THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

BACHELOR OF EDUCATION

(B.Ed)

MODULE 1

LAN 1100 Communication Skills

(Basic Communication, Listening, Speaking, Reading & Elements of Grammar)

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© Copyright

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,

or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,

recording or otherwise without the permission of the University of Zambia, Institute of Distance

Education.

Inquiries concerning reproduction or rights and requests for additional training materials should

be addressed to:

The Director, Institute of Distance Education The University of Zambia P.O. Box 32379 Lusaka Zambia Tel: +211 290719

Fax: +211 253952

E-mail: dde@unza.zm

Website: www.unza.zm

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The University of Zambia (UNZA), Institute of Distance Education (IDE) would like to thank Mrs.

Maureen Musale for writing this module, LAN 1100 Communication Skills (Module 1).

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INTRODUCTION AND COURSE HISTORY

RATIONALE

At commencement of university education, first year undergraduate students display inadequate

competence in understanding and composing various types academic texts, thereby experiencing

challenges in coping with the academic demands of higher education. Over the years, to address

this challenge, students who registered for courses in the Department of Literature and Languages

were required to take a course on the use of English entitled Use of English in the 70’s, Reading

and Composition in the 80’s and Communication and Study Skills from the 90’s to date. In the

80’s, prior to the introduction of the semester system, this course, under the title E110: Reading

and Composition ran for a full academic year. With the advent of the semester system, E110:

Reading and Composition was modified to a single semester course: E/LAL 111:

Communication and Study Skills and, later under the re-introduced term system, LAN 1100:

Communication and Study Skills whose focus was tilted more to the four language skills of

listening, speaking, reading and writing in general. LAN 1100 paid limited attention to the

mechanics of composing various types of academic texts which constitute the main pre-occupation

of university education. The outcome of the shift in focus of the course content resulted in the

perpetuation of lack of capacity by students to meet the academic demands of university education.

These demands require much higher levels of linguistic competence and performance not only in

the four language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing in general, but also in the

specific register of academic writing which has not been given adequate attention in the current

Communication and Study Skills course. A course covering a combination of the four language

skills in general with academic writing is therefore necessary at first year undergraduate level.

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AIM

The aim of the course is to equip students with knowledge and skills in understanding and

composing various types of texts in English and African Languages.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of the course, students should be able to:

(i) demonstrate improved understanding of the tenets of basic communication;

(ii) understand the importance of active listening;

(iii) demonstrate improved speaking skills;

(iv) implement effective reading strategies;

(v) show mastery of the elements of grammar;

STRUCTURE OF THE MODULE

This module is divided into 5 units with several sub-units. Each unit has a core text and an

exercise at the end. You are required to read the text thereafter attempt the exercise before

proceeding to the next unit. Please note that this course is comprised of 2 modules.

ASSESSMENT

• Continuous assessment 50%

o 3 assignments of 10% each 30%

o 1 Tests of 20% 20%

• Examination 50%

Note: The CA is for the whole course including Mechanics of Writing, Formal Writing and

Academic Writing (Module 2)

PRESCRIBED READINGS

Afolayan, A. and H.E. Newsum (1983). The Use of English. Essex: Longman.

Biber, D., S. Conrad & G. Leech. (2002). Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written

English. London: Longman

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Gamble T., & Gamble M. (2012). Communication Works. 11th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill

RECOMMENDED READINGS

Coffin, C., J. Donohue & S. North. (2009). Exploring English grammar: from formal to functional.

London: Routledge

Fulwiler, T. (2002). College Writing. A personal Approach to Academic Writing. Heinemann:

Boynton/Cook Inc.

Pecorari, D. (2008). Academic Writing and Plagiarism: A Linguistic Analysis. London: Continuum

International Publishing Group

Quirk, R. & G. Stein. (1990). English in use. Harlow: Longman.

Rowler, R. (1983). Understanding Language. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul

Sheal, P. (1981). Advanced Level Writing. Essex: Longman

Apart from this module and module 2, you are expected to read widely around all the topics

covered in the modules. You may find the references provided at the end of the module useful, but

you could also explore other sources of information, particularly the Internet which has a lot of

websites with valuable information.

TIME FRAME

You are expected to spend at least 60 hours of study time on this module. In addition, there shall

be arranged contacts with lecturers from the University from time to time during the course. You

are requested to spend your time judiciously so that you reap maximum benefit from the course.

STUDY SKILLS

As a distance education student, you will meet a lot of challenges in your studies, particularly that

you will not always have a lecturer and fellow students to consult. You need, therefore, to make a

strategy for yourself which will make you succeed. First, draw a working time-table and stick to

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it. Second, you should know your strengths and weaknesses; capitalize on your strengths. Third,

work judiciously on all the task and assignments. Be truthful since no one is monitoring what you

are doing. Submit all the work that you need to on time.

Need help?

In case you have difficulties during the duration of the course, please get in touch with the

Director, Institute of Distance Education, or the resident lecturer in your province.

All enquiries in connection with the payment of fees should be directed to the

Director, Institute of Distance Education:

The Director,

Institute of Distance Education,

University of Zambia,

P. O. Box 32379,

10101 Lusaka

Coordinator, Learner Support Services (Land Cell): +260 978772248

Senior Administrative Officer

(Programme Development & Production) +260 977639993

IDE Land Line: +260 211 290719

IDE Fax: +260 211 290719

IDE E-mail: dde@unza.zm

http://www.unza.zm

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TABLE OF CONTENTS – MODULE 1

CONTENTS

UNIT 1: Basic Communication ...................................................................................................... 11

Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 11

➢ Elements of communication .............................................................................................. 12

➢ Two Crucial Characteristics of Communication ................................................................. 14

➢ Models of Communication ................................................................................................ 14

➢ Functions of Communication ............................................................................................. 16

➢ Axioms of Communication ................................................................................................. 17

➢ Types of Communication ................................................................................................... 20

➢ Principles of Effective Communication .............................................................................. 21

➢ Barriers to communication ................................................................................................ 22

UNIT 1: EXERCISE ....................................................................................................................... 24

Unit 1: Summary ........................................................................................................................ 24

UNIT 2: Listening Skills and Note Taking ....................................................................................... 25

Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 25

➢ Modes of Listening ............................................................................................................. 27

➢ Types of Listening .............................................................................................................. 28

➢ Taking Notes ...................................................................................................................... 30

➢ Abbreviations in Note Taking ............................................................................................. 32

UNIT 2: EXERCISE ....................................................................................................................... 36

Unit 2: Summary ........................................................................................................................ 36

UNIT 3: Speaking Skills .................................................................................................................. 37

Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 37

➢ Organizing your message ................................................................................................... 37

➢ Improving the quality of your conversations ..................................................................... 38

➢ Using Vocal Elements Effectively ....................................................................................... 38

➢ Non-verbal Communication ............................................................................................... 40

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➢ Meta Communication ........................................................................................................ 45

➢ Rhetorical Devices .............................................................................................................. 47

➢ PUBLIC SPEAKING ............................................................................................................... 50

Essential Steps in Speech Preparation: four Stages of Speech making ................................ 51

Presentation (Delivery): Dealing with Anxiety and Speech Fright ........................................ 52

Options for Delivery ............................................................................................................... 53

Visual & vocal considerations ................................................................................................ 54

Giving the Speech some Final Tips ......................................................................................... 56

UNIT 3: EXERCISE ....................................................................................................................... 58

Unit 3: Summary ........................................................................................................................ 58

UNIT 4: Reading ............................................................................................................................ 59

Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 59

➢ Rates of Reading ................................................................................................................ 59

➢ Methods of Reading ........................................................................................................... 59

➢ Reading Strategies ............................................................................................................. 60

➢ Tips on Reading a Text Book .............................................................................................. 62

UNIT 4: EXERCISE ....................................................................................................................... 63

Unit 4: Summary ........................................................................................................................ 63

UNIT 5: Elements of Grammar ...................................................................................................... 64

Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 64

➢ Parts of speech ................................................................................................................... 64

1. Nouns: ................................................................................................................................ 64

2. Verbs............................................................................................................................... 66

3. Adjectives ....................................................................................................................... 69

4. Adverbs ........................................................................................................................... 69

5. Pronouns ........................................................................................................................ 70

6. Prepositions .................................................................................................................... 74

7. Conjunctions ................................................................................................................... 75

8. Interjections ................................................................................................................... 77

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9. Expletives........................................................................................................................ 77

➢ Subjects and predicates ..................................................................................................... 78

➢ Subject-verb agreement .................................................................................................... 79

❖ Indefinite Pronouns ........................................................................................................ 80

❖ Collective and Plural Nouns ........................................................................................... 80

❖ Amounts and Fractions .................................................................................................. 81

❖ Phrases of Inclusion ........................................................................................................ 82

❖ Neither and Either .......................................................................................................... 82

❖ Other Interruptions ........................................................................................................ 83

❖ Expletive Constructions: Here and There ...................................................................... 83

➢ Sentences ........................................................................................................................... 83

Simple Sentence ..................................................................................................................... 84

The Compound Sentence ....................................................................................................... 86

Complex Sentences ................................................................................................................ 88

UNIT 5: Exercise ......................................................................................................................... 90

Unit 5: Summary ........................................................................................................................ 90

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UNIT 1: BASIC COMMUNICATION

In this unit we will discuss the basic categories of communication, the elements of

communication, models of communication, functions of communication, axioms of

communication, principles of effective communication and barriers of communication.

INTRODUCTION

Definition(s):

a) Communication is a negotiation of a shared meaning (James Payne)

b) Communication is the ground of meeting. It is in short, the essential human

connection (Ashley Montagu and Floyd Matson)

c) Communication is not just words, paint or canvas, math symbols or the equations and

models of scientists, it is the interrelation of human being trying to escape loneliness,

trying to share experiences, trying to share implant ideas (William Marsteller)

d) Communication is the deliberate or accidental transfer of meaning (Gamble and

Gamble).

Communication is a process by which information is exchanged between individuals

through a common system of symbols, signs, or behaviour. It can be categorized into three

basic types: (1) verbal communication, in which you listen to a person to understand what

they mean to say; (2) written communication, in which you read their meaning; and (3)

nonverbal communication, in which you observe a person and infer meaning. No mode

of communication is superior to another since all have advantages and disadvantages.

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➢ ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

(Image source: http://www.pinsdaddy.com)

The following are the important elements of the communication process:

1. SENDER/ENCODER. The sender also known as the encoder decides on the message

to be sent and the best/most effective way that it can be sent. All of this should be done

bearing the receiver in mind. It is the job of the sender to conceptualize. The sender may

want to ask him/herself questions like: What are the best words to use? Do I need signs or

pictures to communicate clearly?

During communication, the role of sender does not belong solely to one person and the role

of receiver to another. Instead, the process of sending and receiving are repeatedly being

reversed.

2. MESSAGES: The content of a communicative act. These can be either verbal or

nonverbal messages or both. By verbal communication, we refer to what you talk about;

the words used to express your thoughts and feelings, the sound you make. With non-

verbal, the reference is on the way you sit and gestures, your facial expressions, and even

your touch or your odour all communicate information.

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Some messages we send are private while others are public. We send messages

purposefully and others accidentally. Everything a sender or receiver does or says is a

potential message if there is someone to interpret the behaviour. When you smile, frown,

shout, whisper or turn away, you are communicating, and your communication is having

some effect.

3. MEDIUM. The medium is the immediate form which a message takes. For example, a

message may be communicated in the form of a letter, in the form of an email or face to

face in the form of a speech.

4. CHANNEL. The channel is that which is responsible for the delivery of the chosen

message form. For example, television, internet, radio.

5. RECEIVER. The receiver or the decoder is responsible for extracting/decoding

meaning from the message. The receiver is also responsible for providing feedback to the

sender. In a word, it is his/her job to INTERPRET.

6. FEEDBACK. This is important as it determines whether the decoder grasped the

intended meaning and whether communication was successful. Whenever we

communicate with one or more person we receive information in return. This can be verbal

or nonverbal.

Feedback that encourages us to continue behaving as we are is positive feedback. In

contrast, negative feedback extinguishes a behaviour.

7. CONTEXT. The context of any communication act is the environment surrounding it.

This includes, among other things, place, time, event, and attitudes of sender and receiver.

8. NOISE/INTERFERENCE. This is any factor that inhibits the conveyance of a

message. That is, anything that gets in the way of the message being accurately received,

interpreted and responded to. Noise may be internal or external. A student worrying about

an incomplete assignment may not be attentive in class (internal noise) or the sounds of

heavy rain on a galvanized roof may inhibit the reading of a storybook to second graders

(external noise).

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➢ TWO CRUCIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION

(1) Communication is Dynamic: This means all its elements constantly interact with

and affect each other. Nothing about communication is static and as such, we

communicate as long as we live.

(2) Communication is Unrepeatable and Irreversible: Every human contact you

experience is unique. It has never happened before and never again will it happen

again.

Adage: You can never step into the same river twice.

Parable: A Man with a feather bag.

By analysing the adage and the parable, we can safely say communication is both

unrepeatable and irreversible. We can neither take back something we have said

nor erase the effects of something we have done.

➢ MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Models of communication explain and help you visualize the process we employ to initiate

and maintain communicative relationships with others e.g.

a) Gamble and Gambles of Model of Communication

Noise

Noise Noise

Noise

Gamble and Gambles model of communication shows that communication is a circle and

sending and receiving responsibilities are shared by the communicators. A message is sent

Message

Receiver/sender Sender/Receiver

Message

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through one or more channels. Interaction occurs in communication and it is affected by

a definite context. Noise can enter the interaction at any point and can affect either the

sending or the receiving abilities of the communicators. Furthermore, noise can be caused

by the context, can be present in the channel, or can pop up in the message itself.

b) Dance’s Communication Helix

Frank Dance’s model depicts communication process in a more abstract way. The model

represents the way communication evolves or progresses in a person from birth to the

present moment.

The model emphasizes that each person’s present behaviour is affected by his own

experience, and likewise that present behaviour will have an impact on future actions.

Dance’s Helix indicates that communication has no clear observable beginning and no

clearly observable end.

According to Dance’s helix, the point where spirals meet, or touch is the point of contact.

Each time a contact occurs messages are sent and received by the interactants. Some helical

spirals touch each other only once during a lifetime, whereas others crisscross or intertwine

in a pattern that indicates an enduring relationship.

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➢ FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

The key function of communication is self-other understanding.

Understanding and Insight

Understanding and insight can develop with the following:

(1) If you know another person, you know yourself

(2) We depend on communication to develop self-awareness

(3) We need feedback constantly from others

(4) Interpersonal, small groups, public and media communication offer us numerous

opportunities for self-other discovery

(5) Through communication we learn whether we are trustworthy or not, under what

powers we can influence others, make decisions, resolve conflicts and problems.

Meaningful Relationships

• Through interpersonal, public, mass communication contacts that are basic,

physical and social needs are met

• Psychologists tell us that we need other people just as we need water, food and

shelter.

Communication offers each one of us the chance to satisfy what the psychologist

William Schutz calls our needs for “Inclusion, control and affection.”

(a) Need for Inclusion: The need for social contact

(b) Need for Control: the need to feel we are capable and responsible

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(c) Need for Affection: The need to express and receive love.

Since communication allows each of these needs to be met, we are less likely to feel

unwanted, unloved, or incapable if we can communicate meaningfully with others.

➢ AXIOMS OF COMMUNICATION

The five axioms (foundations) of communication were formulated by Paul Watzlawick and

his colleagues to help describe the processes of communication that take place during

interaction and to help explain how misunderstanding may come about.

1. One Cannot Not Communicate (Man kann nicht nicht kommunizieren): Every

behaviour is a kind of communication. Because behaviour does not have a

counterpart (there is no anti-behaviour), it is not possible not to communicate.

Sometimes people use the following strategies when trying not to communicate:

(a) Rejection: We show rejection by making it clear to the other person that we

are not interested in conversing. By so doing we create strained relationships,

embarrassments, social uncomfortable situations.

(b) Acceptance: Being willing to receive and respond to a message while

operating according to the ‘law of least effort.’ Giving in reluctantly and

agreeing to make conversation in the hope that the person will go away

quickly.

(c) Disqualification: Communication that invalidates a message sent.

Disqualification is when one contradictions oneself, switch subjects, or utter

incomplete sentences or non-sequiturs in the hope that the other person will

give up.

(d) The symptom as communication: This is when we pretend we would like to

talk but because we are tired, nervous, sick, drunk, bereaved, deaf, etc. we

cannot communicate.

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2. Every communication has a content and relationship aspect such that the

latter classifies the former and is therefore a metacommunication: This means

that all communication includes, apart from the plain meaning of words, more

information - information on how the talker wants to be understood and how he

himself sees his relation to the receiver of information

Content Level: It is the information level, or data level. It describes the behaviour

expected as a response.

Relationship level: This indicates how the exchange is to be interpreted. It signals

what one person thinks of others.

Each manner of delivery says something about the relationship between the

sources, or the sender and the receiver. Through such signals we constantly give

others clues about how we see ourselves in relationship to them.

Watzlawick, Beavin and Jackson identified three types of responses that we use to

indicate to each other.

(a) Confirmation: When we confirm other peoples’ self-definitions, or self-

concepts, and thus treat others as they believe they ought to be treated.

(b) Rejection: This is when one refuses to accept their beliefs about themselves.

(c) Disconfirmation: Simply means you do not exist. You are a non-entity. By

this response, we do not care enough to let other people know how we feel about

them.

3. The nature of a relationship is dependent on the punctuation of the partners

communication procedures: Both the talkers and the receivers of information

structure the communication flow differently and therefore interpret their own

behaviour during communicating as merely a reaction on the other's behaviour (i.e.

every partner thinks the other one is the cause of a specific behaviour). Human

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communication cannot be dissolved into plain causation and reaction strings,

communication rather appears to be cyclic.

4. Human communication involves both digital and analog modalities:

Communication does not involve the merely spoken words (digital

communication), but non-verbal and analog-verbal communication as well. Analog

communication is a format in which information is transmitted by modulating a

continuous signal, such as a sound wave. An example of analog communication is

current TV and radio signals.

When we talk with somebody, we send two kinds of messages:

(a) Discrete, digital: this is when we use the word level of communication (verbal

symbols)

(b) Continuous, analogical, nonverbal cues that may contain sound but do not

contain words. According to Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson, the content

of a message is more likely to be communicated through the digital system,

whereas the relationship level of the message is more likely to be carried

through the analogic system. The trio also state that it is easy to profess

something verbally, but it is difficult to carry a lie into the realm of the

analogic. This means you can lie with words, but the nonverbal signals you

emit are likely to give you away

5. Symmetric or complementary: this simply means that either the participants in

the system are on equal ground with regards to power relations, or one of them is

over the other.

Symmetrical Interaction: This is when behaviour of one person is mirrored by the

behaviour of the other person.

Complementary Interaction: This takes place when you and your partner engage

in opposite behaviours, with your behaviour serving to elicit the other persons

behaviour or vice-versa e.g.

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• Outgoing manner » Quiet

• Aggressive » Submissive

• Leader » Follower

Both these relationships are not trouble free.

Symmetrical Escalation: Both believe they are equal, and each also believes he or

she has a right to assert control. The result is a battle to show how “equal” they

really are.

Rigid Complementarity: This happens when one begins to feel control is

automatically his or hers and as a result the relationship becomes rigid or fixed.

➢ TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Firstly, during intrapersonal communication, you think about, talk with, learn about,

reason with, and evaluate yourself. But in interpersonal communication you interact with

another, learn about him or her, and act in ways that help sustain or terminate your

relationship.

If you are given a task of discussing an assignment as a class, you will engage into group

communication. You interact with a limited number of people who work to share

information, develop ideas, make decisions, solve problems, offer support, or have fun.

However, through public communication, you inform and persuade the members of an

audience to hold certain attitudes, values, or beliefs so that they will think, believe, or act

in a particular way. With the mass communication, the media entertain, inform and

persuade you. You in turn can use your viewing and buying habits to influence the media.

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Online or machine-assisted communication you navigate, cyberspace as you converse,

research and exchange ideas, and build relationships with others using computers and the

internet.

Whatever type of communication, the communicative act is characterized by the interplay

of certain elements.

➢ PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

a) Accuracy: Careful word choice is essential ingredient in transmitting your

meaning to an audience. Leave no doubt to your meaning. Words are symbols that

represent concepts or objects. To avoid vagueness in definition and elsewhere,

choose words that express the exact shade of meaning you wish to communicate

e.g. shine – ray of light: glow, glitter, glisten, gleam, flare, blaze, flash, and beam

all allow you to communicate more precise features of the ray.

b) Simplicity: Lincoln says “speak so that the most lowly can understand you and the

rest will have no difficulty. Say:

• Learn rather than ascertain

• Try rather than Endeavour

• Use rather than utilize

• Help rather than facilitate

Never use a longer or less familiar word when a simpler one is just as clear and

accurate. Simplicity suggests that you consider the advantages of short, easily

understandable words that convey precise, concrete meaning.

c) Coherence: transmitting ideas orally requires attention to the perceived coherence

of your message. Speakers are signposts in form of carefully worded phrases and

sentence to help listeners follow the movement of ideas within a speech and

perceive the overall message structure. Give preliminary and final summaries

Preliminary Final

Today I am going to talk about I have talked about three aspects of..

three aspects of…

There are four major points to be these four major points (restate covered..

them)

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The use of preliminary and final summaries is important to your audience. They

give listeners an overall sense of your entire message; if they can easily see the

structure, they will better understand and remember your speech.

d) Language intensity: Word choice depends on how you feel about the subject.

Through word choice or phrasing you communicate your attitudes toward the

subject e.g. discussed, outlined (verb choice)

e) Appropriateness: Besides being accurate, clear and properly intense, your

language should be appropriate to the topic and to the situation e.g.

• Solemn occasion – restrained, dignified

• Joyful occasion – informal and lively

• Slang usage – first check the audience (peers)

➢ BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

The communication of meaning from one person to another is key function o language.

The factors we identify here relate to problems in the sharing of meaning.

a) Word Barriers: In talking to people, we often assume too quickly that they

understand what we mean. (Humpty-Dumpty and Alice) We can make words

mean whatever we want them to mean. Nothing stops us—except our desire to

share meaning with others.

b) Meanings are both Denotative and Connotative: Although we know what we mean,

the crucial question is, what does our word bring to mind for those with whom we

are communicating? When we think about what language means, we must think in

terms of both denotative (objective, or dictionary) meaning, and connotative

(subjective, or personal) meaning.

• Meaning and time: words evolve new meaning from era to era, from

generation to generation, and sometimes even from year to year.

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• Meaning and place: Not only do words change meaning over time, they

also change meaning from one region of the country to another.

• Meaning and experience: the meaning we assign to words are based on our

past experiences with the words and with the things they represent.

c) Language Influences meaning whether concrete or abstract

As the words we use move from abstract to concrete, they become more precise in

meaning and also more likely to appeal to our senses and conjure a picture.

d) Culture influences the words used

Both dominant cultures and the co-cultures have different languages. Hence, usage

vary from culture to culture. If a concept is important to a particular culture, there

will be a large number of terms to describe it.

e) Language and power

Both men and women have the potential to influence the way others perceive them

by communicating in ways that make them appear more confident, more forceful,

and thus more in control of a situation.

• Assumed that those who speak indirectly lack self-confidence and power

• Power talkers direct the action; they assume control. Hesitate less.

Eliminate fillers. They are direct to the point. Contain no disclaimers or tag

questions.

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UNIT 1: EXERCISE

1. Name the Elements of Communication

2. Differentiate the two models of communication.

3. Discuss the different strategies that people use when trying not to communicate.

4. How do culture, language and power become barriers to communication?

5. Discuss 5 principles that will help you become a more effective communicator.

UNIT 1: SUMMARY

In this unit we discussed the basic categories of communication (verbal, written and nonverbal),

the eight elements of communication, Gamble and Gambles model of communication and the

Dance's Communication Helix, functions of communication, Paul Watzlawick's five axioms of

communication, the principles of effective communication and the barriers to communication.

This information will be helpful as you seek to understand the importance of listening skills in the

next unit.

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UNIT 2: LISTENING SKILLS AND NOTE TAKING

This unit will discuss the various modes of listening, types of listening and the techniques

involved in effective note-taking.

INTRODUCTION

Listening is mentally and physically attending to, comprehending, and retaining the

meaning of the message.1

It is important to make a distinction between listening and hearing. Hearing is the passive

process of perceiving sound whereas listening is an active psychological process of

receiving, attending to, constructing meaning from and responding to spoken and/or non-

verbal messages.

Although there is no agreed upon definition of listening, most scholars agree that listening

requires consciously receiving, attending to, and assigning meaning to verbal and non-

verbal messages. Most also agree that listening involves:

❖ Selective attention: we find it easy to consciously listen to reinforcing messages

than to messages we perceive otherwise.

❖ Sensorial involvement: we use the senses to comprehend the message

❖ Comprehension/meaning and

❖ Retention/remembering

Effective listening is an activity, not a passive state of being. To be an effective listener

you must:

❖ Maintaining eye contact and facing the speaker.

❖ Not interrupting unless it is necessary

1 Scott Michael D and Stephen R Bryden, 1998, Dimensions of Communication, An

Introduction.

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❖ Think about what is being said

❖ Focusing solely on what the speaker is saying

❖ Minimizing internal distractions

❖ Keeping an open mind

❖ Avoiding letting the speaker know how you would have handled a similar situation.

❖ Waiting for the speaker to finish speaking before defending yourself even if they

are launching a complaint against you.

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➢ MODES OF LISTENING

There are three basic modes of listening: active or reflective listening, passive or attentive

listening and competitive or combative listening.

1. Active or Reflective Listening

In active listening, the listener is genuinely interested in understanding what the

speaker is thinking, feeling, wanting or what the message means. The listener

actively checks whether he/she has understood the message before responding. In

active listening, the listener restates or paraphrases the message and gives feedback

to the speaker. The verification or feedback process is what makes active listening

effective and distinguished.

2. Passive or Attentive Listening

In passive or attentive listening, the listener is genuinely interested in hearing and

understanding the speaker’s point of view however there is no feedback or

verification process.

3. Competitive or Combative Listening

This happens when the listener is more interested in promoting his own point of

view rather than understanding or exploring the speaker’s point of view. It normally

involves listening for openings to interrupt the speaker or for flaws and weak points

in the message.

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➢ TYPES OF LISTENING

According to Babita Tyagi2, depending on the objective and the way the listener takes and

responds to the process of listening, listed below are different types of listening:

1. Active listening Listening in a way that demonstrates interest and

encourages the speaker to continue.

2. Appreciative listening Looking for ways to accept and appreciate the other

person through what they say. Seeking opportunity to

praise. Alternatively listening to something for

pleasure, such as music.

3. Attentive Listening Listening obviously and carefully, showing attention.

4. Biased listening Listening through the filter of personal bias i.e. the

person hears only what they want to listen.

5. Casual listening Listening without obviously showing attention.

Actual attention may vary a lot.

6. Comprehension

listening

Listening to understand. Seeking meaning (but little

more).

7. Critical Listening Listening to evaluate, criticize or otherwise pass

judgment on what someone else says.

2

Shen, Y. (2008). An Exploration of Schema Theory in Intensive Reading. Retrieved 11 29, 2017, from

http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1082790.pdf

Tyagi, B. (2013). Listening: An Important Skill and Its Various Aspects. (V. Bite, Ed.) The Criterion: An International

Journal in English(12), 1-8.

Yang, X. (2008). Thematic Progression Analysis in Teaching Explanation Writing. Retrieved 11 29, 2017, from

http://ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/elt/article/download/507/489

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8. Deep Listening Seeking to understand the person, their personality

and their real and unspoken meanings and motivators.

9. Discriminative

Listening

Listening for something specific but nothing else (e.g.

a baby crying).

10. Empathetic Listening Seeking to understand what the other person is

feeling. Demonstrating this empathy.

11. Evaluative Listening Listening to evaluate, criticize or otherwise pass

judgment on what someone else says.

12. Inactive Listening Pretending to listen but spending more time thinking.

13. Judgemental Listening Listening to evaluate, criticize or otherwise pass

judgment on what someone else says.

14. Partial Listening Listening most of the time but also spending some

time daydreaming or thinking of a response

15. Reflective Listening Listening, then relaying to the other person what they

have said.

16. Relationship Listening Listening to support and develop a relationship with

the other person.

17. Sympathetic Listening Listening with concern for the well-being of the other

person

18. Therapeutic Listening Seeking to understand what the other person is

feeling. Demonstrating this empathy.

19. Total Listening Paying very close attention in active listening to what

is said, and the deeper meaning found through how it

is said.

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➢ TAKING NOTES

Definition: Notes are a brief and shorter version of original source of information that we

need to recount (remember/recall) at different intervals.

To take down notes, one needs to have the following skills:

a) The skill of hearing properly/correctly

b) The skill of understanding what one has heard

c) The skill of making useful notes of what one has heard and understood.

Taking notes of classroom lectures gives you a written record of important information for

later use. In addition, taking notes can help you to:

Organize ideas

Recognize relationships among different topics

Evaluate information, and

Identify points you find confusing.

Tips for Taking Notes

a) Write down only key words and phrases. Focusing on main points allows you to

continue listening while you write.

b) Underline or star (*) main ideas. Highlighting the most important point makes

reviewing easier.

c) Use abbreviations/acronyms: use your own brand of shorthand but be sure you can

read your notes later. Make use of contractions and abbreviations.

d) Listen for transitional words such as ‘on the other hand’, ‘next’, ‘another point’, first….

e) Take notes in a modified outline so that ideas will be logically organized.

f) Also fill in the gaps in your notes soon after the lecture ends.

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Purposes for Taking Notes

a) Notes are an aid to memory: It is difficult to remember all what you hear. After passing

of time recollection becomes hard

b) Notes as Permanent Record: Notes can be stored and retrieved at owner’s convenience.

It is also an advantage in that when challenged in future, you can retrieve your notes

e.g. minutes, court proceedings, class notes etc.

c) Notes are an aid to concentration, analysis and clear thinking: There is too much of

information given a short space of time. As such, there is a need for some technique

for sorting out information.

d) Notes are a success to learning: When notes are properly done it makes learning more

useful and helps students to record information, ideas, and opinions for study purposes.

What to note down

When listening to a lecture:

Recognise and write down important points.

Note the summary of the main points of the lecture.

Here is a suggested outline on what to note:

a) Write the main points of a lecture. These can be general statements made by the

lecturer that will be explained during a lecture.

b) Mark points you do not understand (to seek clarity later)

c) Note references books, articles etc mentioned for further reading.

d) Note relevant figures (people who are important to the study)

Do not note idiosyncrasies of a lecture. These can be personal reminiscences or stories. If

this happens, it is time for a student to relax or catch up if you were left behind. In addition,

repetitions should not be written down. Listen for paraphrases and be quick to recognize

repetitions and summaries.

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➢ ABBREVIATIONS IN NOTE TAKING

a) Abbreviations can be derived from consideration of what words to note down

(classification of words by content and non-content words). Words are divided in parts

of speech e.g. nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, articles, determiners, conjunctions and

prepositions. These are later classified as non-content words. Non-content words

depend on their immediate environment for any meaning. These are; articles, auxiliary

verbs, conjunctions, and prepositional word, pronouns, the verb ‘be’ (is, are, ‘to be’

and ‘to have’) and content words—these are words with definite meaning such as;

nouns, verbs, adverbs, and adjectives.

For example:

• The class commenced last week and will end several weeks from now.

Content Words: class(N), commenced(V), last week (Adv. P., will end (Phrasal Verb),

several weeks (Adv of Time)

Non-Content words: the (definite article), and (conj.)

b) Abbreviations can also be done by noting the words to write down and further

abbreviating them (this can be through the conventions available on how to abbreviate

words)

Remember, a note is a brief but complete and accurate writing down of a fact. To achieve

this, concentrate on the content words and ignore as much as possible the non-content

words.

Examples of conventional abbreviations:

a) Initialism (Alphabetism}: items are spoken as individual letters e.g.

D.J. (disc jockey)

M.A. (Master of Arts}

P.F. (Patriotic Front)

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b) Acronyms: items are pronounced as single words e.g.

LAL (Literature and Languages)

WHO (World Health Organisation)

c) Clippings: part of the word serves for the whole word e.g.

LAN (language)

PHONE (telephone)

SPECS (spectacles)

d) Blends: a word is made out of short forms of two words joined together e.g.

HELIPORT (Helicopter + airport)

FOREX (foreign + Exchange)

BRUNCH (breakfast + lunch)

e) Abbreviations that do not fit into initialism or Acronyms (they have both) e.g.

CD-ROM (Compact Disc – initialism) + Read Only Memory (Acronym))

f) Conventional Abbreviations:

Etc (etcetera) PP (pages)

I.E. (that is) e.g. (example)

ACC or A/C (account) Approx. (approximately)

Cf (compare MIN (Minimum)

MAX (maximum) DEPT (department)

g) The use of signs as conventional signs:

(signs are used in relationship between words and ideas}

= for equal, is the same as, is like, consists of, is made up of, is called, represents

~ for approximately, [is] more or less

≠ for is not, is different from, does not equal

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Abbreviating Numbers:

N= number

315,639 slightly more than 3ht

382,600 slightly less than 4ht

350,115 slightly approximately 350t

Personal Abbreviations: These are abbreviations done by an individual. They may be

clippings or any other self-made short forms of words (e.g. omitting vowels).

Making Notes from Written Sources

➢ Note taking is associated with taking notes from spoken discourse (lectures) as well

as written discourse (written sources e.g. textbook)

➢ Notes from written text can be a summary of the main points and important details.

The following techniques are used:

a) Summarizing: This includes only main points and principle facts only. In

summarizing, omit illustrations, examples and analogies or statements to catch the

reader’s attention)

b) Paraphrasing: this is a skill related with summarizing. Paraphrasing puts the writer’s

words and ideas into one’s own words.

Points to remember when making notes from read texts:

a) Notes are a form of summary of main points and important details of a text

b) Notes should only be made after the text has been understood

c) Notes should be brief, yet their meaning fully clear

d) Notes should be accurate

e) Notes can be made in two stages: rough jottings and fair notes (jottings include

important points, indicate relationships between points, and are made only after you

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have understood the point. Fair notes are made from jottings, they note relationships

between points under main headings and subheadings, and are set out neatly according

to their relationships).

f) Fair notes should be well organized and laid out.

NOTE:

➢ If you are writing an essay, you do not need all the important notes or details.

Instead you put only the relevant points to the essay.

➢ Take note to distinguish between your ideas from those of the author of the book.

One way to do this is to enclose your ideas and criticisms inside square brackets

e.g. [………] If you wish to record the authors actual words place them inside

inverted commas e.g. “…………………….”

Further points concerning notes from written sources:

a) Do not be so brief that your meaning is not clear.

b) Do not be too wordy

c) Be accurate.

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UNIT 2: EXERCISE

1. Name the different modes of listening.

2. List five types of listening that can be helpful in academic writing.

3. Exemplify any five abbreviations.

UNIT 2: SUMMARY

This unit discussed the various modes of listening (active, passive, competitive) and the

importance of active listening, 19 types of listening according to Babita Tyagi, the purpose of

taking down notes and the various conventional methods of abbreviations.

This information will be helpful in making you a more effective listener.

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UNIT 3: SPEAKING SKILLS

This unit will discuss organizing your message, improving the quality of your

conversations, effective use of vocal elements, non-verbal communication, meta-

communication and rhetorical devices.

INTRODUCTION

To speak is to say something to convey information or to express a feeling. Communication

is only said to be successful when the speaker and listener understand each other. After

receiving your messages, the listener must be able to interpret its meaning without

difficulty and ambiguity. Effective communication will involve organizing your message

in a clear, logical and easy to understand manner.

➢ ORGANIZING YOUR MESSAGE

To organize your messages and clarify their meaning effectively, use the following tips:

✓ Start with what the listener needs to know. Open the conversation with what

your listener needs to know and then move on to supporting information.

✓ Limit the amount of information. Always limit the amount of information you

convey in a single interaction. Expressing one main idea and up to three supporting

ideas is ideal. More information can be shared in separate discussions.

✓ Eliminate unnecessary words. Use simple sentences and avoid technical language

and jargon whenever possible.

✓ Make your messages relevant to your listener. Frame your ideas so that they are

relevant to the person listening, placing emphasis on how your subject is important

to them and how they can benefit from it.

✓ Take a direct approach. Introduce your subject, explain what you want and

identify your expectations.

✓ Pause occasionally. Include brief pauses to give your listeners time to process

incoming information.

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➢ IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF YOUR CONVERSATIONS

Here are 10 recommendations for improving the quality of your conversations, especially

crucial ones such as asking for a raise or promoting a project:

1. Be the first to greet: Introduce yourself to others and pronounce your name clearly

so that everyone hears it.

2. Remember people’s names: Listen for the names of your conversation partners and

use them when addressing others.

3. Think before you speak: Take time to think and avoid blundering into a mistake.

4. Be open to new ideas: When you disagree with an idea, learn more about it. Use

phrases such as, “That’s interesting,” and “That’s an eye-opening point of view,”

instead of “I don’t agree.”

5. Listen: Listen more than you speak.

6. Ask questions: Ask thoughtful questions that show that you’ve been actively

listening.

7. Make eye contact: Show others that you are engaged and focused on what they are

saying.

8. Repeat or paraphrase: Paraphrase and relay what others say to make sure you

understand.

9. Keep it brief: Instead of monopolizing someone’s time, leave them feeling that

another conversation with you would be interesting and productive.

10. Be prepared: Before a crucial conversation, anticipate what others might say or

ask. Prepare questions and facts ahead of time.

➢ USING VOCAL ELEMENTS EFFECTIVELY

In conversation, your voice is the medium/channel you use to communicate. Paralinguistic

cues are vocal cues such as volume, rate, or inflection that tell a receiver how to interpret

spoken words. Paralinguistic cues help a listener get meaning from how something is said

as well as what is said.

• Volume: Raising your voice helps listeners interpret your use of words. Think of a

simple sentence such as “this job is mine.” How does the meaning change as the

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volume you use to emphasize different words in the sentence changes? This job is

mine. This job is mine. This job is mine.

• Rate: by speeding up or slowing down as you speak words and phrases you can

communicate eagerness, excitement, reluctance, care, and other attitudes.

• Inflection: You use inflection when you change the pitch of your voice. Pitch is the

relative highness or lowness of voice. The most obvious use of inflection is the raise

in pitch at the end of a question.

People pay attention to the words you say and also the way in which you say them. Vocal

elements include voice inflections, rate of speech, volume and tone. When used correctly,

these elements can add interest and meaning to your message. Use the following tips to use

your vocal elements effectively:

1. Change the speed of your voice. Speaking at the same pace will make you a dull and

ineffective communicator. People who vary their rate of speech sound more interesting.

Your rate of speech also tells listeners how to interpret your words.

2. Shift the pitch of your voice. Voice pitch is the frequency of speech. Both high and

low pitches are useful at times. It is important not to take either to an extreme. Raise

the pitch of your voice when you want to signal uncertainty or suggest a question.

Lower the pitch of your voice to give a more authoritative and influential character. In

a professional setting, pitch your voice slightly lower than your casual speaking voice.

3. Control the volume of your voice. Speak loud enough for your listeners to hear you

comfortably. Avoid speaking too loudly as this might annoy your audience. Speaking

too softly communicates timidity and submissiveness.

4. Punctuate with pauses. Effective speakers occasionally pause to break the flow of

information and let listeners process what was said. Catch your breath when you pause

to make the silence seem natural.

5. Articulate clearly. If you want your listeners to understand you better, clearly

enunciate each sentence, phrase and word. This helps you convey competence,

confidence and intelligence.

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➢ NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Nonverbal communication is a very significant part of human communication and does not

rely on words. Nonverbal communication is a powerful part of almost all social and

professional communication. It can make verbal communication more effective, it can

sometimes undercut verbal communication. At times it can even replace verbal

communication.

In oral communication, nonverbal communication is always active. Even if you are not

aware of it, nonverbal communication is affecting verbal communication, for better or for

worse. For example,

a) The axiom “you cannot not communicate (called the communication imperative) can

be understood that people put meaning to every kind of nonverbal behaviour. Not

looking at someone conveys a meaning just at not speaking conveys meaning.

Therefore, even silence is a form of nonverbal communication. Your nonverbal

behaviour will always be a factor in communication… even if you do not want it to

be.

b) Nonverbal communication affects an audience: Research indicates that as little as ten

percent of message’s importance comes from verbal communication.

c) Nonverbal communication can reinforce verbal behaviour: Audience s look for

nonverbal cues that the verbal message is believable.

d) Nonverbal communication can contradict verbal behaviour: If someone says, “I’m

interested in the topic” while yawning, which message would you more likely

believe? The words are contradicted by the nonverbal behaviour.

e) Nonverbal behaviour is important to trust and credibility. Credibility means

worthiness of belief: Because people have less control over their nonverbal

behaviour than over their verbal communication, we are more likely to believe a

nonverbal message if it contradicts a verbal one. This concept is crucial. It means

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that If you want to be trusted, you must have nonverbal communication that is

consistent with verbal,

f) Nonverbal can replace words: We get more from a glance, a smile, a frown than from

words.

Just as with verbal communication, nonverbal communication has basic elements.

Unlike verbal communication, there is no highly developed grammar that describes

nonverbal and no dictionary for nonverbal. Still the elements of nonverbal

communication can help us learn to use it to create more precise and more persuasive

meaning.

Nonverbal cues contribute to the communication process. Your body language and

nonverbal signals add meaning to your message. Components of nonverbal language

include hand and arm gestures, eye contact and movement, facial expression, body position

and overall appearance. Here are a few tips to remember about non-verbal communication:

1. Maintain eye contact. Eye contact is looking at someone; more than that, it is two

people looking at each other simultaneously. When two people look at each other, they

acknowledge each other’s importance.

Eye contact is invaluable for interpreting feedback. A communicator who sees his or

her audience sees the nonverbal communication that the audience exhibits.

• Most people feel that direct eye contact honesty and earnestness.

• Eye contact also shows that you are not relying on notes to speak. Too great a

reliance on notes can be interpreted as lack of sincerity or lack of confidence.

• Eye contact should include all listeners. For a large audience, eye contact might

not include individuals as much as parts of the audience. It’s important to remember

that prolonged eye contact can make your listener uncomfortable.

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2. Present pleasant facial expressions. The expression on a person’s face can be

communicative. You need only to look at someone whom you cannot hear to know

how much a facial expression can communicate. You can tell how a person feels by

noting a raised eyebrow, a wrinkled brow, or a tight-lipped smile. Facial expressions

add dimension to communication and can turn a very plain message into an interesting

or entertaining message.

• A smile is an important part of facial expression. Of course, smiling is not

appropriate in all communication situations, but smiling puts people at ease

and indicates the pleasure you take in communicating with others.

• Often, you know little of your own facial expressions. Since many of these

expressions are natural responses to the communication context, it is

difficult to be conscious of all facial communication. Since the naturalness

of facial expression is important, facial expression can be seen as

“mugging.”

• Make-up is part of grooming, but it can also be part of facial expression.

Use of make-up should be appropriate to the situation and should draw

attention to the face in a positive way.

3. Gesture appropriately. People usually move their arms, hands and fingers when they

speak. Some people do this instinctively even when speaking on the phone. When

properly used, gestures can help you communicate your enthusiasm and sincerity.

Gestures vary from culture to culture; it is important to have a rough idea about the

cultural belief of your audience. Gestures come in two types:

• Emphatic gestures allow a speaker to provide emphasis for the spoken word.

Such gestures include shrugging, nodding, enumerating, pointing etc.

• Descriptive gestures allow a speaker to describe something. Imagine using

a flat hand in a palm-down position to show that something is flat or smooth.

These gestures help a listener visualize what the speaker is talking about.

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4. Maintain good posture. You posture helps you communicate your mood, attitude and

interest in a topic. When communicating with others, sit or stand upright (but not stiff)

posture as this sends a message of confidence and competence. Lean slightly towards

your listener to show that you are receptive and interested in what they have to say.

Avoid speaking whilst facing away from your audience as this shows disinterest and

insincerity.

5. Keep your distance. Proximity is how physically close you are to your audience.

People expect you to respect their personal space and they feel uncomfortable when

you intrude it. Appropriate proximity is affected by the relationship that you have with

the listener and your cultural norms.

Hall identifies four distances that we keep between ourselves and other people,

depending on the type of encounter and the nature of the relationship:

Intimate distance: 0 to 18 inches

Personal distance: 18 inches to 4 feet

Social distance: 4 to 12 feet

Public distance: 12 feet to limit of sight

i. Intimate distances ranges from the point of touch to 18 inches from the other

person. At this distance physical distance is natural; we can make love or wrestle.

At this distance our senses are in full operation. They are easily stimulated but

also easily offended.

ii. Personal distance ranges from 18 inches to 4 feet. At this distance, you can still

hold hands or shake hands. This is the most common distance between people

talking informally at work, or parties. If you reduce personal distance to intimate

distance, you are likely to make the other person feel uncomfortable. If you

increase it, the other person is likely to feel rejected.

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iii. Social Distance ranges from 4feet to 12 feet. At the social distance, in contrast to

the personal distance—we are not likely to share personal concerns. Distance used

to communicate feelings which are not private or revealing. In business the

primary protector of social distance is the desk. The greater the distance the more

formal their encounters.

iv. Public distance ranges from 12 feet and farther. It is commonly reserved for

strangers with whom we do not wish to have an interaction.

The point to remember regarding intimate, personal, social and public distances is that

space speaks. Becoming aware of how people use space and of how you can use it can

improve your communication. Be wary of signs of discomfort in your listener which

may include looking away, stepping backwards, turning their body at an angle to you,

or folding their arms over their chest.

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➢ META COMMUNICATION

When we communicate about communication, we are using meta communication. Meta

Communication occurs at three different levels/stages: anticipatory, adaptive and

reflective. In other words, we can communicate before, during and after communication.

Anticipatory Meta Communication: This is communication more on intrapersonal level.

You anticipate the upcoming communication and plan for it. By thinking through (in a

way talk to self) about the communication yet to come, you avoid problems that could

come about in the message. This takes place on interpersonal level, through sharing of

ideas beforehand.

Adaptive Meta Communication: When we talk and listen at the same time, we are carrying

out adaptive communication. When we stop to think about our communication, we are

practicing meta communication and adapting to the response we are getting from those

who are listening to us.

Reflective Meta Communication: This takes place when we think about communication

‘after the fact,’ we are involved in reflective meta communication. This kind of reflection

helps us understand what we did well, what we still need to do and how we can improve.

The following table gives a summary of meta communication.

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➢ RHETORICAL DEVICES

A rhetorical device is a technique that an author or speaker uses to convey to the listener

or reader a meaning with the goal of persuading him or her towards considering a topic

from a different perspective, using sentences designed to encourage or provoke an

emotional display of a given perspective or action. They can be used to evoke an emotional

response in an audience but that is not their primary purpose. Listed below are a few

examples of the common rhetorical devices used in everyday speech:

1. Alliteration is the recurrence of initial consonant sounds. The repetition can be

juxtaposed.

• Quincy’s quilters quit quilting quickly.

• Vivien is very vixen-like and vexing.

• Zachary zeroed in on zoo keeping.

• Orson’s owl outperformed ostriches.

2. Antithesis establishes a clear, contrasting relationship between two ideas by joining

them together or juxtaposing them, often in a parallel structure.

• That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.

• Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing.

• Speech is silver, but silence is gold.

• Man proposes, God disposes.

3. Allusion is a short, informal reference to a famous person or event.

• She was a Good Samaritan yesterday when she helped an old man cross the

road. (This refers to the story of the Good Samaritan who was the only one

to stop and help a man in need.)

• He has Mugabe’s resilience. (This refers to Mugabe’s refusal to resign in

the face of national revulsion.)

• It is raining so hard, I hope it doesn’t rain for 40 days and 40 nights. (This

refers to the story of Noah and the biblical flood.)

• You are a Solomon when it comes to making decisions. (This refers to the

story of King Solomon, the wisest man who ever lived.)

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4. Analogy compares two things, which are alike in several aspects, for explaining or

clarifying some unfamiliar or difficult idea or object by showing how the idea or object

is like some familiar one.

• Finding a good man is finding a needle in a haystack.

• Explaining a joke is dissecting a frog. You understand it better, but the frog

dies in the process.

• That movie was a roller coaster ride of emotions.

• Tree is to leaf as flower is to petal.

While simile and analogy often overlap, the simile is generally a more artistic likening,

done briefly for effect and emphasis, while analogy serves the more practical end of

explaining a thought process or a line of reasoning or the abstract in terms of the

concrete, and may therefore be more extended.

5. Personification metaphorically represents an animal or inanimate object as having

human attributes - attributes of form, character, feelings, behaviour, and so on. Ideas

and abstractions can also be personified.

• Time flew and before we knew it, the semester was over.

• The wind howled its mighty objection.

• The stars danced playfully in the moonlit sky.

• Vernon did not realize that opportunity was knocking at his door.

6. Hyperbole deliberately exaggerates conditions for emphasis or effect. In formal

writing the hyperbole must be clearly intended as an exaggeration, and should be

carefully restricted.

• I’ve loved you for a thousand years.

• He is as skinny as a toothpick.

• This car goes faster than the speed of light.

• I am so hungry I could eat a horse.

7. Understatement deliberately expresses an idea as less important than it actually is,

either for ironic emphasis or for politeness and tact. There are several different types

49

of understatements. A comedic understatement adds humour to an otherwise serious

situation. A modest understatement is used instead of bragging or boasting about

something. A polite understatement is used in difficult situations when you may

disagree with someone’s opinion but still want to remain polite.

• Referring to Oprah Winfrey, an understatement would be: “She has some

money.” (comedic)

• You get the highest grade in class. An understatement would be: “I did OK

on that test.” (modest)

• There is a hurricane at your vacation home and there is most likely severe

damage to the house. An understatement would be: “At least the plants will

get watered.” (comedic)

• Someone asks you to describe someone who is very short. An

understatement would be: “Well, he’s not tall.” (polite)

8. Simile is a comparison between two different things that resemble each other in at least

one way. In formal prose the simile is a device both of art and explanation, comparing

an unfamiliar thing to some familiar thing known to the reader.

• The soul in the body is like a bird in a cage.

• She’s as cute as a kitten.

• Her soul is as cold as ice.

• He is as innocent as a lamb.

9. Litotes are understatements that use negation to express a positive.

• That’s not too bad. (In this sentence, the negative terms are “not” and “bad.”

The meaning of this sentence is that “that” is actually “good.” However, it’s

not really good; or else the speaker would have said that. The speaker is

trying to state a positive without being too complimentary, because the

speaker does not really want to be complimentary.)

• It is not uncommon for slaves even to fall out and quarrel among

themselves.

• I cannot disagree with your point of view.

• Your performance in the exam was not too poor.

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10. Epithet is an adjective or adjective phrase appropriately qualifying a subject (noun) by

naming a key or important characteristic of the subject.

• Jesus, “the Saviour”

• Napoleon, “the Conqueror”

• Alexander, “the Great”

• Hitler, “the Tyrant”

➢ PUBLIC SPEAKING

The age of communication has unavoidable impacts upon you. It has brought you into a

class on public communication, and, unless you manage to live a hermit’s life, it will

demand that you communicate publicly, often orally, with a great variety of audiences in

diverse situations – at work or school, in clubs, and associations, during political events

and church gatherings. To be an adept public speaker, both speaking skills and listening

skills are important.

Public speeches perform four important functions for a society:

• Speeches are used for self-definition e.g. Memorial Day, labour Day, dedications

of monuments, centennial celebrations.

• Speeches are used to spread information through a community e.g. Presidents

Press Conference.

• Speeches are used to debate questions of fact, value, and policy in communities

e.g. Radio and Television Interviews

• Speeches are used to bring about individual and group change e.g. the

Constitutional Review Commission Presentations on TV, Radio and in Conference

rooms around the country.

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ESSENTIAL STEPS IN SPEECH PREPARATION: FOUR STAGES OF SPEECH MAKING

STAGE ACTIVITY

Topic selection Analyze yourself

Analyze your audience

Consider the occasion

Select your subject area

Narrow your topic

Topic Development Gather Support

Organize materials

Conduct an oral tryout and

revise

Presentation Work to control anxiety

Rehearse the presentation

Deliver the presentation

Post presentation Analysis Conduct a post presentation

analysis

Style: Style involves selecting of words, arraying them in sentences, and then decide how

to reveal yourself-image to that group of listeners. Using these styles can be personal, or

impersonal, literal or ironic, plain or elevated, even philosophical or poetic. Such labels

refer to combinations of vocabulary, syntax, and images of the speaker.

In short, style includes those aspects of language use that convey impressions of speakers,

details of the world and emotional overtones.

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PRESENTATION (DELIVERY): DEALING WITH ANXIETY AND SPEECH FRIGHT

Fear or anxiety is something that affects most public speakers. Speech fright or speech

apprehension is the fear of speaking to an audience. Note that you must display some

level of anxiety to be categorized as ‘normal’. If you had no anxiety about speaking in

public, you would not be considered normal; what is more, you would probably not be a

very effective speechmaker.

a) Causes of Speech Apprehension: the following are some of the more common

causes of speech apprehension.

• Fear of Inadequacy: Adequacy is the state of feeling confident and capable.

Inadequacy is the opposite; feeling inferior, and incapable.

• Fear of the unknown: Each new event has a threatening, an unknown quality that

many people prefer not to deal with. Although we understand what is likely to happen

before an audience or in the mind of a reader, we let our feelings take charge, causing us

to react emotionally and behave irrationally.

• Fear of being judged: sometimes we become so sensitive to the judgments of others

that we try to avoid judgment altogether. Public speaking is one situation in which such

an attitude is common

• Fear of Consequences: for every speech you will have both negative and positive

feedbacks, success or failure. Whatever the consequences the speaker must be ready to

deal with them.

b) Learning to cope with your Fear (Controlling anxiety):

• Design and rehearse your speech presentation carefully

• Decrease your anxiety by increasing your self-confidence

c) Symptoms of Anxiety:

i. Recognize the actual bodily sensations and thoughts that accompany and support your

feeling of nervousness:

• rapid heartbeat

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• stomach knots

• shaking of hands, arms, or legs

• dry mouth, nausea, diarrhea

• dizziness

ii.Learn how to control these reactions e.g.

• Muscle relaxation – for physical symptoms. Tense up and release muscles several

times

• Thought stopping – for overcoming mental symptoms. Stopcalm

• Visualization – this is having a positive approach. Be positive see yourself as

succeeding. Imagine your speech making success.

• Rehearsing your presentation—All speakers need to rehearse their presentations. It

makes sense that only the most unconcerned soul would undertake to deliver a speech that

they have not adequately rehearsed.

OPTIONS FOR DELIVERY

There are four general types of delivery: (1) manuscript, (2) Impromptu, (3) memorized,

and (4) extemporaneous. The most recommended is the extemporaneous delivery.

(1) Manuscript Speech: A speech read from a script. It is written word for word and

then read aloud by the speech maker. This is common where it is imperative that precise

language be used e.g. President’s speech, for sensitive legal and commercial aspects.

Disadvantage:

• It reduces eye contact between the speaker and the audience.

• It is difficult to establish the much needed conversational tone

(2) Memorized Speech: A manuscript speech committed to memory.

• Delivery style takes on a canned tone—often glaringly.

• Speakers are less able to respond to audience feedback they would be if they were

working from notes

• There is a problem of retention – memory lapses, leading to long awkward silences.

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(1) Impromptu Speech: a speech delivered spontaneously or on the spur of the

moment.

• It is the antithesis of memorized speech

• Rely on what you have learned about patterning your ideas; using the introduction,

body, conclusion format will facilitate your task.

(2) Extemporaneous Speech: A speech that is researched, outlined and delivered after

careful rehearsal.

• Speaker is free to establish eye contact and respond to feedback

• Speaker may use notes; they are not constrained by a need to commit the entire

presentation to memory.

VISUAL & VOCAL CONSIDERATIONS

When we speak in the public we have three basic kinds of tools at our disposal: (1) verbal

(2) visual (3) vocal. Since verbal has already been dealt with, we now look at visual and

vocal.

(1) Visual Cues: With visual cues, we shall look at clothing, posture, gestures, facial

expressions, movements, and use of eye contact.

a) Clothing: Before you select your wardrobe, consider the topic, the audience, and

the occasion. The clothing a speaker wears should reinforce, not detract from the

presentation. Be aware that it’s up to you to choose what you will wear. Your clothing

does not choose you. (Formal: Dark suits are recommended).

b) Posture: (standing). You are expected to be on your feet. Your posture

communicates. Some unaccepted postures are:

• Leaning on the lectern or drape themselves over it.

• Others perch one foot like a crane

• Others prop themselves against the wall behind them giving the impression they

want to disappear into it.

Recommended posture: Assume your natural posture.

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c) Gestures: movements of speaker’s hands and arms.

• They may be purposeful

• They help reinforce the content of your speech

Unwanted Gestures: scratching your neck, hands in the pocket, jingling of keys or jewelry,

smoothing the hair, such manners become intensified in stressful moments.

d) Movement and Facial Expressions: the way you rise and approach the speakers

stand communicates a first impression to your listeners. Consider carefully your way of

moving to and from the speakers stand. The way you move communicates whether you

are in control or not.

Facial expressions as your complete your speech and your walk as you return to

your seat also send important signals to your audience. Some movements and facial

expressions apologize for a poor showing.

To show confidence, walk with head erect, and in a straight path. Proceed assuredly

and use open rather than closed arm movement.

e) Eye contact: also communicate. Be sure that your gaze includes all the members

of the audience. Such contact will draw even the most reluctant listeners into your

presentation.

(2) Vocal Considerations

The voice is our main tool in speech making. The voice is to your speech as the artists

brush is to a painting – it carries color, just as the voice transmits ideas to your listeners.

Work on the four basic vocal dimensions: volume, rate, pitch, and quality.

a) Volume: Maintaining your voice at an appropriate volume is your responsibility

b) Pitch: Try not to fall into the monotone trap; it creates boredom. Use pitch to reflect

the emotional content of your material; use it to create interest.

c) Rate: speaking too quickly or too slowly can impede understanding. Respond to

feedback from your audience and speed up or slow down your pace as appropriate.

**Non-fluencies are a problem every public speaker needs to consider—uuhs,

uums, are normal in communication encounter but not in public speaking. Public speakers

are expected to have prepared their remarks carefully, and thus the audience is less tolerant

to their non-fluencies.

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GIVING THE SPEECH SOME FINAL TIPS

Public speaking should be a rewarding and enjoyable experience, not just for your audience

but for you as well.

1. Arrive at your speaking location with ample time to spare. Be sure that you have

prepared equipment to hold your notes and presentation aids.

2. If using public address system test it before hand, adjust volume accordingly.

3. Consider your clothing and appearance but do not distract yourself with worries about

appearance while you are speaking.

4. Let your audience know you are prepared by the way you rise when introduced and by

walking confidently to the podium.

5. While speaking work to transmit a sense of enthusiasm and commitment to your

listeners.

6. Complete your speech before returning to your seat. You have worked hard to

communicate your credibility to the audience members; do not blow it in the last few

seconds. Last impressions, life first impressions count.

Evaluating Your Effectiveness

You and your listeners can evaluate your speech by analyzing how effectively you were

able to handle each of the following: content, organization, language, and delivery.

1. Content: Was the subject of speech appropriate, worthwhile, purpose communicated

research, visual aids helpful? Were the main points adequately developed?

2. Organization:

• effective organizational approach

• attention of the audience

• Preview of the main points

• Logical arrangements of points

• Conclusion: provide sense of closure; motivate listeners to keep thinking about the

presentation thereafter.

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3. Language:

• Clear

• Vivid

• Speech sound as if it should be listened to or read

• Words or phrases (may considered offensive to members of audience)

4. Delivery:

• Maintain effective eye contact

• Approach speaking situation confidently

• Able to use extemporaneous style delivery

• Heard easily

• Speaking at appropriate rate

• Articulate clearly

• Convey sense of enthusiasm

• Gestures help reinforce your content

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UNIT 3: EXERCISE

1. List some tips that one would use to organize a message with clarity

effectively.

2. Discuss some of the qualities you would use to improve communication.

3. What are some of the paralinguistic cues that help a speaker to be understood?

4. Why is non-verbal communication important?

5. Differentiate emphatic gestures from descriptive gestures giving examples of

each.

6. What would be the most appropriate distance to maintain when talking to your

classmates outside the classroom?

7. Differentiate anticipatory meta communication, adaptive meta communication

from reflective meta communication.

8. Identify the rhetorical devices used in the following sentences:

a) This place is like the Garden of Eden.

b) Life is like a box of chocolates - you never know what you're going to get!

c) Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.

d) Richard the Lion-Heart fell in love with Catherine.

e) My house is a friend who protects me.

f) She is as tough as nails.

g) He is older than the hills

h) Money is the root of all evils: poverty is the fruit of all goodness.

i) Through it all, just one thing died, a little thing called love, something

deep inside.

j) He's not too handsome.

9. Differentiate similes from analogies.

10. Discuss the role of fear in speech apprehension

UNIT 3: SUMMARY

This unit discussed how to organize your message to be understood by your listener, improving

the quality of your conversations so that your listeners will be happy to talk to you again, using

vocal elements (volume, rate and inflection) effectively, the importance of non-verbal

communication, communicating about communication in meta communication, rhetorical

devices (alliteration, antithesis, allusion etc.), and public speaking.

Together with the principles learned in the first and second unit, this information will help you

become a more effective and persuasive communicator.

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UNIT 4: READING

This unit will discuss organizing your message, improving the quality of your

conversations, effective use of vocal elements, non-verbal communication, meta-

communication and rhetorical devices.

INTRODUCTION

Reading is a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols in order to construct or derive

meaning. It is a means of language acquisition, communication, and of sharing information

and ideas. It is a complex interaction between the text and the reader which is shaped by

the reader’s prior knowledge, experiences, attitudes, and language community which is

culturally and socially situated. The reading process requires continuous practice,

development and refinement.

Some types of reading are not speech-based writing systems. Examples of this include

music notation or pictograms. The common link is the interpretation of symbols to extract

the meaning from the visual notations or tactile signals as in the case of Braille.

➢ RATES OF READING

Literacy is the ability to understand and use the symbols of a writing system. Illiteracy is

the inability to derive meaning from the symbols of a writing system. Rates of reading

include reading for skimming (400-700 words per minute [wpm]), reading for

comprehension (200-400 wpm), reading for learning (100-200 wpm) and reading for

memorization (fewer than 100 wpm).

➢ METHODS OF READING

There are several types and methods of reading, with varying rates that can be

accomplished for each, for different kinds of resources and purposes:

• Subvocalized reading combines sight reading with internal sounding of the

words as if spoken. While advocates of speed reading claim that it can be a

bad habit that slows reading, other studies indicate that it can help with

comprehension, predominantly with difficult texts.

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• Speed reading is a collection of methods for increasing reading speed

without an acceptable reduction in comprehension or retention. Methods

used include skimming and chunking of words.

• Proofreading is a kind of reading to detect typographical errors.

Professional editors typically do it at a high rate.

➢ READING STRATEGIES

There are four reading strategies that are commonly used. These are: the RAP strategy,

the RIDA strategy, the Five S method, and SQ3R.

a) The RAP strategy

The RAP strategy is good for textbook explanations and research articles

Read (a paragraph or a section)

Ask yourself some questions about what you have just read

Put the answers in your own words (and make notes if you need)

You can use this strategy whenever you are reading a difficult passage or when you find

your comprehension wandering from the page. By taking your eyes off the page and

making yourself reflect on the meaning of what you have just read, you will find you can

develop the ability to recall and retell yourself the information along with its relevant

importance and where it fits with other information on the topic.

You may be able to say such things as: “Okay this section is about … and the author has

made three main points which are … and … There was an example about … and the last

point was that …”

b) The RIDA strategy

The RIDA strategy relates to descriptive and narrative texts.

Read

Imagine the scene you have just read about

Describe it to yourself

Add more detail as you read

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This strategy makes you reflect on the details about places, people, actions and events and

create a picture based on the words and style of language used by an author. You can note

which imagery has the most powerful effects and add your reactions in the form of margin

notes.

c) The Five S method

The Five S method is a power-reading method that reminds students to use the appropriate

reading style and save time (Gawith, 1991).

Skim: Read the introduction, summary and first and last sentences of each paragraph.

Scan: Where is the information on …?

Select: Do you need to read all this chapter? Select sections that you need to know more

about.

Slurp: Read in-depth and more slowly selected sections. Can you tell yourself about this

concept now? Read again if necessary.

Summarise: Use a map, keywords, index cards, or questions as a framework for some

notes. Take no more than 10 minutes.

d) SQ3R

Survey: Skim through the material you are about to read, noting headings, sub-headings,

diagrams, graphs, etc. This step is used the give you a general overview of the material you

about to read.

Question: Ask yourself some questions about the material while you are reading, use the

section/chapter headings, questions at the end of chapter or reading objectives from study

guides.

Read: Read the material using a slower in-depth reading style. Pause frequently to answer

the question you have raised, then read on. Read with a pencil and make margin notes or

underline words or phrases which are important (e.g. definitions). Read all of the material,

including charts and tables.

Recite: Make notes from memory on the sections you have just read. Try to recall the main

headings and concepts.

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Review: Check your recalled notes against the section that you read. Add in anything

important that you missed out.

The use of any of these strategies in your reading will lead you to a hallmark of success for

you will gain better understanding and comprehension of what you are reading.

➢ TIPS ON READING A TEXT BOOK

(1) Read the instruction or first few paragraphs of the chapter that you have been

assigned. This lets you know what information will be covered in the rest of the

chapter.

(2) Read the conclusion. It summarizes the most important points in the chapter and

briefly explains their significance. It is helpful to be aware of these main points

before you start your close reading.

(3) Skim the entire assignment. Read the first sentence of each paragraph and take

note of headings, and illustrations. This will give you a general idea of what the

chapter covers.

(4) Read the entire assignment carefully. Take your time. Keep in mind the points

mentioned in the introduction and conclusion. If an idea or explanation is unclear

to you, take the time to re-read the section until you understand it. If re-reading

does not clarify it, write down your question(s) to ask your lecturer.

(5) Take notes as you read, write down important points that you want to remember.

Do not try to include everything and do not take time to write complete sentences.

A few words or phrases can help you remember a complex set of facts or ideas.

Your notes will be helpful to your study and exam time. In fact, the act of writing

notes helps you to understand and learn the information.

(6) When you see unfamiliar words in your reading, take a moment to figure out the

meaning. Often words that relate specifically to the subject of your reading are

usually important.

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UNIT 4: EXERCISE

1. Differentiate literacy from illiteracy.

2. Enumerate the different rates of reading.

3. Discuss the different methods of reading.

4. List some tips that one would use to organize a message with clarity effectively.

5. Differentiate the RAP strategy from the Five S method.

UNIT 4: SUMMARY

This unit discussed rates of reading, methods of reading (subvocalized, speed and

proofreading), reading strategies (RAP, RIDA, Five S, SQ3R), and tips on how to read a

textbook.

This information will help you choose effective approaches to use when reading different academic

and non-academic texts. It will also help in improving your comprehension of various texts.

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UNIT 5: ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR

This unit will discuss parts of speech, subject-verb agreement and sentences.

INTRODUCTION

Grammar is the set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses, phrases, and

words in any given natural language. This lecture identifies many of the grammatical

elements which comprise English. It does not present grammatical rules, but simply defines

the most important pieces that go into the construction of English sentences.

Many of these definitions and examples are extracted from The Allyn & Bacon Handbook,

4th edition (Rosen, L.J., and Behrens, L., Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2000) and Grammar and

Composition Handbook, Glencoe, (2000)

➢ PARTS OF SPEECH

1. NOUNS:

A noun is a word that names a person, a place, a thing, or an idea

Types of nouns

a) Proper noun: the name of a person, place or thing, or idea e.g.

Person: Peter, Bwalya, Michelo

Place: Lusaka, University of Zambia, Lake Kariba

Thing: car, plate, shoes, hair

Idea: humanism, Shakespearean age, Judaism

A proper noun is capitalized.

b) Common noun: the general – not the particular- name of a person, place, thing, or

idea e.g.

Person: artist, uncle, poet

Place: country, lake, school

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Thing: train, vehicle, play

Idea: era, religion, movement

A common noun is usually not capitalised unless it is the first word of a sentence.

c) Count nouns: things which can be counted e.g.

Victoria brought eighteen cups to the party.

Moonga bought four houses.

Victor has two sets of twins.

d) Mass nouns: designate things which cannot be counted e.g. water, air, dirt, sugar

The air was fragrant with the smell of lilacs.

Lusaka gets its supply of water from Kariba Dam.

Wipe off the dirt on your feet.

e) Concrete nouns: name objects that occupies space or can be recognized by any of

the senses (sight, smell, hearing, taste, touch) e.g. air, melody, stone, aroma, heat,

food. Concrete nouns also name tangible objects e.g.

Please place the clock on the mantle.

I will visit the shop this afternoon.

f) Abstract nouns: names an idea, a quality, or a characteristic e.g. attitude, dignity,

loyalty, sadness, temperature.

Ambition is a two-edged sword.

Honesty is one of Mutinta’s best qualities.

Christians live a life of hope.

g) Collective nouns: a noun in a singular form but names a group e.g. family, audience,

herd, troop, company, committee, band, jury, team, flock.

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A collective noun is sometimes considered singular and sometimes considered

plural. If you are talking about a group as a whole acting together, consider the

collective noun singular. (sometimes the word its will refer to the collective noun

used as a singular noun.) If you are talking about the individual members of a

group, consider the collective noun plural. (sometimes the word their will refer to

the collective noun used as a plural noun.

Examples:

Singular: The jury is ready with its verdict

Each class is expected to complete the voting process by 11.00 A.M

The family went on vacation together.

Plural: The jury are comparing their interpretations of the evidence.

The audience rise to their feet and cheer.

2. VERBS

A word that expresses action or a state of being and is necessary to make a

statement.

a) Transitive verbs (an action verb followed by a word or words that answer the

question what? Or Whom?)

George built a tree house for his son.

b) Intransitive verbs (a verb that is not followed by a direct object)

Mona smiled slyly.

The door swung wildly (the verb is followed by a word that tells how)

c) Linking verbs (a verb that links, or joins, the subject of a sentence (often a noun

or a pronoun) with a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective that identifies or describes

the subject. A linking verb does not show action.

Be in all its forms – am, is, are, was, were—is the most commonly used linking

verb.

Examples:

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The person behind the mask was you

The players are ready

Football is an outdoor sport.

They were sports fans.

Other verbs that can be linking verbs:

Look remain seem become.

Stay grow appear sound.

Taste smell feel turn.

Examples:

This salad tastes good.

The sun feels warm on my shoulders.

You look comfortable.

The leaves turned brown.

Joan seems content in her new position.

d) Auxiliary verbs: The most common auxiliary verbs are forms of be and have. They

help the main verb express time by forming the various tenses

Auxiliary verbs

Forms of be Am, is, are, was, were, being, been

Forms of have Has, have, had, having

Other

auxiliaries

Can, could,

do,

does, did

May, might,

Shall,

should

Must

Will, would

Examples:

I have gone to see the doctor. (express time)

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We will weed the garden this morning. (express time)

e) modal auxiliary verbs: help a verb to express urgency, obligation, and likelihood.

Examples of common modal verbs.

Can

Could

May

Might

Must

Ought to

Shall

Should

Will

Would

Verbals

[Gerund] Parenting is a science and an art.

Roberto was weary of acting a false role.

[Participle] The edited manuscript was 700 pages.

The employee processing your request is named Sheila.

[Infinitives] To parent well requires endless patience.

The employee to process your request is Sheila.

She wanted to process your request as soon as possible.

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3. ADJECTIVES

An adjective is a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun by limiting its meaning. An

adjective tells what kind, which one, how many, or how much.

Our favourite people and our favourite stories become so not by any inherent value, but

because they illustrate something deep in the grain. (Joan Didion) (nouns: people,

stories, value.)

4. ADVERBS

An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb

The following sentences illustrate the use of adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives, and

adverbs.

Modifying verbs: Never swim alone

He has seldom complained.

Modifying adjectives: The movie was very scary and too long.

Modifying Adverbs: She almost always waited quite patiently.

[Descriptive] The poor unwittingly subsidize the rich.

Poverty almost always can be eliminated.

Conjunctive Adverb is used to clarify the relationship between clauses of equal

weight in a sentence. When a conjunctive adverb is used between clauses, a

semicolon precedes the conjunctive adverb and a comma follows it.

Example:

• The civilization of the Incas was advanced; however, they never invented the

wheel.

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• In early school grades, simple processes like addition are taught. By late

fourth grade, however, students are introduced to the basics of algebra.

There are many conjunctive adverbs, and they have many uses, as the following

examples show:

Examples:

To replace and: also, besides, furthermore, moreover

To replace but: however, nevertheless, nonetheless, still

To state a result: accordingly, consequently, then, therefore, thus

To state equality: equally, indeed, likewise, similarly

5. PRONOUNS

This is a word that takes the place of a noun, a group of words acting as a noun, or

another pronoun. The word or group of words to which a pronoun refers is called

its antecedent.

Examples:

(a) Personal Pronoun refers to a specific person, place, thing, or idea by indicating

the person speaking (the first person), the person or people being spoken to (second

person), or any other person, place, thing, or idea being discussed (the third person).

Like a noun, a personal pronoun expresses number, that is, it can be singular or

plural

Personal Pronouns

Singular Plural

First person I, me we, us

Second Person you you

Third Person he, him, she, her, it they, them

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Examples:

First person: The song was dedicated to me. (me refers to the person speaking)

Second Person: Sam will copy the document for you. (you refers to person being

spoken to)

Third Person: She gave him the news. (she and him refer to people being talked

about)

(b) Relative pronouns: used to begin a special subject-verb word group called a

subordinate clause.

Relative Pronouns: who, whom, whoever, whomever, whose, which, whichever,

whatever, that, what.

The committee members, who belonged to the candidate's party, voted for

censure. The pollution, which began in 1968, has now reached dangerous levels.

The meal that you prepared was delicious

Whoever joins the debt club will travel across the country.

(c) Interrogative Pronouns: they are used to form questions

Interrogative Pronouns: who, what, whomever, whom, which, whatever, whose,

whoever, whichever.

Examples:

Who is at the door?

Whom would you prefer?

Whose is this coat?

What is for lunch?

Which of these books is your favourite?

Whatever were you thinking of?

(d) Demonstrative pronoun: points out specific persons, places, things, or ideas.

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Demonstrative Pronouns

Singular: this that

Plural: these those

Examples:

This is your locker.

That is your assignment.

These are the shrubs to be trimmed.

My uniform is cleaner than those.

These officials overcame partisan loyalties.

This event shows the vitality of our political system.

(e) Intensive Pronoun adds emphasis to another noun or pronoun in the same

sentence. An intensive pronoun does not add information to a sentence. If the

intensive pronoun is left out, the sentence still has the same meaning. Often, but

not always, an intensive pronoun comes immediately after its antecedent.

Examples:

The president himself cannot control economic forces.

The chemical itself can be extracted through heating.

You must sign the application yourself.

Martha herself made the bridesmaids’ dresses.

(f) Reflexive Pronoun refers to the subject of the sentence, indicating that the same

person or thing is involved. A reflexive pronoun always adds information to a

sentence.

Examples:

• The workers did not have the skills to help themselves through the transition

period.

• We imagined ourselves passing the exam.

• Jim uses a stopwatch to time himself on the track

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• She taught herself to play the guitar.

(g) Indefinite Pronoun refers to persons, places, things, or ideas in a more general

way than a noun does.

Examples:

• Everybody who sees the movie will rave about it. (everybody—refers to

people in general)

• Somebody embezzled the funds. (somebody—general, any one person)

• Did you get enough to eat? (enough—general, not specific amount)

Some Indefinite Pronouns

All both everything nobody others

Another each few none several

Any either many no one some

Anybody enough most nothing somebody

Anyone everybody much one someone

Anything everyone neither other something

(h) Reciprocal Pronouns refer to the separate elements of a plural noun. E.g.

The justices implicated each other in the bribery scandal.

The products complement one another

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6. PREPOSITIONS

A word that shows the relationship of a noun or a pronoun to another word in a

sentence.

For example:

i. single-word prepositions

We did not want to leave during the performance. (shows relationship between’

leave’ and the object of the preposition ‘the performance’)

Here is a gift for you. ( for relates gift to the object of the preposition, you)

Fold the eggs into the batter, and add three teaspoons of vanilla while stirring.

(into shows relationship between eggs and the object of preposition, batter)

Commonly used prepositions

Aboard beneath in regarding

About beside inside respecting

Above besides into since

Across between like through

After beyond near throughout

Against but (except) of to

Along by off toward

Amid concerning on under

Among despite onto beneath

Around down opposite until

As during out up

At except outside upon

Before excepting over with

Behind for past within

Below from pending without

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ii. Compound prepositions: a preposition that is made up of more than one word.

For example:

Except for Brandon, all the students went on the field trip.

Because of the lack of non-verbal cues, miscommunication often occurs during

online communication.

According to Professor Andrea Lunsford, collaboration is an essential element in

any piece of communication.

Compound prepositions

According to because of instead of

Ahead of except for next to

Along with except for on account of

Apart from in addition to on top of

Aside from in front of out of

As to in spite of owing to

7. CONJUNCTIONS

A conjunction is a word that joins single words or group of words.

Types of Conjunctions

a) Coordinating conjunctions: joins words or group of words that have equal

grammatical weight in a sentence. Notice that only a comma is used with a

coordinating conjunction to separate the clauses.

Examples of coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, so, nor, yet, for

For example:

Mary and John are cousins. (two nouns)

Joe was smart but irresponsible. (two adjectives)

Put the books on the table or in the cabinet. (two prepositional phrases)

I want a new school bag, so I bought one (two complete thoughts)

He did not complain, nor did he object to our plan (two complete thoughts)

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b) Conjunctive adverbs: used to clarify the relationship between clauses of equal weight

in a sentence. Conjunctive adverbs are usually stronger, more precise, and more

formal than coordinating conjunctions. When a conjunctive adverb is used between

clauses, a semicolon precedes the conjunctive adverb and a comma follows it.

(examples of conjunctive adverbs are already given)

c) Correlative Conjunctions work in pairs to join words and group of words of equal

grammatical weight in a sentence.

Correlative Conjunctions

both...and just as ,,, so not only... but (also)

either...or neither... nor whether...or

Correlative conjunctions make the relationship between words or groups of words a

little clearer than do coordinating conjunctions

Examples:

Coordinating conjunctions correlative conjunctions

He and I were there. Both he and I were there

She will sew new curtains, Either she will sew new curtains,

Or I will put up the old blinds. Or I will put up the old blinds

I scrubbed and waxed the floor. I not only scrubbed but also waxed the floor.

d) Subordinating conjunctions: joins two clauses, or thoughts, in such a way as to

make one grammatically dependent on the other. The thought, or clause, that a

subordinating conjunction introduces is said to be “subordinate,” or dependent,

because it cannot stand by itself as a complete sentence.

Examples:

She will come if she can.

I will go with you wherever you go.

No one may leave until the exam is over.

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Common Subordinating Conjunctions

After as though since until

Although because so long as when

As before so (that) whenever

As far as considering (that) than where

As if if though whereas

As long as inasmuch as till wherever

As soon as in order that unless while

8. Interjections

A word or a phrase that expresses emotion or exclamation. An interjection has no

grammatical connection to other words.

• Oh, my! What is that?

• Ouch! It’s hot.

9. EXPLETIVES

(1) In grammar, a construction that begins with the word here, there, or it and is followed

by a form of the verb to be. Rather than providing a grammatical or structural meaning as

the other structure-word classes do, the expletives--sometimes defined as 'empty words'--

generally act simply as operators that allow us to manipulate sentences in a variety of

ways."

(Martha Kolln, Understanding English Grammar, 1998) Some examples of expletives are

as follows:

• “It is easy when we are in prosperity to give advice to the afflicted." (Aeschylus)

• “There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics." (Benjamin Disraeli)

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• “Here is the test to find whether your mission on earth is finished. If you're alive, it isn't."

(Richard Bach)

It is a truth universally acknowledged that jobs for academicians are scarce.

There are no good reasons for opposing this legislation.

➢ SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. The subject is the part

of the sentence that names whom or what the sentence is about. The predicate is the part

of the sentence that says something about the subject. Both the subject and the predicate

can consist of more than one word.

A. The simple subject is the key noun or pronoun that tells what the sentence is about. The

simple predicate is the verb or verb phrase that expresses an action or a state of being about

the subject of the sentence.

Simple Subject Simple Predicate

Things change

Jesus wept

The president will address us

B. The complete subject consists of the simple subject and all the words that modify it. The

complete predicate consists of the simple predicate, or verb, and all the words that modify

it or complete its meaning.

Complete subjects Complete Predicates

Large dogs were barking at the strangers on the side walk

Many things change daily

Talented Zambian singers will perform at the independence celebrations.

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C. A compound subject is made up of two or more simple subjects that are joined by a

conjunction and have the same verb. A compound predicate (or compound verb) is made

up of two or more verbs or verb phrases that are joined by a conjunction and have the same

subject. Conjunctions and, and or are most commonly used to join subjects in a compound

subject e.g.

• Tomatoes and carrots are healthy vegetables

• Tomatoes or carrots would add colour to the salad

D. Compound Predicate is made up of two or more verbs or verb phrases that are joined by a

conjunction and have the same subject e.g.

• Children laugh and play.

• Mary opened her book, grabbed a pencil and started her homework.

➢ SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

The form of a verb should always match the number of things in the subject. A single

subject takes a singular verb, whilst a plural subject takes a plural verb. For example:

• He sings. (singular)

• She dances. (singular)

• They laugh. (plural)

• We talk. (plural)

Unlike nouns, regular verbs in the present tense become plural by removing the letter ‘s’

from the end. In the past tense, verbs do not usually change.

• He sang.

• They sang.

• She danced.

• They danced.

• I talked.

• They talked.

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It is important to always identify the quantity of the subject and then using the appropriate

verb form. Usually, these calculations can be made without effort. However, there are

words and phrases that defy such common-sense evaluations. The following sections

explore the most frequent areas of confusion.

❖ INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

The indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, no one, everybody, and nobody are

always singular, and require singular verbs.

• Everybody wants to be a valedictorian.

• Anyone who has a brain thinks.

• No one likes failing.

It is easy to assume that a word like everybody is plural, but this is a shorthand way of

saying “each person in the group,” and therefore remains a singular word. Certain indefinite

pronouns, such as some or all, can take up either singular or plural form depending on the

quantity of things they refer to. Particulate things that are countable take on plural verbs:

• All the marbles roll away.

Non-particulate things, such as love and wind, are not countable, and therefore take

singular verbs:

• All my love dies out.

• The wind is blowing hard.

❖ COLLECTIVE AND PLURAL NOUNS

Many nouns masquerade as plural nouns but actually count as singular nouns. Words such

as audience, dozen, jury, group, panel, and team suggest a plurality of members, but when

those members act as one, the noun is singular, and takes a singular verb.

• The jury decides who lives.

• The team plays football.

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However, if members of the collective noun group are not acting as a group, the noun

becomes plural and takes on a plural verb.

• The jury are divided on whether he should live or die. (Since the jury

members do not agree unanimously, the noun jury becomes plural and takes

on a plural verb. Think about it like ‘The members of the jury are divided

on whether he should live or die.’)

• The team are going to separate stadiums. (The members of the team are

going to separate stadiums.)

A collective noun also becomes plural when more than one of the same kind of group

described by the noun appears in the sentence.

• The teams play well.

• Dozens of eggs break daily.

When you are in doubt about whether a collective noun is plural or singular in a sentence,

you should do one of two things:

• Add a modifying word, like “members” to the collective noun. (The

members of the jury are divided.)

• Use a different word entirely. (The civilians are divided.)

❖ AMOUNTS AND FRACTIONS

Nouns that express amounts of concepts like time, money and distance are singular.

• Twenty-four hours feels very long in a prison cell.

• One billion kwacha is money I can only dream of.

• Forty-two kilometres seems like too much of a distance to cover on foot.

The singularity or plurality of fractions is determined by their nouns.

• Half of the students have spouses.

• Sixty percent of the house is flooded.

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❖ PHRASES OF INCLUSION

Phrases such as along with, including, as well as, and together with do no operate on the

subject in the same way that the word and does. The word and, used to connect two nouns

or pronouns, compounds then into a plural subject. But the phrases listed below only

interrupt the link between subject and verb, leaving the subject’s quantity unchanged:

• You and I are going to grow old together. (You and I is a plural subject.)

• The mother, together with her child, looks pale. (The mother is the subject;

her child is not included in the quantity of the subject.)

❖ NEITHER AND EITHER

Whenever these pronouns appear by themselves, they are singular, even if they are used to

connect two things:

• Neither of these girls is ugly.

• Either child is capable of doing chores.

However, when they appear with the conjoining words nor (for neither) and or (for either),

the quantity of the subject closest to the verb determines the quantity of the verb:

• Neither the girls nor the damsel is ugly.

• Either the tall athletes or the dwarf is going to play Romeo in the show.

(Whenever you come across a sentence like the last one that is grammatically correct whilst

sounding strange, switch the order of the terms so that the plural element of the subject

appears closest to the verb, and use the plural form of the verb. i.e. Either the dwarf or the

tall athletes are going to play Romeo in the show.)

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❖ OTHER INTERRUPTIONS

Phrases that come between the subject and the verb (usually set off with commas,

parentheses, or dashes) do not contribute to the quantity of the verb:

• The rain in December, although periodically interrupted by sunny days, was

pretty consistent.

• My biceps (which suggest that I frequent the gym) show that I am strong.

❖ EXPLETIVE CONSTRUCTIONS: HERE AND THERE

Even though these words often appear at the beginning of a sentence (the traditional

position for subjects), when they do so, they do not necessarily operate as a subject. In

cases where here and there function in tandem with the verb to be (or one of its conjugates),

they are part of the verb phrase rather than part of the subject:

• There are three boys in the house.

• Here are my books.

In these cases, the subject of the sentence follows the verb, but still determines the quantity

of the verb. Should you encounter problems when pairing subjects with verbs, consider

re-composing the sentence according to a different pattern.

➢ SENTENCES

In this section, we shall concentrate on the ways in which words combine into structures

of phrases, clauses and sentences. These four grammatical units – words, phrases, clauses,

and sentences – constitute a hierarchy. The sentence is at the highest level in the hierarchy,

the word is at the lowest. Within the hierarchy:

A sentence consists of one or more clauses

A clause consists of one or more phrases

A phrase consists of one or more words.

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Classification of Sentences

Definitions:

a) A sentence is a syntactic category of expression usually composed of at least a noun

phrase followed by a verb phrase.

b) A sentence is a sequence of words that conform to the rules of syntax which are well

formed or grammatical e.g.

i. Salome danced for Herod

ii. For danced Herod Salome*

The Judgment for grammatical and ungrammatical forms depends on one’s linguistic

intuitions e.g.

iii. Colourless green ideas sleep furiously.

iv. A verb crumpled the milk.

Although these sentences do not make much sense, they are syntactically well formed.

Unlike the following strings:

v. Furiously sleep ideas green colourless. *

vi. Milk the crumpled verb a*

From the examples above, we conclude that a sentence is a group of words with subject

verb and an object (SVO). This is the basic sentence pattern for usually action moves

from subject to object.

Traditionally, sentences are classified as simple, compound, or complex according to their

eternal clause composition.

Simple Sentence

A sentence consisting of one clause is a simple sentence.

Varieties of a Simple Sentence:

a) Loose Strung Along Sentence: This shows the natural stringing of thoughts as they

come e.g. It puts the subject and verb early e.g.

i. I saw him last week.

ii. Collins kicked the ball.

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b) Periodic Simple Sentence: The ideas hang until all interconnections are locked by the

final word, at the period e.g.

iii. Cindy, the strongest physical trainer, the slender and gorgeous young lady,

hates James.

A periodic sentence is one that suspends its meaning until the end, usually with subject and

verb widely separated, and the verb as near the end as possible. Such sentences are used

to create suspense or emphasis. They magnify a part of a sentence.

c) Passive simple Sentence: Follows the strung along sentence pattern. In most cases it

reverses the subject and object and puts the action backward e.g.

iv. Active: Sam love Victoria.

Passive: Victoria is loved by Sam.

The passive sentence is not recommended in writing. It uses more words and puts events

backwards. It slows down or disrupts action.

d) Extended Subject: e.g.

v) King Lear, proud old and childish, probably aware that he was losing grips of his

kingdom, made a foolish decision.

e) Extended Object Sentence: e.g.

vi. He finally wrote the paper, a long desperate perambulation without effect much as an

idea at all.

Simple Sentence: He finally wrote the paper.

f) Extended Verb Sentence: e.g.

vii. She talked, softly, sweetly that everybody fell in love with her.

Simple active sentences can be improved by phrase colouring subject, verb, object or all

three in various ways e.g. you may complicate the subject (by adding adjectives) as in (d)

(v).

Or the object e.g.

vii. Her notebooks contain marvellous comments on the turtle in the backyard, the

flowers and weeds, the great elm by the drive, the road, the earth, the stars and the men

and women of the village.

OR the verb e.g.

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viii. A good speech usually begins quietly, proceeds sensibly, gathers momentum, and

finally moves even the most indifferent audience.

Helpful Hints on Using Simple Sentences

1. Maintain normal word order.

2. Add interruptive words to create suspense

3. Add interruptive phrases to extend desired parts

4. Complicate the subject, verb or object for emphasis

5. Use passive verb to create suspense.

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses at the same grammatical level. Each

of the clauses is a main clause, and probably each could be an independent sentence.

A compound sentence is made by linking together simple sentences with a coordinating

conjunction (and, but, or, not, for, so) or with a colon or a semicolon. The compound links

ideas one after the other, as in the basic sentence; it represents the strung along way of

thinking.

The compound sentence coordinates, treating everything on the same level, while the

complex sentence subordinates, putting everything else somewhere below its one main

self-sufficient idea.

The compound is built on most enduring of colloquial patterns – simple sequence of things

said as they occur to the mind. It has pace, immediacy and dramatic effect of talk.

Three Basic Groups of Conjunctions

1. Three common coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or. Put a comma before

each e.g.

a) I like her, and I don’t mind saying so.

b) Art is long, but life is short.

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c) Win this point, or the game is lost

2. Conjunctive Adverbs: therefore, moreover, however, hence, thus, in fact, as a result,

nevertheless, consequently, furthermore. Put a semicolon before, and a comma after

each. e.g.

• She fooled around; consequently, she got AIDS

Consequently: Cause and effect

• She was looking for a single man; however, she got a married man.

However: creates contrast

3. Some in-betweeners: Yet, still, so—which sometimes take a comma, sometimes a

semicolon, depending on your pace and emphasis e.g.

• We long for the good old days, yet we never include the disadvantages.

• People long for the good old days; yet they rarely consider the inaccuracy of human

memory.

• The preparation had been half hearted and hasty, so the meeting was wretched.

• Rome declined into the pleasures of its circuses and couches; so the tough barbarians

conquered.

Compounding without conjunctions

The two powerful coordinators: semicolon and colon alone. For contrasts, the semicolon

is the princes of coordinators e.g.

• The dress accents the feminine; the trousers suit speakers for freedom.

• Cattle ranching demands the best of time and space; poultry, the best of personal energy.

• The government tries to get the most out of taxes; the individual tries to get the most out

of the most taxes.

Colon pulls two ‘sentences’ together without using conjunction, period, or capital. But it

signals amplification not contrasts: the second clause explains the first e.g.

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• A house with an aging furnace costs more than the asking price suggests: ten dollars

more a month in fuel means about eighty dollars more a year.

Stylistic Effect of Compound Sentences

1. Used for pacing off related thoughts and for breaking the staccato of simple statements.

2. It briskly connects cause and effect

3. It is built on enduring colloquial patterns; it has the pace, the immediacy, and dramatic

effect of talk.

COMPLEX SENTENCES

A complex sentence contains a subordinate clause as one of its constituents. In the complex

sentence below, the subordinate clause functions as a direct object of the verb understood.

The clause is introduced by the subordinator that.

• Men of rank and education in the provinces understood that the preponderance of

Roman strength doomed resistance or revolt to failure.

The difference between a complex and a compound sentence is that a complex sentence

has one sentence subordinate to the other (main sentence+ dependent sentence) whilst a

compound sentence has two complete sentences joined by a conjuction e.g.

Varieties of Complex Sentences

1. Complex Sentence using Relative Pronouns: which, that, who e.g.

predicate

i. I saw the lady who stole my purse

predicate

ii. Kevin Hart killed the snake which killed his turkey

predicate

iii. This is the pen that I used for my exam

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2. Using Subordinating Connectives: Until, although, since, where, when, if, so

that, after (to too) e.g.

i. I shall not enervate until I reach home.

ii. I got to the scene where the accident happened.

iii. Since I came to University of Zambia, I’ve never been to Levy Mall.

iv. Although it was cold, he did not wear his jacket.

Stylistic Effect:

✓ It creates suspense especially when you start with subordinating connective.

✓ Creates emphasis

✓ It also helps to indicate time, place, cause, and other qualifications.

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UNIT 5: EXERCISE

1. Analyse the sentences below and identify the parts of speech in each sentence:

a) Because I had to catch the train, and since we were short on time, I forgot to pack

my toothbrush for our vacation.

b) The museum was very interesting, as I expected.

c) John owns a wayward parrot.

d) Joshua, a robust man of pluck, found benevolence with God.

e) A baboon can be a cunning animal.

f) Dancing alone, she veered and twirled through the crowd.

g) The gifted and stunning child checkmated the grandmaster.

2. Underline the correct verb in the following sentences:

a) John (train, trains) in the park every day.

b) The dogs (bark, barks,) at strangers.

c) Fred (is, are) going to the movies.

d) The play (was, were) exciting.

e) He (worry, worries) too much.

f) The committee (leads, lead) very different lives in private.

g) Black or white (is, are) your choice.

h) That (was, were) nice.

i) The Minister of Education, together with his son, (greets, greet) the press cordially.

j) All of the CDs, even the scratched one, (is, are) in this case.

k) The cat or dog (is, are) on the couch.

l) Your pants (is, are) at the cleaner's.

m) Eight dollars (is, are) the price of a movie these days

UNIT 5: SUMMARY

This unit discussed the parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns,

prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, expletives), subjects and predicates, subject-verb

agreement in different scenarios and sentences (simple, compound, complex).

This information will be helpful in the construction of sentences that adhere to grammatical rules

while communicating with clarity.

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…………………………………………………………

End of Module 1

WORDS ARE SINGULARLY THE MOST

POWERFUL FORCE AVAILABLE TO HUMANITY. WE CAN CHOOSE TO USE THIS FORCE

CONSTRUCTIVELY WITH WORDS OF

ENCOURAGEMENT, OR DESTRUCTIVELY USING

WORDS OF DESPAIR. WORDS HAVE ENERGY

AND POWER WITH THE ABILITY TO HELP, TO

HEAL, TO HINDER, TO HURT, TO HARM, TO

HUMILIATE AND TO HUMBLE-Yehuda Berg