .20. Thou , O wise god , art lord of all, thou art

the k ing of earth and heaven :

H ear, as thou goest on thy way .

21 . R elease us from the upper bond, un t i e thebon d between and loose ,

The bon ds below, that I may l ive .

Varuna, pleased with the hymn s of Bunahsepa, set

h im free an d the youth, di sgusted with his father, forsook h im , and became the adopted son of Visvamitra,

hi s maternal un cle .

Like D r. Rajendralala M i tra, Prof. Max Mullerbel ieved that the story in the Aitareya Brahmana showed

that,’

at tha t early t ime , the Brahman s were fam i l iar

U sual ly mead , a sweet l iquor.

THE SACRIFICES OF THE ARYANS 1 3 1

with the idea of human sacrifices, and that men were

purchased for that purpose .’

According to the Brahman i c ri tua l the Puru samed h a ,

as a regular part of Vedic worship, was celebrated for

t h e attainmen t of supremacy over all created be ings.

I ts performan ce was l im i ted to Brahman s and Ksbat

t iyas. I t could be commen ced on ly on the ten th of th ewaxing m oon in the mon th of Cha i tra (March -Apri l),and al together required forty days for i ts performan ce ,though on ly five out of the forty days were special l y

cal led the days of the Pu ru s amed h a . E leven sacrificial

posts were required for i t , and to each of them was t ied

an an imal fit for Agn i and S oma , the human victims

being placed between the posts .

The full description of thi s r i te occurs in the Vaja .

saney i Samhi ta of the W hi te Yaj urveda . The pas sage

in i t bearing on the subj ect i s sup

posed to describe the differen t k inds of

human vict im s appropriate to part icular gods and

goddesses . The section in which i t occurs open s with

three verse s which , the commen tator says, were in tended

to serve as man tras for off erings of human victim s .

Then follows a series of 1 79 names of gods in the dative

case , each followed by the name of on e or m ore person s

in the Obj ect ive case ; thus : to Brahma , a Brahmana,to the Maruts, a Va isya,

’ etc . The copula verb i s

om i tted and the reader may supply whatever verb

he chooses . These names occur al so in the Ta i t

t i riya Brahmana of the Black Yajurveda , with on ly

a few slight variat ion s, but here in some cases the

verb ala bh a te fol lows . This i s derived from the root

labh , to take , lay hold of and the commen tators have

Farusa Mod ba


gen eral ly accepted the term to mean should be

s laughtered .

”

D r. Rajend ralala Mitra quotes the 1 79 names an d

gives explanatory extracts from the Brahmanas and the

laws of Apastambha . Probab ly the n umber of men

actually sacrificed was few, in spite of the large num

bers m en t ion ed in the Brahmanas , but whether they

were few or not , these passages show that the ri tual

provided that men should be sacrificed .

The Satapatha Brahmana says m en are sacrificed

an d con tain s a verse which i s remarkable for the man

ner in which i t speaks of the human vict im . I t run s,

Let a fire off ering be made with the head of a man .

The off ering i s the ri te it self (Yaj n a) therefore doesi t make a man part of the sacrificial an imal s ; andhen ce i t i s that am ong an ima l s man i s in cluded insacrifice .

Reviewing the whole of the eviden ce Dr . Rajendralala

M i tra gives the following summary of the con clusion s

which may be fa i rly drawn from the facts ci ted

above

1 . That looking to the h i story of human civi l izat ion

and the ri tual s of the H indus, there i s nothing to just i fy

the bel i ef that in an cien t t imes the H indus were inca

pab le of sacrificing human being s to their gods .

2. That the Sunahsepa hymn s of the R ig -veda most

probab ly re fer to a human sacrifice .

3 . That th eQ

Aitareya Brahmana refers to an'

actual

and not a typ ical human sacrifice .

I Th e long passages: from th e Taittiriya and éatapath a Brahmanas are given :in fu l l and discussed in D r . K . S . Macdonal d ’

s Th e

Brahmanas of theVed as , pp. 49 ff .

1 34 THE RIG -VEDA AND VEDI C REL I G ION

sacrificial ceremon ial show, the scrupulous perform

ance of rel igious ri tual was the chief feature of thei r

rel ig ious l i fe . Sacrifices of such magn i tude , ri tual so

complex cannot have been usual at any t ime , and a

priesthood which in si sted on such impossible ceremon ial~

ism compelled the m inds of thoughtful men to revolt

and to seek a purer and higher m ethod of com ing in to

touch with the Un seen .

The ri se of th i s class of thinkers indicated immen se

changes in the habits of l i fe of those who had wan dered

in to India with thei r catt le , with arm s in the ir hands, wor

shipping the sky and the fire and the ra in . The Aryan s

had now becom e the settled inhabitan t s of India . There

were man y who possessed weal th , man y who gave them

selves to a l i fe of reti remen t and thought , an d that

i deal had lai d hold on the imaginat ion of the t imes .

E very forest had i ts herm i t . The result was that the

teaching of the sages received the obedien ce that th e

priesthood had cla imed . The way of sal vat ion taught in

the Upan i shads, or by Mahavi ra the leader of the Ja in s,or by Gautama the Buddha, put an en d to the sacrificial

rel igion which we see in i ts exaggerated form in th e

Brahmanas. The Pu rusamed h a , the As‘vamed h a and

all the multi tude of an imal sacrifices and the eat in g

of flesh among the higher classes ceased . The Oblat ion s

of soma were no longer off ered , and the drinking of

soma becam e unknown . The old gods, Dyaus and

Varuna and Agn i passed away , and were succeeded in the

n ewer H indui sm that arose through and after the Bud

dh ist revolt by Vi shnu and Krishna and Rama and Siva.

The Code of Man u which was drawn up perhaps

about one hundred or two hundred years after th e

THE SACRIFICES OF THE ARYANS 1 35

t ime of Chri st, that i s about seven or e ight hundred

years after the t ime of the Brahmanas , says that th e

prescribed beasts an d birds are to be sla in by Brahman sfor the sacrifice ; an d al so for the support of dependen ts

for Agastya did so form erly , an d adds that there were ,indeed, offerings of eatable beasts an d birds in the

an cien t sacrifices and in the Oblat ion s of Brahman s and

Kshatriyas .

l

Thi s reads as i f the an cien t system was becom ing a

thing of the past . I n the sam e sect ion Manu says

H e who g ives no creature wi ll ingly the pain of con

fin emen t or death , but seeks the good of all, en j oysbl i ss without en d . F lesh cann ot be obtain ed withoutin j ury to an imals, an d the slaughter of an imal sobstructs the way to heaven ; therefore on e shouldavoid flesh . H e who during a hun dred yearsannual ly perform s the horse sacrifice , and he whoen t irely absta in s from flesh, en j oy for their virtuean equal reward . I n eat ing flesh , in drinkingin toxicat ing l iquors, and in carnal in tercourse therei s no s in , for such en j oymen ts are natural ; bu tabsten t ion from them produces great reward .

Man ava D h arma -s’

as tra , v . 46. 48 , 53 . 56.

Thi s is differen t vi ew to tha t of the early Aryan s.

I t i s i l lustrated in another passage

Om i s the supreme Brahma ; suppression s of breaththe highest austerity ; but there i s nothing moreexalted than the Gayatri truth i s better than si len ce .Al l the Vedic ri tes, oblat ion al (an d) sacrificial , pass

away but thi s imperi shable syllable Om i s to beknown to be Brahma an d al so Prajapat i .The sacrifice of muttering (th is word, i s better

by ten fold than the regular sacrifice ; i f inaudible , it

l Ma'

n ava D h amn a -s‘as tra , v . 22. 23 .


i s a hundred fold (better) ; and a thousandfold, ifmen tal .

Man ava D h arm a -sas tra , 1 1 . 83—85.

And qui te a new and Spiri tual i zed view of sacrifice

i s set forth in Manu’s defin i t ion of the five great sacr i

fices that the householder shal l perform dai ly .

These are as fol lows :

Teaching an d studying the Vedas i s the Vedasacrifice .Off ering cakes and water i s the sacrifice to th efathers (pi tri s).An off ering to fire i s the sacrifice to the gods .An off ering of food i s the sacrifice to the gobl in s

(bh fi tas).Hospi tal i ty to guest s i s the sacrifice to men .

Man ava D h a rma -gei s h a , ii i . 70.

Though the idea of sacrifices of an ima l s and human

beings has persisted in the bel iefs of the castes whose

rel ig ion was much influen ced by or derived from the

rel igion of the Dravidian s and other prim i t ive races in

India, i t may be safely asserted that the more truly Aryan

t ribes ceased to perform such sacr ifices after the t im e

of th e Buddha.

1 38 THE RIG -VEDA AND VED IC REL IG ION

himsel f, what he wi shes towards others , what he hopes

an d fears, whether he open s hi s eyes with gladn ess and

what makes h im despai r. The prayers of Robert Loui s

S teven son at Va i l ima show us hi s own brave , bright soul .

I n the book of Psalms we learn to know the l ife -hi story,the pen i ten ce , the sen se of mora l respon sibi l i ty an d the

longing after r ighteousn ess that mark the pi lgr image of

th e H ebrew towards God . The prayers in the Vedas

became m erely formal ‘ repet i t ion s in after t im es . Per

haps they h ad becom e so even in the days when they

were col lected in to the R ig -veda . But they h ad once

been the real utteran ces of the n eeds of l iv ing men in a

strange world . They are m emorial s, to be exam in ed

reveren tly, of the rel ig ious emot ion s of men at the

dawn ing t im e in Asia. Much more than the scan tyrecords of thei r gods, and of the sacrifices that they

off ered to their gods, do these prayers show us what

mann er of men the Aryan s were .

These prayers al so man i fest what the worshipper

con ceived the character of hi s god to be . I f he did not

think hi s god to be capable of fierce wrath he would not

ask h im to hurl h i s thun derbolt s on hi s en em i es. I f h e

did not bel ieve that h is god cared to save hi s worshippers

from drought , no prayers would go up to the heaven s for

rain . I n these prayers then we can gather at least the

outl in es of the di sposi t ion an d attributes of the Aryan’

s

gods . These outl in es cann ot be clear . The con fusion

of the attributes of one god with those of another, or

rather the prom i scuous attributing of all qua l i t i es to

almost every god nam ed preven ts us from being able to

state defin i tely how any part i cular god appeared to hi s

worshippers, and i t seems scarcely l ikely that the early

THE PRAYERS OF THE ARYANS 1 39

Aryan did discern very carefully between the characters

of the various gods to whom he prayed . S peaking

gen eral ly he seem s to have had thoughts about the gods,the Devas, as a class, and to have addressed thi s or that

part icular god according to preference rather than for

reason s that can be defin ed .

The prayers in the Vedas natural ly con tain much

adorat ion . The god addressed i s pra i sed for hi s great

deeds, hi s valour, hi s beauty , his know

ledge .

Agn i i s thus addressed

Agn i I hold as herald , the mun ificen t , the gracious,son of strength , who knoweth all that l ive , as holysinger, knowing all.

M oration

i . 1 27 . 1 .

To Agn i I presen t a n ewer m ightier hymn , I bringmy words and song un to the son of strength ,Who, offspring of the waters , bearing preciousth ings, sits on the earth , in season , dear invokingpriest .

i . 143 . l .

Indra i s thus addressed

To Indra Dyaus the Asura hath bowed h im down ,to Indra m ighty earth wi th wide exten din g tract , towin the l ight, with wide spread tracts .Al l gods of one accord have set Indra in fron t,pre -em in en t .

i . 1 3 1 1 .

Thou , god w i thout a second .

i . 32. 12.

Indra i s pra i sed for hi s capacity to drink soma

Then Indra at a single draught drank the con ten tsof thi rty pai l s,Pai l s that were fil led with soma juice .

vn . 66. 4.

‘

1 40 THE RIG -VEDA AND VEDIC RE L IG ION

The Maru ts are thus addressed

C om e hi ther Maruts, on your l ightn ing - laden cars,soun ding with sweet songs, armed with lan ces , wingedwith steeds .

i . 88 . I .

The gods are sometimes pra i sed for their beauty,One of the epithets most common ly appli ed to Indra,says Muir, i s s u s

'

ipra , or s'

ib r in , in the in terpre ta t ion of

which S ayana wavers between‘

the god with han d

som e cheeks or with handsom e nose .’ Agn i i s ca l led

lord of the lovely look .

ii . 1 . 8 .

The broad - tressed S in ivali i s thus descr ibed

With lovely fingers, lovely arm s, prol ific Motherof man y son sPresen t the sacred g i ft s to her, to S in ivali queen of

men .

1 1 . 32. 7 .

The studen t of the Vedic hymn s wil l n oti ce first of all

that the maj ori ty of the petit ion s con ta in ed in them are

not for spiri tu al blessing s, but for the

wealth and the welfare that must have

s eemed most desi rable to men settl ing in a new land ,l iving in new con di tion s of cl ima te, and face to face with

troublesome and dangerous en em i es . They ask frankly

for cows, for horse s, for son s, for long l i fe in the land ,for protection from the assaults of the ir en em i es, for

v ictory in the ir expedit ion s again st those enem ies, and

for rel ief in t im es of drought . I t i s qui te true to say

that the thing s that they could see were what they

d esired .

‘

The thing s above ’

, the invi sib le and the

spir i tua l are not the g reat obj ects of those early singers.

A brief classified selection of som e of the suppl i ca


Ann ih i la te the fools, slay them and burn them up ;

Chase them away from us, pierce the voracious on es.Aga in st the foe Of prayer, devourer of raw flesh , thevi le fiend, fierce of eye , keep ye perpetual hate .The fiend, O Agn i , who design s to in j ure the essen ce

of our food , kin e , steeds, of bodies,May he , the adversary , thi ef, and robber , sink to

destruction , both him self and off spring.May he be swept away , him self and ch i ldren . May

all the three earths press h im down ben eath them .

May hi s fa i r g lory , O ye gods, be bl ighted, who inthe day or n ight would fain destroy us ..

vu . 104. l . 2. 10. 1 1 .

W hatever mortal wi th the power of demon s fainwould in j ure us , may he , impetuous, suff er harm byhi s own deeds .

viii . 1 8 . 1 3 .

W ith ferven t heat exterm inate the demon s ; destroythe fiends with burn ing flame , O Agn i .Destroy with fire the fool i sh gods ’ adorers ; b laze

and destroy the in satiable mon sters .x . 87 . 1 4.

Besides prayers for del iveran ce from enem i es there

are many peti t ion s for preservat ionii. For preser

vation from dangers . Among them are sup

pl icat ion s for safety from wolves and

snakes.

I n l uck less gam e I cal l on you for succour : streng then us al so on the field of battle .W i th undim in i shed b lessings, O ye Asvin s, forevermore both n ight and day protect us.

i . 1 12. 24.

N ot to the fanged that b i tes, not to the toothlessgive not us up , thou conqueror to th e spoi ler.

i . 1 89 . 5 .

THE PRAYERS OF THE ARYANS 143

I f any wolf or robber fain would harm us, therefrom O Varuna, give thou us protect ion .

ii . 28 . 10.

Savi tar, god , sen d far away all sorrows and calam it i es .And send us on ly what i s good .

v . 82. 5 .

May wealthy In dra as our good protector, lord ofall treasures, favour us with succour,Baffle our foes , and g ive us rest and sa fety .

vi . 47 . 12.

G ive us not up to any evi l creature, as spoi l to wolfor she wolf, O ye holy .

For ye are they who guide aright our bodies, ye arethe rulers of our speech and vigour.

vi . 5 1 . 6.

May they—E arth , Adit i , Indra , Bhaga, Pushanincrease our lord , in crease the fivefold people .G iving good help , good refuge , goodly guidance, bethey our good del iverers, good protectors .

vi . 5 1 . 1 1 .

May the foe’s threaten ing arrow pass us by

v n. 34. 1 3 .

I n thy k in d grace and favour may we st i l l bestrong : expose us not to foe ’s attack .

With man i fold assi stan ce guard and succour us ,and bring us to fel ici ty .

vii i . 3 . 2.

D o ye , O boun teous gods, protect our dwell ingplace by day and n ight :With you for our defenders may we go unharmed .

viii . 25 . 1 1 .

Prayers for prosperity, for welfare in th e affai rs

of the homestead an d the field, for weal th of catt le and


in Spoi ls won from the en emy occur in almost every

hymn . The con stan t referen ces to ca ttl e , as weal th

desired or as spoi l to be won from the

en emy , show that in those early days

the Aryan s in In dia were largely a pastora l people, but

horses an d gold are a l so among the possession s that they

pr ize .

G ran t us high fam e , O Indra ; gran t r i ches ; bestowing thousan ds , those fa i r fruits of eart h born ehom e in cart s .

iii. For welfare

i . 9 . 8 .

O soma drinker, ever true, utterly hopeless thoughwe be ,Do thou, O Indra, give us hope of beauteoushorses and of kin e ,I n thousan ds, 0 most wealthy on e.

i . 29 . 1 .

W i l l y e then , 0 Maru ts, gran t us riches, durable,r ich in men , defy ing on slaught .A hun dred, thousan d - fold, ever in creasing !

i . 64. 1 5 .

May thy r i ch worshippers win food, 0 Agn i , andprinces gain long l ife who br ing Oblat ion .

May we get booty from our foe in battle .i . 73 . 5 .

May I not l ive , 0 Varuna, to wi tn ess my weal thyl iberal , dear fr ien d

’s dest itut ion .

King, may I n ever lack well -ordered riches

l l . 29 . 70

May Indra evermore be our protector, and un imperi l led may we win the booty .

i . 102. 1 1 .

Auspic ious S i ta (the furrow person ified) come thoun ear : we ven erate and worship thee .


I crave thy powers, I crave thy m ighty friendship ; ful l many a team goes to the Vrittra- slayer .Grea t i s the laud ; we seek the Prin ce

’s favour . Bethou , O Maghavan , our guard an d keeper .

iii. 3 1 . 1 4.

T h e rain -god , Parjanya, i s thus addressed

Lift up the m ighty vessel , pour down water and lett h e l iberated stream s rush forward .

Saturate both the earth and the heaven with fatn ess,and for the cows let there be drink abun dan t .

v . 83 . 8 .

H eal th an d long l i fe are among of the g i fts that

all races of men have prized . Therev. For healt h

are many prayers for these favours In

t h e Vedas

O Indra, son of Kusika, drink our l ibat ion withdelight .Prolong our l i fe an ew, an d cause th e seer to win a

thousand gi fts .i . 10. 1 1 .

The rich, the healer of disease (Brahmanaspat i),wh o giveth weal th , in creaseth store ,The prompt—may he be with us sti l l .

i . 1 8 . 2.

Surya , remove my heart’s d isease , take from me

th i s my yellow hue .To parrots and to starl ings let us give away my

y el lown ess .i . 50. 1 1

A ided by these , O Agn i , may we conquer steedswith steeds, men with men , heroes with heroes,Lords of th e weal th tran sm i tted by our fathers and

may our prin ces l ive a hundred win ters .i . 7 3 . 9 .

THE PRAYERS OF THE ARYANS 147

Thou over all, 0 Varuna , art sovran , be they gods,immorta l , or be they mortals .Gran t un to us to see a hundred autumn s : ours be

th e happy l ives of our forefathers .ii . 27 . 10.

Long let our l i fe , 0 Agn i , be extended .

iv . 1 2. 6.

Accept, O Maruts, g raciously thi s hymn of m inethat we may l ive a hun dred win ters through its power .

v . 54. 1 5 .

Be gracious, Indra, let my days be lengtheneds harpen my thought as

’twere a blade of i ron .

vi . 47. 10.

Com e wil l ing ly to our doors tha t g ladl y welcomethee , and heal all sickn ess , Rudra, in our fam i l i es .May thy bright arrow which , shot down by thee

from heaven , flieth upon the earth , pass us un in

j ured by .

Thou , very gracious god , ha st thousand medic in esinfl i ct no evi l on our son s or progeny .

V ii. 460

Guard to old age , thy friend , O friend , eterna lO Agn i , as immortal guard us mortals .

x . 87 . 21 .

To invaders and colon i sts a goodly fam i ly of son s

was the best of body -guards, and men wh o bel ieved tha t

i t was by their pi ous off ering s that the

spiri ts of the ir forefathers , the pitr is ,

prospered in the heaven ly realm s would most earn estlyd esi re that they m ight them selves have son s to ren der to

them the sam e services . There are, therefore , man yvpetition s for children , especial ly for son s , in the hymn s

o f the R ig -veda .

vi. For some


May we foster well , dur ing a hundr ed w in ters , sonand progen y .

i . 64 . 1 4.

May the wealth -

g iver (Agn i) gran t us conqueringr iches ; may the wea lth -g iver gran t us wealth wi thheroes .May the weal th -giver gran t us food with off spring ,

and l en g th of days may the wea l th -

g iver send us .

i . 96. 8 .

H elp us to weal th exceeding good and g lor ious,abun dan t , ri ch in chi ldren an d their progen y .

n . 2. 1 2

To us be born a son and spreadin g offspring , Agn i ,be thi s thy gracious wi ll to us -ward .

in . 6. 1 1 .

Brihaspat i , may we be lords of riches , with nobleprogeny and store of heroes .

iv . 50. 6.

M ay he , deft -han ded Tvastar, g ive us hero son s .

vn . 34. 20

S o far these prayers are di st in ctly materia l i st ic .

The outlook of the worshipper i s l im i ted to the thin g s of

th i s l i fe , an d to a welfare re lat ing to th i s

l i fe on ly . There i s l i ttle of tha t fer

ven t devot ion that r ing s through the

verses of the poets of the later sects whose rel ig ion from

beginn ing to end i s characterized by devot ion (bh akti).

I n th i s sen se the hymn s of the R ig -veda do not reach

the heart as do the poem s of Tukaram the Mahratta,

or Paddanattu Pillaiyar or Man ikka Vasaka the Tam i l s .

This i s the impression gen eral ly left after the careful

reading of Vedic hymn s, an d to th i s exten t the R ig -veda


Bring hither n ouri shm en t for us , ye Asvin s twain ;Sprinkle us

‘

with your wh ip that drops with hon ey -dew.

Prolong ou r davs, W ipe out our trespasses ; destroyour foes , be our compan ion s and our friends .

Aditi , Mitra , Varuna, forg ive us howevererred an d s in n ed aga in st you .

May I obta in the broad l ight free from peri l : OIndra , l et not durin g darkn ess seize us .

I L 27 . 1 4.

Most youthful god (Agn i) whatever s in , throughfolly , here in the world of men We have comm i tted ,Before great Adit i make thou us sin less : rem i ten t irely , Agn i , ou r off en ces .E ven in the presen ce of great s in , O Agn i , free us

from pri son of the gods or mortal s .Never may we who are thy fri ends be in jured

gran t heal th and wealth un to our seed and off spring .

I V . 12. 4- 5 0

I f we have sinn ed aga in st the man wh o loves us,have ever wronged a brother, fri end, or comrade ,The n eighbour ever with us, or a stranger , OVaruna, remove from us thi s trespass .I f we , as gam esters cheat at play , have cheated ,

don e wrong unwitt ing l y or sinn ed of purpose ,Cast all these sin s away l ike loosen ed fetters, and ,

Varuna, l et us be th in e own beloved .

v . 85 . 7—8 .

Let u s ‘

n ot suff er for the sin s of others, nor do th edeed wh ich ye , O Vasus , pun i sh .

Ye , un iversa l gods, are all-con trol lers : may he doharm un to him self wh o hates m e .

vL 5 1 . 7 .

I cal l , as such , the son s of boun teous Rudra : wi llnot the Maruts turn aga in to us -ward

THE PRAYERS OF THE ARYAN S 1 5 1

What secret s in or op en stirs thei r anger , that weimplore the swi ft on es to forg ive us .

v ii 5 8 . 5 4

We crave the heaven ly g race of gods to guard usso may Brihaspati , 0 friends , exal t u sThat he the boun teous god may fin d us sin less,

who g iveth from a di stan ce l ike a father .V i i 97 . 2.

Wise de it ies, wh o have dom in ion o’er the world , ye

thinkers over a ll that moves not and that moves ,Save us from un comm i tted an d comm i tted s in ,

preserve us from all s in to-day for happin ess .x . 63 . 8 .

Best worth notice of these prayers i s a psa lm to

Varuna the eighty -sixth hymn in the seven th book of th e

R ig -veda . I t ends W i th a petit ion for prosperi ty , but

in spite of th i s i t i s on e of the m ost beauti ful , an d perhaps

the most spiri tual ly m inded utteran ce in the R ig -veda .

l . The tribes of men have wisdom through h is

greatn ess who stayed even spacious heaven and earthasunder ;Who urged the high and m ighty sky to m ot ion , and

stars of old , and spread the earth before h im .

2. With m in e own heart I commun e on the

quest ion how Varuna and I may be un i ted .

What g i ft of m in e wi l l he accept unan geredWhen may I ca lm ly look an d find h im gracious3 . Fa in to know this my s in I quest ion others : Iseek the wise , O Varuna, and ask them .

This one same an swer even the sages gave m e ,

S urely thi s Varuna i s angry with thee .

4. What , Varuna , hath been m y chief tran sgression , that thou shouldst slay the friend who sing s th ypra i sesTell me , unconquerable lord , an d quickly sin lesswill I approach thee wi th m in e homage .


5 . Loose us from sin s comm i tted by our fathers,from those wherein we have ourselves off ended .

0 k ing , l oose , l ike a thi ef who feeds the cattle , asf rom the cord a cal f, set free Vas is ta .

6. Not our own wil l betr'

ayed us , but seducti on ,

.thoughtlessn ess, Varuna win e , dice , or anger .The old i s n ear to l ead astray the youn ger ; even

s lumber leadeth m en to evi l -doing .

7 . S lavel ike may I do service to the boun teous ,s erve , free from $ 1 11 , the god in cl in ed to anger .Thi s gen tle lord g i ves w i sdom to the simple ; the

w i ser god l eads on the wise to ri ches .8 . O lord, O Varuna, may thi s laudat ion com e

c lose to thee , and l i e wi thin thy spiri t .May i t be wel l with us in rest and labour . Preserveus evermore , ye gods, with blessing s .

V i i . 86.

Prayers for l i fe in the world beyond are not un

u sual . They show that the Aryan sought a heaven of

happin ess and immortal i ty with the gods

that corresponding wi th Svarga, the

h eaven of del ights , of later H indui sm .

The g ivers of r ich m eeds are made immortal ; the

g ivers of r i ch fees prolon g their l i fe t im e .

viii. For future life

i . 1 25 . 6.

May I attain to that h i s wel l loved man sion wherem en devoted to the gods are happy .

i . 1 54 . 5 .

We pray for ra in , your boon (M i tra -Varuna) and

immorta l i ty .

V 0 63 2

We have drunk soma and became immorta l ; weh ave atta in ed the l ight , the gods di scovered .

V i i i . 48 . 3 .

H igh up in heaven abide the guerdon -g ivers ; theywho g ive steeds dwell with the S un for ever .

V ll. THE MESSAGE OF THE RlG-VEDA

TH E studen t of the R ig -veda cann ot rem ind h im sel f

too often of the com posi te character of the collection of

hymn s that i t con tain s . Coleb rooke'

s

compos i te nature

of Rigveda essay On th e Ved as was publ i shed

in 1 805 , more than a cen tury ago,

an d San skri t scholars are sti l l debat in g whether these

hymn s are the s imple and d i rect utterances of th e

hopes an d fears , the prayers and the fan cies of the

fai th which the Aryan brought w i th h im when h e

first en tered I ndia , or whether they g ive us hi s thought

when he had reached a comparat ively advan ced stage

of civi l i zat i on a fter the sages of hi s race h ad long

and care fully con sidered the world aroun d them . Th e

truth'

may l i e between the two vi ews . There are

verses an d hymn s that most certa in ly belong to th e

re l ig ious ch i ldhood , the won der - t im e , of the Aryan race .

There are as certa in ly others tha t have been com

posed or revi sed so that they magn i fy the power of th e

priest , and emphasize the duty of the worshipper to

support elaborate ceremon ial and to heap l ibera l g i fts

on clamourin g m in i stran ts . These mark a late an d often

a corrupt period of the evolut ion of the Aryan’s fai th .

A few hymn s , such as the Purusa s fi kta, Hymn 90

of Book X of the R ig -veda, are obviously the produc

t ion s of a singer who inherited many question ing s and

THE MES SAGE OF THE RIG -VEDA 5 5

specula t i on s . I f on lv i t were possible to arrange the

hymn s in the order in which they were composed they

would thus g ive materia l s for an outl in e of the growt h

o f the rel ig i on of the Aryan s from the days when they

were sti l l on e race w i th the an cestors of the Persian s

down to the t ime when the E pic Age of the ir hi story.

in India was beg in n ing . Because th i s cann ot be done

the reader i s -con stan tly harrassed by the impression

that he i s m i ssing much of thei r s ign ifican ce .

I f a guess may be haz arded , the hymn s of the R igveda cover a peri od of seven hundred years, years in

which man y Aryan tribes j ourn eyed far , conquering an d

colon izing the great stretch of coun try from the passes

of Afghan i stan to the Ganges . Those were years in

which clan s or fam i l i es g rew in to nat i on s , in which th e

Aryan fai th was in close but not always host i l e relat ion

to the rel ig ion of the Dasyus , and in which i t could

not but be that there would be man y marriages

which would bring the bel iefs of the Dasyus in to the

homesteads where Dyaus and Varuna an d Agn i were

worshipped .

I t was a long peri od of exped i t ion s , warfare , adven ture ;then of adaptat ion to n ew condit ion s of cl imate , soi l ,sea son s, and crops ; while the c ivi l i zat ion of the nomads

beyond Afghan i stan changed in di ff eren t degree s in

di ff eren t di str icts to the sett led nat ional l i fe de scr ibed in

the Mahabharata.

There are reflect ion s of all these vary ing condi tion s in

the hymn s , but owing to the con fusion of more and l ess

ancien t hymn s in the R i g -veda i t i s mere audac ity , to

a ttempt to separate an d declare dogmat ical ly preci sely

what acts of worshi p and what expression s of bel i ef

THE R I G -VEDA AND VEDIC REL I G ION

made up the rel ig ion of Vedic t im es . I t m ust be

s ufficien t to indicate the ch i ef e lem en ts of the rel ig ion

in gen eral term s , a lways w i th the understand i ng that the

Aryan s were many , that the cen turies were long , and

that what i s true of on e tribe or place or gen erat i on may

not be true of all .“

Ahoth er word of caution must be en tered . The hymn s

that have been referred to, an d the hymn s that w i l l

be found in the sect ion of th i s book

con ta in ing reading s from the Vedas

have , of course , been selected because

they are full of m ean in g , such as the hymn s to Varuna

or of beauty , such as the hymn s to U shas ; or of qua in t

in terest, such as that to the frog s . These hymn s are

typical of others equal ly va luable . But , as Max Mul ler

d id n ot hesitate to say , i t m ust not be forgotten that

though the hi stor i ca l in terest of the Veda can hardly be

e xaggerated, large numbers of the Vedi c hymn s are

c hi ldi sh in the extreme , tedious or common -place .

Man y of them convey no clear mean ing , or are ful l

of va in repet i t ion s . I t i s not the rule but the excep

t ion to find in th i s great col lect ion of l i terature any cry

o f the soul , any g l im pse of a spiri tua l in stin ct , any grasp

o f high revelat ion .

I t i s a curious fact , too , that in so great a col lection of

ih ymn s there i s so l i ttle attempt to weave the scattered

rel igious in stin cts and aspirat ion s of

the t im e “in to a con si sten t whole ;’

nor

any ev iden t effort after ordered relig i

-ous concept ion s of th e un iverse , such as resulted, in the

case of the Greeks—kin sm en of the Aryan s , l et usr em em be r—in an i deal ized g rouping of the gods on

The various value

of the hymns

No theology int he hymns

1 58 THE R I G -VEDA AND VEDIC REL I G ION

her husban d, and m ight even compose hymn s that would

be in cluded in the Vedas . The posi t ion of the women of

any race may be regarded as an index of the social

advan cem en t of that race , and by thi s cri terion i t i s

eviden t that the Aryan s were not hampered by an nu

heal thy fam i ly system .

( i i i) The m en ta l outlook was clearer than i t becameduring the period when the Brahmanas were being com

Personality gosed . The Vedic worshipper does not

believed ineny h i s own personal i ty or the persona l

i ty of whatever gods he i s worsh ipping .

H e speaks l ike a man who bel ieves in the exi sten ce of

h i s own ego and in the real i ty of the personal i ty of the

d iv in e being whom he worships . The mon i sm of the

Upan i shads whi ch reduces the S upreme to a m ere abyss

of being W i thout qual i t i es, which looks on all ex i sten ce

a s i l lusion (maya) and explain s i t as a merely phenom ena l

roun d of b i rths (s amsara) determ in ed by the in exorable

n ecessi ty of con sum ing the frui ts of deeds don e in prev ious

l ives (ka rma) may find passages in the R ig -veda to

which it can trace som e of i t s doctrin es . But, speakin g

g en eral ly , the Vedas show men who bel i eve in the actual

e xi sten ce of l iv ing gods as much as they bel ieve in the

a ctual i ty of thei r own personal experien ce .

( iv) N or was there anything in the form s of worshi p

practi sed by the early Aryan s to preven t , i f the term may

be al lowed , the possibi l i ty of the atta in

men t of high spi ri tual v i sion . Thei r

pra i se of the gods in i ts simpler form s i s

th e spon tan eous utteran ce of any man with open ed eyes

t o the marvel s of the world around h im . Their prayers

f or safety an d heal th and long l i fe an d fam i l y wel fare

Naturalness of

Aryans

THE MES SAGE OF THE RIG -VEDA 1 59

are the expression s of what could not but be the wishes

o fmen in the early stag es of nat ional l i fe . The offering sof soma j ui ce and grain , and the occa sional solemn sacri

ficial feast of the worshipper with hi s god on som e sacred

an imal are indi ca tion s that they shared with man y other

prim i t ive races the bel ief that these were the r ight and

proper ways in which they m ight approach the gods .

There i s n othing in these things that would debar

progress to a moral and Spiri tual i deal as high as that

atta in ed from much the same beginn ing s by the H ebrews .

I f a summary of the posi ti on of those Vedic thinkers i s

attempted, the studen t wi l l see that three very sign ifican t

l in es of thought find expression in the Vedas, all of themin hymn s probably of the sam e periods . There i s the

bel i e f in the righteousn ess of Varuna , the bel ie f inthe power of ceremon i es , and the dawn ing acceptan ce of

mon i sm .

The study of the first of these g ives ground for think

ing that for a long time the Aryan s were on the way toreach a high mora l i dea l .

Varuna was , as has already been poin ted out, one of

the very Old gods of the Aryan s , an d i t i s Varuna who

towers above all the rest in mora l

grandeur . I t i s poss ib le to trace in

the con ception of thi s dei ty a movemen t

of the m inds of those an cien t worshippers towards a

thei sm of a wonderful ly l ofty character . There

i s much in the prayers and hymn s to Varuna that brin g s

back to one who kn ows i t the lofty language of H ebrew

s eers and Psalm i sts . H e i s th e g rea t lord of the

laws of nature , the upholder and con trol ler of thei r order

and the ir movem en t . H e i s espec ial ly a moral

I . Reverence forVaruna


sovereign , an d in hi s presen ce m ore than in that of anyother Vedic god a sen se of gui lt awaken s in hi s servan ts

’

hearts . H i s eyes behold and see the righteous an d the

wicked . Varuna ’s ordinan ces are fixed and sure , so that

even the imm ortal gods cannot oppose them . H e places

hi s fetters upon the s inn er ; hi s i s the power to bin d and

the power a l so to release , and he forg ives sin s even un to

the secon d gen erat i on . Perhaps the most s ig

n ifican t fact of all in regard to thi s Vedi c dei ty i s th econn exion of the doctrin e of r ita or the moral order with

h i s name and authori ty .

’ 1

Thi s last poin t i s worthy of sp ecial n ot i ce for ri ta i s

the highest con ception of the whole duty of man to be

foun d in the Veda . I t i s the divin e m ethod and law,

which should be paramoun t in the order of the un iv erse ,in the worshi p of the gods, an d in the action s of men .

I t corresponds to the righteousn ess of the H ebrews

Two elem en ts are essen t ial in all rel ig ion that i s to

ra i se men . There m ust first be a myst i c relat i on b e

tween the worshipper an d hi s god , whichMyst icism and

Eth icsshal l enable the worsh ipper to feel that

he can commun i cate wi th and be in

spired by hi s god . That myst i c i sm i s presen t in . the

hymn s to Varuna . With m in e own heart I commun e

on the question how Varuna and I may be un i ted

con fesses the singer .2 N ot le ss importan t for the mora l

growth of a man’

s soul i s the posi t ive convict ion of the

righteousn ess of hi s god and of the n eed for the

worshipper to practi se the sam e righteousn ess . A long

D r . N . MACN I COL , on th e Th eism of th e R ig-ved a in th e

I nd ian I n terpreter , Apri l , 1 909 .

9 R ig-ved a , Vii . 86. 2.


understood the ful l s ign ifican ce of the s i tuat ion or not .

L'

ater gen erat ion s were not attracted by the severe per

Sonality and the moral uprightn ess of Varuna and d id

not return to h im ; and Varuna remain s in later H in du

wr it ings a d im god of seas an d storm s and t ides .

Yet i t would be a m i stake to say’

that th e other trends‘

of thought triumphed over what was represen ted by the

few h ymn s to Varuna, j ust as i t would be a m i stake to

say that the mon i sm of the Upan i shads and of the Vedan ta

triumphed over the more an cient bel i efs of the Aryan s.

The supreme v i sion of hol in ess was simply not attain ed.

I t i s difficult to discern how far the worship of th e

holy Varuna was gen eral among the Vedic Aryan s, and

why i t decl ined ; but there can be no doubt as to the

rel igious att i tude of the ordinary worsh ipper . H e re

quires atten t ion because of the g i ft that he off ers .

D eh i me d adam i te, G ive thou to m e , I g ive to thee

i s the formula. The gods rece ive streng th from the

off erings of the worshipper.

AS r ivers swel l the ocean , so, hero, our prayers increase thy m ight .

viii . 87 . 8 .

I n return the gods ought to render to the worsh ipper

what he wan ts . One sage argues the matter with Agn i

w ithout any reserve

S on of streng th , Agn i , i f thou were the mortal ,bright as Mitra , worshipped with our g i fts,And I were the immortal god ,I would not give thee up, Vasu , to calumny or

S in fuln ess, O boun teous on e .

My worshipper should fee l no hunger or di stressnor, O Agn i , should b e l ive in sin .

R ig-ved a , viii . 1 9 . 25 .

THE MES SAGE OF THE RIG -VEDA 163

And not on ly ought the gods to an swer prayer out

of m ercy and graciousn ess . The idea that a sacrifice

rightly perform ed or a hymn duly sungwil l compel the gods to do what the

worshipper wishes becomes very pro

nounced . The magic power of the spell , espec ial ly the

spell that w i l l set the gods to work again st the demon s

com es ou t again and aga in . I n on e of the later verses

of the R ig -veda , the sage Vamadeva i s represen ted as

being able to hire ou t the servi ces of Indra for ten

cows to those who wi l l return h im

Who for ten m i lch -kin e purchaseth from me th i smy In dra !W hen he hath slain the Vritras le t the buyer g ive

h im back to me .

2. Eff iciency of

ceremonialism

R ig-veda , iv. 24. 10.

The commen tator S ayana says that Vamadeva had by

much pra i se got Indra in to hi s possession or subjugat ion

and so was able to propose thi s barga in . The not ion does

not seem to h im an ythin g extraordinary . I t i s the world

wide idea of the power of the spel l . And so ari ses the

bel i ef, fatal to moral i ty , that any worshipper who can

secure the due performan ce of the off erings and incan ta

t ion s elaborated in to the ritual of the horse -sacrifice in

the Yaj ur -veda, for example , i s master of the un iverse

of god s an d m en .

1

Thus says Macdon ell , the statem en t occurs in the

Wh i te Yaj u r -ved a (c irc 1000 B . C .) that the Brahman

who possesses correct kn owledge has the gods in hi s

power. The Brahmanas go a step farther in say ing that

there are two kin ds of gods, the Devas and the Brahman s,

1 H AUG , I n trod uct ionto A i tareya Brahmana , pp. 73 - 4.

1 64 THE R IG -VEDA AND VEDIC REL IG ION

the latter of whom are to be held as deit i es among men .

I n the Brahmanas, too, the sacr ifice i s represen ted as

all -powerful , con troll ing not on ly the gods, but the very

processes of nature . ’ 1

Verily,there are two kinds of gods ; for, indeed, the

gods are the gods ; an d the Brahman s wh o have studiedand teach sacred lore are the human gods .

S a tapa th a B ra hm an a , I I . ii . 2, 6.

The charm s an d magic formulae in the Atharva -veda

are expression s of the sam e paralysing bel i ef, but i t i s

found in the period before the Atharva-veda al so . From

the earl iest days there had always been presen t in the

m ind of the Aryan a firm bel i e f in demon s ; an d whi le

the high asp irat ion s of a few singers were fixed on

Varuna, the man y , especial ly as they came in con tact

with the D ravidian s who seem ed to worship the devi l s

that the Aryan s feared, were more an d m ore in cl ined to

form s of fa i th and worship which seem ed to them to

guaran tee , protect ion and wel fare that they longed for

whi le con scious of the mal ice and power of the demonhosts . And thi s bel i ef h as persisted in the mag i c prac .

t i ces of the Dravidian s of Malabar an d in the b lack

magic of the Tan tras .

I f modern processes of thought held good in the m inds

of the an cien t Aryan s there must always have been men

among them wh o did not accept the

establ i shed con cept ion s of those around

them . There are Protestan ts in the most con servat ive

commun i t i es an d from the Puru sa sukta’ i t i s certa inthat in later Vedic t imes there were those who had

5 . Monist ic ideas

.1 S an skr it L itera tu re, p . 73 . R ig -ved a ,

x . 90.

166 THE R I G -VEDA AND VEDIC REL I G ION

6. When gods prepared the sacrifice with Purusaas their offering ,

I ts oil was Spring, the holy g i ft was autumn ;summ er was the wood .

7 . They balm ed (or, immolated) as vict im on thegrass Purusa born in earl iest t im e .

With h im the dei t ies and all Sadh yas1and

R i shi s sacrificed .

8 . From that great gen eral sacrifice the drippingfat

! was gathered up .

H e formed the creatures of the air, and an imal sboth wild an d tame .9 . F rom that great gen eral sacrifice R i cas and

S ama -hym n s were bornTherefrom the m etres were produced, the Yajus

h ad i ts b irth from i t .10. From i t were horses born , from i t all creatureswith two rows of teeth

F rom i t were gen erated kin e , from i t the goatsand sheep were born .

1 1 . When they divided Puru sa how many port ion sdid they make !

What do they cal l h i s m outh , hi s arms ! W hatdo they cal l h i s thighs and feet !12. The Brahman was his mouth, of both hi s armswas the Rajanya made .

H i s thighs becam e the Va i sya, from his feet theS udra was produced .

1 3 . The Moon was gendered from hi s m ind, and

from hi s eye the S un h ad birthIndra and Agn i from hi s mouth were born , and

Vayu from hi s breath .

14. Forth from hi s navel cam e m id -air ; the skywas fashion ed from hi s head ;

E arth from hi s feet, and from hi s ear the re

g i on s . Thus they formed the worlds .

A c lass of ce lestia l be ings , probab ly ancient d ivme sacrificers .

9 Th e m ixture of curds and butter .

THE MES SAGE OF T HE-

R IG -VEDA 162

1 5 . S even fen cing - logslhad he , thrice seven layers

of fuel were prepared,When the gods, offering sacrifice , bound, as their

victim Pu rusa .

16. Gods, sacrificing, sacrificed the vict im : thesewere the earl i est holy ordinan ces ,

The m ighty on es atta in ed the height of heaven ,

there were the Sadh yas , gods of old , are dwel l ing .

The same idea appears in the remarkable hymn in

which Prajapat i i s declared the lord and creator of all.

Thi s hymn al so must be read as a whole .

1 . I n the beg inn ing rose H iranyagarbha,9 born

on ly lord of all created beings .H e fixed and holdeth up thi s earth and heaven .

What god Shal l we adore with our Oblat i on2. G iver of vital breath , of power and vigour, h ewhose commandm en ts all the gods acknowledge

'

Whose shade i s death , whose lustre makes immorta l . What god Shal l we adore with our Oblat i on !3 . Who by hi s grandeur hath becom e sole ruler of

all the moving world that breathes and slumbersH e who i s lord of men and lord of catt le.

W hat god shal l we adore with our Oblat ion4. H i s, through hi s m ight , are these sn ow -covered

moun tain s , and men cal l sea and Rasa hi s possession :H i s arm s are these , his th ighs these heaven ly

region s . What god shal l we adore with our Oblat ion s

1 Pieces of wood laid round a sacrificial fire to keep it togeth er9 Th e gol d germ , th e S un -

god , as th e great power of th e un iverse .

3 A lso tran s lated worsh ip we Ka th e god with our ob lation .

’

~

[Ka , mean ing W h o th at is . th e unknown god ,h as been applied as

aname to Prajapati , and to oth er gods , from a forced interpreta'

~

tion of th e in terrogative pronoun which occurs in th e refrain of

each verse of th e hymn . S ee p .

4 Th e mythical river of th e sky .

168 THE R IG-VE DA AND‘

VED IG RE L I GION

5 . By h im the heaven s are strong and earth issteadfast , by h im l ight ’s realm and Sky -vault are

supportedBy h im the region s in mid -air were measured .

What god shal l we adore with our Oblat ion s6. To h im , supported by hi s help, two arm i es

embattled look whi le trembl ing in their spirit ,W hen over them the ri sen sun i s shin ing .

W hat god shal l we adore with our Oblat ion7 . W hat t im e the m ighty waters came, con tain ingthe un iversa l germ , producing Agn i ,

Then ce sprang the gods’

on e spiri t in to being.W hat god shal l we adore with our Oblat ion !8 . H e in hi s m ight surveyed the floods con tain ingproduct ive force an d gen erat ing W orship (or, givingb i rth to sacr ifice).

‘ H e i s the god of gods, and n on e beside h im .

W hat god sha l l we adore with our Oblat ion9 . N e ’er may he harm us who i s earth

’s begetter,n or he whose laws are sure , the heaven

’

s creator,H e who brought forth the great an d lucid

waters . What god shal l we adore with our Oblat ion !10. Praj apat i ! thou on ly compreh endest all thesecreated things, an d n on e beside thee .

Gran t us our heart s' desire when we invokethee : may we have store of r iches in possession .

Hymn to Ka . R ig-ved a , x . 121 .

I f th is hymn i s an un certain rather than a reason ed

presen tat ion of mon i sm , i t at any rate con ta in s foundaa t ion enough to j usti fy later Vedan t i sm in attempting to

read its own teaching in to the Vedas .

From all that h as been sa id i t wi l l be clear that the

rel igion of the Vedas, l ike every other l iving rel igion , con

tained various and even con trary m odes

of thought and expression , and repre

sen ted the worship of more than on e type

The legacy of the

Aryan religion

170 THE R I G -VEDA AND VEDIC REL I G ION

(iv) The in clusion in the Veda of th e Purusa S i'

ikta

which expressly states that the Pr iest , the Warrior , the

Merchan t and the S erf were the four orders of men

created by divin e power i s a S i gn that along with the

ri se of the Brahman priesthood, there was al so ari sing a

d i st in ct ion of classes in the populat ion which later on

becam e the caste system of H in dui sm .

(v) There was al so in that Puru sa s tikta an d in cer :

tain other hymn s eviden ce of the beg inn ing of the later

mon i st i c Vedan t i sm .

(vi) Beyon d all el se in real re l ig ious value the Aryan shanded on to their descendan ts the thought that the

worshipper an d his god m ight be friends, and that the

worshipper m ight love an d trust hi s god . The n umbing

fatal i sm of the doctrin e of rebirths (sam sara) i s absen t

f rom the Vedas . The Aryan worshipped without images

and hi s house was hi s temple . I n hi s ign oran ce he often

worshipped wrong ly , and men cann ot beg in again to‘worship h i s gods or off er hi s prayers and sacrifices .

But though the gods and the worship of the an cien t

Aryan are faded names and forgotten ri tes, he h ad the

Spi ri t of devot ion . Later H in duism , especial ly ph iloso

ph ic H in duism h as aga in and aga in made l ight of th i s

truth . The‘

W ay of Wisdom ’

(j na'

n a marga) h as beenexalted above the W ay of Devot ion or W ay of Love

( bh akt i marga). But i t i s along the W ay of Love’ that

those who have com e n earest to God have walked in

India as in all the world , an d that W ay of Love hadi t s beg inn ing s in the devot ion of the Vedic sage to

Varuna or Agn i .

Tulsi Das and . Tuka Rama , Paddanattu Pilla i and

Man ikka Vasakar all walked in that’

W ay of Love ’

THE ME S SAGE OF THE RIG -VEDA 1 7 1

and i t has brought m i l l ion s to the feet of Rama and

Krishna and Siva and the Buddha.

India i s more conscious of the Open’

Way of Love’

to-day than her Aryan ancestors were and more

an xious to en ter i t . Dyaus and Varuna have been loved

and have passed away . Krishna and Rama and S iva

N adaraja won the strong devot ion of succeeding g enera

t ion s . Like the ir ancestors the s impler vi l lagers and

the un learn ed sti ll del ight in the stories of the heroic

deeds or’

holy sport ’ of the gods of the epics and the

Puranas . But the more deeply devout of their worship

pers to -day are striving to love a Krishna or a S iva

al legorized and tran sformed by an awaken ed moral

sen se . The attempt i s being repeatedly made to find

Chri st in Krishna . S uch efforts must fai l . But they

Show a true in st inct . And i t cannot b'

ut be that as th e

years rol l on India will find that she best comes to

knowledge of the A l l -Father in the divine and holy

graciousn ess of the etern al personal i ty of J esus of

Gal i lee , and that wi thout hesitat ion or m i sgiving or

thought of other hosti le powers , whether Devas or

demon s, she can set the loving devot ion of her longing

heart on H im and find con ten t .

Th ese read ings are arranged accord ing to th e d eities

to wh ich th ey are ad d ressed , or th e specia l s u bj ects to

wh ich th ey ref er . A f ew explan a tion s of proper n ames

an d a llu s ion s are g iven in f ootnotes .

Th e tran s la tion s u sed are th ose by th e la te R . T. H .

Griffi th , pu b lish ed by Mes srs . L a z aru s 63 Co., Ben a res ,

bu t th e tran s li tera tion of th e proper n ames is th a t

f ollowed in th e earlier par ts of th is book.

THE RIG -VEDA

Book 1 1 . Hymn 27. THE ADITYAS

1 . These hymn s that drop down fatn ess, with th eladle I ever off er to the kings Adityas.

May Mitra, Aryaman and Bhaga hear uS , th e

m ighty Varuna, Dak sha and AnSa .

2. With one accord may Aryaman and M i tra and

Varuna_ thi s day accept thi s prai se - songAdi tyas bright and pure as stream s of water,

free from all gui le and fal sehood, blame less, perfect .3 . These gods , Adityas, vast profound an d fa i thful , with man y eyes, fain to dece ive the wicked,

Looking within behold the good an d the evi ln ear to the king s i s even the thin g most di stan t .4. Upho

_

ld ing that which moves an d tha t whi chmoves not , Adityas, gods, protectors of all being,

Providen t , guarding well the world of spir it s ,true to eternal law, the debt -exactors .5 . May I , Adityas, share in th i s your favour which

Aryaman , bring s profit e’

en in danger .U nder your guidan ce , Varuna an d Mitra, round

troubles may I pass, l ike rugged places .6. Sm ooth i s your path , 0 Aryaman and M i tra ;excel len t i s i t Varuna, and thorn less .

Thereon , Adi tyas , send us down your blessinggran t us a she lter hard to be demol i shed .

7 . Mother of king s, may Adi t i tran sport us, by fai rpaths, Aryaman , beyon d all hatred .

May we un in jured , girt by many heroes” winVaruna

’s an d M i tra’s high protect ion .

1 76 READINGS FROM THE VEDA

8 . W i th thei r support they stay three earths, threeheaven s ; three are the ir fun ct ion s in the gods’

assembly .

M ighty through L aw, Adityas, i s your greatness ;fai r i s i t , Aryaman , Varuna an d Mitra .

9 . Golden an d splen did , pure l ike stream s of water,they hold aloft the three bright heaven ly reg ion s .

N e ’er do they slumber, n ever close the ir eye l ids,fai thful , far - rul ing for the righteous mortal .1 0. Thou over all, O Varuna, art sovran , be theygods, Asura, or be they m ortal s .

Gran t un to us to see an hun dred autumn s : oursbe the happy l ives of our forefathers .1 1 . N either the right nor le ft do I di st ingui sh,

n either the east nor yet the west , Adi tyas .S imple an d guided by your wisdom ,Vasus , may

I attain the l ight that br ings no danger .12.

0

H e wh o bears g i fts un to the kings , true leaders,h e whom their everlasting blessings prosper ,

Moves with hi s chariot first in rank and weal thy,mun ificen t and lauded in assembl i es .1 3 . Pure , fa i thful , very strong , with heroes roundh im , he dwells beside the waters ri ch with pasture .

Non e slays from n ear at hand or from a di stanceh im who i s un der the Adityas guidan ce .

14. Adit i , M i tra, Varuna, forgive us however wehave erred and sinn ed again st you .

May I obta in the broad l ight free from peri lO In dra , l et not during darkn ess seize us .1 5 . For h im the twain (i .e. heaven and earth)

un i ted pour the ir fuln ess , the rain from heaven : hethrives most highly favoured .

H e goes to war mastering both the man sion sto

'

h im both portion s of the world are gracious .16. Your gui les, ye holy on es , to quel l oppressors.your spread out aga in st the foe , Adityas ,

May I car-born e pass l ike a ski l ful horsemanun in jured may I dwell in spacious shelter .


‘

Book i . Hymn 26. AGN I , THE PRIEST

AMONG THE GODS

[Fire is one of th e ear ly Aryan gods . Wh en it become customary to off er sacrifice to - th e gods by fire , th e fire-

god was

recogn iz ed by th e I ndolAr'

yan s as th e'

messenger of th e sacrifice ,t h e grea t Priest .]

1 . O worthy of Oblat ion , Lord of prosperingpowers , assum e thy robes,

And offer th is our sacrifice .2. S it , ever to be chosen , as our Priest , most

youth fu l , . th rough our hymn s,O Agn i , through our heaven ly word .

3 . For here a father for hi s son , kin sman fork in sman worshippeth ,

An d friend , choice -worthy , for hi s friend .

4. H ere let th e foe -destroyers S it , Varuna, M i tra,Aryama n ,

Like men , upon our sacred grass.5 . O an c ien t H erald, be thou g lad in th i s our ri te

and fellowshipH earken thou well to these our song s .

6. W hate ’er‘

in th is perpetua l course we sacrificeto god an d god ,

That g i ft i s off ered up in thee .7 . May he be our dear household Lord, Priest ,pleasan t an d choice -worthy may

W e , with bright fires, be dear to h im .

8 . The gods, adored with bri l l ian t fires, havegran ted precious weal th to us ;

So, with bright fires, we pray to thee .9 . An d , 0 Immortal One, so may the eulogies of

morta l men

Belong to us and thee al ike .10. With all thy fires , O Agn i , find pleasure in this

our sacrifice ,And th i s our speech , 0 son of s trength .

THE RIG -VEDA 1 79

Book iv . Hymn 12. AGN I

[This is one of th e few h ymn s addressed to Agn i in wh ich S in

is prominent ly mentioned . B u t th e invariab le reference to wealth’

i s also introduced ]

1 . W hoso enk indles thee , wi th l i fted la‘dle

,

‘ ‘

and

thrice thi s day offers thee food , O A'

gn i ,May he excel , tr iumphan t ,

‘

tl'

i rough‘ thy Splen

dours , wise through thy m en ta l power , 0 Jatavedas .

’

2. Whoso, with toi l and trouble, bring s thee fuel ,s ervmg the maj esty of m ighty Agn i ,

H e kindl ing thee at even ing and at morn ing,prospers, an d comes to weal th , and slays hi s3 . Agn i is master of subl im e dom in ion , Agn i i slord of strength and lofty riches .

S tra ightway the self - rel ian t , god , m ost youthful ,g ives treasures to the m ortal who adores h im .

4. Most youthful god , whatever s in , through folly ,here in

'

the world of m en we have comm i tted ,Before great Adi ti make thou us sin l ess : rem i t

en ti re ly , Agn i , ou r offen ces .5 .

‘

E ven in the presence of great s in , O Agn i , freeu s f rom prison of the gods or mortals .

N ever may we wh o are thy fri ends be in j uredgran t health an d wealth un to our seed an d off spring .

6. E ven as ye here , gods excellen t and holy , haveloosed the cow that by the foot was tethered ,

2

S o a lso se t us free from this affl ict ion : long letour l i fe , O Agn i , be extended .

Book v . Hymn 26. AGN I

[Agn i is special ly addressed as th e inviter of th e god s to sacrifices ]

1 . O Agn i , holy and divin e , with splendour andthy pleasan t tongue

Bring hither and adore the gods.

l Agn i as knowing and possess ing all creation .

9 Th e cow-bu ffalo tied to a post during th e sacrifice , symbol icof man bound by sin .

v1 80 READINGS FROM THE VEDA

2. W e pray . thee, thou who droppest oil, bright ‘rayed ! who lookest on the S un ,

Bring the gods hither to the feast .W e have enkindled thee , O sage , bright call er

of the gods to feast ,O Agn i , great in sacrifice .

4. O Agn i , come with all the gods, com e to our

sacrificial g i ftWe choose thee as invoking priest .

5 . Bring, Agn i , to the worshipper who pours th ejui ce heroi c streng th

S it with the gods upon the grass .6. Victor of thousan ds, Agn i , thou , enk indled,

ch erish es t the laws ,Laud -worthy , envoy of the gods .

7 . S it Agn i Jatavedas down , the bearer of our

sacred g i ft s,Most youthful , god and m in i ster .

8 . Duly proceed our sacrifice , compri sing all th e

gods, to-dayS trew holy grass to be their seat .

9 . S o may the Maruts si t theron , the Asvin s,_

M i tra, VarunaThe gods with all the ir compan y .

Book x . Hymn 39 . ASVI N S

[Th e author of this hymn is Gh osh a, daugh ter of Kakshivan .

Being a leper, sh e was in capab le of marriage . Wh en sh e'

was

grown old in h er fath er ’ s house , th e ASvm s gave h er h ealth ,youth , and beauty , so that sh e obtained a husban d . On ly th eopen in g verses are quoted .]

1 . As ’

twere the name of father, easy to invoke,we all assembled here invoke thi s car of yours ,~

Asvin s, your swi ftl y -roll ing circumamb ien t ' car

which he who worships must invoke at eve and dawn .

2. Awake all presen t stra in s, and let the hymn sflow . forth : rai se up abundan t fu ln ess : this i s ourdesire .

182’

READINGS FROM THE VE DA

Book i . Hymn 103 . I NDRA

1 . That h ighest Indra -power of thin e i s di stan t ;that which i s here sages possessed aforetime .

This on e i s on the earth , in haven the other ,and both un i te as flag an d flag in battl e .2. H e spread the wide earth ou t and firm lyfixedi t , smote with his thunderbolt an d loosed the waters .

Maghavan with h is pui ssan ce struck down Ah il,

ren t Rauh ina to death , an d s laugh teredVyansa .

3 . Arm ed with h i s bolt and trust ing in this proizvesshe wandered shattering the D éisas ’ ci t i es !

Cast th_y dart, knowing , thun derer, at the D asyu ;

increase the Arya ’s m ight an d g lory , Indra4. For h im wh o thus hath taught these humanraces , Magh avan , bearing a fam e -worthy t i t le,

Thunderer, drawing n igh to slay the Dasyus,hath g iven him self the nam e of son for g lory .

5 . S ee thi s abundan t wealth that h e possesses,and put your trust in Indra

’s hero vigour.H e found the cattle , an d he foun d the horses,

he foun d the plan ts, the forests, and the waters .6. To h im the truly stron g , whose deeds are man y ,to h im the strong bul l l et us pour the soma .

The hero watching l ike a thi ef in ambush goespart ing the possession s of the godless .7 . Well didst thou do that hero deed , O Indra, inwaking with thy bolt the slumbering Ahi .

I n thee , del ighted dam es divin e rej oiced them ,

the flying Maruts and all gods were j oy ful .8 . As thou hast sm i tten Su sna , Pipru , Vritra and

Kuyava , and Sambara’s forts, O Indra .

Thi s prayer of ours may Varuna gran t , and

Mitra, an d Adit i and S indhu , E arth and H eaven .

1 Ah i is a serpen t demon , or anoth er n ame for V r itra .

9 S aid to b e a demon of drough t a dark c loud th at with hol dsth e rain .

3 Th e forts of th e Dasyus , th e aborig ines .

4Demon s of drought .

THE R IG -VEDA‘

1 83:

Book i . Hymn 175 . I NDRA

[Th e fol lowing h ymn to Indra , asking h im to destroy th e

Dasyus , th e aborigines , and give food an d a camp with runn ingwater , bears intern al evidence th at it was composed at a time wh enthe

’

Aryan swere invading India .]

1 . G lad thee : thy g lory hath been quaff ed , lord of.bay steeds, as

’twere the bowl’

s en l iven ing m ead .

For thee the strong there i s strong drink ,m ighty , with coun t less powers to win .

2. Let ou r strong drink , most excellen t, exh ilarat

ing , com e to thee ,Victorious, Indra bring ing ga in , immortal ,

conquering in fight .

3 . Thou, hero, winn er of the spoi l , urgest to speedthe car of man .

Burn , l ike a vessel wi th the flame , the lawlessD asyu , conqueror !

4. Empowered by thin e own m ight , O sage , th oustolest S i

'

i rya’

s chariot wheel .Thou bearest Kutsa with the steeds of W ind to

Susua as hi s death .

‘

5 . Most m ighty i s thy rapturous j oy , m ost Splendidi s th in e active power ,

Wherewith , foe - slaying, sending bl i ss, thou artsupreme in gain ing steeds .

6. As thou , O Indra , to the an cien t singers wastever j oy , as water to the thirsty ,

So un to thee I sing thi s invocat ion . May we

find food , a camp with runn ing water .

Indra is sa id to have taken th e whee l of S i'

i rya’

s chariot tothrow against th e d emon of d rought . Kutsa was a sage defendedby In dra against Susua , a demon of drought .

1584: READINGS FROM THE VEDA

Book 1 1 . Hymn 42. I NDRA i N THE FORM

OF A KAFI NJALA‘ l

1 . Tell ing hi s race aloud wi th cries repeated, h e(Kapin jala) sends hi s voice ou t as hi s boat a steerman .

~

O bird, be om inous of happy fortun e : from no

S ide may ca lam i ty befal l thee .2 Let not the fa lcon ki l l thee , nor the eagle ; let

not“

the arrow -bearing archer reach thee .S t i l l cry ing in the reg ion of the Fathers,

”Sp

’

eakhere auspic ious, bear ing joyful t id ings .3 . Bringing good tid ing s, bird of happy omen , cal lthou ou t loudly southward of our dwel l ings,

3

S o that no thie f, no sinn er may Oppress us .Loud may we s peak , with heroes, in a ssembly .

Book i i i . H ymn 48 . INDRA

1 . S oon as the youn g Bull ( Indra) sprang in toex i sten ce he longed to taste the pressed -ou t soma’

s

l iquor.D rink thou thy fi l l , accord ing to thy long ing ,

first , of the noble m ixture blen t with soma.

2. Tha t day when thou wast born thou , fain to

tas te i t, drankes t the plan t’s m i lk which the m oun ta ins

nouri sh .

That m i lk thy mother ’ first , the dam e who baret hee poured for thee in thy m ighty father

’s dwell ing.3 . Desi r ing food he came un to hi s mother, and on

her breast beheld the pung en t soma .

W i se , he moved on , keeping aloof the others,and wrought g reat exploi ts in hi s varied aspects .

1 Th e bird ca l led th e francoline partridge .

9 Th e region where th e spirits of d eparted ancestors dwe l l .‘ 3 Th e Fath ers dwe l l towards th e south . Th e cry of birds frointhat quarter was a good omen .

Ad iti .

1 86 READINGS F ROM THE VE DA

7. D iv in e , resplenden t Pushan , th i s our newesthymn of eulogy

By us i s chan ted forth to thee .8 . Accept w i th favour thi s my song, he graciousto the earn est thought,

E ven as a bridegroom to h i s bride .9 . May he who sees all l iv ing th ing, sees themto

gether at a g lan ce ,M ay he , may Pushan be our help .

1 0. M ay we atta in that excel len t g lory of Savi tarthe god :

SO may he st imulate our prayers .1

1 1 . With understanding , earn estly , of S avitar th egod we crave,

Our port ion of prosperi ty .

12. M en , singers worship S avi tar the god withhymn an d holy r ites

,

U rged by the impulse of the ir thoughts .1 3 . S oma wh o g ives success goes forth , goes to thegathering place of gods .

To seat h im at the seat of L aw.

14. To us and to our cattle may S oma give sa lutaryfood ,

To biped an d to quadruped .

1 5 . May S oma, streng then in g our power of l i fe ,and con quering our foes ,

I n our assembly take hi s seat .16. May Mitra, Varuna , sapien t pa i r, bedew ourpasturag e with oi l ,

With m eath the reg ion s of the air .

1 7. Far -rul ing joyful when adored , ye reign throughmaj esty of m ight ,

With pure laws everlast ing ly .

1 8 . Lauded3

by Jamadagn i’

s2 song si t in the place

of holy L aw :3

Drink S oma, ye who streng then L aw.

1 Tat savitur varenyam b h argo devasya d h imah i .

D h iyo yo nah prach od ayat .

9 Th e kindler of th e F ire .

’ 3 Th e place orda ined for sacrifice.

THE RIG -VEDA 18 7

Book v. Hymn 57 . THE MARUTS

1 .

'

Of One accord, with Indra, O ye Rudras ,com e born e on your golden car for our prosperity .

An off ering from us, thi s hymn i s brought to

you , as , un to one who.th irsts for water, heaven ly

Springs .1 “ 2. Armed with your daggers, ful l of wisdom ,

arm ed wi th Spears, armed wi th your quivers, armedwith arrows, with good bows ,

Good horses and good cars have ye , O PriSn i’

s

son s : ye , Maruts, with good weapon s go to victory .

3 . From hi l ls and heaven ye shake wealth for th eworshipper : in terror at your com ing low the woods .

bow down .

Ye make the earth to tremble , son s of PriSn i,when for v i ctory ye have yoked , fierce on es ! yours potted deer ,4. Impetuous as the wind, wrapped in thei r robes

of rain , l ike twin s of n oble aspect and of lovely form ,

The Maruts , spotless, with steeds tawn y -huedand red, stron g in their m ightin ess and spreading widel ike heaven .

5 . R ich in adornm en t , r ich in drops , mun ificen t,bright in their aspect, y ield ing boun t ies that endure .

Noble by birth , adorn ed w i th gold upon the irbreasts , the singers of the sky have won immorta lfam e .6. Borne on both shoulders , O ye Maruts , are your

Spears : w i th in your arm s i s la id your en ergy an d

strength .

Your man l in ess on your heads, your weapon s inyour cars , all g lorious maj esty i s moulded on yourform s .7 . Vouchsafe to us , 0 Maruts, splen did boun ty incattle and in steeds , in cars an d heroes .

Chi ldren of Rudra , g ive us h igh dist in ctionmay I en j oy your godl ike help an d favour,

1 88 READINGS FROM THE‘

VE DA

8 . Ho ! Maruts, heroes, Ski lled in L aw, immortal ,be gracious un to us, ye rich in treasures,

Ye hearers of the truth , ye sage and youthful ,m ighti ly waxing with loud - re sonan t voices.

Book v. Hymn 83 . PARJANYA

I . S ing with these songs thy welcome to th e- m ighty , with adorat ion prai se and cal l Parjanya.

The Bull , loud roaring , swi ft to send his bounty ,lays in the plan ts the seed for germ inat ion .

.2. H e sm i tes the trees apart, he slays the demons,a ll

'

life fears h im who w ie lds the m ighty weapon .

From h im exceeding strong flees e’

en the gui l tl ess when thundering Parjanya sm i tes the wicked ,3 . Like a ca r-dr iver whipping on hi s horses, h e

makes the m essengers of rain spring forward .

Far off resounds the roaring of the l ion whatt ime Parjan ya fi l l s the sky with rain -cloud .

4. Forth burst the winds , down come the l ightn ingflashes ; the plan ts Shoot up , the realm of l ight i ss tream ing .

Food springs abundan t for all l ivi ng creatureswha t t ime Parjan ya quicken s earth with m oi sture:

5 . Thou at whose bidding earth bows low be forethee , at whose command hoofed ca ttle fly in terror,

At whose behest the plan ts assum e all colours,even thou Parjan ya , yield us great protect ion .

6. S end down for us the ra in of heaven , yeMaruts, an d let the stal l ion

’ s stream s descend in

t orren ts .

Come hi ther w i th th i s thunder whi le thou

pou rest the waters down , our heaven ly lord and fath er .

7 . Thunder and roar : the germ of l i fe deposi t .F ly round us on thy char iot water laden .

Thin e open ed water sk in draw with thee downward , and let the hol lows and the heights be level .

READING S FROM THE VEDA

7. Past all pursuers lead us, make pleasan t ourpath and fa i r to tread

O Pi‘

i sh an , fin d thou power for th i s.8 . Lead us to meadows rich in grass : send on our

way no early heatO Pushan , find thou power for th is ,

9 . Be grac ious to us, fi l l us full , g i ve , feed us, andinvigorate

O Pushan , find thou power for thi s .10. N o blam e have we for Pushan h im we magn i fyw i th songs of prai se

We seek the m ighty one for wea lth .

Book i . Hymn 20. R IBHU S

1 . For the celest ial race thi s song of prai se which

g ives wealth lavishlyW as made by singers with thei r l ips .

2. They who for Indra, with thei r m ind, formedhorses harn essed by a word ,

Atta in ed by works to sacrifice .3 . They for the two N asatyas wrought a l ight car

m oving every wayThey form ed a n ectar -y ielding cow .

4. The R ibhus with eff ectual prayers , hon est, withc on stan t labour made

Their s i re and mother youn g again .

5 . T ogether cam e your g ladden ing drops wi thIndra by the Maruts g i rt ,

With the Adityas , with the k ings .6. The sacrificial ladle , wrought n ewly by the god

T vash tar’

s handFour ladles have ye made thereof.

7 . Vouchsafe us wealth , to h im who pours thr ices even l ibation s, yea, to each

G ive weal th, pleased with our eulogies.

1 Th e Asvins , th e truthfu l ones .

THE RIG -VEDA 1 9 1

8 . AS m in i stering priests they held , by pious actsthey won them selves,

A share in sacrifice wi th gods .

Book vii. Hymn 46. RUDRA

1 . To Rudra bring these songs, whose bow i s firmand strong , the god of heaven ly nature , with swi ftfly ing shafts .

D i sposer, conqueror whom n on e may overcome ,arm ed with Sharp -poin ted weapon s : may he hear ourca l l .2. H e through hi s lordship thinks on beings of theearth on heaven ly beings through hi s high imperialsway .

Com e wil l ing ly to our doors that g ladly welcomethee an d hea l all sickn ess, Rudra, in our fam i l i es .3 . May thy bright arrow which , shot down bythee from heaven , flieth upon the earth , pass usun in j ured by .

Thou ,’

very gracious god , hast thousand m edic in es infl i ct no evi l on ou r son s or progen y .

4. S lay us not , nor abandon us , O Rudra : let notthy n oose , when thou art an g ry , se ize us .

G ive us trimm ed grass an d rul e over the l ivin g .

Preserve us evermore , ye gods, with blessing s .

Book vn . Hymn 45 . S AV ITAR

1 . May the god Savitar, rich in goodly treasures,fil l ing the reg i on , born e by steeds com e h ither,

I n h is hand holding much that makes peoplehappy , l ul l ing to S lumber and arousing creatures.

Sacred grass p laced at th e sacrifice for th e gods to rest on .

Th e petition mean s Permit u s to continue to sacrifice ,

’

i . e . Le t

us remain alive .

.


2. Golden , s ub l im e, and easy in their mot ion , h is

arm s extend un to the bounds of heaven .

N ow sha l l that m ightin ess of hi s be lauded : even5 13m 1 yields to h im in active vigour.3 . May th is god Savitar, the stron g and m ighty,the lord of ' precious wea lth , Vouchsafe us treasures.

May he , advancing hi s far - Spreading lustre,bestow on us the food that feedeth mortal s.4. These songs pra i se Savitar whose tongue is

pleasan t, pra i se h im whose arm s are ful l , whose handsare lovely .

H igh vital'

s trengt h , an d man i fold , may ye grantus . Preserve us evermore , ye gods, with bless ings.

Book ix . Hymn 1 . S OMA PAVAMANA ”

1 . I n sweetest an d most gladden ing stream flowpure , 0 S oma , on thy way ,

Pressed ou t for In dra , for his dr ink .

2. F i en d -queller, fri end of all men , he hath wi ththe plank 3 atta in ed un to

H i s place , his i ron - fashion ed hOme .

3 . Be thou best Vritra- S layer, best gran ter of

bl i ss, m ost l ibera lProm ote our wea lthy prin ces ’ g i fts .

4. F low onward with thy j uice un to the banquetof the m ighty gods :

F low hither for our strength and fame .

1 A d i ff eren t form of th e S un -

god . S i yana says th at Savitar isth e sun before it rises .

9 Th e attributes of Agn i are tran sferred to S oma . H e is addressed as Pavamana , represen ting th e ju ice as i t flows th rough th ewoo l which is u sed as a strainer , and thu s undergoing purification .

Th e hymn s were in tended to be sung while th is process wasgoing on .

3 Used in pressing soma-

j u ice from th e soma-

plant.

194 READINGS FROM THE VEDA

W i th ston es an d with enkin dled flames, seeksh im who b ath a store of gold . F low, In du, flow forIndra ’s sake .3 . A bard am I , my dad

’s 1 a leech ; mammy ’

lays corn upon the ston es .S tr iving for wealth , with varied plan s, we fol low

our desi res l ike kin e . F low, Indu, flow for Indra’ssake .4. The horse would draw an easy car ; gay hosts

attract the laugh an d j est .The ma le desires h i s mate ’s approach the frog

i s eager for the flood . F low, In du , flow for Indra’s

sake .

Book i . Hymn 1 1 5 . S URYA

1 . The bri l l ian t presen ce of the gods hath risen ,the eye of Mitra, Varuna , an d Agn i .

The soul of all that m oveth not or moveth , theS un hath fi l led the air and ea rth an d heaven .

2. Like as a young man followeth a ma i den , sod oth the S un the Dawn , refulgen t goddess

When pious m en extend the i r gen erat ion s, bef ore the auspic ious on e for happy fortun e .3 . Auspicious are the S un

’s bay - coloured horses,

bright , chan g in g hues, m eet for our shouts of triumph .

Bearin g our prayers , the sky’s ridge. liave they

m oun ted, an d in a m om en t Speed round earth and

heaven .

4. Thi s i s the godhead , thi s t he m ight of Suryahe hath W i thdrawn what Spread o’er work unfin i shed .

When he hath loosed hi s horses from thei rs tat ion , stra ight over all N ight spreadeth ou t her

garm en t .5 . I n the sky ’s lap the S un th is form assumeth forMitra and for Varuna to look on .

'

1 D ad , ta ta h original ly a chi ld ’

s word .

9 Mammy n an d .

THE RIG -VEDA 1 95

H i s bay steeds wel l main ta in hi s power eternal ,at one t im e bright and darksom e at another .6. This day , O gods , whi le Surya i s ascen ding,del iver us from trouble an d di shonour .

This prayer of ours may Varuna gran t, and

Mitra , and Adit i an d S indhu , E arth and H eaven .

Book i i . Hymn 28 . VARUNA

1 . This laud of the sel f - radian t wise Adi tya Shal lbe supreme o ’er all that i s in greatn ess .

I beg renown of Varuna the m ighty , the godexceeding kind to h im who worships .2. Having extolled thee , Varuna , with thoughtfulcare may we have high fortun e in thy service ,

S ing ing thy pra i se s l ike the fires at com ing, dayafter day ,

of morn ing s ri ch in catt le .3 . May we be in thy keeping , O thou leader, wideruling Varuna,

lord of man y heroes .O son s of Ad i t i , for ever fai thful , pardon us,

gods , adm i t us to your fri endsh ip;4. H e made them flow , the Aditya , the sustain erthe rivers run by Varuna’s commandmen t .

These fee l no wearin ess, nor cease from flowingswi ft have they flown l ike birds in a ir around us .5 . Loose me from S in as from a bon d th at b inds

me may we swel l , Varuna , thy spring of Order .Let not m y thread , Whi le I weave song ,

besevered, nor my work

’s sum , before the t ime , beshattered .

6. Far from me, Varuna, rem ove all danger : acceptme grac iously , thou holy sovran .

Cast off , l ike cords that hold a cal f, my troublesI am not even m in e eyel id

’s lord W i thout thee .7 . S trike us not , Varuna Wi th those dread weapon swhich , Asura , at thy bidding wound the sin n er .

Let us not pass away from l ight to exi le .S catter, that we may l i ve , the m en wh o hate us.


8 . O m ighty Varuna , now an d hereafter , even as

of old, wi l l we speak forth our worship .

For in thysel f, in fal l ible god , thy statutes n e’er

to be moved are fixed as on a m oun ta in .

9 . Wipe ou t what debts I have m yself con tracted ;let me not profit , king , by ga in of others .

Ful l many a m orn rema in s to dawn upon us in

these,O Varuna , Wh i l e we l ive direct us .

10. O kin g , whoever , be he fri en d or kin sman , haththreaten ed me affrighted in my slumber

I f an y wolf or robber fa in would harm us , therefrom , O Varuna , g ive thou us protection .

1 1 . May I not l ive O Varuna , to wi tn ess my wealthyl iberal , dear fri en d

’s dest itut ion .

Kin g, may I n ever lack well -ordered riches .Loud may we S peak , with heroes, in assembly .

Book v . Hymn 85 . VARUNA

I . S ing forth a hymn subl im e an d solemn , gratefulto glor ious Varuna,

im per ial ruler,Who hath struck out , l ike on e who slays th e

victim ,earth as a skin to spread in fron t of S urya .

2. I n the tree - tops the air he hath extended , putm i lk i n kin e an d V igorous speed in horses ,

S et in tel lect in hearts, fire in the waters , S I'

i rya

in heaven , and S oma on the moun ta in .

3 . Varuna lets the big cask , open ing downward,flowthrough the heaven an d earth an d a i r ’s m id - reg ion .

Therewith the un iverse ’s sovran waters earth asthe shower of ra in bedews the barley .

4. When Varuna i s fain for m i lk he moisten s theSky , the lan d, an d earth to her foun dat ion .

Then stra ight the m oun tain s clothe them in th e

ra in -cloud the heroes (i.e . the Maruts), putt ing forththeir v igour , loose them .

5 . I wil l declare thi s m ighty deed of magic, of

g lorious Varuna the lord imm orta l


While I , ungracious on e, desert the gracious,leave m in e own fri ends and seek the kin of strangers .3 . I , look ing to the guest of other lin eage ,

’i havefounded man y a rule of L aw an d Order .

I bid farewell to the great god , the Father,3

and , for n eg lect , obtain my share of worship .

4. I tarr ied many a year w i th in th i s altar. ’ Il eave the Father, for m y choice i s Indra .

Away pass Agn i , Varuna, an d S oma . KingShip al ternates th is 5 I com e to favour .

I n d ra speaks

5 . These Asuras6 have lost their powers of magic .But thou , O Varuna, i f thou dost love me,

O king , di scern in g truth and right from fal sehood , com e an d be lord an d ruler of my kingdom .

7

6. H ere i s the l ight of heaven , here all ' i s lovelyhere there i s radian ce , here i s a i r

’s wide reg ion .

Let us two slaughter Vritra . Forth , O S oma,Thou art Oblat ion we therewith wi l l serve thee .7 . The sage

8 hath fixed h i s form by wi sdom in

the heaven s Varuna w i th no violen ce let the watersflow.

Like woman -folk , the floods that bring pros

perity , have caught h i s hue an d colour as they

g leam ed and shon e .8 . These wa i t upon hi s loft iest power and

vigour he dwell s in these who tr iumph in theirgodhead ;

An d they , l ike people who elect their ruler , havein abhorren ce turn ed away from Vritra .

9

1 Go forth in sacrific ial fire to In dra in stead of to Varuna .

9 Ord inary fire .

3 Th e Father i s Varuna .

4 Varuna ’

s altar.5 Th e supremacy of Indra is denoted by th is5 Th e A suras , immortals , like Agn i , Varuna and Soma .

7 In dra offers Varuna supremacy in h i s own h eaven now thath e h as lost h is general supremacy .

3 S oma or M itra .

9 In dra ’

s .

THE RIG -VEDA 199

9 . They cal l h im swan ,

1 the abhorren t flood ’

s

com pan ion ,m oving in fri en dship w i th celestial waters .

The poets in their thought have looked on Indraswiftly approachin g when the An ustup

2 ca l ls h im .

B ook i . Hymn 86. VARUNA

Book i . Hymn 25 , on e of the hymn s to Varu n a

a ttribu ted to Su n ah éeph a h as a lready been qu oted

in th e s ect ion on H uman S acr ifi ce. S ee page 729 .

Book vi i . Hymn 86. VARUNA

Book vii . Hymn 86, a hymn to Varu n a h as a lready

been quoted in th e s ect ion on th e Prayers of the

Aryan s . S ee page 750.

Book i . Hymn 2. VAYU

1 . Beauti ful Vayu come , for thee these soma -dropshave been prepared

D rink of them , hearken to our call .2. Knowing the days, with soma juice pouredforth, the singers cal l to thee ,

O Vayu with their hymn s of prai se .3 . Vayu, thy pen etrat ing voice goes forth un to th eworshipper,

Far - spreadin g for the soma draught .4. H ere , In dra -Vayu, i s the j uice ; com e for ouroff ered da i n t i es ’ sake

The drops are yearn ing for you both .

1 Surya th e S un -

god is sometimes so ca l led .

9 E ither th e hymn in th e An us tup metre or dancing to th e timeof th e An us tup metre . M etre and mus ical time are in timate lyconnected with dancing .


5 . Vayu an d In dra, wel l ye know l ibat ion s, r ich insacred r ites 1

S o com e ye hi ther rapidly .

6. Vayu an d Indra, com e to what the soma-presserhath prepared

S oon , heroes , even with resolve .7 . Mitra, of holy stren gth , I cal l , and foe -destroy

ing Varuna,

Who make the oil - fed ri te complete .

8 . Mitra an d Varuna , through L aw, ( r i ta ) loversand cherishers of L aw,

Have ye obta in ed your m ighty power .9 . Our sages, Mitra -Varuna, of wide dom in ion ,

s trong by birth ,Vouchsafe us strength that worketh well .

Book i . Hymn 1 56. VI S HNU

1 . For sh in ing , widely famed , goin g thy won tedway , fed with the Oi l , be helpful , M i tra - l ike , to us .

S o, Vishn u , e’

en the wise m ust swel l thy songof prai se , an d he wh o hath Oblat ion s pay thee solemn

ri tes .2. H e who brings g i fts to h im the an cien t and thelast, to Vishnu wh o ordain s , together with his spouse,

Who tell s the lofty birth of h im the lofty one,shal l ver i ly surpass in g lory e

’

en hi s peer .3 . H im have ye sat i sfied , S in gers, as well ye know,

prim eval germ of Order even from hi s birth .

Ye , kn owing e’

en hi s nam e have told i t forthmay we , Vishn u, en j oy the grace of thee the m ighty on e .

4. The sovran Varun a an d both the Asvin s wa iton thi s the wil l of h im wh o guides the Marut host.

Vishn u hath power suprem e an d m ight thatfin ds the day , an d with h i s frien d unbars the stable ofthe kin e . 1

1 Vish nu assists Indra to re lease th e ligh t or th e rain imprisonedin th e c louds .

READING S FROM THE VEDA

Book vi i i . Hymn 30. V I SVE DE VAS

1 . Not on e of you, ye gods , i s sma l l, n on e of youi s a feeble chi ld

Al l of you, veri ly , are great .2. Thus be ye lauded, ye destroyers of the foe , yethree an d th irty deit i es,

The gods of man , the holy on es .3 . AS such defen d and succour us, with ben edict ion s Speak to us

Lead us not from our fathers ’ an d from Manu spath in to the distan ce far away .

4. Ye deit ies wh o stay with us, and all ye gods ofall mankin d ,

G ive us your wide protect ion , g ive shelter forcattl e an d for steed .

Book i . Hymn 1 1 3 . U S HAS

1 . Thi s l ight has come , am id all l ights the fai rest ;born i s the bri ll ian t , far-exten d ing brightn ess .

N ight , sen t away for Savitar’

s 2 uprising, hathy ielded up a birthplace for the m orn ing .

2. The fa i r , the bright i s com e with her white offspring

3 to her the dark on e hath resigned herdwell in g .

Akin , imm ortal , followin g each other, changingtheir colours both the heaven s move onward .

3 . Common , un ending, i s the sisters’ pathway

taught by the gods, alternately they travel .Fa i r form ed, of di ff eren t hues and yet on e

m inded, N ight an d Dawn clash not , n either do theytarry .

4. Bright leader of g lad soun ds , our eyes beholdher ; splendid in hue Sh e hath un closed the portal s .

1 A sage n amed Manu , not th e same as th e famous law-

giver,was an ancestor of th e s inger of th i s hymn .

S avitar is th e S un .

3 Th e c louds .

Th e voices of b irds and an imals .

THE RIG -VEDA 203

S h e, st irring up the world hath shown us richesDawn hath awaken ed every l iving creature .5 . R i ch Dawn , she sets afoot the coi led up sleeper,

one for en j oym en t, on e for wea lth or worsh ip,Those wh o saw l i ttl e for exten ded vi sion Al l

l iving creatures hath the Dawn awaken ed .

6. On e to high sway , one to exal ted g lory , on e topursue hi s ga in ,

an d on e hi s labourA l l to regard the ir differen t vocat ion s, all

moving creature hath the Dawn awaken ed .

7 . We see her there , the ch i ld of H eaven ,

apparen t , the young ma i d flush ing in her sh in ingra imen t .

Thou sovran lady of a ll earthly treasure , flushon us here , auspic ious Dawn , thi s m orn ing .

8 . S h e , first of endless mom s to com e hereafter,follows the path of m om s that have departed .

Dawn at her ri sing urges fort h the l iving h im

who i s dead Sh e wakes not from hi s slum ber .9 . As thou , Dawn , ha st caused Agn i to be k indled ,

1

and with the S un ’s eye hast revea led creat ion ,

And hast awaken ed men to offer worship , thouhast perform ed for gods a n oble service .

10. H ow long a t im e an d they shal l be togetherdawn s that have shon e an d dawn s to Shin e hereafter

S h e yearn s for form er dawn s W i th eager longing,an d goes forth g ladly shin ing with the others .1 1 . Gon e are the m en who in the days before uslooked on the ri sing of the earl ier morn ing .

We , we the livmg , now behold her brightn essand they com e n igh wh o shal l hereafter see her .

I . 1 1 3 .

12. Foe -chaser ,’ born of L aw (r ita), the Law

’sprotector, joy -

g iver , waker of all pleasan t voices,Auspicious, bring ing food for gods

’ en j oymen t ,shin e on us here , as best , O Dawn , th is morn ing .

1 I n th e morn ing sacrifice .9 Of evil spirits .


1 3 . From days eternal hath Dawn shon e , the goddess, an d shows thi s l ight to -day , endowed withri ches.

So wil l she shin e on days to com e ; immortal ,Sh e moves on in her own streng th , undecaying .

14. I n the sky ’s borders hath she shon e in splendour : the goddess hath thrown Off the ve i l of darkn ess .

Awaken ing the world wi th purple horses, on herwel l -harn essed chariot Dawn approaches.1 5 . Bring in g all l i fe - susta in ing blessing s with her

Showin g hersel f she sends forth bri ll ian t lustre .

Last of the coun t less m orn ings that havevan i shed, first of bright m om s to com e hath Dawna ri sen .

1 6. Ari se , the breath , the l i fe , aga in hath reachedus : darkn ess hath passed away an d l ight approacheth .

S h e for the S un hath left a path to travel we

have arr ived where men prolon g exi sten ce .1

1 7 . S in g ing the pra i ses of refulgen t morn ing s withh i s hymn

’s web the priest , the poet , ri ses .S hin e then to - day , rich ma id , on h im Who lauds

thee , shin e down on us the g i ft of l i fe an d off spring .

1 8 . Dawn s g iving son s all heroes, kin e an d horses,S hin ing upon the man wh o brin g s Oblat ion s

These let the S oma - presser ga in when endinghi s glad son gs louder than the voice of V z

’

i yu .

2

1 9 . Mother of gods , Ad i t i’

s form of g lory, en signof Sacrifice , Shin e forth exalted .

R i se up bestowing prai se on our devot ion : all

boun teous, make us chief among the people ,

20. Whatever Splendid wealth the Dawn s bringwith them to bless the man wh o offers pra i se an d

worship ,E ven that may Mitra, Varuna vouchsafe us,

an d Adit i and S in dhu, E arth and H eaven .

1 i . e . at th e beg inn ing of th e l i fe of a new day .

9 Th e god of th e wind .

206 READINGS"

FROM THE VEDA

2. These 1 Brahmanaspat i produced with blastand sm elt ing , l ike a sm i th .

E x i sten ce , in an earl ier age of gods, from non

exi sten ce spran g .

3 . E x i sten ce in the earl i est age of gods, from non

exi sten ce sprang .

Thereafter were reg ion s“ born . Thi s Sprang

from the Productive Power .4. E arth sprang from the Productive Power ; thereg ion s from the earth were born .

Daksha was born of Adit i , an d Adit i wasDaksha

’s child .

5 . For Adit i , O Daksha , she who i s thy daughter,was brought forth .

After her were the blessed gods, born of immor

tal paren tage .

6. When ye , O gods , in yon der deep, close - claspingone another stood .

Then ce , as of dan cers, from your feet a thicken in g cloud of dust arose .

3

7 . When , O ye gods, l ike Yatis ,4 ye caused all

exi st in g th ings to grow,

Then he brought S urya forward who was

ly ing hidden in the sea .

8 . E ight are the son s5of Adit i wh o from her body

sprang to l i fe .

W i th seven she wen t to m eet the gods : Sh e

cast Martanda6 far away.

i Al l be ings .

9 Th e quarters of th e h oriz on .

3 Verses 6 an d 7 seem to con tain an independen t accoun t of th eorig in of th e U n iverse from th e dust caused by th e dance of

th e gods .

4 Yat is : devotees .

5 M itra,Varuna , D h atar , Aryaman , AnSa , Bh aga , V ivasvan ,

an d Adi tya th e S un .

5 Martanda , a Vedic name of Surya .

THE RIG -VEDA 207

9 . So with her seven son s Adi t i en t forth tom eet the earl ier age .

S h e brought Martanda th itherward to spring tol i fe and die aga in .

Book x . Hymn 8 1 . CREAT ION

[ViSVakarman is represen ted as th e Father. Generator and

Creator of all things and th e Archi tec t of the world ]

1 . H e wh o sate down as Hotar -priest the R i shi,

ou r father, off ering up all thing s exi st in g,H e , seeking through hi s wi sh a great possession ,

came among m en on earth as archetypal .2. What was the place whereon he took hi s stat ion !What was i t that supported h im H ow was i t

Whence V iSvakarman , seein g all,producing

the earth , with m ighty power di sclosed the heaven s .3 . H e wh o hath eyes on all sides roun d about h im ,

a mouth on all sides, arm s an d feet on all sides .H e , the sole god , producing earth and heaven ,

weldeth them with hi s arm s as w ings,l together.4. What was the tree , what wood in sooth pro

duced i t , from which they 52 fashion ed out the earthand heaven

Ye thoughtful men inquire with in your Spiri twhereon he stood when he establ i shed all th ings .5 . Thin e highest , lowest , sacrificial natures

, an d

these thy m i dmost here , O V iSvakarman ;

Teach thou thy fri ends at sacr ifice , O blessed,and come thysel f, exal ted , to our worship .

6. Bring thou thysel f, exa lted with Oblat ion ,O

VISVakarman , E arth an d H eaven to worship,4

1 Fann ing th e flame in which th e matter is sme lted .

9 They,‘

th e makers of th e world direc ted by ParameSvara

says S eyana.

3 Exh i larated , thyse lf offer up th yse lf MU I R .

4 Thyse lf off er up h eaven an d earth .

’

M U I R .


Let other m en aroun d us l ive in folly here letus have a r i ch an d l ibera l patron .

7 .Let us invoke to- day , to a id our labour, the lord

of speech , the thought - swift V iSvakarman .

May he hear k indly all our invocat ion s whogives all bl i ss for aid whose works are righteous .

Book x . Hymn 129 . CREAT ION

[This hymn is sai d to h ave been written by Prajapati, th eS upreme .

H ere says M ax Mu l ler we fin d th e conception of a b eg inn ing of

al l th ings and of a state previou s even to all existen ce . I t is

a hymn fu l l of i d eas which to many wou ld seem to n ecessuate th e

adm i ss ion of a long an teceden t period of ph i losoph ical th ough t .An c ien t S an skr i t L i tera tu re . p .

1 . Then 1was not non -exi sten t (a sa t) nor exi sten t

there was no rea lm of air, no sky beyond it .What covered in , an d where ! an d what gave

shelter W as water there , un fathom ed depth of

water2. D ea th was not then , nor was there aught im

mortal no sign was there , the day’s and n ight

’sdivider.

That On e Thing,“ breathless , breathed by it s

own nature apart from i t was n othing whatsoever .3 . Darkn ess there was at first con cealed in dark

n ess th is A l l was in di scrim inated chaos,A l l that existed then was void and form less z by

the great power of Warm th was born that Un i t .4. Thereafter rose Desire 3 in the beginn ing,

Desire , the primal seed and germ of S piri t .

1 Th en in th e beginn ing .

9 Th e primal substance , th e un it from which th e Un iverse wasevolved .

3 Kama .


3 . Matali 1 prospers there with Kavyas ,’ Yamawith Aug iras

’ 3 son s, Brihaspat i with Rikvan s .

’

E xalters of the gods, by gods exalted, som e j oyin pra i se an d som e in our Oblat ion .

4. Com e , seat thee on thi s bed of grass, O Yama,in compan y with Ang irasas an d Fathers.

Let texts recited by the sages bring thee : 0king , l et thi s Oblat ion mak e thee j oyful .5 . Com e , Yama, w i th the Ang irasas the holy,rej oice thee here W i th the children of V iri

'

i pa .

5

S eated on sacred g rass at thi s our worshipI cal l V ivasvan , too , thy father hither .6. Our fathers are An g irasas , N avagvas , Athar

van s, Bh rigus9wh o deserve the soma.

May these , the holy , look on us with favourmay we en j oy their gracious loving -kindn ess.

[Th e f ollowing vers es a re ad d res sed to th e spir it ofth e d ead man wh ose f u n era l r ites a re being celebra ted ]

7 . Go forth , go forth upon the an cien t pathwayswhereon our sires of old have gon e before us .

There sha l t thou look on both the k ing s en joying their sacred food , god Varuna an d Yama .

8 . Meet Yama, m eet the Fathers (Pitri s), m eetthe m eri t of free or ordered acts, in highest heaven .

Leave s in and evi l , seek an ew thy dwell ing,and bright with g lory wear an other body .

9 . GO hen ce , depart ye,7 fly in all direction s : thi s

p lace for h im the Fathers have provid ed .

1 Matali a d ivine be ing , perh aps In dra .

9 A c lass of th e spirits of th e dead .

3 Th e typical first sacrificers , Angirasas .

A c lass of spirits wh o s ing th e praise of Brih aspati .5 A sub -division of th e Angirasas .

5 Ancien t priestly fam ilies .

7 According to S eyana th e n in th stan z a is addressed to th e

Pisach as and oth er evil spirits that h aun t th e place of cremation .

THE R I G -VEDA

Yama bestows on h im a place to rest in adorn edw i th days an d beam s of l ight an d waters .1 0. R un 1

and outspeed the two dogs, Sarama’

s

o ffspring, brindled , four - eyed , upon thy happy pathway .

Draw n igh , then to the gracious-m inded Fatherswhere they rej oice in company with Yama,

1 1 . And those two dog s of th in e , Yama , thewatchers , four - eyed , who l ook on m en an d guard the

pathway ,E n trust th is man , 0 k ing, to thei r protect ion ,

and W i th prosperity an d health endow h im .

12. Dark - hued, in sat iate , wi th distended n ostri ls ,Yama

’s two envoys roam among the peopleMay they restore to us a fa i r ex i sten ce here and ,

to -day , that we may see the sun l ight .

[Th e th ree f ollowing s tan z as a re ad d res sed to th e

pr ies ts

1 3 . To Yama pour the soma , bring to Yama cousecrated gi fts :

To Yama sacrifice prepared an d heralded byAgn i goes .14. O ff er to Yama holy gi fts en riched with butter,

and draw n ear,So may he gran t that we may l ive long days of

l i fe among the gods .1 5 . O ff er to Yama, to the k ing , Oblat ion very ri ch inm eath

Bow down before the ri sh i s of the an cien t t imes ,who made thi s path in days of old .

16. In to ” the three great jars i t fal l s : si x realm s,t h e on ly lofty place,

The Gayatri , the Tri stup , all metres in Yamaare con tain ed .

1 Th e spirit of th e dead is addressed .

9 This stan z a is un inte l l igib le .

212 READING S FROM THE VEDA

Book x . Hymn 1 5 . THE FATHERS

[This hymn is said to have been composed by Sankh a , son of

Yama . I t is th e on ly one spec ial ly add res sed to th e Pi tri s .

O ff erings are made to them , of which they are invited to partake ,

and b less ings are sol icited

1 . May they ascen d , th e,lowest, highest , m idmost,

the Fathers Who deserve a Share of soma .

May they who have atta in ed the l i fe of spir i ts ,ski l led in L aw (r i ta), harm less, aid us when we cal lthem .

2. N OW let us pay th i s homage to the Fathers , tothose wh o passed of old , an d those wh o fol lowed .

Those Who have rested in the earthly reg ion ,

an d those who dwell amon g the m ighty races .3 . I have atta in ed the g racious -m inded Fathers, Ihave ga in ed son an d progen y from Vishn u .

They wh o en j oy pressed j uices w i th Oblat ion ,

seated on sacred grass , com e often est h ither .4. Fathers who si t on sacred grass , com e , help usthese off erin g s have we made for you ; accept them .

So com e to‘

us W i th m ost auspicious favour, an dgive us heal th and weal th W i thout a trouble .5 . May they , the Fathers worthy of the soma,

invi ted to their favouri te Oblat ion sLa id on the sacred grass, com e n igh an d l i sten

may they be gracious un to us an d bless us .6. Bowin g your bended kn ees an d seated southward , accept thi s sacr ifice of ours w i th favour ,

Pun i sh us n ot for an y s in , O Fathers , which wethrough human f rality have comm i tted .

7 . Lapped in the bosom of the purple Morn ings ,g ive r i ches to the man wh o brin g s Oblat ion s .

Gran t to your son s a portion of that treasure,an d , presen t, g ive them en ergy , ye Fathers .8 . Our an cien t Fathers , who deserve the soma

wh o came , most n oble , to our soma-banquet


verse 7 . Th e word Agre was altered in to Agn e . M ax Mu l lerdescribes this as perh aps th e most flagran t in stance of wh at can bedone by an un scrupu lou s priesthood . Thou san d s of l ives beensacrificed on th e au thori ty of a passage wh ich was mang led , mis

tran s lated and m i sappl ied .]

1 . Go hen ce , O Death ,’ pursue thy Specia l path

way apart from that which gods are won t to travel .To thee I say i t who hast eyes an d hearest

touch not our offspr ing , in jure n ot our heroes .

[Verse 2 is ad d res s ed to th e kin sman of th e d eceased ]

2. AS ye have com e effacin g Mrityu’

s footstep ,1to

farther t imes prolon g ing your exi sten ce ,May ye be r ich in chi ldren an d possession s,

clean sed , purified, an d m eet for sacrificin g .

3 . D iv ided from the dead are these , the l iving : nowi s our cal l ing on the gods successful .

We have com e forth for dan cing and forlaughter , to farther t im es , prolong ing our ex i sten ce .4. H ere I 9 erect this ramparts for the l iving ; let

non e of these , n on e other , reach thi s l im i t .May they survive a hundred len gthen ed autumn s,

and may they bury death ben eath thi s moun ta in .

5 . AS the days fol low days in close succession , as

with the season s duly com e the season s ,AS each successor fa i l s n ot h i s fore -goer , so

form l ives of these , O great Orda in er .3

6. Live your ful l l ives an d fin d old age del ightful ,all of you strivin g on e behin d the other .

May Tvastar, maker of fai r things , be graciousand lengthen out the days of your exi sten ce .

l D ea th : M rityu , d i stin ct f rom Yama wh o was ru ler of th e

departed . E ff a c ing M r i ty u'

s f oots tep , mean s avoid i ng th e pathof death .

9 Th e Adhvaryu raised a moun d as l im iting Death’

s domain .

3 D h atar , a d ivine being wh o i s manager of all th ings .

THE RIG -VEDA 21 5

7. Let these unwidowed dames with n oble husbands adorn themselves wi th fragran t balm andunguen t

Decked with fa i r j ewels , tearle ss , free fromsorrow, first let the matron s pass un to their houses .

[Verse 8 is spoken by th e h u s ban d’

s b roth er , a nd

oth ers , to th e wif e of th e d ead m an , wh ile s h e is mad e

to leave h er h u s ba n d’

s body .]

8 . R i se , com e un to the world of l i fe , O woman

come he i s l i feless by whose side thou l iest .Wifehood with thi s thy husban d was thy por

t ion ,wh o took thy hand an d wooed thee as a lover .9 . From hi s dead han d I take the bow he carri ed ,that i t may be our power an d m ight and g lory .

2

There art thou , there ; an d here with n obleheroes may we o

’

ercome all hosts that fight aga in st us .

[Verse 1 0 is ad d res sed to th e body . Th e u rn con

ta in ing th e a s h es wa s bu r ied . Th e ea r th is a sked n ot

to press h eav ily upon i t .]

10. Betake thee to the lap of earth the m other,of earth far - spreading , very k ind and gracious .

Young dam e , wool - soft , un to the guerdon -

g iver,may she preserve thee from Destruct ion ’s3 bosom .

1 1 . H eave thysel f , E arth , nor press thee downward heavi ly : aff ord h im easy access, gen tly ten dingh im .

E arth , as a m other wraps her Skirt about herchi ld , so cover h im .

12. N ow let the heaving earth be free from m ot ion

yea, let a thousan d clods rema in above h im .

Be they to h im a hom e dist i l l ing fatn ess , herelet them ever be hi s place of refuge .

1 Th i s is in terpreted as sh owmg that th e W idow remarriqd

9 Add ressed to a d ead Kshatriya .

3 D es tru ct ion : N irri t i .


[Vers e 73 is ad d res s ed to th e u rn con ta i n ing th e

ash es ]

1 3 . I stay the earth from thee , whi le over thee lplace thi s piece of earth . May I be free from in j ury ,

H ere let the Fathers keep thi s pi llar firm forthee , and there l et Yama make thee an abiding place .14. E ven as an arrow ’s feathers , they have laid medown at day ’s dec l in e .

My part ing speech have I drawn back as’twere

a courser w i th the rein .

Book x . Hymn 1 9 1 . THE PUBL I C AS SEMBLY

[Th i s is th e last hymn of th e R ig-Veda . Th e subject is agree

ment in a gen eral assemb ly (S am i t i) of th e people on some important occasion , such as th e e lection of a King ]

1 . Thou, m ighty Agn i , gatherest all that i sprecious for thy frien d .

Brin g us all treasures as thou art enkindled inl ibati on ’s place .2. Assemble , speak together : l et your m inds be

all of on e accord ,AS an cien t g ods unan imous S it down to the ir

appoin ted share .3 . The place i s common , common the assembly,comm on the m ind , so be their thought un i ted .

A common purpose do I lay before you , andworship with your gen eral Oblat ion .

4. On e and the sam e be your resolve , an d be yourm in ds of on e accord .

Un i ted be the thoughts of all that all may

happi ly agree .

Book vi i i . H ymn 69 . THE CHARIOT RAGE

The Hymn f or s u cces s in a com ing ch a r iot race, a

hymn to I n d ra , h a s been quoted in th e ch apter on th e

S ocia l L if e of th e E a rly A ryan s (p .


Better the Speaking ‘ than the si len t Brahmanthe l ibera l fri en d outva lues h im wh o g ives not .8 . H e with on e foot hath far outrun the biped , andthe two - footed ca tches the three - footed .

Four - footed creatures com e when bipeds cal lthem , and stan d an d look where five are met together .’

9 . The han ds are both al ike : their labour diff ers.The y ield of si ster m i lch -kin e i s un equal .

Twin s even differ in their strength and vigourtwo , even kin sm en , di ff er in their boun ty .

Book i . Hymn 1 26. A S AGE’

S THANKSGIV I NG

TO A KING

[Th e hymn writer , Kaksh ivan fee l as leep on a journey . H e was

roused in th e morn ing by Raja S vanaya wh o took h im h ome and

gave h im at once h i s ten daugh ters in marriage , presenting h im at

th e same time with th e gifts men tioned in th e hymn . Th e poet

praises th e l iberal i ty of S vanaya , h ere cal led Bh avya , from h is

fath er Bh ava .]

1 . W i th w i sdom I presen t these l ivel y pra i ses ofBhavya dwel ler on the bank of S in dhu (the Indus)

For he , un conquered k in g , desiring g lory , hathfurn i shed m e a thousan d sacrifices .2. A hundred n ecklets from the k in g , beseeching,

a hundred g i ft - steeds I at on ce accepted ;O f the lord ’s cows a thousand , I Kaksh ivan .

H i s deathless glory hath he spread to heaven .

I Th e priest wh o d u ly recites th e Vedas , for wh ich du ty h e h asbeen engaged .

9 Th e Victory is not a lways won by those wh o seem most l ike lyto win . Th e

‘

one- footed (ekapa‘

d ) is th e S un ,which su rpasses

th e‘ b iped man . Th e biped catch es th e th ree - footed old

man W ith h is staff . T h e‘

four- footed are d ogs . Th e five are a

group of men at wh ich th e d ogs look u ncertain wh ether their ownmasters are among th em or not .

THE RIG -VEDA 21 9

3 . Horses of dusky colour stood beside me, ten

chariots , Svanaya’

s g i ft , with mare s to draw them .

Kin e numbering S ixty thousand followed after .Kaksh ivan gain ed them when the days were closing .

4. Forty bay horses of the ten cars’

master beforea thousan d lead the long procession .

Reel ing in joy Kaksh ivan’

s son s an d Pajra’

s

have groomed the coursers decked with pearly trappings.5 . An earl ier g i ft for you have I accepted , eightcows, good m i lkers, an d three harn essed horses,

Pajras , who with your wa in s with your greatkin sman l ike troops of subj ects have been fa in for

g lory .

l

Book x . Hymn 7 1 . THE WI SE JNANAM

[Th e commen tator S ayana says th at this difficu lt hymn re fers toParamab rahmajnanam , know ledge of th e h igh est truth so th atman may be un ited W ith th e S upreme ]

1 . When m en , Brihaspat i , g iving names to obj ects ,sen t ou t Vak ’s 9 first an d earl iest utteran ces,

A l l that was excellen t an d spotless, treasuredwithin them , was di sclosed through their aff ect ion .

2. Where l ike men clean sin g corn -flour in a cribble , the wise in spiri t have created lan guage ,

Fr i ends see an d recogn i ze the marks of fri endship : their speech reta in s the blessed S ign imprin ted .

3 . With sacr ifice the trace of Vak they followed ,and foun d her harbouring within the ri sh is

!

They brought her , deal t her fourth in many

1 Th e hymn en d s w ith two more verses . supposed to b e part of alove song which have no apparen t re lation to th e rest of th e hymn .

9 Var : Vo ice or speech d e ified .

3 M en are to learn that th e rishi s alon e un d erstan d speech forrel ig ious purposes .


places seven S ingers make her ton es resound incon cert .4. On e man hath n e

’er seen Vak, an d yet he seethone man hath hearing but hath n ever heard her .

But to another hath Sh e shown her beauty as a

fon d wel l -dressed woman to her husban d .

5 . On e man they cal l a laggard, dul l in fri en dsh ipthey n ever urge h im on to deeds of va lour .

H e wanders on in profitless i l lusion : the Voicehe heard yi elds n ei ther fruit nor blossom .

6. N o part in Vak hath he wh o hath abandon edhi s own dear fr i en d wh o knows the truth of fri endsh ip .

E ven i f he hears her sti l l in va in he l i sten snaught kn ows he of the path of r ighteous act ion .

7 . U n equa l in the quickn ess of Spiri t are friendsendowed al ike w i th eyes an d hearing .

S om e looked l ike tanks that reach the mouth orshoulder, others l ike pools of water fi t to bathe in .

8 . When friendly Brahman s sacrifice together withm en ta l impulse which the heart hath fashion ed

They leave on e far behin d through their atta inm en ts, and som e who coun t as Brahman s wanderelsewhere .9 . Those m en who step not back and move not

forward ,1nor Brahman s, n or preparers of l ibat ion s,

Having atta in ed to Vak in S in ful fashion spinout their thread in ignoran ce l ike Spin sters .10. A l l fri ends are j oyful in the frien d who comethin tri umph , having conquered in assembly .

H e i s thei r blam e -averter , food -provider : prepared i s he an d fit for deed an d vigour.1 1 . On e pl ies hi s con stan t task rec it in g verses

9

one sing s the holy psa lm s in Sakvari measures .

1 Take no active part in th e ceremon ies .

9 Reciting verses , r icas , verses of th e R ig-veda. Th is is th e

H otri .3 Th e h oly psalm , th e Gayatra or S i man . Th is is th e Udgatri,

»or ch an ter .


N ever be thief or sin ful man your master, an dmay the dart of Rudra sti l l avoid you .

8 . N ow l et thi s close adm i xture be close in term in g led with these cows .

Mixt with the steer ’s prol ific flow,

‘an d , Indra,

with thy hero m ight .

Book vii. Hymn 103 . FROGS

[Th e h ymn , says M ax M u ller ,which is ca l led a panegyr ic of

t h e frogs , i s c lear ly a satire on th e priests .

’

I t eviden t ly be longs toa late period of Vedic poetry.)

1 . They wh o lay quiet for a year, the Brahman swh o fulfi l thei r vows ,

The frog s have l i fted up their voice , the voiceParjanya hath in spired .

2. What t ime on these , as on a dry skin ly ing inthe pool ’s bed , the floods of heaven descended ,

The music of the frog s comes forth in con certl ike the cows lowing w i th their calves beside them .

3 . When at the com in g of the Ra in s the water haspoured upon them as they yearn ed and thi rsted,

One seeks an other as he talks and greets h imwi th cr i es of pleasure as son hi s father .4. E ach of these twain receives the other kindly,whi le they are revell ing in the flow of waters,

When the frog moisten ed by the ra in springsforward , and Green an d S potty both comb in e theirvoices .5 . W hen on e of these repeats the other

’

s language,a s he who l earn s the lesson of the teacher,

Your every l imb seem s to be growing larger asye converse with eloquen ce on the waters .6. On e i s Cow -bellow and Goat -bleat the other,

one frog i s Green and on e of them i s S potty .

Th e reference is to th e m ixture of milk and soma- ju ice . Sonia

i s th e steer Th e l ibation was offered to Indra .

THE RIG ~VEDA 223

They h ear one common nam e , an d yet theyvary , and , talk ing, modulate the voice d iversely .

7 . As Brahman s, si tt ing roun d the brim ful vessel ,talk at the soma-ri te of At iratra .

1

So, frog s , ye gather roun d the pool to honourth is day of all th e year, the first of Ra in -t ime .8 . These Brahman s wi th the soma - juice ,

’- perform

ing the ir year - long ri te ,“ have l ifted up their voices

An d these Adhvaryu s , sweat in g with theirkettles (or Oblation s), come forth and show them se lves,an d n on e are hidden .

9 . They keep the twelve mon th’

s god -appoin tedorder

, an d n ever do the men n eg lect the season .

S oon as the Ra in -t im e in the year return eth ,these who were heated kettle s3 ga in their freedom . _

10. Cow-bellow an d Goat~b leat have g ran ted ri ches,and Green an d S potty have vouchsa fed us trea sure .

The frogs who g ive us cows in hundreds leng then our l ives in thi s m ost ferti l izing sea son .

Book i i i . Hymn 33 . Two R IVERS AND A S AGE

[This is a d ialogue between th e sage V iSvam i tra and th e

rivers V ipas (th e modern B ias) and Su tud ri (th e modern S utlej).Th e story is that th e sage sung th i s hymn at th e confluence of th e

Vipas and Su tud ri in order to.

make them fordable when h e wishedto cross . I t may refer to th e ear ly journ eys of th e Aryan s .)

Viévam itm ad d res ses th e r ivers

1 . Forth from the bosom of the moun tain s, eageras two swi ft ma res wi th loosen ed re in con tend i ng ,

Like two bright mother cows who l ick the iryoungling, V ipa

'

i é and S u tudri speed down the ir waters .

Probab ly a ceremony accompan ied by th e recitation of hymnsat n igh t .

9 Sayana exp lain s th is as a reference to a series of sacrifices-

th e

Gava‘

m ayan am ,

‘

th e going of th e cows ,’ lasting a year .

3 S corch ed in th e h ot weath er .


2. Im pel led by In dra whom ye pray to urg e you ,

ye move as ’twere on chariots to the ocean .

F lowin g together, swel l ing w i th your bi ll ows ,O lucid stream s , each of you seeks the other .3 . I have atta in ed the m ost materna l r iver, wehave approached V ipas, the broad , the blessed .

Licking as ’twere thei r calf the pa i r of mothersflow onward to the ir comm on hom e together .

Th e r ivers speak

4. We two who ri se an d swel l wi th bi llowy watersmove forward to the hom e which gods have made us .

Our flood may n ot be stayed when urged tom ot ion . What would the singer , ca l l ing to the rivers

Th e s age speaks

5 . Linger a l i ttle at my friendly bidding ; rest,holy on es , a mom en t in your j ourn ey .

With hymn subl im e sol ici t in g your favour ,Ku éika

’

s son hath cal led un to the river .

Th e r ivers speak

6. In dra wh o w i elds the thunder d ug our chann el she smote down Vritra, h im who stayed our curren ts .

S a’

vi tar, god , the lovely -handed , l ed us, and at

hi s sendin g forth we flow expanded .

Th e s age speaks

7 . That hero deed of In dra must be lauded forever that he ren t Ahi 1 in pieces .

H e smote away the obstructors with hi s thun der,an d eager for their course forth flowed the waters .

Th e r ivers spea k

8 . N ever forget th i s word of thin e , O singer, whichfu ture g en erat ion s Shal l re - echo .

I n hymn s , O bard , Show us thy loving -kindn ess .Humble us not m id men . To thee be honour.

1 Th e serpen t demon of drough t .


Th e s age spea ks

5 . O S i'

i rya, when the Asura’s descendan t , S var

bhanu , pi erced thee through and through with darkn ess,Al l crea tures looked l ike on e who i s bew i ldered,

who kn oweth n ot the place where he i s stan ding .

6. Wha t t im e thou smotest down S varbhan u’

s

mag i c that spread i tsel f ben eath the sky , O Indra ,

By hi s fourth 1 sacred -prayer Atr i 2 di scoveredS i

’

i rya con ceal ed in g loom that stayed hi s fun ction .

Th e s u n speaks

7 . Let not the oppressor with thi s dread , throughanger swal low me up , for I am thin e , O Atr i .

Mitra art .thou , the sen der of true blessin g sthou an d king Varuna be both my helpers .

Th e s age speaks

8 . The Brahman Atr i , as he set the press - ston es,serving the gods w i th pra i se and adorat ion ,

E stabl i shed in the heaven the eye of S urya , and

caused S varbhanu’

s magic arts to van i sh .

9 . The Atri s foun d the S un again , h im whomS varbhanu of the brood

Of Asuras had pierced with g loom . Thi s n on ebeside h ad power to do .

3

Book x . Hymn 34. THE GAMBL ER

[I n th is hymn a gambler apparently descr ibe s h is own exper i

en ce ]

1 . S prung from tal l trees on windy heights, theserol lers tran sport me as they turn upon the table .

S tan z as 5—8 of th is hymn .

9 Atri is th e r ish i singing this hymn .

3 For pres s ing ou t th e ju ice of th e soma-

plan t.4 Nuts were used for d ice in early times .

THE RIG -VEDA 227

Dearer to me the di e that n ever slumbers thanthe deep draught of M i

'

i javan’

s own soma .

l

2. S h e n ever vexed me nor was angry w ith me,

but to my frien ds and m e was ever grac ious .For the die

’s sake whose sing le poin t i s fina lm in e own devoted wi fe I al i enated .

3 . My w i fe holds m e a loof, her m other hates me

the wretched man fin ds n on e to give h im com fort .AS of a costly horse grown old and feeble , I

find not any profi t of the gam ester .4. Others caress the w i fe of h im whose r iches thedie hath coveted , that rapid courser :

O f h im speak father, m other , brothers, say ing ,We know h im not : bind h im an d take h im w i th you .

5 . When I resolve to play wi th these no longer,m y fri ends depart from m e an d l eave me lon ely ,

When the brown dice , thrown on the board,have rattl ed , l ike a fond g i r l I seek the place of

m eeting .

6. The gamester seeks the gambl ing -house , and

wonders , hi s body all afire , Shal l I b e l ucky !S t i l l do the dice ex ten d hi s eager long ing, stak

ing hi s ga in s again st h i s adversary .

7 . D ice , veri ly , are armed w i th goads and drivinghooks

,dece iving and torm en t ing , causing g ri evous

woe .

They g ive frai l g i ft s and then destroy the manwh o w in s , thickly anoin ted wi th the player

’s fai res t

8 . Merr i ly sports their troop , the three -and -fi fty ,’

l ike Savitar the god , whose ways are fa i thful .They ben d not even to the m igh ty

’

s anger : th eking him self pays homage an d reveres them .

9 . Downward they rol l , an d then spring quicklyupward , an d , handless, force the man w i th hands toserve them .

M i'

i javan was a moun tain on wh ich th e soma-

plant grew.

9 Th e mean ing .is uncerta in .


Cast on the board , l ike lum ps of mag ic charcoalthough cold them se lves they burn the heart to a shes .1 0. The gambler

’s w i fe i s left forlorn and wretchedthe mother m ourn s the son wh o wanders hom eless.

I n con stan t fear , in debt , an d seek in g r i ches, he

goes by n ight un to the hom e Of others .1 1 . S ad i s the gambler when he sees a matron ,

an other’ s wi fe , an d hi s wel l - ordered dwel l ing .

H e yokes the brown steeds 1 in the early mom

ing , an d when the fire i s cold S inks down an outcast .1 2. To the great capta in 9

of your m ighty army,who hath becom e the host

’s imperial l eader ,To h im I show my ten exten ded fingers : 3 I

speak the truth . N O wealth am I wi thhold ing .

1 3 . Play not with dice : no, cult ivate thy corn - land.E n j oy the ga in , an d deem that wealth sufficien t ,

There are thy cattle , there thy wife , 0 gambler.S o thi s good S avi tar h im sel f hath told m e .

1 4. Make m e your fr iend : show us som e l it tlem ercy . Assa i l us not w i th your terrific fiercen ess ,

Appeased be your mal ign i ty and anger, an d letthe brown dice snare som e other captive .

Book vi. Hymn 75 . WEAPON S OF W AR

[Gri ffith says that th e d e ified objects are th e armour and

war l ike weapons ,charioteer, chariot , horses . e tc . , an d th e tute lary

deities , addressed , men tioned or invoked in th e hymn . Th e hymn

is too long for quotation . Th e fol lowing are some of th e princ ipa lverses ]

Th e bow a n d a r rows

2. With bow l et us win kin e , wi th bow the battle,with bow be v ictors in our hot en coun ters .

1 Begins th rowing th e brown d ice .9 Th e dice marked with h ighest n umbers .

3 To Show that I have nothing left.

‘


With thei r forefeet descend in g on the foem en ,

they , n ever flinch ing , trample and destroy them .

1 3 . H e lays hi s blows upon the ir backs, he deal shi s b lows upon the ir thighs .

Thou , whip , wh o u rges t horses, drive sagacioushorses in the fray .

Th e hym n con clu d es th u s

1 9 . Whoso would k il l us , whether he be a stran gefoe or on e of us ,

May all the gods d iscomfit h im . My n earest,closest mai l i s prayer .

Book i . H ymn 1 87 . AN NASTUT I , PRAI SE OF FOOD

According to S aunaka , this hymn shou ld be recited by a

person abou t to ea t , when h is food wil l n ever d isagree w ith h im :i ts repetition also . accompan ied W i th Ob lation s and worship , wil lsecure h im again st wan t of food , and if h e shou l d have taken

poison , its s ilen t repetition W i l l ac t as an an tidote .

’—WIL SON .]

1 . N ow wi l l I g lori fy Food that upholds greatstrength ,

By whose invigorat in g power Trital ren t Vritra

l imb from l imb .

2. O pleasan t Food ! 0 Food Of m eath , thee havewe chosen for ou r own ,

S O be our kin d protector thou .

3 . Com e hither ward to us, O Food, auspic iouswith auspic ious help ,

H eal th -bring ing . not unkind , a dear an d gui leless fri en d .

4. These juices which , 0 Food , are th in e throughou t the region s are di ff used .

Like w inds they have their place in heaven .

5 . These g i fts of thin e , 0 Food, O Food mostsweet to taste ,

1 Trita is Indra pervad ing th e th ree worlds .

9 Th e god addressed is S oma .

THE RIG -VEDA 23 1

These savours of thy j uices work l ike creaturesthat have m ighty n ecks . 1

6. I n thee , 0 Food , i s set the spiri t Of g reat gods .Under thy flag brave deeds were don e : he slew

the dragon w i th thy help .

7 . l f thou be gon e un to the splendour of the clouds ,E ven from then ce , 0 Food of m eath , prepared

for ou r en j oym en t , com e .8 . Whatever m orsel we con sum e from waters orfrom plan ts of earth , O S oma , wax thou fat thereby ,9 . What , S oma , we en joy from thee in m i lky food

or barley -b rew,Vatapi grow thou fat thereby .

10. O Vegetable , cake of m ea l , be wholesom e , firm ,

and stren g then ingVfitfipl,

4

grow thou fat thereby .

1 1 . 0 Food , from thee as such have we drawn forthW i th lauds, l ike cows, ou r sacrificia l g i fts,

From thee wh o banquetest with gods, from theewho banquetest wi th us .

Book v ii. Hymn 5 5 . VAS TOSPAT I AND I NDRA

THE S PEL L OF THE HOU SE -BREAKER

[Th e hymn appears to be made up of three unconn ected

pieces . Th e first verse i s ad dressed to Vas tospat i , th e guard ian

god of th e h ou se . Verses 2- 4 are addressed by th e spirits of Ind ra ’

s

worsh ippers to one of Yama'

s dogs wh o wou ld preven t th ereen teri ng th e h ome of th e piou s d ead . S arama, th e hou nd of Indra ,

was th e mother of th e two spotted watch ‘ d ogs of Yama . Verses5 - 8 form a s leep song . I t was rec ited by thieves an d hou se—breakersto pu t people to s leep ]

1 . Vastospat i, who ki l lest all di sease , and weares tevery form ,

Be an auspic ious friend to us .

1 Bu l locks .

9 Th e fermen ting soma- ju ice or , accord ing to S ayana , th e body .


2. When , O bright son of Saram a , thou showest,tawn y -hued ! thy teeth ,

They g leam l ike lan ces’ poin ts with in thy m outh

when thou wouldest bite go thou to sleep .

3 . S arama’

s son , retrace thy way : bark at therobber an d the thief .

At In dra ’s sin gers barkest thou ! “ f h y dostthou seek to terri fy us ! Go to sleep .

4. Be on thy gua rd again st the boar , an d l et theboar beware of thee .

At In dra’s singers barkest thou ! Why dost

thou seek to terri fy us GO to S l eep .

5 . S leep mother, l et the father sleep , sleep dogand master of the house .

Let all the k in sm en sleep , sleep all the peoplewho are roun d about .6. The man wh o sits, the man wh o walks , and

whosoever looks on us,O f these we closely Shut the eyes , even as we

closely shut th i s house .7 . The Bul l wh o hath a thousan d horn s, wh o ri se sup from out the sea

By h im the strong an d m ighty on e we lul l an dmake the people sleep.

8 . The wom en sleep in g in the court , ly ing wi thout , or stretched on beds ,

The matron s w i th their Odorous sweets l— these ,one an d all, we lul l to S leep .

Book vii. Hymn 104. A S PEL L AGAI N ST

E VIL S P I RITS

[Th e hymn con s ists chiefly of imprecation s d irected again stRaksh asas , d emon s , an d Yatud h anas , a kin d Of gob l in . Th esefoes are supposed to go abou t at n igh t , d isturb ing sacrifices an d

piou s men , en snaring an d even d evouring h uman be ings , and

l Th e gar lan d s of flowers worn on festive occas ions


25 . Look each on e hi ther, look around : I ndra and

S oma, watch ye wel l .Cast forth your weapon at the fiends ; aga in st

the sorcerers hurl your bolt .

B ook x . Hymn 145 . A S PEL L AGAIN ST A R IVAL WIFE

S apa tn i ba'

d h an am

[Th e hymn is a spe l l to r id a jealous Wife of a more favouredrival . Th e s inger is In d ran i , th e consort of In dra .]

1 . From out the earth I d ig thi s plan t , an herb ofmost eff ectual power,

Wherewith one quell s the riva l wi fe an d ga in sthe husband for on esel f.2. Auspic ious , w i th expan ded leaves , sen t by th e

gods, victorious plan t ,Blow thou the riva l wi fe away , and make my

husban d on ly m in e .

3 . S tronger am I ; O stronger on e, yea, m ightierthan the m ightier ;

An d she who i s my r iVal W i fe i s lower than thelowest dam es .4. H er very nam e I u tter not : she takes no

pleasure in thi s man .

Far in to di stan ce most remote drive we ther ival wi fe away .

5 . I am the conqueror , and thou , thou a l so art

vi ctorious :As v ictory atten ds us both we w i l l subdue my

fellow -wi fe .

6. I have ga in ed thee for vanqui sher, have graspedthee w i th a stronger spel l .

As a cow hasten s to her cal f, so l et thy spiri t 1

Speed to m e , hasten l ike water on i ts way .

1 Th e spirit of th e husband overpowered by th e spe l l.

THE RIG -VEDA 235

Book x . Hymn 1 64. A S PEL L AGAINST E V IL

DREAMS (D u h svapn agh n am)

l . Avaun t , thou master of the m in d .

1 Depart, andvan i sh far away

Look on Destruct ion 2 far from hen ce . The l iveman

’s m in d i s man i fold .

2. A ha ppy boon do men elect , a m ighty blessingthey Obta in .

Bl iss with Vaivasvata3 they see ..The l ive man

’sm ind seeks man y a place .3 . When by address , by blam e , by imprecat i on wehave comm i tted s in , awake or sleeping ,

A l l hateful acts of ours , a ll evi l doing s may

Agn i bear away to di stan t places .4. When , I ndra , Brahmanaspat i , our deeds are

wrongful an d un j ust ,Prach etas the Ang irasa

“ presen t our foes fromtroubl ing us .5 . We have preva i led thi s day an d won : we are

made free from s in and guilt .I l l thoughts , that vi si t us awake or sleeping ,

se i z e the man we hate , yea , se ize the man who hatethUS .

1 Th e Spi r it of evil d reams

9 Th e god d ess N irr i t i .

3 S ii yari a says th at Va ivasvata is Yama , son of V ivasvan , wh o

presides over evi l d reams

4 Prach e tas th e r ish i wh o i s sa id to h ave composed th i s hymn

was a descen d ant of th e early pr iestly fam ily of th e Angirasas ,

specia l worsh ippers Of Varuna .

THE SAMA-VEDA

AS already men ti on ed , the S ama-veda con si sts largely Of

extracts from the R ig -veda . Hymn s,port ion s of hymn s,

an d detached verses are tran sposed and rearran ged

without referen ce to thei r or ig ina l order, and there are

frequen t variation s from the text of the R ig - veda. The

first hymn i s con sidered a later addi t ion . The secon d

hymn , as tran slated by Griff i th , i s g iven to aff ord some

idea of the composi t i on of the book . The referen ces

appen ded to each verse Show where the verse appears in

the R ig -veda.

l . O Agn i , God , the people s ing reveren t prai se tothee for stren gth ;

With terrors trouble thou the foevii i. 64, 10.

2. I seek w i th song your m essen ger, Oblat ionbearer, lord Of weal th ,

Immorta l , best at sacrifice .iv . 8 . 1 .

3 . S t i l l turn in g to the ir aim in thee the sacrificer’ssi ster hymn s

Have com e to thee before the w ind .

V l l l . 9 1 . 1 3 .

4. To thee i l lum in er of n ight , O Agn i , day by day ,wi th prayer,

Bringing thee reveren ce , we com e .i . 1 . 7 .

THE YAJUR-VEDA

I T i s practica l ly impossible to g ive a reading from the

Yajur -veda as i t would not be in te l l ig ible without an

exten sive comm en tary on a lmost every clause . T h e

Fortietli Book of the White Ya j ur -veda m ight have

b een quoted, but i t i s not typi ca l , bein g really a short

U pan i shad .

A verse from the ordinary matter of the book wi l l

just i fy the above statemen t .

Wh ite Yaj u r -ved a . Book V . Verse 12

Thou 1 art a l ion ess . A l l ha i l . Thou art a l ion ess

W inn ing Adityas . Al l -ha i l .

Thou art a l ion ess winn ing Brahman s and Nobles .

Al l ha i l .

Thou art a l ion ess that win s fa i r Off - spring ,win abnud

an t wea l th . A l l ha i l .

A l ion ess art thou . Bring the gods hi ther for h im

who offers sacrifice . A l l hai l .

To l ivin g creatures, thee .”

From th e commentators we gath er th at during th e S oma sacrifice with th ese four invocation s th e Adhvaryu poured butter on th efou r corn ers of th e altar p lace , an d W ith th e fifth on th e centre .Th ou in th e first l ines is th e altar .9 Th ee th e off ering ladle . I ra ise is understood .

THE ATHARVA-VEDA

[MUCH of th e Ath arva-veda is d i rec z ly d er ived from th e R ig-veda .

For in stance th e s ixth hymn in Book X I X is th e Purus a S i'

i kta , th e

n i netieth hymn of Book x of th e R ig-ved a . S uch hymn s are of

course not characteristic of th e be lief s in mag ic Of many k inds

probab ly largely d eveloped by in tercourse with th e demon -wor

s h ipping aborigines which is on e of th e chief features of th e

d eter ioration of th e earlier Aryan fa i th . A few of these spe l ls and

prayers are quoted here ]

A spell against Fever

[Th e tr ibes men tioned in th ese verses seem to be hostile or

al ien tr ibes wh o l ived on th e borders of th e lands in which th e

Aryan s dwe lt .]

1 . H en ce , fi l led with holy streng th let Agn i .S oma, and Varuna, the Press - ston e an d the Al tar ,

And Grass , an d g lowin g Fuel ban i sh Fever,

Let hateful things stay at a di stan ce yonder .2. An d thou thysel f who makest all men ye l low

,

con sum ing them with burn ing heat l ike Agn i ,Thou, Fever ! then be weak and in eff ective .

Pass hen ce in to realm s below or van i sh .

7 . GO, Fever , to the M i‘

i javan s , or farther , to theBah likas .

S eek a lascivious S i‘

i dra g i rl an d seem to shakeher through and through .

8 . GO hen ce and eat thy kin smen the Mahavrish as

and M i‘

i javan s .

These or those foreign reg ion s we proclaim to

Fever »fo‘

r hi s home.


12. Go Fever, W i th Con sumption , thy brother, an dwith thy s ister , Cough ,

And wi th thy n ephew H erpes, go away un tothat a l i en folk .

1 3 . Chase Fever whether cold or hot , brought bythe summ e r or the ra in s ,

Tert ian , in term i tten t , or autumnal , or con t in ual .14. We to Gan dharis , M i

‘

i javan s , to Angas an d toMagadhas

Hand over Fever as i t were a servan t anda th ing of price .

A t h a rva -ved a , v . 22. 1 , 2, 7 , 8 , 1 2, 1 3 - 14.

Amulets

[An amu let is some object supposed to h ave mag ic powers ,worn as a remed y or preservative again st evils or m isc h ief, such asdiseases or W i tch craft . Plan ts were o ften u sed as amu lets s uchas A ru n d h a t i , a med icmal c limb ing p lan t ; th e Asva t th a , th e

p ipa l , or sacred fig-tree . Th e h orn Of th e roebuck was emp loyed

to drive away hered itary d i sease . L ea d was u sed as a charmaga in st d i seases and sorcery . Th e followmg non -metr ica l formu lad escribes th e power of an amu let]

1 . Power art thou , g ive m e power . A l l ha i l !M ight art thou , g ive m e m ight . A l l ha i l !S treng th art thou , g ive m e streng th . Al l hai l !Li fe art thou , g ive m e l i fe . A l l ha i l !E ar art thou , g ive me hearing . Hai l !E ye art thou , g ive me eyes . A l l ha i l !S hie ld art thou, shield me wel l . A l l ha i l !

A th a rva -ved a , i i . 1 7.

s

o

ws

ww

A prayer against h im who robs a Brahman

of h is cow

5 . O f th e Ksha triya who taketh to h im sel f thi sBrahman

’

s cow and Oppresseth the Brahman ,


Chasin g i l l -W i l l , wi ld beast , an d highway rob

ber, may he who hath the power g ive m e r i ches .2. The man y paths which gods are won t to travel,the paths which go between the earth an d heaven ,

May they rej oice with m e in m i lk and fatn essthat I may make rich profit by my purchase.3 . With fuel , Agn i an d w i th butter , long ing , m in e

off ering I presen t for streng th and conquestWith prayer, so far as I have strength , ador

ing—thi s holy hymn to ga in a hun dred treasures .4. Pardon th is stubbornn ess of ours , O Agn i , thedistan t pathway which our feet have trodden .

Propit ious un to us be sal e an d barter, may

in terchan ge Of m erchandi se en rich me .

Accept , ye twain , accordan t , thi s l ibat ion ! Pros

p eron s be our ven tures and in com in g s .5 . The wea l th wherewith I carry on my traffic ,

s eek ing , ye gods wea l th w i th the weal th I Off er,May thi s g row more for me, not less : 0 Agn i ,

through sacrifice chase those away who hinder profi t !6. The weal th wherewi th I carry on my traffic,seeking , ye gods weal th w i th the wea l th I off er.

H erein may In dra , S avitar, and S oma, Prajapat i and Agn i g ive m e splendour .7 . With reveren ce we sing thy pra i se , O Hotarpr iest VaiSVanara dear to all men

Over our chi ldren keep thou watch , over ourbodies, kin e , an d l ives .8 . S t i l l to thee ever wi l l we bring Oblat ion , as to

a stabled horse , O Jatavedas .

Joyin g in food an d in the g rowth of r iches maywe thy s ervan ts, Agn i , n ever suff er .

Ath a rva -ved a iii . 1 5 .

A Woman’s Love Charm

1 . Thi s i s the Apsarases’ love -spell , the conquer

i ng res i stl ess on es’

.

THE ATHARVA-VEDA 243

S end the spell forth , ye Dei t ies Let h im con

sum e wi th love of m e .

2. I pray , may he remember me , think of me,

loving an d beloved .

S en d forth the spell , ye Dei ti es ! let h im con

sume w i th love Of m e .

3 . That he may think of me , that I may n ever,n ever thin k of h im .

S end forth the spell , ye De it ies Let h im con

sum e with love of m e .

4. Madden h im , Maruts , madden h im . Maddenh im , madden h im , 0 A i r .

Madden h im , Agn i , madden h im . Let h imcon sum e with love of m e .

A th arwa -veda vi . 1 30.

APPE ND IX I

TRADITIONS CONCERN ING THE ORIG IN

OF THE VEDAS

THE pa in stakin g research of D r. J ohn Muir has made

the theori es Of the orig in Of the Vedas con ta in ed in the

Sacred Books of the H in duism accessible to every

studen t . They are set forth with the S an skrit passages

on which they are foun ded or in which they are express

ed in the third volum e Of hi s Or ig in a l S an skr i t Texts .

I t i s impossible to di scuss all these theori es here, or

to quote all the passage bearing on them . A careful

select ion of the m ost importan t i s all that can be attempt

ed here .

Traditions ih the Hymns

There are comparat ively few sta tem en ts in the Vedas

that g ive any hin t of the history of the wri ters of th e

Vedic Hymn s or of the con dit ion s in which their

an cestors h ad en tered in to an d settled in n orth -west

India . But the nam e Of the author of each Hymn i s

preserved in the An u kraman t or in dexSto the con ten ts

of each Veda which has been han ded down from very

an cien t t im es . The defen ders of the etern i ty of t he

Vedi c Hymn s argue that these ri shi s were not an d do not

real ly cla im to be the authors Of the Hym n s which are

said to be the ir words (Muir , S an skr it Texts , I I I . 85)

246 APPENDIX I

‘

Thus 0 In dra, yoker of steeds, have the Gotamas

made hymn s for thee efficaciously .

’

R ig-ved a i . 61 . 16.

E tan i va'

m Asn ina vard h a n an i brahma s tomam

Gr i ts amadasa h akran‘

These magn i fy in g prayers, [this] hymn , O Asvin s,the G ritsamadas have mad e for you .

’

R ig-ved a ii . 39 . s.

Ad h a priyam Sas h am I n d raya manma brahmakrito

Vrih ad u kthad avach i

An acceptable an d powerful hymn h as been uttered

to In dra by Vrihadukth a,maker Of hymn s . ’

R ig-ved a x . 54. 6.

The verb Taksh i s less common . I t m ean s to form

by cutt in g, or by the plan e or chisel ; to chop , sl i ce ,fashion ou t Of wood as a carpen ter does , an d so to form

in the m in d or inven t . Taks h aka and Taksh an Ta ss an

in Tam i l) are two San skrit n am es for a carpen ter. F rom

th i s i t wil l be seen that by using thi s verb the ri sh i

thinks of him self as the inven tor or maker of the Hymn s

that he utters j ust as the carpen ter i s the maker of a

cart or a plough . There i s here again no suggest ion of

the later tradit ion .

Two passages w i l l be sufficien t as examples .

S an ay a te Gotamah I n d ra n avy am a taks h ad bra hma

h ar iyoj ana'

ya i tyad i

N odhas , descendan t of Gotama, fashion ed this n ew

hymn for [thee] In dra .

’

R ig-ved a i . 62. 1 3 .

E tam te s tom am tuvi -j a'

ta vipro ra th am n a d h'

i‘

rah

svapd h a taks h am I

APPENDIX I 247

l

I , a sage , have fabri ca ted th i s hymn for thee, Opowerful [deity] , as a skil ful workman fashion s a car.

’

R ig -veda v . 2. 1 1 .

The verb J an mean s to gen erate or beget and there are

man y passages in which the rish i s used thi s sim i le .

H owever later trad i t ion may in terpret the phrase it

indicates that the vedic poets fully bel i eved that they

them selves were the authors of the Hymn s that theysung .

There i s no n eed to quote man y passages .

N avam n u s tomam Agn aye d ivak s‘yen d ya j ij an am

vasva h‘

l kuvid van d t i n ah II have generated a n ew hymn to Agn i , the falcon of

the sky will he not bestow on us wealth in abun dan ce !

R ig-ved a vi i . 1 5 . 4.

S uvr iktim I n d rd ya b rahma j a nayan ta viprah

The sages gen erated an efficacious production an d a

prayer for Indra .

’

Rig -ved a vii . 3 1 . i i .

Asma i te pra t ih a rya te Jataved o vich a rs h an e Agn e

j an d m i s u s h tu tim IWise Agn i Jatavedas , I gen erate a hymn for thee who

receivest i t w i th favour . ’

R ig-ved a viii . 43 . Z .

Other verbs are used w i th s im i lar import to con vey

the idea that the rishi i s the maker of the Hymn .

Asma i id u s tomam samh in om i ra th am n a ta s h td iva

i tyd d i

To h im ( In dra) I sen d forth a hymn , as a carpen ter

a car.

’

R ig-ved a i . 61 . 4.

248 APPENDIX I

0

The followin g passage shows m ost clearly that the

authors of the Hymn s recogn ized the part that thei r own

m in ds played in the com positi on Of Hymn s .

I mam s tomam a rh a‘

te Jataved as e ra th am iva s am

ma h ema man i sh aya I bh ad ra h i n ah pram a tir asya

s ams ad i Agn e s akhye ma r is hama vayam tava I‘

Let us with our in tel lect con struct (or, sen d forth),l ike a car, thi s hymn for the adorable Jatavedas , for his

wis dom i s favourable to us in the assembly . Agn i in

thy friendship may we n ever suff er.’

R ig-ved a i . 94. l .

The idea that the hymn s were altogether their own

work seem s however a lways foreign to the ri shis .

S om e hymn s ask for or ackn owledge divin e assi stan ce

just as poets of all nati on s Often do . On e poet says :

I n d ra m r ila m a hy am j ivd tum ich ch a ch od ay a

d h iyam aya so n a d h d ri'tm I Ya t kin ch a a h am tvayu r

id am vad am i taj j u sh a sva kr id h i ma d evavan tam If O God ( In dra), have m ercy , g i ve me my dai ly bread

Sharpen my m in d , l ike the edge of an i ron in strumen t .Wha tever I now may utter, long ing for thee , do thou

accept i t g ive me divin e protection .

’

R ig -ved a Vi . 47 . 10.

D irect divin e in spirat ion i s asserted .

S a pra tn a th a Kavi -vr id h ah I n d ro vaha sya vak

sh an ih IIndr a was of old the promoter of the poet, an d the

augmen ter Of the song .

’

R ig-ved a viii . 52.

-4.

From these , an d from many other passages i t may.

fai rly -b e reason ed that at the t im e when the Hymn s were

250 APPENDIX 1

From that un iversal sacrifice were born the R i ch

an d S aman verses : the m etres were born from i t : the

Yaju sh was created .

’

R ig-ved a x . 90. 9 .

New and Old Hymns

Dr . Muir quotes m ore than fifty passages to show that

the authors of the Vedic hymn s them selves recogn ized

that som e hym n s were n ew an d som e were Old . Thi s

alon e proves that the tradi t ion of the etern i ty of these

hymn s h ad no place in the thought of the Vedic poets

them selves . I t wi l l be sufficien t to quote on e or two

of these verses .

The ri shis bel i eved that the Gods wou ld be better

pleased i f their pra i se s were celebrated in n ew, an d

perhaps m ore elaborate com posit ion s, than i f older and

possibly ruder, prayers h ad been repeated .

S a n ah s tavd n ah a'

bh a ra ga'

ya tren a n aviyas d Iray im virava t im is h am I

G lorified by our n ewest hymn , do thou bring to u s

wealth an d food with progen y .

’

R ig-ved a i . 1 2. 1 1 .

Tan purvay d n ic ida kamake vayam B h agam M i tran

Ad it im D a hsh an A s r id h am i tyad i I‘

We in voke w i th an an cien t hymn Bhaga Mitra,Adit i , Daksha , Asridh .

R ig-ved a i . 89 . 3 .

Yah purvy d bh ir u ta n utan abh ir g i rbh ir vd vr id h e

gr ina tam r is h in am IH e ( Ind ra) who grew though the an cien t an d m odern

hymn s of laudin g ri shis .’

R ig-ved a vi . 44 . 1 3 .

APPENDIX I 25 1

A s akha'

yah s u bard ugh am d h en um aj ad hvam upa

n avya s c‘

i vach ak IFrien ds , drive hither the m i lch cow with a n ew hymn .

’

R ig -ved a vi . 48 . 1 1 .

N u n avyase n aviya s e sukta‘

ya sad h aya pa th ah Ipra tn a -vad roch aya ru ch ah I

‘

Prepare (O S oma) the paths for our n ewest , most

recen t hymn an d , as of old , cause the l ights to shin e .’

R ig -ved a ix. 9 . 8 .

Trad itions in the Atharva-veda

S evera l tradit ion s fin d expression in the hymn s of th e

Atharva -veda .

i . The seven th hymn of the ten th manda la of the.

Ath arva -veda in a som ewhat sim i lar way to the Purusa

S i'

ikta of the R ig -veda iden t ifies Skam bh a w i th th e

un iverse an d describes all thin gs as derived from h im .

A l l four vedas are m en t ion ed in i t .

Ya smad rich o apd taks h an yaj u r yasmad apaka

s h an I sam i‘

t h i y a sya loman i a th a r'vd ng ira so m u k

h am I S kam bh am tam bruh i ka tamah svid eva sah IDeclare who i s that S kambha from Whom they cu t

off the Ri ch verses , from Whom they scraped off the

Yaju sh , Of whom the Saman verses are the ha i rs , an d th e

verses of the Atharvan an d the An g iras the m outh .

’

A th a rva -ved a’

x. 7 . 20.

i i . The seven th hymn of the eleven th m anda la of th e

Atharva -veda i s aglorificat ion of U ch ch h ish ta, the‘

residue

of sacrifice . ’ I t states that the Vedas sprung from th e

Leavings of S acrifice .’

252 APPENDIX 1

Rich ah S aman i ch h an dam s i pu rd n am yaj u s h a sa h a IUch ch h ish td j j aj n ire s a rva d ivi d eva

‘

h d iviér itah IFrom the leavin gs of the sacrifice sprung the R i ch and

S aman verses, the m etres , the Purana w i th the Yajush ,an d all the gods wh o dwell in the sky .

’

A th a rva -ved a xi . 7 . 24 .

i i i . An other tradit ion in the sam e Veda says that the

Vedas sprung from In dra, an d he sprung from them .

S a va i r igbhyo aj d ya ta ta sm d d rich o aj d y an ta IIn dra sprung from the R i ch verses ; the R i ch verses

sprun g from h im .

’

A th a rva -ved a xii i . 4 . 38 .

i v. A verse in a later book states that the Vedas

s prun g from Tim e .

Kalad r ich a h s ambh ava n yaj u h kalad aj ay a ta I‘

From Tim e the R i ch verses sprung ; the Yaju sh

S prun g from Tim e .’

A th a rva -ved a xix. 54. 3 .

Trad itions in the Brahmanas

I t i s impossible to say defin i te ly at What dates the

various Brahmanas were composed . Both they an d the

Ath arva -veda belon g to the sam e period an d both are

m uch later than the R ig -veda . The period when the

Brahmanas were com posed may however with som e

reason be sa i d to en d about 600 B . C . , but , of course,t hey con tain tradit ion s earl ier than that date .

i . The Ta ittiriya Brahmana closely conn ected w i th

th e t ext of the Black (Kri shna)Ya j ur - veda , i s on e of the

earl iest Brahmanas , whi le the Satapatha Brahmana i s of

la ter date , perhaps on e of the latest of them .

1One or

MACDONELL , S an s kri t L i tera tu re , p . 203 .

254 APPENDIX I

d evas ,wh o are n ot of supreme rank . I n the other passage

t h e Vedas are cal led the breathin gs of the Great Bein ga n d classed with works l ike the sut ras which are gen eral ly

c on sidered to be m erely human composit ion s (pa u rus h eya) without independen t authority .

M a n o ‘

va i s am u d rah I ma n a s o va i s am u d rd d vd ch a'

’

bh rya'

d evas tray im vid hyam n ira kh a n a n . I‘

Min d i s the Ocean . From the m in d -ocean , with

s peech for a shovel , the gods dug ou t the triple Vedi c

s cien ce .

’

Sa tapa th a Brah m an a vii . 5 . 2. 52.

S a ya th a ard red hagn er abhyah itat pr ith ag d h umah

v in iéch aran t i evam va i a re’

sya m a h a to bh i‘

i tasy a

n is'

va s i tam etad yad r igved o y aj u rved ah sa'

maved o’

th a r ‘

va'

ngira s ah i t ih d sah pu rd n am v idya upa n ish ad ah

S lokah sutrd ny a n uvy d khy d nan i vya'

khyan an i asya iva

eta‘

n i s arva‘

n i n is‘

va s i tan i IAs from a fire made Of moist wood various mod ifica

t ion s of sm oke proceed, so is the breath ing of thi s Great

Being the R ig -veda, the Yaj ur -veda , the Sama -veda ,

the Atharvang irasas , the I tih z‘

i sas , Puranas , S cien ce , the

Upan i shads, S lokas, aphorism s , commen ts of di ff eren t

k inds—all these are hi s breathings .’

S a tapa th a B rahm an a xiv. 5 . 4. 10.

Traditions in the Upanishads

The earli er U pan i shads were composed approximately

b etween 600 an d 480 B . C . The teach in g'

in them i s

g en eral ly phi losophic . The tradit ion s of the past are

u sed to i l lustrate metaphysi ca l i deas, and are repeated as

APPENDIX I 255

symbol i c of esoteri c truth . Thus in the Ch han dogya

U pan i shad Prajapat i i s sa id to have produced the three

Veda s through the fire , the w ind an d the l ight Of the sun .

Praj apa t ir lokc‘

tn a bhya tapa t I tes h am tapyamd n d

n a'

m ra sa'

n prabr ih ad agu im pr i th ivyah vayum an ta

r iks h c‘

z’

d a‘

d i tyann d ivak I s a e tas t is ro d eva ta'

h a bhya

tapa t I ta'

sam tapyaman an d m ra san prabrih ad agn er

rich o vd yor yaj um s h i Sama ad i tya'

t I s a etam tray im

vidyam a bhy a tapa t I tasya'

s tapyam c'

tnayah ra san pra

br ih ad bh u'

r i t i rig bhyo bh uva r i t i yaj u rbhy ah sva r i t i

sama bhyah IPrajapat i in fused warm th in to the worlds, an d from

them so heated he drew forth the ir essen ces, viz . Agn i

(fire) from the earth , Vayu (wind) from the air, and

S i‘

i rya (the sun) from the S ky . H e in fused warm th in to

these three deit i es , an d from them so heated he drew

forth the ir essen ces,—from Agn i the R ich verses, from

Vayu the Yajush verses, and from S urya the S aman

verses . H e then in fused heat in to thi s tri ple scien ce

an d from i t so heated he drew forth i ts essen ces,—fromR i ch verses the sy llable b h uh, from Yajush verses,bh uvah , an d from Saman verses svar .

’

Ch h d n d ogya Upan ish ad iv. 1 7 . 1 . 3 .

Mann’

s account

Man u as sign s the sam e orig in to the Vedas in hi s

accoun t of creation .

S arves ham tu sa n aman i karmc‘

tn i ch a pr i th ak

pri th ak l Ved a -s'

abd ebhya evad an pr ith ak s am s th d s

ch a n irmame I karmd tman am ch a d evan am so’

srij a t

pran inam prabh uh I s ad hy d na'

m ch a ganam sukshmam

256 APPENDIX I

y aj n am ch a ip a san d ta n am I Agn i -vay u -ravibhyas tu

trayam brahma s a n a'

ta n am I d u doh a yaj n a -s id d hya r

th am rig -

y aj u h -sama - laks h an am IH e (Brahma) in the beg in n in g fashion ed from the

words of the Veda the severa l n am es , fun ct ion s an d

separate con dit ion s of all [creatures] .oTh at Lord a lso

created the subt i le host of act ive an d l iving de it i es , an d

of Sadh yas , an d eternal sacrifice . An d,in order to the

performan ce of sacrifi ce , he d rew forth from Agn i , from

Vayu, an d from S fi rya , the triple eternal Veda , d i st in

gu ish ed as R i ch , Yaju sh an d S aman .

Man a '

va d h a rm a -sas tra i . 26. 23 .

The Mahabharata

Sarasvat i may be sa i d to have taken the place of

Vach in later H in du mythology , an d the Mahabharata

ca ll s S a rasva ti th e moth er of th e Ved a s .

Ved an am ma'

taram pa s‘

ya m a t -s tham d en im S a ras

va t im IBehold S arasvati , mother of the Vedas, abiding in me.

Ma h abh ara ta , Sa‘

n t i—pa rva 12. 920.

The Harivamsa

The H arivam sa , the n in eteen th or supplemen tary

book of the Mahabharata , g ives a diff eren t tradi tion

Th e Gayatri , quoted on page 1 86, is the‘

m ost fam ous

of H in du prayers . I t i s repeated to thi s day by every;

Brahman in I ndia in hi s morn in g prayers . Al l k in ds Of

mysti c properti es are ascribed to the Gayatri, an d the

Harivam sa con ta in s a verse which states that the V edas

were produced from the Gayatri .

APPENDIX I

worlds as before ! H e form ed from hi s eastern

an d other mouths the Vedas cal led R i ch, Yajush , Saman

an d Atharvan , together with pra i se , sacrifice, hymn s,and expiat ion .

’

Bh agava ta Pu ran a iii. 12. 34 an d 37 .

The Vis h n u Pu ran a ( i . 5 , 48ff ) g ives the sam e expla

n at ion , with deta i l s as to the part i cular mouth of Brahma

by which each Veda was uttered .

APPE ND IX I I

THE METRES OF THE VEDAS

WHIL E Greek Prosody makes the foot the un i t in i ts

metrical system s, an d whi le in later S an skri t the quan ti ty‘

of every syllable in each l in e was fixed in all m etres'

Vedic prosody i s less'

formal . The Vedic‘

foot ’ or

pada l ike the foot of a quadruped, m ean s a quarter

Verse because the ordinary Vedic verse con ta in s fourl in es .1 A pada may have eight , eleven or twelve

syllables . The R ich i s a stan za gen eral ly form ed of

three or four l in es . There are altogether fifteen diff er

en t m etres , but on ly seven are at all common . As a

rule the whole of on e hymn i s in the sam e m etre

throughout , but som et im es di ff eren t parts of a hymn are

in verses of differen t m etres . On e hymn in Book I

con ta in s verses in n in e diff eren t m etres .

As regards quan t ity the first syllables of the l in e are

n ot defin ed stri ctly , but gen eral ly , though not always, the

last four syllables are of fixed length . I n the eight an d

twelve syllable verses these syllables are iambi c (short

and long) an d trocha i c (long an d short) in l in es Of elevensyllables .

Max Muller g ives a l i st , accordin g to Saunaka, of the

m etres employed in the R ig -veda . The n umber of

verses in which the prin cipal occur are as follows

1 MACDONELL , S a n skr i t L i tera tu re , p . 55 . Ved ic I n d ex, i . 5 16.

260 APPENDIX I I

T rish tubh , Gayatri , Jagati , An ush

tubh , 855 ; U sh n ih , 341 ; Pankt i, 3 12 ; various , 849 ;total ,

An cien t S an skr i t L i tera tu re p . 22.

E xamples of on e or two of the m ost common form s

w i l l be of in terest to the studen t .

The Gayatri. —This i s a common m etre , on e - fourth of

the R ig -veda being in thi s m etre . I t i s so called b e

cause the Gayatri , the m ost sacred text in the Veda s , i s

com posed in i t . I t con ta in s three l in es of e ight syllables .

The first hymn i s in th i s m etre . The following i s the

first verse

Agn im i le pu roh i tam IYaj fi a sya d evam r tvij am

H otd ram ra tn ad h a‘

tam am

Macdon ell ren ders thi s verse in l in es closely resem

bling the or ig ina l ,I pra i se Agn i , dom esti c pri est ,God , m in i ster Of sacrifice ,H era ld, most prodigal of wealth .

’

Anush tubh .—This con ta in s four l in es of eight syllables

each , l ike the three l in es of the Gayatri . I t i s now

g en eral ly called the S loka , an d in post Vedic tim es took

the place Of the Gayatri . The follow ing i s an example

S ru s h t ivan o h i d as’

u sh e

D evak Agn e vich eta sah ITan roh id a s

‘

va g irvan a s

Traya s tr im s’

a tam a vah a

Agn i , the wise gods len d an ear to thei r worshipper.

God with the ruddy steeds , wh o lovest p ra i se , bring

hither those three an d th i rty .

’

R ig-ved a i . 45 . 2.

262 APPENDIX I I

I n hi s in troduction to that B rahmanas Dr . Haug sum

mariz es the teaching of the Brahmanas on the subject .

H e poin ts ou t that the power of the Hotri pri est at a

sacrifice lay in his being able to use the sacred words

frequen t ly person ified by Vach . The sacred words,pron oun ced rightly by the Hotri priest, efl

'

ect , by the

innate power of Vach , the spiri tua l bi rth of the sacrificer,shape hi s body , secure heaven for h im , cause h im to

l ive a hundr ed years, an d procure h im wealth an d off

Spring , w i l l slay hi s en em i es an d destroy the con se

qu ences of hi s s in s . But pron oun ced aga in st a man by

the pri est or his en em i es words wi l l curse h im un less he

fin ds other words m ore powerful to coun teract the hosti l e

spell . This influen ce l i es ma in ly in the form or m etre in

which the g iven words are uttered ; hen ce the importan ce

of m etre , term s an d words . E ach m etre i s special ly

influen tia l in the securing of som e part i cular boon .

The Gayatri m etre i s the most sacred, an d i s the pro

per m etre for Agn i , the God of fire , and chapla in of the

gods . I t expresses the idea of Brahma : therefore the

sacrificer must use i t when he wishes anything closely

conn ected with Brahma, such as acquiremen t of sacred

kn owledge , an d the thorough un derstanding of all pro

b lems of theology . The T rish tubh expresses the idea of

stren g th and roya l power ; then ce i t i s the proper m etre

by Which In dra, the kin g of the gods , i s to be in voked .

Any on e wishing to obta in stren gth and royal power ;especial ly a Kshattriya ,

m ust use i t . A variety of i t ,

th e U sh n ih m etre Of twen ty -eight syllables , i s to be

employed by a sacrificer wh o aspires for lon gevity , for‘

twen ty -e ight’ i s the symbol of l i fe . The Jagati ex

presses the idea of cattle . H e wh o wishes for wealth in

APPENDIX I I 263

cattle , m ust use it . The same idea (or that Of thesacrifice) i s expressed by the Par

'

ikti metre (five t imes

eight syllables). The B rihat , which con si sts of th irty -six

syllables, i s to be used when a sacrificer i s aspirin g

to fam e and ren own ; for thi s m etre i s th e expon en t

of those ideas . The Anush tubh i s the symbol of the

celest ial world ; then ce he who seeks a place in heaven

should make hi s prayer in i t .'

The V iraj , of thirty sylla

bles, i s food and sa t i sfaction then ce on e who wishes for

abun dan ce of food , must employ it .

Thus the Aitareya Brahmana says

H e who wishes for long l i fe , should use two verses

in the Us h n ih m etre ; for U sh n ih i s l i fe . H e who

having such a kn owledge uses two U sh n ih s arrives at

hi s ful l age ( i . e . on e hun dred years).

H e who desires heaven should use two An u sh tu bh s . .

There are s ixty -four syllables in two Anush tubh s . E ach

of these three worlds (earth , air, an d sky) con ta in s

twen ty -on e places , on e ri sing above the other (j ust as

the steps of a ladder). By twen ty -on e steps he ascends

to each Of these worlds severall y ; by taking the sixty

fourth step he stan ds firm in the celestial world . H e

who having such a kn owledge uses two Anush tubh s

gain s a footing (in the celestial world).

H e wh o desires stren g th should use two Trish tubh s .

Trish tubh i s stren gth , vigour, an d sharpn ess of sen ses .

H e wh o knowing th is , uses two Trish tubh s , becom es

vigorous , en dowed wi th sharp sen ses an d stron g .

H e wh o desires cattl e should use two Jagatis . Cattle

are Jagati - l ike . H e wh o knowing th is uses two Jagatis ,becom es ri ch in cattl e . ’

APPE ND IX I I I

VED I C . S AN SKR IT

W HETHER the Vedic hymn s presen t to us the lan guage

Of the early Aryan s as they actual ly used i t in thei r da i ly

S peech , or whether i t was a refin ed poeti ca l dialect even

in early days , as was classica l S an skri t assuredly in

Iater t im es, there i s not suffi cien t eviden ce to decide .

Probably n e ither assert ion i s altogether true . S om e of

the hymn s are n earer to the actua l l i fe of the people than

others, more speculat ive , can be . I n som e there are

what seem to be thoroughly colloquia l expression s .O thers are the carefully expressed utteran ces of thinkerswho have followed gen erat ion s of thinkers .

On on e poin t however, there can be no doubt .

Gen eral ly speaking the language of the Vedas represen ts

a stage in which San skri t i s st i l l very l ike the language

of the old Persian Avesta , a stage in which the Aryan s

of I ran an d the Aryan s of the Pan jab have sti l l m uch in

comm on in their speech . An d the lan guage of the In dian

Aryan s i s s im pler, more direct , less tramm elled by

grammat i cal con ven t ion s than the S an skri t of later days .

The sub ject h as been carefully investigated by S an

skrit g rammarian s, both E uropean an d Indian s . The

g reatest of In dian S an skrit grammarian s Panin i con

s tan tly recogn izes diff eren ces between the an cien t an d the

more modern dialects .

APPE ND IX Z I V

THE CONTENTS OF THE R I G -VEDA

ANCIENT scholars m ost carefully enum erated in syste

mati c in dexes , cal led An ukramanis , t he n umber of verses ,the poets , the de it ies an d the m etres of every hymn in

the Vedas .

As early as about 600 B .C . every verse , every word,every syllable h ad been carefully coun ted . The n umber

of verses in the R ig -veda vari es from to

that of the pad as or words , i s that of the sylla

bles,I n the ordinary recen sion of the R ig -veda , that of the

Sakalas there are hymn s,w i th eleven supplem en tary

hymn s cal led Valakh ilyas added to the E ighth Book .

The recen sion of the Vashkalas seem s to have been

the sam e as that of the Sakalas , but con ta in ed eightaddit ional hym n s , bring ing up the tota l to

Max M i’

i ller gives the following stat ist ics for the R ig o

veda from Saunaka’

s An uk raman i

Books S ub - sections(Man d alas) (An uvakas)

Th e l s t contains 24

2nd 4

3 rd 5

4th 5

5 th 6

6th 6

APPENDIX W 267

Books Hymn s

(Mandalas) (S i'

i ktas)

Th e 7th con tain s 1 04

8 th 92 1 1 Valakh

ilyas)

Th e 10 h ave 101 7 1 1 1 028 .

MANDAL A I

This i s cal led the book of the Satarch in s , that i s of ahun dred or a large in defin i te number of authors of

verses .

O f the hymn s forty - four are Special ly addressed to

Indra, forty - three to Agn i , fifteen to the Asvin s , eleven

to the Maruts , n in e to the V iSved evas , four each to

Ushas an d the R ibhus , three to H eaven an d E arth ,etc . Other hymn s are addressed to gods con join tly ,as Indra an d Agn i , Mitra an d Varuna . Two hymn s are

addressed to the Horse , on e i s in pra i se of Food .

MANDAL A I I

Thi s book con ta in s on ly forty - three hymn s . I t i s com

mon ly cal led the Book of G ritsamada , as n early all the

hymn s are ascribed to that R i sh i .

Fourteen of the hymn s are addressed to In dra, two of

them in the form of the Kapin jala , a kin d of partridge ,

and n in e to Agn i .

MANDAL A I I I

This book con ta in s sixty - two hymn s , ascr ibed to

the rish i Vis’

vam itra , or to m embers of his fam i ly . I t i s

268 APPENDIX iv

sa id that he was born a Kshatriya, but by V i rtue of hi sin ten se austeri ti es he rai sed him self to the Brahman

caste .

The rish is who wrote the hymn s were not a lways

fri en dly with on e an other . E special ly prom in en t,’

says Weber,‘

i s the enm i ty between the fam i l i es of

Vas istha and V iSVam itra, which run s through all Ved i c

an tiquity , con t in ues to play an importan t part in the epi c,an d i s kept up to the latest t imes ; so that , for ,

example ,

a comm en tator of the Veda wh o cla im s to be descended

from Vas istha, leaves passages un expounded in which

the latter i s stated to have had a curse imprecated upon

h im .

’

MANDAL A IV

This book con ta in s fif ty -e ight hymn s . The first forty

on e are ascribed to the ri sh i Vamadeva , son Of Gotama ;

so a lso are the last fourteen . Twelve are addressed

specially to Indra, an d eleven to Agn i .

MANDALA V

Thi s book con ta in s e ighty - seven hymn s . O f these

twen ty -one are addressed to Agn i , eleven to Mitra an d

Varuna, n in e each to In dra , the Maruts an d V iSvedevas ,an d si x to the Asvin s .

MANDAL A V I

The rishi of th i s book i s Bh aradvaja, to whom , with

f ew except ion s, all the hymn s are at tributed . I t con ta in s

seven ty -five hymn s . To Indra twen ty -on e hymn s are

’

270 APPENDIX IV

MANDAL A X

Thi s book con ta in s 1 9 1 hymn s . To In dra thirty - four

are addressed, to Agn i twen ty -five , to the V is’

vedevas

twen ty - two. There are hymn s on creat ion and several

to be used as charm s to cure si ckn ess , to rem ove rivals,to preven t m i scarriage , etc . The book in cludes som e of

the latest hymn s in the R ig -veda . S everal of the hymn s

are ascribed to gods , as i f the real authors W i shed by thi s

devi ce to con ceal thei r late orig in .

APPE ND IX V

CONTENTS OF THE S AMA -VEDA

I T i s not possible to presen t any summari sed statem en t

of the con ten ts of the Sama -veda as the hymn s are

arranged en t ire ly for ritual purposes as they were to be

chan ted by the Udgatar priest s at the S oma sacrifices

and no order of subj ects i s observed . The text i s

divided in to two parts, the first con ta in ing si x books, the

latter eight .

APPE ND IX V I

THE CONTENTS OF THE YAJUR -VEDA

THE White Yaj ur -veda , or col lection of hymn s for the use

of the Adhvaryu pri ests , as g iven in the recen sion kn own

as the White Yaj ur -veda, or Vajasan eya con si sts of forty

books . A lmost half are taken from the R ig -veda or

Atharva -veda an d are m etri ca l . N early equal in quan t i ty

are the Yajus texts , or sacrificia l formulae , composed

in prose an d lon g passages, such as the l i sts of victim s

to be dedicated at the As’

vam edh a an d the Purusam edha

which are i n the sim plest prose .

Books I and 1 1 con ta in the texts an d formulae required

at the N ew an d Full Moon S acrifices . Book I I I those

for the m orn in g an d even in g Oblat ion of m i lk ; Books

IV -V I I I those for S oma sacrifices in gen eral ; Books

IX -X for Vajapeya or Cup of Victory an d the Rajas fi ya

or In augurat ion Of a kin g , two variat ion s Of the S oma

sacrifice .

Books X I -XV I I I g ive formulae for the. con struction s

of a ltars or hearths for the various sacrificia l fires ;Books X IX -XX those for the sacrifice in st i tuted to

expiate the ev i l eff ect of excessive soma drinkin g , the

S au teriman i ; Books XX I I -XXV con ta in the formulae

for the ASvam edh a . Books XXV I -XX IX con ta in sup

p lem en tary formulae for the sacrifices already dealt

with .

APPE ND IX V I I

THE CONTENTS OF THE ATHARVA-VEDA

THE follow ing extract from G rifli th’

s preface to hi s

tran slat ion of the Atharva -veda will show the gen eral

con ten ts of that Veda .

‘

The Atharva -veda Sanhi ta or Collection ’ i s divided

in to twen ty Kan d as , Books or S ection s, con ta in ing som e

760 hymn s an d about verses . I n Books I - V I I

the hymn s or pieces are arranged according to the n um

ber of the ir verses, without any referen ce to the ir subj ects

or the nature of their con ten ts . The hymn s of Book I

con ta in on an average four verses each ; those of Book

I I , five ; those of I I I , si x ; those of IV, seven ; those

of V, from eight to eighteen ; those of V I , three ; those

of V I I , man y sing le verses and upwards to eleven .

Books V I I I—XX con tain longer pieces, som e Of Whi chexten d to fifty , sixty , seven ty, an d even eighty verses.

I n Books I—X I I I the con ten ts are of the most hetero

g en eou s description with no attem pt at any kind of system

a ti c arrangemen t of subj ects . They con si st prin cipal ly

o f prayers, formula s an d charm s for protection again st

evi l Spiri t s of all sort s and kinds, again st sorcerers and

sorceresses, di seases, snakes , and other n oxious creatures,of ben edict ion s an d imprecat ion s, invocat ion s Of magi cal

herbs, prayers for chi ldren and long l i fe , for gen eral and

S pecial protection an d prosperity, success in love , trade

APPENDIX Vi i 275

and gambling, together with formulas to be employed in

a ll kinds of domesti c occurren ces . I n books X IV

XV I I I the subj ects are systema t i cal ly arranged ; X IV

treating Of marriage ceremon i e s ; XV of the g lorificat ion

of the Vratya or rel ig ious wan dering m en di can t ; XV I

an d XV I I of certain con juration s ; XV I I I of fun eral

ri tes an d the off ering Of Obsequial cakes to the Man es or

spiri t s of departed an cestors . Book X IX con tain s a

somewhat m i scellan eous collection of supplem en tary

hymn s . Book XX con si sts—wi th th e except ion of wha t

i s cal led the Kun tapa S ection , compri sing hymn s 127“

l 36 —Of pieces addressed to Indra and taken en ti rely

from the R ig -veda . These two books, which are not

n oti ced in the Atharva -veda Pratisakh ya—a grammati cal

treat i se on the phon eti c chan ges of words in the text

are man i festly a later addit ion to the collection . Man y

O f the Ath arva hymn s reappear in the R ig -veda , about

on e - seven th of the collection , sometim es un chan ged and

s om etim es with importan t var iat ion s, being foun d in the

older compi lat ion . In terspersed in several of the books

are pieces of Varying leng th , con si st ing of curious cosm olog i ca l an d mysti co - theological speculat i on s which are

not without in terest as con ta in ing the germ s of rel ig i ous

an d phi losophical doctrin es afterwards fully developed in

th e Brahmanas and Upan i shads.

B I BL IOGRAPHY

BARTH . Rel ig ion s of I n d ia . Trubn er’

s Ori en talS erie s .

BLOOMFIEL D , MAURICE . Th e Relig ion of th e Veda.

G . P . Putn am ’s S on s . 1 908 .

Th e Hym n s of th e A th a rva -ved a (Sacred Books ofthe E ast), Oxford . 1 897.

D E U S S E N . Ph ilosophy of th e Upan ish ad s . T . T .

C lark .

DOWS ON . D iction ary of H in d u My th ology . Trub

n er ’s Ori en tal S eries .

DUTT, R . C H is tory of C ivil i z a t ion in An cien t

I nd ia . T ri‘

i bn er’

s Ori en tal S eri es .

E n cyclojbaz d ia Of Relig ion an d E th ics , edi ted by D r.

Hastings, publi shed by Messrs . T . T . C lark .

E GGE L I NG , PROFES S OR . Tran s la t ion of th e Sa ta

pa th a B rahma n a . (Sacred Books of the E ast .)FARQ UHAR , J . N . Pr imer of H in d u ism . Chri st ian

Literature S ociety for In dia, Madras .

GRIFFITH , R . T . H . Th e Hymn s of th e R ig -ved a .

Tran slated with a Popular Commen tary . Lazaru s

Co., Benares . S econd edit ion with som e correct ion s and

other improvemen ts in Text an d Commen tary of th e

origina l four volum es, in two volumes, crown octavo, cloth,R s . 14 th e 2 vols.

GRIFFITH , R . T . H . Th e Hymn s of the S ama -veda.

L azarus Co., Benares . I n one volume, second edit ion ;

D emy octavo, cloth, Rs . 4.

278 B IBL IOGRAPHY

W IL SON, PROFE S SOR H . H . Tran s la tion of th e

R igved a S an h i ta (A l len).W IL SON, D R . J . I n d ia Th ree Th ou san d Years Ago,Bombay .

I N D E X

A

ABOR IG I NES , 4, 6.

Adh varyu s , 28 , 108 .

Ad i-puru sa , 165 .

Ad iti . 88 .

Ad ityas , 71 , 88 , 94, hymn to

quoted , 1 75 .

Afgh an i stan , 3 , 1 55 .

Agastya . 1 35

Agh nyd , 9 7.

Agnayi , 90.

Agn i200 hymns to . 5 1

accoun t of , 80and oth er gods , 83

an d goddesses , 83

and d emon s , 83

passes away , 1 35 . 161

forsakes Varuna , 161

hymn s to quoted , 1 77 , 1 78 , 1 79 .

Agricu lture , 9 .

Ah alya, 75 .

Ah i , 1 82 n .

Ai tareya-Brah mana , 49 , 263 .

Aitaraya Upan ish ad , 3 7 .

Akh o , Gu jerati poet . 124.

A ltar . domestic , 1 1 .

Amu lets , 240.

Ancestor worsh ip , 10, 88- 103 .

Angiras , 1 77 n .-235 n .

Annas tu t i h ymn , 230.

Angirases , 96. 235 .

An imal sacrifices . 1 1 3 .

Anukramani , 244.

Apala, 14.

Apas (waters ), 9 1 .

Apas tamba. 1 3 1 .

Apsarases . 95 , 242.

Arabs , 1 21 .

Aranyakas , 25 , 35 . 36.

Aranyan i , 9 1 .

Arrow , 229 .

Aru nd ha t i , 240.

Aryaman , 1 1

account of , 70.

Aryan sagricu lture, 9art isan s , 7

as tronomy, 1 7cosmo logy, 1 7crime . 14

an d Dasyu s . 6

fath er ‘ s auth ority , 10food , 7

h ome of , 4

h ouse s , 7

king , 1 4

marriage ,10

medicin e , 1 8

moral i ty , 1 4nomadic , 3 . 6

po lyan d ry , 1 1 , 66po lygamy , 1 1 , 234

prayers , 1 3 7ff .

re ligiou s beginn ings .79

sacrifices , 104fftrades , 9

war. 1 7

widows , 12women , 1 3 .

-280 I NDEX

Arya s , 3 .

A s a t . 208 .

Asc lepiad plants an d soma , 84.

Asoka , 42.

Asoka-tree , 103 .

Asuras , 96. 1 3 9 , 198 , 225 .

A stron omy , 1 7 .

ASvalayana S fi tra, 1 1 4.

Asvin spolyandry of e leven sons of

S i'

i rya , 66

V ivasvat , 94

d escription of , 7 1

hymn to quoted , 1 80.

ASVamed h a sacrifice , 1 1 8 - 121 .

A th a rvd ngira sa h , 26.

Ath arva-vedaana lys i s Of , 274hymn to d rum , 6

edition s an d tran s lation s , 23 ffcomposition , ch aracter an d

date , 3off

vaid ikas , 43

on power of priest , 107on power of mantra , 1 64

p assages quotedi i . 1 7 1 -7 240.

i i i . 1 5 1 - 8 242.

i ii . 1 9 1 -5 108 .

N . 1 6 1 - 5 64.

v . 22 1 e tc . 239 .

v i 1 30 1 -4 242.

x 7 20 25 1 .

xi . 7 24 252.

X i i . 5 5 -73 241 .

Xi ii . 3 3 61 .

xii i . 4 3 8 252.

xvii i . 2 2 101 .

2 2 102.

xix. 54 3 252

A tr i, 225 .

Avesta , 3 , 264.

BABYLON , 9 .

B arbers , 9 .

Benares , 24.

B en fey , 22, 79 .

Ben gal , 127 .

B esch i , Con stan tin e , 20.

Bez wada , 124.

Bhaga, 1 1 .

Bh agavad-

gita, 20.

Bhagavata . 1 37 .

Bhagavata purana , 257 .

Bh agavat i , 7 .

Bh a kt i , 1 70.

Bh aradvaja , 41 .

Bharatas , 225 .

Bharati , 1 85 .

Bhi ls , 4 .

Bh r igu s , 33 descr ibed ,

B h r igvafigarasah 32

Bh uta , 1 36.

B ib l iography, 276Bloomfie ld ,

Maurice ,

Ath arva-veda , 23

Ved ic concordan ce , 29

on wr itin g in In d ia , 42

d ate of Ved as , 46.

Bows an d arrows , 1 7 , 228 .

Brahma, 52. 56, 78 .

Brahmach ar iya , 44 .

Brahman 33 . 1 36.

Brahman (Masc 1 8 , 3 3 , 82.

108 - 10, an d cows 240

an d h uman sacrifice , 1 28 , 1 35

divin e power , 1 63

orig in of , 1 66,1 69

Brahman as , 25 . 34ff . , 42

later d ate , 49

n umbers of , 3 7

i n prose , 36. 3 7

on an imal sacrifice , 1 1 3 , 1 1 4

on Brahman’

s d ivin ity an d

power , 1 63see Ai ta reya , Sa tapa th a , etc .

Brahma-veda , 3 3 .

Brahmanaspati , 56. 92, 94.

Bread , 7 .

B r ih adaranyaka upan ish ad , 3 7 .

Brihaspati , 1 7 , 92, 94, 1 85 .

Briton , 1 8 , 1 21 .

Budd h a, 46. 1 71 .

282 INDEX

FATHER . authority of , 1 0.

Fathers (ancestors), see Pi tri .Fever , 240.

F ire by friction , 8 1 .

F lam en an'

d bra'

hman , 107 .

F loods , 50. 54.

F lour , 7 .

Food , h ymn to , 230.

Forgiveness , prayers for , 1 48 .

Fraz er, R .W 78 .

Frogs , h ymn to, 222.

Funera l h ymn quoted , 21 3 .

Future life , 1 52.

G AMBLER , 226

gamb ling , 1 5‘

hymn on , 226.

Gan apati , 52.

Gan dh arvas , Vach an d Soma,

86, 9 1 accoun t of , 9 5 .

Ganges , 4, 1 27 . 1 41 , 1 55 .

Garuda Pur i na , 1 3 .

G aru tman , 61 .

Gautama , 44, 75 .

Gau tama th e Buddha, 1 34.

G avist i , 1 7 .

Gayatri , 67 , 1 36, 1 85 ; an d S oma,

86.

Gayatri metre , 260.

Gh i , 83 , 105 .

Gh osh a th e leper maiden , 14,

1 80.

Gh rita , gh i , 105 .

C oats , 9 , 1 1 3 .

Goddesses Ved ic , 69 , 90- 1 .

Gods , Vedicnature of , 50ff

devas , 52 th e brightones ’ . 5 3n umber of , 53

dual gods , 54

col lective , 55

orig in of , 55immortal ity of , 55appearan ce , 56

ch aracter 56c lassification , 57

h enotheism or kathenoth eism ,

59

similarity of attributes ofmany. 60Agn i , 80. 1 3 5

Aryaman , 70

Asvin s , 7 1B h r igu s , 79

Brahmanaspati , Brihaspati,92

Dyaus , 62. 1 35

In dra , 72

Ka ,

Kama , 93

M itra , 65

Parjanya , 79

Prith ivi , 8 8Pfish an , 68

R ibhu s , 94

Ru d ra , 76

S oma , 83

S firya , 65

S avitri . 66Tvastri , 94

U sh as , 69

Varuna,63 , 1 35

V i ta , Vayu , 72

V ish nu , 68

V i SVakarman , 95

V isve devas , 93

Yama an d Yami , 87 .

Gogh n a , cow-killer, 8 , 97 .

Go ld , 9 .

Gon d s , 4.

G Opa . cow-keeper , 9 .

Gopath a-brahmana, 49 , 1 1 7 .

GO- sava , 1 1 5 .

Gos uyu d h , 1 7 .

Gotama , 41 .

Gran th a , 42.

Gras s , sacred , 1 901 1 .

Greec e an d Greeks , 10, 1 9 , 48 ,

53 . 121 .

I NDEX

Griffith , R .T .H . Tran s lations ofVedas , 24 ; on Ath arva-veda ,

3 1 , 274.

Gri h apa t i , 82.

Grih ya S utras . 25 , 38 , 1 1 4Gritsamad a , 41 .

Gu jerati , 1 24.

Gu jerati legend , 124.

Guru teaches Veda , 42.

H AOMA or Soma. 84.

H ar ih ara , 55 .

Harischan dra , 1 28 .

Har ivamsa , 256.

Harrow , 9 .

Haug on Vedic metre . 262.

H ea lth , prayer for , 1 46.

Hebrews , 1 3prayers of , 1 3 8i d ea of h olin ess , 1 59 .

He lios , 65 .

H enoth eism , 59 .

H imalayas , 4. 7 .

H iranya-garb h a , 89 , 167 .

H oe , 9 .

H omer , 229 .

Horse , 9 , 9 7-229 .

Horse - sacri fice , 1 1 8 .

Hotr i , 1 85 .

H otr i . 27 , 82

an d R ig-veda , 109

and brahmanas , 1 10an d Sutras . 1 1 0.

House breakers spe l l , 23 1 .

H uman sacrifice , 12l ff .

H un ting , 9 .

IL I AD, 49 .

Implemen ts of sacrifice , 97 .

In d ia , M ap of in Vedic age , 5 .

In dra , 1 7 , 40

250 hymn s to , 5 1rep laces Varuna , 52, 1 61begets h is paren ts , 56accoun t of , 72- 76a merch an t

, 241

an d Vr itra , 73an d S oma- ju ice , 85h ired ou t by Vamad eva, 163h ymn s to quoted , 1 82ffIndra= S atakratu , 16.

In dra ’

s word s about women ,

Ind ran i , 74, 9 1 , 234.

I n d u, 72. 1 93 .

In d us , 4, 1 41 .

[1 3 .

In fan ts drowned in Ganges , 1 27 .

Iran , 3 .

Irrigation ch anne ls , 9 .

Isaiah , 49 .

Israe l , 48 .

I Svara, 56, 78 .

J

JAMADAG N I , 1 86.

Jamad agnya. 8 .

Jamna river , 4, 41 - 1 41 .

J a n , 245 .

Janaka , 8 , 107 .

Jataved as , 1 80, 241 .

Jesus , 1 70.

Jnana-marga , 1 70.

Jon es , S ir Wi l liam , 20.

Jumn a river, 4, 41 , 1 41 .

Jupiter (p lanet), 92.

KA , 92

hymn to quoted , 1 68Kab u li s tan

, 4 .

Kaegi , 1 2.

Kaksh ivan, 1 80.

Kali , 52, 1 22 see D urga.

Kaligh at , 1 22.

Kalika purana , 1 23

Kalpa ceremon ial , 3 8 .

284 I NDEX

Ka lpa= day of Brahma 38 .

Kama , 52. 9 3

Hamya i s t i , 1 1 4 .

Kan d ama , 1 1 7 .

Kapin jala , 1 84 .

Ka rm a , 1 5 8 .

Kasyapa , 93 .

Kath enoth e i sm , 59 .

Kau salya, 1 21 .

Kau sh i taki b ralimana , 49 .

Kau sh i tak i upan i sh ad , 3 7 .

Ken a upan i shad , 3 7

Ki ngsh ip , 1 4.

Ki stvaen s , 5 .

Kon a I rappa (a demon), 1 23 .

K m , 245 .

Krish na , 52,1 3 5 , 1 3 7 , 1 7 1 .

Ksh atr iya gamb l i ng , 1 5

raj r i shi , 1 07an d h uman sacr ifice , 1 3 1 ,

1 3 5

origin of , 166 .

Kumar i la , 45 .

Kuru , 48 ,1 1 9

Ku ruba tr ibe , 1 23

Kuruksh etra , 41 .

Ku rumay i , 1 22.

Ku tsa , 1 83 .

L

L AK S HM I , 52. 9 1

L anka , 9 5 .

L evirate m arr iage ,

L inga , 6.

L i th uan ia , 79

L ove - ch arm , 242.

L ove , way of , 1 70

M

MACDONALD , D r . K . S on

Brahman as , 3 5 , 36‘

Macdon e l l , Prof on wr iting inIn d ia , 42 ; on date Of vedas ,

46 ; on influen ce of Brahman s ,

1 63 .

Mad h ava Ach arya , 22Madura , 20.

M agh avan ,

“ liberal on e 1 85 .

Magic i n Ath arva-ved a , 32, 35

magical man tras , 3 5power of sacrifice . 1 63 ff .

Mah abharata , 25 says Vedan ot to b e written , 45

an d horse- sacrifice , 1 1 9

origin of Veda , 256.

M ah i d eva , 52. 77 .

M ah akratu , 1 1 8 .

Mah a pras th ana , self - sacr i fice ,

1 27 .

M ah z'

ivira,1 34.

Mah ratta , 1 48 .

Malabar , 1 64.

M a n d , 9

M an ikka Vasaka , 1 48 , 1 70.

M a n tra , 25 ; d efined , 34 , 40, 1 37

Man tra-kara , 1 07 .

M an n , L aw—book of , 25 , 25 5

on human sacr ifice , 1 35

Man u th e primeval , 202Mar i , 1 22.

Margosa tree , 105 .

Marriage , 1 0, see AryansM artan da , 206.

Maru ts an d In d ra , 74

an d Ru d ra , 76

d escribed , 79

h ymn to quoted , 1 87 .

Mattock , 9

M avad iyal , 78

Mavl i (water spri tes), 1 23 .

Maya , 1 58 .

Maya‘

m , mag ic , 1 9 7 .

Meat- eating , 7 , 83 , 97

ceases , 1 3 5 .

Merch an t Indra 241 .

Merchan t ’s prayer , 241 .

Mesopotam ia , 42.

Metre , 259 .

M i lk , 7 .

M ina of Babylon , 9 .

M inos an d Yama , 8 8 .

M itra , accoun t of , 65and Varuna , 65 .

286 I NDEX

Polygamy , 1 1 , 234.

Polyth eism , 1 69 .

Prach etas , 235 .

P rada ksh in a , 1 1 .

Prajapati , 52, 1 36

an d S oma , 86

accoun t of . 89 -90

and Vach , 9 1

and pancha sarad iya , 1 16

hymn to quoted , 1 67 , 208 .

P ra s'

n a , 44.

Pras tata , 1 1 7 .

Prat ih ar ta , 1 1 7 .

Pr i tisakh ya , 44, 109 .

Pr avach a n a s (preachings), 42.

Prayers in ‘Vedas , 1 385 .

Priesth ood , rise of , 1 07 .

PriSn i , 80.

Prismi sak th a , 1 1 4.

Prith ivi , 52accoun t of , 88an d Dyau s , 88

h ymn to quoted , 1 8 1 .

Pu javat moun tain ,1 5 .

Puramd h i , 1 1 .

Puran as , 25 , 1 33 .

Pu roh i ta ,1 10.

Purfiravas , 95 .

Puru sa, 72, 1 65 .

Purusa med h a , 123 - 1 3 1 ,e166.

Pu rusa- sukta , 73

quoted in fu l l , 1 65 .

Description of , 68

hymn to quoted , 1 89 .

Q U IVER , 229 .

R AHU , 225 .

R ain , prayer for, 1 45 .

R ajanya, 1 66,v , Ksh attriya .

R agoz in , Mme . , 3 1 .

R aja, 1 4.

R ajasuya , 1 1 5 .

R ig-veda, Q uotations from

BOOK 1

R ajen d ralala M itra, see M itra .

Raksh asas , 95 , 96 spe l l again st,232.

Rama . 52, 1 1 9 . 1 35 , 1 71 .

Ramanu ja , 1 37 .

Ramayan a , 25 and h orse- sacrifice , 1 1 9 .

Rammoh un R oy , Raja , 21 .

Rasa , l 67n .

R au h ina , 1 82.

Readings from th e Veda, 1 755 .

Ribh us , 79

accou n t of , 94h ymn to quoted , 1 90.

Rich , rica h , 26, 3 4, 1 66.

R igh teou sness , see r i ta .

R ig-veda : ed i tion s , trans lation ,

225

pre-em inence of , 33

composite nature , 1 54message of , 1 54

covers 700year s , 1 55

no th eology , 1 5 7analys i s of , 266.

6

1—51

1

1 1

1

5

1—54

1 1

22

46

9

1—64

1—1 15

BOOK I i

I NDEX

Boox I I I

Boox Iv

BOOK V

287

BOOK VI

2—71 1 , 1 3 ,

BOOK V i i

BOOK Vi i i

I NDEX

BOOK I X

7—1 1BOOK x

290 I NDEX

S erpent-worship, 97.S h ips , 1 0.

S iksh a , 109 .

S in in th e veda , 1 49 .

S in dhu , 4 .

S in ivz’

t li , 1 40.

S ipr in , 1 40.

S i s’

n ah -d evak , phal lus -worshippers , 6.

S ita, 144.

S iva , etymology and mean ing ,

76. 78 .

S iva , 6, 52, 1 35 , 1 37 , 1 7 1

triden t of , 66and Rudra , 77 ; and Kama , 93 ;N adaraja , 1 7 1 .

S kan d h a purana , 67 .

S lavs , 10, 80.

Smar t ta S fi tras , 25 . 3 8 .

Sm iths , 9 .

S m r i t i , 8 , 25 , 37 , 42.

S oma (deity), 56, 72

an d other gods , 85accoun t of , 83 - 87

origin of , 86

passes away, 1 61hymn to , quoted , 1 92f .

S am a - ju ice , 9 , 55

In dra'

s fond ness for it , 74, 85

described , 84drinking ceases , 1 34

soma l ibation s . 87soma—plan t , 9 , 1 5

descr ibed , 84

soma sacr ifice , 87 , 1 12.

Son s desired , 1 2

prayers for , 1 47 .

S orcery in Ath arva-veda, 30

0 . Magic .

S peech , see Vach .

S pel ls , hou se—breakers , 321 .

agai n st evi l spirits , 232.

r ival wife , 234

again st evil dreams , 235 .

sphya , 1 1 1 .

Srad dh a (Devotion ) 52, 90mother of Kama, 93 .

Sraddh a (funeral ceremon ies),

9 8 - 104

d iff eren t kinds of , 102.

S rau ta sacrifices , 33 .

S rau ta su tras , 3 8 .

Srotr iyas , oral tradition ists , 43

S ru t i , Inc ludes upan ishad s , 37 .

exc lu des s fi tras , 3 7 .

S teven son , R . L . , 1 39 .

S udas , 40.

S ud ra not to teach veda , 45

origin of , 166.

S uktas , 34.

Su lagava ,

‘

spitted cow’

, 1 1 4.

S u n person ified various ly , 60.

Sunahéepa , 36 ; legend of , 1 28 9 .

S u ra , 8 .

8 11 m , 1 92.

S u s’

ipra , 1 40.

S usna , 1 82.

S i'

i rya , th e sun

d escribed , 65

hymn to , quoted , 1 94.

S fi rya, 1 1 , 68 .

S ut lej , 41 .

S i'

i tras , 3 75 . 42

date , 46

on an imal sacrifice , 1 1 4.

S u t tee , s a t i , 1 3 , 1 27 .

Su tud ri river , 223 .

S varb h anu , 225 f .

Taks h , 245 .

Taitt iriyan s , 28 .

Tai t t ir iya-brahmana, 49 , 1 13 ,

1 14- 7 , 1 1 9 , 252.

Tait tiriya- samh ita, 33 .

Tai tt i riya upan i sh ad , 3 7 .

Talavakara-brahmana ,49 .

Tamils , 5 , 6. 78 , 1 48 .

Tandya brahmana, 1 16.

Tann ers , 9 .

Tan tra , 1 33 , 1 64,169 .

Tapas (penance). 55 .

Te lugu . 6.

I NDEX 29 1

Teuton s , 10,

Th ree Vedas , 3 3 .

T2ruvd s agam. quoted ,

Tools , 9 .

Tray t-m dya

’

, 33 .

Trich inopoly. 122.

Tr im ur t i , 52, 68 , 78 .

Tr ita , 230.

Tukarama , 1 48 , 1 70.

Tu ls i das , 1 70.

Tvas tr i , 72

account of , 94.

U DGATA , 1 1 7 .

Udgd t r i , 27chan ted Saman i , 87 , 109 .

U n iverse , orig in of , h ymn , 2055 .

Upan i sh ad s , 21 , 25 . 35

d efined , 36

earl iest , 3 7in S ru ti , 37 , 1 65 , 1 70

mon ism of , 52, 61 , 1 34, 1 58 ,1 61 .

Upa-

puranas , 25 .

U rvaSI , 95 .

U sh as , 1 6

moth er of th e gods , 55

and S i'

i rya , 65

account of , 69 , 90

hymn s to , quoted , 2025 .

Uttara Rama Ch ar i tra , 8 .

Vach ‘

moth er of Vedas ’

, 39 ,

90, 9 1 .

Va ika r ta butch er priest , 108 .

Vaivasvata , 235 .

Vaish n ava , 124 .

VaiSvanara , 241 .

Vaisya , 1 66.

Vajapeya , 1 1 5 .

Vaj asaneyin s , 28 .

Vala , a d emon , 92.

Vallab h ach arya , 124.

Vamadeva , 41

lord of Indra, 163 .

Valm iki , 8 .

Vamana avatara, 69 .

Varunaan d Ind ra , 52

moral exce l lence of , 57 , 63 ,1 59

account of , 63an d M itra , 65

an d legen d of S unah éepa.

128-9

passes away, 1 35 , 1 61

hymn s to, quoted , 129 , 1 50.1 955 .

Varunan i , 90.

Var i'

i tri , 1 85 n .

Vas is ta , 8 , 40, 41 , 1 52.

Vas tospati , 23 1 .

Vasud eva , 1 3 7 .

Vata , 72.

Vatapi , 23 1 .

Vayu described , 72

hymn to , quoted , 1 99 .

Ved a defined , 25 , 42.

Ved as , 21 5

n ames of , 26

re lation of , 27

trad ition al origin Of , 385 , 166.

2445

compilation of , 40

compos ition of , 41

editions , 42ora l tran sm i ss ion , 43 , 44

not to b e written or learned ofa sud ra , 45

n umber of hymn s , 45

d ate of Vedas , 45chronolog ical tab le of Ved icl iterature , 48

metres of , 259 fan alys is of , 2665language Of , 265 .

Vedangas , 25 Describ ed , 3 7 ,

3 8 , 42.

Vedan ta , 3 5 , 61 , 1 61 , see upan is h a d s .

Vedic god s v . Gods .

292 I NDEX

Ved ic metres , 259 f .Veppa m a ra ttu ka ruppan , 78 .

V ib h id aka tree , 1 5 .

Vijayan agara , 22.

V ipas river , 223 .

V iraj , 165 .V iramatt i , 103 .

Visakh a, 1 16.

V ish n u , 52

in Harihara , 55

d iscus of , 66described , 68 -69

an d Indra . 74

rise Of , 1 35

hymn to , quoted , 200.

V i shnu purana , 257 .

Vish nu smr it i , 1 3 .

Vispala, 7 1 .

Viéva, 9 3 .

V I SVad evyat , 66.

Viévakarman , 66, 95 , 207 .

V iSVam itra , 8 , 41 , 1 3 1 , 225 .

V i SVarfipa, 94.

ViSVedevas , 55 , 93

hymn to , quoted , 201 f .

Vivasvat (sun ) , 87 .

Viz ianagaram , Maharaja of , 22.

V ritra , demon of drought , 73 ,

80, 86. 96, 1 45 , 230.

Vu lcan , 94.

VVARFARE , 1 7.

Weapon s , 1 7 , 98 , 228 .

Weapon- song , 1 7 .

Weaving , 9 .

Weber , A . , 23

on Ath arva-veda, 32.

Wh itney , 23

on Ath arva-Veda , 32

on Soma , 84.

Widow , 1 2

m igh t remarry , 1 2

wid ow-bu rn ing , 1 3 Z EN D , 3

h ow justified , 12. Z oroaster, 3 .

Wife, pos ition of , 10, 1 1 . 1 57

n ot a chi ld , 1 1 , 1 57

rival W ives , 234.

Whip , 229 .

Wi lkin s , Charles , 20.

Wilson , H . H . , 23 .

Wo lf , 1 89 n .

Woman (see Marriage , W ife)pos ition of , 1 3 , 1 5 7

and Vedas , 1 4.

W oriur , 1 22.

Writing in India , 42.

Ya j u n s h i , 26.

Yajur-vedaanalys is of , 272ed ition s an d trans lations .235

White and B lack 28 . 33

used by ad hvaryu priests , 109

on an imal sacrifices , 1 1 3 - 8

on h orse sacrifice , 1 1 95

on human sac rifice , 1 3 1 5

exalts power of Brahman ’

s

knowledge , 163

read ing from , 23 8 .

Yama , 66

d escribed , 87

an d ancestors , 99 - 1 03

hymn to , quoted , 23 1 . 235

dogs Of , 23 1 .

Yam i , 66

described , 87 .

Yamuna R iver , 4.

Yaska’

s N irukta , 57 .

Yatu d h anas , 232.

Yud h is t i ra , 1 1 9 .

Yuga , 38 .

Yupa , 98 , 1 1 0.

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