i

THE ROLE OF WORKERS’ EDUCATION PROGRAMMES IN RAISING

CRITICAL CONSCIOUSNESS AMONG WORKERS: A CASE OF THE MINE

WORKERS’ UNION OF ZAMBIA, IN KITWE DISTRICT.

BY

WALAMBA MULENGA TITUS

COMPUTER NUMBER:

25141601

SUPERVISOR:

Mr. A.L.H. MOONGA

THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION AND EXTENSION STUDIES

UNZA ©2014

ii

THE ROLE OF WORKERS’ EDUCATION PROGRAMMES IN RAISING

CRITICAL CONSCIOUSNESS AMONG WORKERS: A CASE OF THE MINE

WORKERS’ UNION OF ZAMBIA, IN KITWE DISTRICT.

BY

WALAMBA MULENGA TITUS

COMPUTER NUMBER:

25141601

SUPERVISOR:

Mr. A.L.H. MOONGA

A research proposal submitted to the University of Zambia, School of Education, Department

of Adult Education and Extension Studies, in partial fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of

Adult Education Degree (B.A.E.).

THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION AND EXTENSION STUDIES

UNZA ©2014

iii

DECLARATION

I Walamba Mulenga Titus of computer number 25141601, hereby declare that this research

report is my own unaided work, the contents of this Research Report are entirely based on my

own findings and that I have not in any respect used any persons work without

acknowledging the same to be so. It is being submitted for the degree of Bachelor of Adult

Education at the University of Zambia main campus and has not been submitted for any

degree or examination at any other university.

I therefore bear the absolute responsibility for the contents, errors, defects and any omissions

herein.

Signature ………………………………….. Date ……………………………………

Walamba Mulenga Titus

iv

DEDICATION

To all those who against all odds pursue knowledge, this work is a demonstration that not

even poverty can defer the dream to acquire knowledge.

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people have helped me through the various stages of this research work. Although it is

impossible to mention them all by name, I feel obliged to single out some of them.

First and foremost I would like to thank God who gave me the strength and good health to

write this dissertation. I am extremely thankful to my supervisor, Mr. A.L.H Moonga, whose

keen insight and guidance greatly assisted me during this project.

The parental love generously given to me by the two most important people in my life: Lloyd

and Elizabeth Simuchimba cannot go unnoticed, it was your love and support that saw me

through, thanks for walking into my life whilst others found desertion convenient. It may not

be possible to pay back what you have given me because it is priceless, but I hope that

through my academic pursuits and achievements you may find pleasure.

I wish to express my greatest appreciation to my sisters: Elizabeth; Nancy and Mary; and my

Nieces: Anniebel; Ngawa; Ezelina; and of course not forgetting my Nephews Gilbert;

Godfrey; Joshua; Kondwani and Chikondi for their vital encouragement and support.

Special thanks also to Naomi and Beenford Kumwenda for having the confidence that I can

do all things as long as Christ is my strength. My University education would have been dull

and unbearable if it had not been for the company of Christine Katebe, Tobby Kamwale,

Prudence Nswana, Kenneth Hamalambo, Moses Kabayi; Kaputo Katebe and last but not the

least Masauso Kapantha Mwale.

Although it is impractical to list names of all those whose efforts in some way or another has

influenced not only this work but my entire education, I wish to extend many thanks to my

parents in-law Stanley and Rabecca Katebe for having treated me like their own son, my

friends and brothers Manoah Muchanga and Abraham Accra for helping to stand up each

time life‟s burdens brought me down to my knees. Last but not the least I thank my mentor

and friend Hon. Vernon Johnson Mwaanga for encouraging me to pursue the frontiers of

education.

vi

I recommend that this obligatory research report prepared under my supervision

By

Walamba Mulenga Titus

(25141601)

Entitled

THE ROLE OF WORKERS’ EDUCATION PROGRAMMES IN RAISING

CRITICAL CONSCIOUSNESS AMONG WORKERS: A CASE OF THE MINE

WORKERS’ UNION OF ZAMBIA, IN KITWE DISTRICT.

Be accepted for examination, I have checked carefully and am satisfied that it fulfils the

requirements relating to the format as laid down in the regulations governing directed

research essays.

Signature of Supervisor ……………………….…… Date ……………………………

Mr. A.L.H Moonga

vii

ABSTRACT

The central intention of this study was to investigate the role of workers education

programmes in raising critical consciousness among workers: a case study of the Mine

Workers Union of Zambia (MUZ) in Kitwe district. The general objective of the study was to

find out the nature of workers education provided by MUZ and its role in critical

conscientisation of workers. The study also sought to establish the function of workers

education; determine the role of workers education to the workers‟ critical consciousness; and

investigate the challenges faced by unions in the provision of workers education.

The research design was a survey; both qualitative and quantitative techniques were used to

collect data from the respondents, who comprised 2 officials from MUZ, 1 director of

workers education and 27 Mine workers affiliated to MUZ, thus, the total sample population

was 30. The officials from MUZ were selected using purposive sampling while the workers

were selected using stratified random sampling. The data was collected using a questionnaire

which was administered to both the officials from MUZ and the mine workers affiliated to

the MUZ.

The findings of the study showed that although workers education was imperative to raising

the critical consciousness, the nature of workers education provided to the workers was

biased to enhancing the workers‟ competence and safety at work. Workers education has a

social purpose which is aimed at promoting and developing the union presence and purposes,

so as to advance the union collectively. Despite efforts by the Mine Workers Union of

Zambia to provide workers education, the levels of political consciousness among workers

remained poor. Accidents were common in the mines and exploitation of labour often went

unquestioned. The results also showed that the provision of workers education was seasonal.

The study recommended that the provision of workers education should be consistent and it

should aim at enabling workers to contribute to the social, economic and political

development in the work place and society at large. it is only through the provision of

workers education that workers would contribute effectively to national development.

The study recommended that workers education programmes should centre on addressing the

social, economic and political issues which surrounded workers at the workplace and in their

communities. It was recommended that teachers of workers education should be trained in

appropriated methods of teaching in workers education.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page

Declaration i

Dedication ii

Acknowledgements iii

Abstract iv

Introduction 1

1.1 Background of the Study 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem 2

1.3 Purpose of the Study 3

1.4 Objectives 3

1.5 Research Questions 3

1.6 Significance of the Study 3

1.7 Scope and Limitations of the Study 4

1.8 Definition of Operational Terms 4

Literature Review 5

2.0 Introduction 5

2.1 The Type of Workers Education Provided 5

2.2 The Function of Workers Education 21

2.3 The Role of Workers‟ Education on Workers‟ Critical Consciousness 27

2.4 Challenges Faced by Unions in the Provision of Workers‟ Education 30

Research Methodology 40

3.0 Introduction 40

3.1 Research Design 40

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3.2 Population 40

3.3 Sampling Procedure and Sample Size 41

3.4 Research Instrument 41

3.5 Data Collection 41

3.6 Data Analysis 41

3.7 Ethical Considerations 41

Presentation of Findings 42

4.0 Introduction 42

4.1 Sex of Respondents 42

4.2 Education of Respondents 42

4.3 Union Membership 44

4.4 Respondents Duration of Employment 44

4.5 The Type of Workers‟ Education Provided 45

4.6 The Function of Workers Education 51

4.7 The Role of Workers‟ Education on Workers‟ Critical Consciousness 53

4.8 Challenges Faced by Unions in the Provision of Workers‟ Education 57

Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations

5.0 Introduction

5.1.0 Discussion

5.1.1 The Type of Workers Education Provided

5.1.2 The Function of Workers Education

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5.2 Conclusion

5.3 Recommendations

References 62

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Questionnaire 66

Appendix 2: Time Frame 70

Appendix 3: Budget 71

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Respondents‟ Duration as MUZ member 44

Table 2: Respondents‟ Period in Employment 45

Table 3: Methods of Teaching in Workers Education 51

Table 4: Results of Providing Workers Education to Workers 55

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Sex of Respondents 42

Figure 2: Educational Level of Respondents 43

Figure 3: Focus of Workers Education 45

Figure 4: Workers Education and Political Literacy 47

Figure 5: Workers Education and Human and Labour Rights 48

Figure 6: The Provision of Workers Education 50

Figure 7: The Role of Workers Education in Socio-economic and Political Issues 51

Figure 8: The Result of Providing Workers Education to Workers 53

Figure 9: Workers Education and Critical Consciousness 54

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Figure 10: Workers Education and Human Rights 56

Figure 11: The Role of Workers Education in Addressing Undemocratic Tendencies 57

Figure 12: The Potential of Workers Education 58

Figure 13 Respondents‟ Perception of Workers Education 59

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INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

Chapter one provides a synopsis of the study. This has been done by giving the background

to the study, which establishes what prompted the study. Workers‟ education is the education

given to enable workers to develop their productive capacities, to understand the day-to-day

problems that may confront them in their work situation and to contribute fully and

effectively towards the development of the society to which they belong (Abu, 2002).

1.1 Background of the Study

Workers' education describes programmes of adult learning associated with, or originated

from, trade unions, co-operative movements and political parties associated with organized

labour or social movements. The trade union movement needs upright people with strong

critical faculties. Only then will practice have a liberating content. Trade union training must

generate an attitude of ethical commitment, given the demanding task of achieving the

common good. This also implies promoting political awareness among workers, so that they

are in a position to judge and question historical contexts and shackling structures (Hopkins,

2007).

The fundamental objectives of workers education are the improvement of workers‟ individual

and group competencies and advancement of their social, economic and cultural interests, so

that they can become current, wise and responsible citizens able to play a part in the union as

well as a free society and to also ensure for themselves a status of dignity and respect equal to

those of their groups or individuals (Greene, 2009).

Workers are not commodities to be bought and sold like goods on the global labour market,

but are human beings with social, economic and political aspirations for their lives at work, at

home and in society.. Nonetheless, the plight of workers appears to be at the whims and

caprices of politicians and employers, exploitation of labour often go unquestioned. Workers‟

education is supposed to develop union consciousness among workers, to build common

goals and to share experiences. Workers‟ education is one of the ambits of adult education

programs geared towards empowerment. Apart from being an implement for the unions,

workers‟ education is also the laboratory in which activists cook up new ideas for mobilizing

workers, so as to face the new problems that they encounter in the workplace or which are of

more general concern to workers (Edun, 2009).

13

In Zambia prior to 1964, the trade union movement established itself as a powerful and

independent force in the industrial sector. The movement was heavily involved in political

activity and education directed towards the goal of independence. It was also involved in

creating awareness among workers of the objectives, benefits and organization of trade

unions. After Independence the trade unions organized on a national basis and formed the

Zambia Congress of Trade Unions which established a Department of Workers' Education in

1968 at its Headquarters in Kitwe. The Department, together with the individual unions,

began to develop a more systematic and structured educational programme for unionists at all

levels. One of the objectives was to initiate, plan, co-ordinate and implement ZCTU

programmes and also assisting National Unions and specialized Workers Bodies to develop

their Workers' Education activities and to train workers in political, social and economic

subjects (Saxby, 2000).

Worker‟s education has always been at the core of union action, these educational works are

sometimes termed as workers‟ education. Workers' education is not a unified concept: it has

many forms, contents, objectives and its focus changes through time. It can cover basic

literacy education, education for unions' representatives, education for changes in society, for

example, education on globalization, education for social justice, gender education and

education for action such as empowerment, organizing and many more (Ghosh, 2009).

The labour movement in Zambia has not been spared from the global challenges facing trade

unions. For example, labour exploitation and casualization of labour have become a norm in

the mining sector on the Copperbelt Province of Zambia.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Workers education aims at building up capacity for workers to face the challenges of the

world of work; therefore, the provision of workers‟ education is imperative to improving the

performance of workers. Trade unions have since time immemorial been a conduit of workers

education; they have endeavoured to provide education on political, social and other subjects

which affect the workers. Despite the benefits of workers‟ education, trade unions repeatedly

struggle with the question of what they want to achieve through workers‟ education. The

question is are they simply determined to represent members within the workplace or should

they endeavour to become key players in civil society? This is the question this study will

address; the purpose of the study is to examine the role of workers education in raising

critical consciousness among workers.

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1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of workers‟ education in raising critical

consciousness among workers.

1.4 Objectives of the study

The general objective of this study was to find out the nature of workers education and its

role in critical consciousness. Arising from this are the following specific objectives:

i. Identify the type of workers education provided by the Mine Workers‟ Union of

Zambia

ii. Establish the function of workers‟ education

iii. Determine the role of workers‟ education on workers‟ critical consciousness.

iv. Investigate the challenges faced by the Unions in the provision of workers‟ education.

1.5 Research Questions

i. What is the type of workers‟ education provided by the Mine Workers Union of

Zambia?

ii. What is the function of workers‟ education?

iii. What is the role of workers‟ education raising workers‟ critical consciousness?

iv. What are the challenges faced by the Unions in the provision of workers‟ education?

1.6 Significance of the Study

The recommendations of this study will help in the improvement of workers‟ education by

the trade unions and management. The results of this study shall also be cardinal to those

truly committed to the provision of an education system that liberates the learners from the

shackles of oppression. Genuine workers‟ education must not make the workers docile

recipients of the interests of management, but radical learners determined to transform not

only their working conditions but society as a whole.

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1.7 Scope and Limitation of the Study

The study focussed on the workers education activities provided by the Mine Workers‟ Union

of Zambia on the Copperbelt Province. The study was purely for academic purposes.

Inadequacy of financial resources restricted the researcher from considering workers

education activities provided by other unions in the mines; as a result data was only collected

from Mopani Copper Mines and the Mine Workers‟ Union of Zambia Headquarters in Kitwe.

The time frame allocated to this study, also limited the study, given that workers in the

mining sector were overwhelmed with the workload, hence, it was difficult for them to spare

time to respond to questionnaires and interviews.

1.8 Definition of Operational Terms

Critical Consciousness is a process that involves helping individuals to name the

multiple conditions of their lives, identify the limits imposed by

their situation, and take action to transform the conditions

(Freire, 1985).

Labour Education is the attempt to meet workers education need and interest as

they arise from participation in union. It is education directed

towards actions. It intends to enable workers be more effective

as unionists to help them understand society and accomplish

their obligations as citizens and to promote individual

development (London, 1990).

Trade Union an organized association of workers in a trade, group of trades,

or profession formed to protect and further their rights and

interests (Spencer, 2007).

Workers‟ Education is that form of education offered for workers with the intention

to improve the efficiency and productivity of workers and

members of society (Omole, 2009).

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LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter reviews literature related to the role of workers‟ education in bringing about

critical consciousness among workers. Throughout the history of humankind, education has

been used to transmit values and to shape behaviour. Apparently, workers education was

designed to empower workers with the knowledge of how to improve production at work,

and contribute to transformation in society. But today, workers education is only concerned

with the improvement of production at work at the expense of social transformation. The

literature shall be reviewed under the following subheadings: the meaning, aim, content and

form of workers‟ education; the function of workers‟ education; the role of workers‟

education in raising workers‟ critical consciousness; and the potential and limits of workers‟

education.

2.1 The Type of Workers Education Provided to Workers

Education is a necessity for survival of man. The concept education suggests development of

valuable knowledge and skills in a society. The educational system of any society is an

elaborate social mechanism designed to bring about in the persons submitted to it certain

skills and attitudes that are adjudged to be useful and desirable in the society. As a result of

the necessity for education, there has been the view that one who ceases to learn ceases to

exist although the one may be living. Thus, one who exists has attributes of transcending,

discerning, communicating and participating with others who exist whereas one who is

merely living does not possess these critical attributes (Freire, 1974).

Holtz (2006) opined that, in the last few decades under globalization, the very foundations of

trade unions have been undermined and that they have had to adapt to neo-liberalism to such

an extent that they can no longer play a role as agents of social change. Thus, radical adult

educators need to recognize the potential for social change in new emerging movements such

as those of the indigenous, the landless, the homeless and the unemployed, and to the global

justice movement particularly in the global South.

In general, workers' education can be understood as having two distinct branches: belonging

either to the technical/professional school or to the consciousness-raising/activist school.

From the consciousness raising perspective, the desired outcome of workers' education is

measured by the extent to which workers and their allies unites by using education to bring

17

about changes in the workplace and in the wider social context. Workers' education should

develop critical awareness and social action, as opposed to, the personal development and job

skills focus of human resources development. The educational activities of workers, when

defined by their interests, go beyond the acquiring of job skills or managing a union.

Educational activities must be an integral part of social action (Ghosh, 2009).

According to Hopkins (2009), workers education is that sector of adult education which

caters for adults in their capacity as workers and especially as members of workers

organizations. Its immediate aims are usually to increase the ability of workers to assume

more responsibilities in their own organizations, their work places and in local and national

decision making bodies. Workers education is intended to educate the workers on the contract

between employers and employees, particularly the various laws that establishes the

relationship of work.

Internationally, worker education has comprised numerous strands. Historically, these have

clustered around two dominant approaches: a radical, 'transformative' approach to which

emphasizes the building of class consciousness and can be located in a long-standing radical

or socialist tradition, and an alternative instrumental approach which can be located within a

reformist tradition of trade unionism and which prioritises training for organization building

and to facilitate the conduct of union business (Field 1988).

Spencer (2007) opined that, trade unions were established by workers to represent, protect

and defend their collective social and economic interests. However, given the complex

dimensions that these interests have assumed due to global economic and socio-political

environments, the case for continual relevant and strengthened learning processes for

personal and collective development has become an unrelenting imperative within the labour

movement. The labour movement should not only represent the interests of workers, it should

also value education as a means to strengthen workers' capacities and empower them to

transform society.

There are three areas of core union education that is: preparing and training lay members to

play an active role in the union; educating activists and members about union policy and

changes in the union environment; and developing union consciousness, building common

goals, sharing, campaigning and organizing experience. Workers‟ education has a social

purpose which is to promote and develop the union presence and purposes, so as to advance

the union collectively. However, workers' education is not only about advancing the union

18

collectively; it can also be about developing a critical political consciousness for fundamental

changes in the lives of workers and in society at large (Spencer, 2007).

Welton (1991) observed that, workers' education needs to be seen as a dimension of workers'

culture and politics, and that there are therefore notorious difficulties in delineating the

boundaries of worker education. Whereas labour schools are those spaces that workers

themselves, their leaders or sympathetic pedagogues open up for reflection on the meaning of

their work and culture, schools of labour are the socially organized workplaces where

important technical, social, political and ideological experiential learning occurs.

Some people refer to workers' education as the two hours session with workers while others

refer to it as the three days‟ workshop. Workers' education is not only a programme where

workers come to attend or participate. The scope of workers' education is not only the range

of issues and topics that are relevant. It needs to take on board the issue of access and

sustaining participation and involvement, which leads to addressing the issues affecting

workers‟ lives at the workplace, in the home and community. Workers' education starts with

identifying the interests of workers and working out ways to get access to them (Hopkins,

2009).

Workers‟ education is a process of political literacy where both educator and student must

remove themselves from their traditional roles, to free the process of education from its

domesticating tendencies. Education for domestication is an act of transferring „knowledge,‟

whereas education for freedom is an act of knowledge and a process of transforming action

that should be exercised on reality. The fundamental objective of education is the

transformation of people from the objects of history to the subjects of history. The process of

education does not occur devoid of societal influences and constraints (Freire, 1984).

In order to better understand the comprehensive underpinnings of workers‟ education, both

politically and methodologically, it is important, even if only briefly, to revisit the basic

pedagogical concepts developed by Paulo Freire (1970). In a broad sense, Freire‟s

pedagogical concerns were a response to elite domination. He saw the transformative role of

education as a process for building critical consciousness among politically disenfranchised

sectors of the population. He drew extensively on the notion of education as a dialectical

relationship where the interrelations between subjective and objective consciousness are

central conditions for social change. For Freire, education was a political-pedagogical process

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where individual and collective critical awareness were essential for social transformations,

and where non-elites increasingly expanded their political power (Fashoyin, 2002).

Omole (2009) listed some objectives of workers education as: making a responsibly

committed and disciplined operative; understanding the basic economic and technical aspects

of the industry and plant where he is employed so that he can take an intelligent interest in its

affairs; making him aware of his rights and obligations; understanding the organization and

functioning of the union as well as develop qualities of leadership, loyalty and devotion

towards trade and union work; living a clean and healthy life based on firm ethical

foundations ; and being responsible and alert citizen.

Kakkar (2009) averred that, if the objective of a workers‟ educational experiment were to

give the worker greater power of enjoyment here and now; or to develop his ability to think

fundamentally on social problems; or to help him to function more effectively as a citizen in

the solution of social problems; or to equip him to fight effectively for immediate

improvement in the conditions of labour: to train him as a leader in the trade union

movement; to interpret to him his place in the scheme of things; to give impetus to his

demand for a new order of society; to develop his sense of loyalty to his economic

organization-if the aim were any one of these things, that aim would be a legitimate aim of

workers‟ education.

Workers‟ education aims at helping workers to understand their problems and take actions to

solve them. It also helps workers to become positive thinkers and contented citizens. Through

workers‟ education the orderly development of workers in their union is ensured. It can

prevent or stem any crisis in industrial relation, with it, general standard of living of workers

can be raised. It enhances workers skills, knowledge and techniques; hence high productivity

is ascertained. Workers‟ education provides workers the opportunities to acquire new skills

relevant to their day-to-day operations and also to renew out dated and irrelevant skills. With

those skills workers will become more proficient, efficient and effective in carrying out their

official duties. In addition, workers‟ education aims at producing an educated, informed,

professional and self-reliant group of workers whose eyes are opened and always at alert to

resist any form of oppression (Abu, 2002).

Hopkins (2009) stated that, an essential element of workers' education is collective learning

in which the learners need to identify themselves as members of the labour-selling class, not

simply as individuals. This necessarily requires dialectic pedagogy, in that workers are

20

learning to improve their situation relative to the owners of capital, although it does not mean

that all collective learning is of a consciousness-raising type. Indeed, many unions have relied

on the collective-learning model but have used it to engage in technically based education.

On one hand, workers‟ education may represent a successful strategy for some unions and

workers worried about how a lack of skills may make their workplaces less competitive and

therefore lead to job losses, for others, such union-initiated technical education raises

concerns because its content often differs little from that of company-initiated training

designed to improve workers' stock of human capital such as skills and specific work-related

knowledge.

Therefore many scholars see workers' education as separate from the apolitical,

individualized, functionalist approach that is central to human resource development. This

non-workers‟ education constitutes much of mainstream adult education or the conservative

union-run workshops on leadership, collective bargaining, and health and safety. The aim of

workers' education, from this perspective is to free the learner from being simply a cog in a

system. In such a model, the role of the professional educator is quite different from that

under the human-capital model, with the educator serving not as the powerful purveyor of

knowledge but as another educational tool of the student who seeks a purposeful education

(Omole, 2009).

With the form, content, and definition of workers' education varying so widely, Hopkins

(2009) adopts a very broad definition of workers' education as that sector of adult education

which caters for adults in their capacity as workers and especially as members of workers'

organizations. Within such a broad definition, he identifies five major components, which

provide: basic general skills; role skills for union and workers' organization activity;

economic, social, and political background studies; technical and vocational training; and

cultural, scientific, and general education. This inclusive definition covers all organizations

that function to educate working adults, be they trade unions, workers' educational

associations, cooperatives, rural workers association, churches, labour colleges, or the

accredited, permanent universities.

In order to establish itself clearly as one of the most influential services that unions provide to

their members, workers‟ education should be properly designed and implemented. In this

regard, the scope of workers‟ education has always been unique and its approach different

from any other form of adult education. Its scope and content are designed to create and also

21

raise awareness among union members, activists and leaders as well as providing them with

skills to meet the difficult challenges of their workplaces and organizations. Increasingly,

workers‟ education is organized with the aim of educating target groups and making them

supportive to their organizations and better performing. It is in this context that trade unions

have a traditional obligation to ensure that their members are satisfied with the education

offered (Kester, 2002.).

Most labour union members learn about the union while on the job, often referred to as

informal or incidental learning. They probably will learn more and become most active

during negotiations, grievances and disputes, but they also learn from union publications and

communications, from attending meetings, conferences and conventions, and from the

union‟s educational programmes. Although labour education only caters to a small number of

members in any one year it is designed to benefit a larger number of members because the

course participants are expected to share the learning gained with other union members.

Labour education has a social purpose – to promote and develop the union presence and

purposes, so as to advance the union collectively (Kester, 1999.).

The most common form of work activity engaged in by union members are meetings. Worker

representatives also participate in meetings with management and in bargaining forums with

employer groupings. The primary purpose of union meetings is to take collective decisions

rather than to carry out education; nevertheless meetings are educational in that they facilitate

information-sharing amongst members, help to develop common perspectives, and contribute

to the renewal of leadership capacity at a time when worker leaders are constantly being

siphoned off into positions of greater responsibility within the union or, increasingly, into

management or government (Omole, 2009).

How can an interest in workers‟ education be awakened? What is the best way of starting a

class? How is a class taught? What methods hold interest? There is no cut and dried method

that could be laid down in answer to these questions. The problem is one of dealing with

human beings. Even if there were definite methods it would be presumptuous on our part to

suggest them as the best possible. Up to the present writing there has been little information

gathered and the experiences have been based upon a short period of time. It may not be

amiss, however, to present some of the processes and plans that have been used successfully

in organizing workers‟ classes in typical industrial centres in this country. The suggestions

are made without any sense of finality (Berg and Butler, 1970).

22

Fashoyin, (2002) mentioned that, the way a group of grown persons best educate each other

is in the method used by Socrates and his friends. It is the way of endless discussion centering

on one subject. It is almost the hardest work in the world. The results are sometimes amazing.

A grown man discovers he is beginning to grow again. Endless discussion about one subject

cannot maintain itself on words. It dies away unless it feeds on knowledge and finally

interpretation. It reaches out for facts and then for the meaning of them. In modern terms, this

Socratic Method means a class of from five to twenty-five, who read books, listen to talks,

and ask questions. They take to themselves a like-minded teacher, who is a good fellow, and

together they work regularly and hard. This is the heart of workers‟ education-the class

financed on trade union money, the teacher a comrade, the method discussion, the subject the

social sciences, the aim an understanding of life and the remoulding of the scheme of things.

Where that dream of a better world is absent, adult workers‟ education will fade away in the

loneliness and rigor of the effort.

Action is also an important aspect of the learning process; that is, real learning is

demonstrated by the participant‟s capacity to translate their intellectual understanding into

concrete action. A particularly important aspect of the program‟s methodological structure is

that the communication and debate of ideas at the centre of the learning process is not limited

to speech and writing. Knowledge can be ascertained through various mediums: art, music,

dance and cinema; even physical education is considered a form of communication (Hopkins,

1999).

A critical aspect of workers‟ educational structure is the use of pedagogical evaluations as

permanent aspects of the learning process. Continuous evaluations are an important part of

building a body of knowledge for both students and educators. Evaluations allow all those

involved in the process to continuously measure the effectiveness of the program, recognize

problems, and make changes to modules already in progress. Consequently, much like the

program‟s methodological structure, systemic and continuous evaluations are an intricate

aspect of the learning process that allows educators and students alike to reach their defined

goals. The evaluation process is based on the comparative examination of learning through

the lens of the program‟s objectives. In the evaluation process students and educator critically

examine course content and delivery as well as a self-critical analysis of the participants.

Individual intellectual developments, as well as general capacities of students collectively are

the parameters used to determine success (Hopkins, 1999).

23

Methods in workers‟ education depend on objectives. If the objective is to train leaders and to

give the ambitious minority of the rank and file an intensive education, then the method will

be that of the small class and hard work. Education for these groups is for those only who feel

a desire, and have some sense of the direction they wish to travel. The experiment will begin

with three or four in the class, and with meagre funds. If correctly grounded, it will grow

slowly. Only at the end of some years will the experiment show results large enough to attract

outside attention and public ceremonies (Cooper, 2002).

Cooper (2002) further stated that, no short cuts and no brass bands will lead to workers‟

education of this intensive kind. This education is self-education. It is not by chance and

happy blunder that workers‟ education rediscovered the ancient and correct method of

teaching-the Socratic quiz, the question-and answers discussion. The workers recaptured this

method through necessity. The miner and railway man, adult and having knowledge of life,

would not submit to the autocracy of orthodox teachers. A grown man or woman will not sit

silently each week for several years while a lecturer or an orator holds the platform.

Education objectives cannot be achieved anyhow; it depends on the methodologies utilized.

Therefore, given that among the objectives of adult education, is the need to rise critical

consciousness among workers, educators should use appropriate methods. Critical

consciousness is not just knowledge, but more importantly, the way in which knowledge is

achieved and the subsequent action it elicits. Freire (1970) argues, to achieve critical

consciousness of the facts, it is necessary to be the owner of one‟s own labour and labour

constitutes part of the human person. A human being can neither be sold nor can he sell

himself. Therefore, to achieve critical consciousness calls for going a step beyond the

deception of palliative solutions. It requires engaging in authentic transformation of reality in

order, by humanizing that reality, to humanize men.

An essential aspect of Freire‟s political-pedagogical approach, focused on the role of the

learner and a classroom that acted as an extension of the broader socio-political process

underway. In this process, learning is not devoid of what is occurring in society, rather it

requires a deep understanding of the context in which both learner and educator live and

work. He argued that education begins by initiating a dialogue between learners and

educators where they talk to each other rather than at each other. As a result of this dialogue,

social location, conflict, problems, and the life experiences of learners and educators are all

important aspects to learning (Osuji, 1984).

24

The majority of programmes for workers‟ activities deal with specific subject areas. They

make use of a training methodology throughout the course based on active learning methods.

This participant-centred approach encourages the full engagement of each course member in

programme activities, validates trade union experiences brought by trade unionists and assists

the trainers in delivering the technical component of the course. Courses begin by drawing on

the experience, skills, knowledge, and attitudes of participants. A wide variety of teaching

methods are used in the programme, such as role playing and case studies. For the exercises,

the participants are usually divided into small groups, except in the case of the final work

plans prepared by each participant for his/her own organization. Reports presented in plenary

sessions, as well as further comments and advice from the trainers, are recorded and included

in the training packages provided to participants at the end of the course (Ditsela, 1998).

Learning in workers education occurs through a mutual participation between the learners

and the teachers. Freire (1974) affirms that, we simply cannot go to the workers - urban or

peasant - in the banking style, to give them 'knowledge' or to impose upon them the model of

the good woman or man contained in a programme whose content we have ourselves

organized. Many political and educational plans have failed because their authors designed

them according to their own personal views of reality, never once taking into account except

as mere objects of their action the woman/man-in-a-situation towards which their programme

was ostensibly directed. By the concept of banking style, Freire means that the teacher/group

leader deposits imposes predetermined information which is fed into the object, the members

of the group.

Dialogue means that the relationship between group leader and group members is horizontal.

The roles of leader and group member are interchangeable, and the leader learns from group

members as well as group members from the leader. They relate to each other as subjects as

opposed to the authoritarian method of learning where the relationship of group leader to

member is clearly vertical. With the problem posing / solving method leader and group

member are in dialogue with each other: it is an encounter on an equal basis. The main goal

of the encounter is to discover reality together, to un-mesh the false myths with which we

have all been brought up. This joint enquiry by means of dialogue into the experience of our

lives is also an exchange of information between group leader and group members, teacher

and students (Freire, 1972).

25

Dialogue is an intricate part of learning; it is a measure of critical consciousness. The process

of social transformation occurs when learners increasingly gain greater understanding of their

role in the world around them through the intersection of the subjective and objective

conditions of their situation in society. Education is a continuous process of building

consciousness that links knowledge to the broader struggle for political freedom. For man this

process of orientation in the world can be understood neither as a purely subjective event, nor

as an objective or mechanistic one, but only as an event in which subjectivity and objectivity

are united. Orientation in the world so understood, places the purposes of action at the level

of critical perception of reality (Freire, 1985).

Workers‟ education offers teachers and programs in the literacy field a perspective,

methodology and content aimed at education for liberation. Valuing the experience of adult

students and developing student/teacher consciousness are essential. Classes should be

connected with communities and real social issues facing student's and teacher's lives. Adult

students and teachers need to become working class intellectuals engaged in transforming

society to meet their needs and the needs of the future. Without any doubt, independent

student voice, leadership and organization needs to be encouraged and nurtured in an

educational process that critiques and changes social conditions and relationships within adult

education programs (Holst, 2006).

According to London (1990), education involving workers can be divided into three

categories. The first category is union education, which is educational activity conducted by

unions for their purposes. It covers functional education which refers to training members in

the operations of their unions and subject education which takes general subjects such as

economics and applies them to union issues such as fair globalization or enterprise analysis.

The second category is workers‟ education, which refers to programmes aimed at the

educational attainment of working people. It involves programmes related to literacy,

numeracy, learning a second language and other general education activities. The third

category is labour studies, which involves the open, impartial and critical study of labour in

society, as practiced by universities. The term “labour education” is often used to refer to

union education and to labour studies when practiced by union or university-based educators

on the behalf of unions. Labour education is a branch of adult education and could benefit

from innovations in the field of union education and labour studies.

26

Rudin (1996) stated that, there is an urgent need to build a movement for workers‟ education

to enable democratic participation in the economy and society. This dramatic expansion of

adult education and literacy should be aimed at the development of critical consciousness and

civic participation of workers. Adult students and potential students who are aware of the

world and actively involved can transform their communities and society. Workers‟

education teachers and programs can serve the liberation of adult students or they can be

society's gatekeepers, to control and domesticate them. This gate-keeping is manifested in the

unequal treatment based on race, gender and nationality, but its foundation rests on the class

relationships in this society.

Cunningham (1996) opined that, education is tied to work through turning adult education

into human resource development. This top-down view of training is one in which education

is used as social control rather than full multidimensional educational experience. We learn to

earn, not to live.

Workers‟ education as it develops will be financed on workers‟ money, controlled in the

sense of policy and managed in the sense of administration, by workers‟ organizations. It is

idle to debate whether workers‟ education can be controlled by others than the workers. It

cannot be controlled by public authorities, by universities, by middle-class persons, it is adult

education. Workers‟ education can no more be outside the labour movement than a trade

union. It is as definite an expression of the labour movement as the trade union. When the

union is guided by outside benefactors it becomes a company union, a welfare club. When

education of the workers is controlled by other organizations than the organization of the

workers, it remains inside the category of adult education, but it passes out of that special

kind of adult education which is workers‟ education (Welton, 1991).

Techniques of presentation have differentiated workers' education from adult education and

the principle that study must be factual and not dogmatic or biased has been used to

distinguish workers' education from propaganda. Workers must be able to think and express

themselves logically and to view their experiences rationally. Current fundamental techniques

devised years ago are now described by different names. For example, the synthetic view of

yesterday is now called the situation approach. Through both methods, various aspects of a

subject are studied. Thus, if economic, historical, and psychological factors explain a

particular situation, a class must look to economics, history, and psychology for aid in

analysis (Fashoyin, 2002).

27

Unions can be involved in the delivery of education activities, for instance they can organize

union education, to train health and safety representatives. They can be involved in workers‟

education by conducting literacy programmes. They can participate in labour studies to

analyse, for instance, the sociological make-up of the working population of a country. And

they can provide sponsorship to enable individuals to take courses. It is important to

recognize that unions can be involved in the whole continuum: from union education to

workers‟ education to labour studies. The emphasis a union places on each will depend on the

make-up of its membership, its goals, its resources, the economic structure of the country

and, sometimes in developing countries, the priorities set by donors (Omole, 2009).

Despite the wide range of approaches and programmes dictated by local circumstances, union

education around the world shares certain primary characteristics. It is group oriented, as

compared to the individual-centered approach of schools and universities. It is part of the

political agenda of the union and is therefore not at all impartial in an academic sense. It is

based absolutely on the experiences and needs of people in their workplaces. And participants

are expected to take the knowledge they have gained and share it with their fellow workers.

Far from being a weak version of the education provided by the public education system,

union education is a vibrant, politically-oriented branch of adult education with its own

pedagogical approaches, modes of delivery, courses, structures and actors (Ghosh, 2009).

Education in the labour movement is not limited to formal events such as day long seminars

or long courses, other activities which could be referred to as adjunct; provide members with

informal education about their union or the labour movement. The people who organize them

can be considered as practicing workers‟ education. Their activities include editing union

newspapers and creating and maintaining union web sites. Working on the union web site, for

example, which provides links to news stories about labour, can be considered an educational

activity. Union meetings and conferences can also be educational events. Being a delegate at

a union‟s national convention is as much a learning experience as attending a week-long

course (Hopkins, 2009).

Each of the programs has program-specific political-educational objectives that shape the

curriculum content and practicum. For example, the objectives for employed workers focus

on building workers‟ knowledge of the production process, developing the collective action

of workers, and expanding worker power at the point of production. The political-

pedagogical objectives for unemployed workers focus on creating alternative forms of

28

generating income, economic solidarity, and expanding the influence of the union among

broad sectors of the unemployed, both young and old. Finally, the pedagogical objectives for

union leadership training, centres its attention on reinforcing working class organization on

the shop floor, enhancing the political-ideological capacity of workers, and shaping public

policy by strengthening labour‟s strategic alliances with broader sectors of society (Hopkins,

2009).

Workers education aims at addressing the conditions and position of the workers, the

conditions can be at different levels and dimensions. Firstly, there is the dimension of

objective conditions. What is out there that is affecting them: the occupational health and

safety, the sexual harassment that is in society, which creates a lot of insecurity to walk alone

after the night shift. What are their material conditions, living conditions, working conditions,

family conditions? Poor occupation and health relates to their work conditions, no legal

protection leads to exploitation of workers, they can work 12 hours and only get 8 hours pay.

We always separate working life with personal life and with family life, but a life is a life,

whether it is work, family or personal. The individual personal life is also related to the work

situation, and it is also related to the community. So, there should be an attempt to link and

address the various dimensions of workers‟ lives in educational activities (Edun, 2009).

It is not by chance that workers‟ education altered the subject matter, the content, of the

teaching. Fresh from first-hand experience of danger, monotony, and the workings of the

industrial system, labour rejects the abstractions of academic political economy, and the

purple chronicle of kings in history. They want to know the adventure of the common man

down the ages. This means re-writing the textbooks. The workers are forcing the experts to

rewrite them. Text-books are needed in all subjects-in technique of leadership, civic culture,

in American industrial history, in trade union and labour history, in political history, in

economic geography, and so on. Text-books for American workers‟ education have not been

written. Sound scholarship, simple statement, clear English, cheap price, is the requirements.

The probable line of procedure here is that after discussion the teacher will draw up an

outline of his course. This outline will grow into leaflets; the leaflets into pamphlets; the

pamphlets into a text-book. The text-book, then, will be written by a teacher of workers‟

classes, and will be an answer to the needs of the group (Abu, 2002).

Lindeman (1929) contended that, a labour class text-book should be a pocket size volume,

containing about twelve lessons of, say, twenty pages each; and should be written in a style

29

that would lure the student to further reading; that it should contain detailed references and

directions for more thorough study; and that it should be developed inductively from familiar

facts and concrete data to general principles. Simplicity and clearness would be of paramount

importance in such literature. It should be written with the unsophisticated and uneducated

workingman kept in mind. Texts should treat ostensibly the commonplace problems that the

average serious-minded workman faces in his every-day work, but in reality introducing him

to great principles and ideals of social and economic progress, not mere propaganda for any

particular doctrine, but an appeal to what is sanest and noblest in the human mind.

Lave and Wenger (1991) stated that, in union meetings, learning may be seen as taking place

through 'participation in a community of practice. This participation may take the form of

simply being present, listening and observing, with old-timers modelling the roles and values

that 'newcomers' are expected to acquire. For example, one shop-steward recalled in an

interview how, when he first joined the union, he learnt from observing the general Secretary

in meetings. Participation also takes more active forms. While much learning takes place

invisibly or unconsciously through observation or participation, there are also forms of

pedagogy, more specifically, peer mentoring or guided participation.

Action is an important aspect of the learning process; that is, real learning is demonstrated by

the participant‟s capacity to translate their intellectual understanding into concrete action. A

particularly important aspect of the program‟s methodological structure is that the

communication and debate of ideas at the centre of the learning process is not limited to

speech and writing. Knowledge can be ascertained through various mediums: art, music,

dance and cinema; even physical education is considered a form of communication (Hopkins,

1999).

According to Abu (2002), one of the instruction methods used in workers education is that of

resident lecturer. A visitor is invited to spend a month with workers for the purpose of giving

courses and lectures. Educational conferences are periodically held with two delegates from

each union and one or two delegates from each class. These conferences act as an advisory

committee on education to the union, which in turn appoints its educational committee of

seven as the executive.

It is obvious that the holding of a class together will depend largely upon the teacher‟s

personality and methods of instruction as well as the subject matter. In the class room he

must provide the students an opportunity to express themselves. Putting up questions to the

30

students, and asking them to make reports on certain books or articles have helped to hold

students. The teacher should endeavour as much as possible to become familiar with the

students, learn something of their individual traits, and take an interest in their particular trade

and labour problems. He should make use, as much as possible, of charts, pictures, and other

illustrations, which visualize the subject he tries to cover. Pamphlets, outlines of study, and

mimeographed reading lists should be freely used. Time in class is precious. Preparation for

the hour or two of meeting cannot be too thorough. Material upon which aroused interest can

feed should be given to the students (McLaren, 1989).

At various forums, trade unionists have reviewed the relevance of the scope and content and

concluded that, to a large extent, workers education has succeeded in preparing leadership to

perform their duties and also informing membership of their rights and obligations.

Nevertheless, for labour education to be more responsive to the dynamic changes of trade

liberalization, privatization and retrenchment, advancement in technological developments,

increasing cases of violation of human and trade union rights, it is necessary to initiate

deliberate improvements in the curriculum by raising awareness on the need for acquisition

of new skills, facilitating the strategic networking and alliance between labour educators and

the larger civil society and sensitization and building of trade union militancy. The challenge

to respond dynamically will call for the introduction of non-traditional courses such as

democracy and good governance, entrepreneurship development, information technology,

international trade, trade union and politics, political economy, the environment, social and

cultural values, and young workers (Hill, 2005).

Workers‟ education is always focused on identified target groups within the organization and

can assist in the resolution of identified problems. Thus, methodological planning approaches

are important in meeting the targeted relevance of the courses desired. However, the methods,

techniques and materials are means and not end. The end is the type and the quality of

learning. In Africa, workers‟ education seldom takes place within the confines of a traditional

classroom. Unionists, their leaders and the facilitators interact through attending meetings,

study circles, field visits and group discussions in workshops aimed at strategizing the way

forward on issues closer to their welfare and that of the larger communities in which they live

(Greene and Miles, 2006).

A variety of participatory or active methods are applied, as well as passive techniques,

including the lecture, the discussion, the forum, the large group discussion, the buzz session

31

or small group discussion, case studies, role playing, study circle and others. In effect, all

these methods are considered relevant, depending on the choice, objectives and target groups.

In terms of other appropriate methodologies and approaches needed to make trade union

education more responsive and dynamic in the context of the new challenges facing the trade

union movement, it is necessary for workers‟ education to adapt to the new opportunities and

potential associated with information and computer-based technology, such as the use of

electronic media, the Internet and CD-ROM. In addition, workers‟ education must be called

upon to take up the challenges posed by the changing political platform by introducing new

political dimensions such as the impact of national and international geopolitics on trade

union work (Greene, 2006).

It is also critical to call for the adaptation of current methodologies and approaches to take

account of other innovative techniques of education and learning such as drama, traditional

songs, and use of radio and print media. It is equally important to use research as a learning

tool to enhance awareness of current and future trends affecting workers. Workers‟ education

has always taken many forms and has constantly had to adapt to new situations. But its basic

principles have remained strictly adhered to. Specialized training has sought to meet the

specific needs of trade unions and to be relevant to the types of people it is aimed at.

Importantly, workers‟ education has also been instrumental in contributing to the

development and strengthening of international trade union solidarity (Allman, 2009).

Workers‟ education in Africa has concentrated on labour related subjects, the activities have

not entirely been limited to bread and butter issues, such as collective bargaining and wage

negotiation, but have also included a wide range of many other questions important to

workers and their communities. There are three broad levels of trade union education basic,

intermediate and advanced. These three categories cover subjects such as: trade union history,

aims and objectives of trade unions, handling members‟ problems, some aspects of labour

law structure and the functions of trade unions, collective bargaining, health and safety at

work and the duties of trade union officers. Other specific subjects may be added. They

include trade unions and the economy, human and trade union rights, women‟s participation

in trade unions, ILO Conventions, international trade union organizations, leadership skills,

strategic planning, organizing and public-speaking techniques (Lopes, 2006).

Workers‟ or labour Education falls inside the classification of Adult Education. But it is its

own kind of adult education, and is not to be confused with university extension, evening

32

high schools, night schools, public lectures and education by employers. Labour education is,

inside the labour movement, and cannot be imposed from above or from without. It is

training in the science of reconstruction. It is a means to the liberation of the working class,

individually and collectively. In pursuing that aim, it uses all aids that will enrich the life of

the group and of the worker in the group, and that will win allegiance of the worker to the

group. The aim then is clear-cut, but the content and the methods are catholic. Workers‟

education is scientific and cultural, propagandist and civic, industrial and social. It concerns

itself with the individual and his needs, the citizen and his duties, the trade unionist and his

functions, the group and its problems, the industry and its conditions (Lopes, 2006).

Abu (2002) opined that, education is necessity for man in order to articulate himself and

achieve fullness. But the formal system, which is elitist, discriminatory and instalment,

cannot alone help man to attain all education he needs for achievement of self-fulfilment. The

terminologies, such as, continuing education, recurrent education, education Permanente, and

lifelong education, have been used by different bodies to stress that education should be

coterminous with life. To cater for the educational aspirations of all employees, workers

education plays a very important role. Trade unions should heighten efforts in workers

education so as to afford citizens opportunities to attain self-fulfilment and fullness.

2.2 The Function of Workers’ Education

The function of workers' education in its broad sense is to compensate for the failures of the

formal education system and to support a variety of social movements attempting to redress

social, economic, cultural and political disadvantage. In fact, workers' education with a focus

on basic skills and, for example, access courses, can improve the problem of disadvantage.

But for overcoming the inequalities built into society arguably, a more radical, challenging,

and transformative model of education: one in which working people are enabled to develop

a critical political consciousness is needed. So, the study of workers education would

therefore have social significance for the operation and development of the social structure.

Education is certainly a way to obtain the goal, but the opportunities available to workers for

further learning depend on the structure and distribution of power in society (Greene, 1988).

The function of workers‟ education is to provide an education that makes workers aware of

the forces that oppress them, consequently liberate them from oppression. Freire (2009)

affirms that, education of a liberating character is a process by which the educator invites

learners to recognize and unveil reality critically. The domestication practice tries to impart a

33

false consciousness to learners, resulting in a facile adaptation to their reality; whereas a

liberating practice cannot be reduced to an attempt on the part of the educator to impose

freedom on the learners.

Osuji (1984) opined that, workers‟ education is considered to be the very backbone of the life

of the organization, the promise of its future. It declared: It is not enough to merely organize

the workers. Organization in itself is no end and has no meaning. If we content ourselves

with that and make no effort at higher elevation we simply confirm the worker in the status of

a burden.

Omole (2009) stated that to appreciate the function of workers education is to understand

each stakeholder‟s behaviour as it affects one another. Both the workers and employers need

to be educated in workers psychology particularly in reducing friction and tension that is a

normal feature between the parties. Workers‟ is meant to serve the interest of workers and

their unions by making them aware of their rights and the avenues of pursuing their interests.

It helps the employer interest by ensuring high productivity through committed employees

who are ready to observe the rules of the game with all stakeholders of the industry.

Workers have distinct interests such as: they wish to know what their wages will buy or why

they are unemployed; whether or not they should join a trade union; what their political

affiliations should be. They wish to read and think critically about their situation and the

world in which they live. Therefore workers' education has encouraged workers to study

contemporary economic and social problems continuously and intelligently, to plan their

sound solution, and to carry out their design together and with others. The previous education

of workers, their community life, and group experiences influence curriculum. Accordingly, a

particular class or unit may have a political, socio-economic, or cultural focus. The basic

method is freedom of discussion and of teaching within a group primarily designed for

workers, either in their own communities or in resident centres elsewhere (Greene, 2006).

The workforce remains indispensable machinery through which goods and services are

produced. Therefore, no society could succeed without having working class whose efforts

are geared towards attaining societal development. The employment patterns and trends as

well as technological changes of our society have called for continuous learning opportunities

of workers to be able to fit in to the scheme of work dynamic situations and conditions. The

welfare of workers and their family members is very important, in fact exploitation of

34

workers of any form must be fought to enable workers gain their personality as individuals

and members of the society (Kester, 2002).

Lopes (2006) stated that, a number of unions and trade union centres organize educational

programmes for specific categories of members, for example women-only courses aimed at

providing a learning environment where women feel more comfortable about expressing

opinions and are perhaps more likely to participate than at traditional male-dominated union

schools. Unions are also providing family and community educational events.

Lopes (2996) further observed that, a variety of reasons had promoted the separate education

of adult workers. Psychologists have shown that workers are unlike other groups of adults in

reading and speaking ability, comprehension of simple facts, and power of concentration.

Their uncompleted elementary schooling, their physical and mental fatigue has been listed

among the responsible factors.

According to Welton (1999), Workers are the core of production in work institutions and are

usually engaged in interaction with non-human materials as well as other human beings. This

in essence requires continuous development of skills and knowledge to meet up with the ever

increasing demand of updated knowledge to enhance productivity, peace and cooperation,

development for personal and institutional successes. This type of education is meant to

reduce conflict through the interaction of employees in a positive manner. It enables

employees to be able to identify their rights and obligations as well as their limits in the

organizations. This kind of education is referred to as labour education or workers education.

Workers education introduces the labour force in taking active participation in trade unionism

at all levels of the polity. Through workers education, workers identify common problems

and create solutions to them. It thus brings development and awareness to them with a strong

sense of solidarity between them in achieving recognition and strength as a group (Welton,

1999).

Beard (1963) observed that, the modern university does not have for its major interest and

prime concern the free, open and unafraid consideration of modern issues. The labour group

is beginning to demand a free, open and unafraid consideration of modern issues in

institutions of its own. Education in our universities and colleges is essentially capitalistic, in

that it glorifies competition and seeks to produce an efficient individual. Education that may

35

properly be called workers‟ education is essentially socialistic, in that it glorifies cooperation

and seeks to produce an efficient social and industrial order.

Hopkins (2009) observed that, workers‟ education is especially necessary at this time, when

the struggle between capital and labour is becoming sharper; when an attempt is made to

crush unionism altogether. Organized labour is spreading out into the fields of cooperation;

into banking, into controlling its own press and so on. These constructive ventures demand a

trained and self-disciplined rank and file. Although the employers have had the benefit of

education, they still feel the necessity of keeping in touch with new events by bringing men

of prominence to their clubs and luncheons and having talks on important subjects. Thus, the

employers realize the necessity for further study while labour has had neither fundamental

education nor discussions on present-day problems.

Workers‟ education, as it spreads, is of course vitally concerned with facts in the social

sciences. It is concerned with the collection, classification and interpretation of these facts.

This means that workers‟ education requires labour research. One of the continuous and all-

powerful influences in workers‟ education is the newspaper. Labour education requires the

labour paper. So as fast as labour education grows, there will spring up, out of the same root,

labour research and the labour newspaper. Research is one of the sources of supply for

education. The daily, weekly and monthly paper is one of the methods of imparting education

to the workers. The labour movement will remain inside the squirrel-cage of wages and

prices, until it employs all three- research, education, and the newspaper (Lopes, 2006).

The work of the Educational Department of any trade union is based on a conviction that the

aims and aspirations of the workers can be realized only through their own efforts in the

economic and educational fields. While organization gives them power, education gives them

the ability to use that power intelligently and effectively. The courses offered by the

Educational Department are planned to accomplish this aim. While some of them are

intended to satisfy the intellectual and the emotional needs of workers, the main emphasis is

laid on those which meet their practical needs. The problems of the labour movement are

analysed and clarified by the study of general principles underlying them. In this way is it

possible to train fresh energy, new experiences and power for the service of the entire Labour

Movement and to help members to achieve their purposes with the ultimate goal of living a

full, rich and happy life (Abu, 2002).

36

From its genesis workers education functioned as a weapon for advancing the welfare of the

workers. It was designed to enable the proletariat to emancipate itself from the slavery of

capitalism, and to get it ready for a millennial industrial democracy. The initiative often came

not from studious minded workers, but from enthusiastic intellectuals and idealistic up-lifters.

The cultural gesture was often pathetic or comic. It was not uncommon for those who had

completed the courses of study in a workers' college to find themselves; more unadjusted

than they were before (Fashoyin, 2002).

Workers‟ education was not for everyone, certainly not for the person who merely knows

something. Knowledge derived from experience, on the other hand, was the essence of

workers education. The worker would seek education because he has reason for personal

complaint. It was the field of action that distinguished the educational situation of the adult

from that of the child. To the learning situation, the adult brought guilt, entanglement, want

and pain, wrapped in experiences of a sort still foreign to a child. A child's education flowed

with nature, whereas adult's was in conflict with nature as he or she strove for self-mastery.

Adult education grows on the graves of those budding dreams which have not ripened.

For the union, the education of the working-class in its multiple formats was a strategic issue

present in the most crucial of labour‟s political battles and vital for the future of the labour

movement. Education was a process through which workers expanded their role as citizens

and activists, organized, mobilized, and subsequently strengthened their capacity to influence

the political decision-making process. The program expanded organized labour‟s

constituency to broad sectors of the working-class not just union members, developing class

consciousness and the critical mass necessary to advance labour‟s political and economic

demands (Omole, 2009).

Workers‟ education functions as a process of liberating the working class from the oppression

of their employers. Education has been used by the dominant forces in society to control the

working class, to limit the consciousness of the oppressed and thereby limit their participation

in government, society and social transformation. In opposition to this domesticating form

and content is an education for liberation that develops critical consciousness, leadership and

supports action for social change. Hence, liberation education is based on the students'

potential to understand and change their lives and the world. Banking or domesticating

education assumes that the student is an object there to listen, to obey and not to question.

Domesticating education prepares adults to silently follow their leaders. It is the ideal training

37

program for corporations, banks, dictatorships and the armed forces that require blind

conformity and obedience, permitting decisions to be made that affect the masses of people

with the least participation, interference or resistance from them (Freire, 1985).

Workers‟ education is an essential tool in the building of participative lifelong learning for

union members, staff and leaders, as they create and strengthen unions. The acceptance of

workers‟ education as an essential tool for the development of labour unions is made clear

whenever labour organizations come together at meetings, conventions or congresses to set

their policies and design their action plans. Invariably, there are resolutions or suggested

action programmes referring to the need for education, either directed to union members or

the general public. It is these resolutions and programmes adopted by union members or

representatives of affiliates which provide labour educators with their legitimacy to instruct

facilitate and act (McLaren, 1989).

The education and literacy of workers should not simply replicate existing norms and

parameters that prepare workers for the global workplace; to do so would legitimize the

process of marginalization. Education and the program‟s pedagogical methods are viewed as

a singular process that raise the social and political consciousness of workers, while

simultaneously preparing them to advance their demands in the sphere of politics. An

important aspect of the program argued that the struggle against marginalization and the

demand for social inclusion were integral aspects of a process essential for expanding

working class power. In this sense, education was not viewed as charitable work for the

underprivileged. Workers‟ education was the backdrop for the deep ideological conflict

emerging in contemporary society between market and non-market views of socioeconomic

development (Greene and Miles, 2006).

Allman (2009) observed that another function of workers‟ education is to train promising

youths, who are already officials, or are potential leaders, or are the most ambitious of the

rank and file. Workers‟ education will train them in the technique of their particular union

and industry. It will train them in the relation of that union and industry to society and the

state. This kind of workers‟ education gives the technique of leadership. It includes courses in

labour law, the use of the injunction, workmen‟s compensation, industrial and health

insurance, unemployment, Federal agencies of inspection, employers‟ use of a secret service,

duties of the walking delegate. Perhaps eventually a place can be found in the workers‟

education curriculum for a course or courses dealing with aspects of the problem of

38

management and production. Although it is inevitable that present interest in these questions

should be slight, it seems equally inevitable that the leaders among the workers must more

and more equip themselves with knowledge of the technique of their industry on both its

administrative and its operative side.

2.3 The Role of Workers’ Education on Workers’ Critical Consciousness

During the colonial period in Africa, workers education was the silver bullet which was used

to put an end to colonial rule. The educational activities provided by trade unions were

largely meant to awaken the consciousness of workers on the need for collective efforts to

defend their interests, instil trade union principles of unity to ordinary workers, and develop

trade union leadership that could handle workers‟ problems. The activities were organized

largely on a sub-regional basis, often lasting two weeks to a month. The methods of teaching

and the materials used were often based on the experiences of trade unions in the respective

colonizing countries. To a large extent, due to the low levels of literacy of the African

workers, the language used to deliver the message was, in many instances, not easily

understood by the majority. Nonetheless, the message on the need for unity and solidarity

was clear to most: the more the colonial governments and employers resisted the

development of trade unions, the more the spirit of trade unionism grew (Fashoyin, 2002).

Omole (2009) affirmed that, this early period was also characterized by an increase of worker

participation in the struggle for independence. At the international level, the optimism about

the future of trade unionism in Africa was also reflected in the decision by the International

Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) to establish a permanent educational

institution: the African Labour College in Kampala, Uganda. The college had an immediate

positive impact on trade union education in Africa. It created an environment where young

trade unionists discussed issues facing them at home, and shared ideas on how to deal with

them. There is no doubt that it gave impetus to the development of a vibrant trade union

movement that was articulate and aggressive in presenting its demands.

Trade unions aim to train intelligent and conscious union men and women to strive for the

reconstruction of society. Workers' education, therefore, has had to prepare workers to act in

economic, political, and social spheres. The trade unions under consideration have developed

instruction for workers along three lines: mass education, classroom education, and training

for trade union service. Mass education has been designed to overcome the apathy and inertia

39

of the majority of workers. Individuals otherwise uninterested in education are taught subtly

and indirectly to be loyal to organized labour and its ideals (Welton, 1991).

Workers‟ education has formed an integral part of trade union activities since the advent of

international trade union activism in Africa in the 1950s. Workers‟ education reaffirms the

identity of the organization while at the same time upholds its main objectives. And although

it has taken many forms, the primary aim has remained the promotion of the labour

movement‟s core principles, values and ideals. Workers‟ education is indeed the overall

strategic instrument that allows workers collectively to realize their capacities in promoting,

defending and enhancing their interest. At the same time, it provides an avenue to analyse its

position vis-à-vis the social, economic and geopolitical situation surrounding its environment

and the workplace (Abu, 2002).

Fashoyin (2002) observed that, workers‟ education attempts to give the most eager of the

rank and file a social or civic education, aimed at showing the workers how they are

governed. This enables workers to deal with the economic system under which they work,

and the nature of the world in which they find themselves. Programmes in workers‟ education

include general cultural courses in history, economics and literature. The thing aimed at is a

world view. The favourite courses remain history, economics, literature, because they are an

interpretation of man in his world. Education is the effort of the soul to find a true expression

or interpretation of experience, and to find it, not alone, but with the help of others, fellow-

students. By showing to a man his place in the long process and the scheme of things,

education helps him to live the good life. The rank and file will not be interested in this kind

of labour education for many years. The most alert and energetic men and women will alone

be attracted. Workers‟ education is education of a tiny minority, the most promising of the

youth.

Cooper et al. (2002) stated that, worker education should build worker control, collective

experience and understanding, deepening working class consciousness. Education should

ensure fullest discussion amongst workers thus building democracy. Education is a weapon

for shaping mass struggles of the present and the future of our class. In the 2000s, trade union

education programmes proliferated and became increasingly planned and structured. The

education focused mainly on practical areas such as wage negotiations and disciplinary

procedures, but courses were also developed dealing with broader political education, labour

history, labour law, political economy and international trade unionism.

40

In many African countries, trade unions played an important role in championing the cause of

democratization and became one of the leading forces for political change. Having achieved

democratization, trade unions faced a number of dilemmas. First, they were confronted with

the dilemma of being part of government by virtue of having being an ally to the new ruling

party. Thus they were often constrained to criticise the party they helped bring to power,

sometimes even when the policies pursued were perceived detrimental to workers‟ interests.

Second, the formation of political parties and emergence of a vibrant civil society diminished

trade union‟s political role and influence. Third, a weak party system and the absence of a

party specifically promoting workers‟ interests made it difficult for unions to develop a

political platform to articulate workers‟ interests (Webster, 2007).

The experiences of the union movement are not new. In the seventies many training schools

were open. These schools were aimed at training militants so that they could be better

prepared to carry on organizational work in the plants. There was little public involvement in

these activities and with the expansion of the workers movement these activities were

relegated to a secondary level. Whatever their ideological position, unions offered skill

training to their members (Abu, 2002).

Kester (1999) is of the view that workers education must serve the interest of the working

class and the society at large, no matter its orientation. Its concept is to intractably connect

with the struggle for the elimination of illiteracy. He further stated that the comprehensive

and highly integrated new facet of workers education addresses the challenges of

globalization of the production process, communication and technologies.

Abu (2002) observed that, three types of program, mass education, classroom education, and

training for trade union service, constitute the educational pattern of the trade unions. In

practice, the distinct forms merge into a cohesive whole. The primary purpose of the

educational work is to achieve a strong and effective labour movement. The goal is to perfect

collective bargaining by giving leaders and rank and file a broad outlook. Workers' education

encourages impersonal and detached discussion and handling of problems within trade

unions; cautious action so as not to endanger the livelihood of thousands of workers; and

realization that no decision is infallible or irrevocable.

Holtz (2006) stated that, there is a tendency among unions to treat organizing, politics and

education as distinct activities rather than a continuous process of learning and action. In

other instances there is a predisposition of labour organizations to subjugate education to the

41

union‟s immediate political interests. Viewing the role of education in this manner works

against enhancing working class organization and power, it is self-defeating for both the

immediate and long-term goals of organized labour. Education needs to be understood as

integral and essential to every aspect of union work, and not just education as a scripture, but

an open-ended, experience-based, problem solving education for transformation and social

justice.

According to Field (1988), workers‟ education is not an end in itself, but one of the steps in

the advance towards emancipation of mankind. This would be reached only when the broad

masses of the workers and those representing them are in possession of all the knowledge and

experience necessary to change the structures of society and to banish want and fear forever.

Thus, workers‟ education is the mass education of workers aimed at changing society for the

better. Since the beginning of worker‟ education, the principle that workers education should

be aimed at the mass of workers still stands. The major difference is that, today, workers‟

education is aimed not only at changing individual societies, but, because of globalization,

the whole world.

The relevance of workers‟ education cannot be overemphasized; it is cardinal to the socio-

economic and political development of a nation. For example, Due to the absence of formal

political opposition during the one party state in Zambia, and considering trade unions

democratic character, unions were the only organised force to challenge authoritarian

tendencies and precipitous economic decline (Saxby, 2000).

Vayrynen (2002) stated that the functions of workers are impeded by economic barriers as

poverty, malnutrition and inadequate education. He opines that workers education as a

process of retraining and reinvigorating is able to address the diversity of workers needs and

ensure they achieve economic and social life in a culturally diverse and changing world. In

the view of the foregoing, it is evident that there is need to facilitate the wellbeing of workers

since development in all ramifications rest on their activities in the nation.

2.4 Challenges Faced by Unions in the Provision of Workers’ Education

Hopkins (2009) stated that, workers' education has not developed without opposition. Certain

individuals believe that standard educational facilities enable all, including workers, to study

effectively. They maintain that psychological reasons for separate instruction are being

weakened, as more people than formerly are receiving similar rudimentary education. Others

42

claim that workers' education is propaganda based upon a class philosophy which threatens

our democracy. A third group of opponents fears that even an objective, critical survey of

social events will lead to revolutionary activities.

According to Omole (2009), proponents of workers' education, current public instruction

cannot give adult workers necessary social perspective. Objective education for workers is

not propaganda; solidarity among workers should not be feared since modern society has

many interest and pressure groups which at times cooperate with each other. In addition,

advocates show at what specific points instruction aids the labouring class. They claim that

through instruction, workers may know the experience of their group, in the past and in the

present. Through history they may understand the mistakes of their predecessors; psychology

teaches them how to cooperate with fellow workers and employers; economics promotes an

understanding of the employers' business upon which rests their livelihood; through politics

they glimpse their place as citizens and workers. Public speaking and written composition

tend to make them articulate and community organization to encourage effective activity.

The potential of workers education is that it education for transformation of society

economically, socially and politically, it produces a labour force that is conscientised; it is

only through workers education that the workers can be equipped with the critical

consciousness necessary for political action. For example in Zambia, the Zambia Congress of

Trade Unions (ZCTU) was the most potent force in Zambian politics. A vibrant union led by

Frederick Chiluba and his lieutenant Newstead Zimba provided the ideal checks and balances

to the system. Owing to the educational activities of the labour movement, in 1990 Mr

Chiluba became president of Zambia. The hierarchy of the union moved into governance and

unions became so piously attached to government and the worker hardly felt their presence

(Holst, 2006).

Historically, African trade unions have been active in broad popular struggles for

independence and national liberation. Trade unions have been central in resistance to

authoritarian and dictatorial rule. This has required the building of wider social and political

alliances, both with like-minded groups in civil society and with political parties whose

programs reflect the concerns and interests of workers. In other words, throughout the long

history of their existence, trade unions have aligned themselves to groups and movements

that share their values and concerns. As a result this enabled trade unions to reach out to a

larger population than those directly involved in formal employment, thus greatly enhancing

43

their legitimacy. It is this broad organizational reach of the trade unions and their

representative function of a broad section over a wider issues of development, equity and

social justice that qualifies the trade unions to be referred to collectively as the labour

movement (Abu, 2007).

The political role played by trade unions in Africa can be traced back to pre-independence

times. In Zambia, like in most of African countries, trade unions formed the nucleus of

nationalist parties and were instrumental in challenging colonial and authoritarian rule. In

particular, trade unions formed alliances with nationalist parties and other progressive

organisations to fight for workers‟ and human rights and later fought alongside nationalists

for national independence. In particular, unions fought battles with employers and

government through strike actions, demonstrations demanding decent wages, and improved

working conditions. But after independence, efforts were made to integrate unions into ruling

party structures and turn them into „transmission belts‟ of government policies. Strategies to

integrate trade unions into ruling party structures were intensified under conditions of one-

party state. However, unions are known to have resisted these efforts and often fought to

maintain their autonomy against all odds (Fashoyin, 2002).

Workers education is knowledge acquired by stakeholders to enhance individual and

organizational performance and productivity. This is beneficial to the worker, unions,

organization and the economy of the nation. Workers education could be acquired through

individual, union and corporate efforts in training, symposia, academic institutions, etc. It

brings improvement to situations where there are deficiencies or lack of required competence.

Women‟s need for labour education stems from the multiplicity of roles played by women.

They are professionals, members of workers unions‟, mothers‟ and home keepers, community

members who are equally stake-holders in the polity. These roles are significant to the

development of any people and nation. Literature reveals that two thirds of the world‟s 876

million illiterates are female. Of the world‟s one billion poorest people, an estimated three-

fifths are women and girls (United Nations Development Programme 2009).

Workers education serves the interest of workers and their union by making them aware of

their rights and ethically sound means of pursuing their interest. The employers could also

benefit from labour education resulting in high productivity through committed employees

who are always ready to observe the rules of the game as stakeholders in the industry. The

nation also benefits in labour education as it serves the interest of all by ensuring economic

44

growth and industrial peace as a prerequisite for increased foreign and local investments.

Workers education is important for personnel and officials of the Ministry of Labour and

related departments. They need to be well groomed in labour education to be informed of

acceptable industrial practices and policies to be veritable and effective partners with

workers/ unions to ensure congruent industrial relations environment (Abu, 2007).

The government performs the dual role of employer and executive arm of the state. It initiates

and implements policies through its organs and functionaries. Events have revealed some

government actions or policies to affect the well-being of workers. Labour education could

give government functionaries knowledge in labour management relations which will be of

immense help in taking decisions. The example of collective bargaining tactics will make

them aware of desisting from taking unilateral decisions. The general public is also required

to have knowledge of workers education to understand workers, particularly their responses

to issues (Webster, 2007).

Governments across much of the developed world are concerned to increase labour market

activity rates and employment among older workers. A variety of policies have been

advocated including the improvement of education and training provision. Clearly workers

education is always designed to, and usually succeeds in, increasing the human capital of its

recipients, in the sense that, to varying degrees, knowledge and skills are enhanced (UNDP,

2009).

There are many methods of financing labour education. There is no difficulty in raising the

money, once an interest has been aroused in the significance of the work. When local

instructors can be secured, student fees may at times cover most of the expenses. When local

teachers are lacking or student fees are insufficient, local unions should be visited and

appealed to. From what experience we have had, it was found that but few locals refuse a

contribution to workers‟ education when the appeal is presented to them. Some labour

schools have had a specified affiliation fee of about ten dollars which was charged each local

union. In the smaller cities, however, it was found that it was best to have no specified

amount. Unions have usually been found to become generous contributors as soon as the

work is appreciated (Abu, 2002).

The perception of workers education by various stakeholders such as government, employer,

workers and the society reveals its importance. Each of the identified stakeholders in the

socio- economic sphere of the nation sees and understands labour education differently. The

45

perception of government and employers expresses workers‟ education as that type that can

improve employee skills and knowledge to be more productive. In that it should also help

increase employers control over the workers. This opinion of employers‟ control of labour

through workers education portrays employers of labour as being opposed to workers‟

awareness and development. The essence of workers education is that it should teach the

workers to be dutiful and should inculcate in them a sense of duty and reverence. It is

necessary for the working class to acquire the habit of cheerfully undertaking the task

entrusted to them (Kakkar, 2009).

Workers‟ Education has been reoriented and reduced to education for work. This movement

has been relentless and accompanied by the professionalization of the field. It is a natural

outgrowth of a noncritical stance of functionalism, capitalism, and technology by those who

once saw education linked to personal and social transformation necessary for democracy. A

critical response from the field has occurred with a number of persons challenging the way

workers‟ education is being reduced to human resource development (Cunningham, 1996).

Kester (1999) affirms that, preparation for work has always been an acceptable and rewarded

focus of education under capitalism, whether jobs are available or not. The better we prepare

people for work, the more available cheap labour will be readily available to meet the needs

of the corporations. The classroom that focuses solely on the preparation for work is without

question, a domesticating influence on learners. This follows the dictates of corporations and

sustains the interests of capital.

Capitalism as an economic system concentrates educational resources on insuring the

workforce is ready for maximal production - not for critical thinking, understanding history,

or active involvement in changing social conditions. The logic of production for profit

dictates that: if workers need training, then we must train them to satisfy the market place.

The qualities of obedience, discipline, hard work and loyalty can all serve this purpose, much

like what is demanded of a slave, a trained animal or a factory worker. Meanwhile, as our

country continues to produce less and consume more, the need for additional workers

decreases. The question then becomes, why do we need workers education? The threat to

workers‟ education programs from increasing budget cuts grows out of the basic economic

relationships of our society, which views more and more of the population as dispensable,

disposable or unnecessary (Lopes, 2006).

46

Hopkins (2009) observed that, workers education and literacy programs are poorly funded

and continually in danger because they are seen by government as unnecessary. Adult

students who are immigrants, women, minorities and working class are more and more

viewed by capitalism as dispensable. In the field of adult education you can see that

preparation for minimum wage jobs in the labour market is rewarded, but critical thought and

student leadership are not. There is more reason than ever for massive workers‟ education

programs and for this education to be aimed at human liberation.

Three main factors have been recognized in securing financial support. One has been the

difficulty of awakening and retaining the interest of organized labour in educational

activities. The second has centered about the effect upon control when financial aid has been

given by a specific organization. The third has been the actual trend in contributions. Many

leaders have believed that an organization naturally becomes interested in any venture which

it supports financially (Abu, 2002).

Education is a fundamental human right. As such it is clearly the responsibility of the state

and a core element of any development policy committed to social justice. Securing the right

to education is a key to enabling people to secure other human rights, yet the right to

education is violated by governments around the world. (Archer, 2006)

In many countries, especially in the developing world, the inability of governments and the

private sector to create new jobs is forcing millions of people, especially women and young

people, to find work as best they can outside formal structures. The informal economy, which

covers many activities in the commerce, production and services sectors, has emerged as an

instant solution to the problem of unemployment and underemployment. The result is

precarious employment characterized by instability, low income, lack of social protection and

absence of freedom of association and collective bargaining (Welton, 1991).

There are no quick, readily available answers as to how unions can help workers in the

informal economy. But this situation opens an important opportunity to expand the role of

union education in the labour movement. Workers involved in learning activities organized

by unions could participate in the creation of the new knowledge needed to improve the

situation. Workers in the informal economy themselves could devise effective approaches to

strengthening the role of unions in the informal economy. The key to addressing the needs of

workers in the informal economy may lie in providing more education for union leaders, staff

and members. Although it is not the role of labour educators to develop policies to tackle

47

such serious issues as those facing workers in the informal economy, these educators have a

clear and essential mandate to provide educational resources and opportunities so that union

leaders and members can learn how to confront issues crucial to the labour movement

(Vayrynen, 2002).

UNDP (2009) stated that, workers education is confronted with the problem of text-books,

because most of the available text-books are written either for college or high school students

or for children in the elementary schools. To solve this problem it was decided to have the

teachers prepare pamphlets on the subject-matter of their courses. These pamphlets will be

used as text-books by the classes, since teachers who have had experience with workers‟

classes are best fitted to write textbooks for them. Workers faced with myriad of problems,

these include issues of inadequate wages, uneasy access to education, harsh conditions of

work and depleting economic values.

In Zambian workplaces, several training programmes are organized for workers. These are

either through the human resources department or in conjunction with other organisations.

The resentment about the total success of most of such has been impeded by several factors.

These factors include: insincerity and viability of some of the programmes; no separate

training programmes for women; accessing finance to pursue post training development;

weakness of the women group to challenge some organisational policies that malign women

in work employment; and the global economic recession greatly which has many people out

of job through close down of many industrial organisations. These challenges have caused

reactions from workers in several forms ranging from lack of commitment to work, engaging

in other activities and engaging employers and government in strives which have continued

to affect national production by losing man hours to strikes and other forms of workers

resentments (Saxby, 2000).

The nature and form of trade union education in Africa has substantially been influenced by

the changes that have affected the world of work. The world economy has been undergoing

dramatic changes at a breath-taking pace in the past two decades. In effect, these changes

have necessitated trade unions to be strong and build the capacity to engage governments,

employers and other development actors. This being the case, trade unions needed to broaden

their base and build up a wider appeal. This requires organizing more members in the formal

sector and especially among women and young workers. They also need to extend their

organizational representation to sectors that have so far not been the traditional base of trade

48

unions. Trade union education has enabled members and leaders not only to understand new

trends in social and economic development, but also to engage employers, governments and

international organizations to ensure that the labour movement viewpoint is heard (Abu,

2002).

The post-colonial phase of trade union education took effect as soon as many countries in

Africa gained their political independence in the early 1960s. The struggle against colonial

rule had obviously revealed the trade union capacity to mobilize workers for specific goals.

The nationalists, who had worked closely with trade unionists but had replaced colonial

governments upon winning the struggle for independence, moved quickly to establish one-

party regimes. It was argued then that trade union independence in the face of a war against

poverty, disease and ignorance was a luxury that no African country could afford. Africa, it

was said, needed to unite its people under one leadership. The relentless rhetoric mounted by

the politicians put trade unions on the defensive as they had not prepared themselves to fight

back. Arguably, it was during this period that trade unionists in Africa faced enormous

political pressures. The African Labour College in Kampala was also under attack and was

forced to close down in February 1968. The idea of opening a new college in Abidjan also

fizzled out (Omole, 2009).

Today, with the advent of information and communication technologies, and particularly the

Internet, a new dimension has been brought to trade union education. Educators are now

considering themselves as architects and engineers constructing the bridge to the so-called

“digital divide”, for the benefit of unionists and their communities. Trade unions, as

significant interest groups in the communities, are also developing a regional and national

presence as part of the global information society. As in many other social and economic

issues affecting modern society, trade union educators are playing the roles of advisers,

teachers and advocates to a mix of citizenry with varying, often limited, levels of

technological knowledge. Educators argue that, in their position as the line of defence for

their membership and the general populace, trade unions are probably better positioned to sell

the benefits of the digital age than most self-proclaimed, undemocratic, rigid and unfocused

civil society institutions (Greene, 2007).

Limitations in workers education arises when the trade unions are compromised by their

associations with the ruling elites. Workers education which is supposed to be premised on

the liberation of workers, if not properly handled can be a conduit of domesticating workers,

49

and spreading government propaganda. It has been noted that one thing which made Chiluba

and the team which took over the ZCTU leadership in 1974 „attractive‟ was that they

appeared not to be interested in government positions, only in fighting for good salaries and

wages and conditions of work for the workers. The leaders who had gone before them saw

themselves as part of the nationalist movement leadership first and labour leaders second. In

1991, Chiluba and others in the labour movement who were considered true blooded labour

leaders showed that they had also just been waiting for an opportunity to present itself for

them to take over the political leadership and use power to their gratification and for the

benefit of the workers (Holst, 2006).

Spencer (2007) argues that, radical education traditions within the labour movement remain,

although the trade union movement has lost much of the militancy that characterised its early

years, and its education work has been weakened and compromised. Radical learning does

not only take place in these organised spaces, however; members' participation in on-going

union activities develops their political understanding and working class identity, while

moments of mass action 'teach' workers not only about tactics, but also about political and

economic power.

The lesson from the marriage of convenience between the labour movement and the MMD

contracted in 1990 should be that a united labour movement should not allow itself to become

an appendage of any political party. The ZCTU found itself stuck in a bad marriage with the

MMD because the terms of the partnership were not properly negotiated. In this regard, even

when the MMD government‟s economic policies were badly hurting the workers, the ZCTU

clung on to it, seeing it as a part of itself. Whether the MMD saw itself as part of the ZCTU is

very doubtful. The labour movement did not even want to hear of a party calling itself a

„labour party‟ because as far as it was concerned, the MMD was the labour party. But the

MMD was never a labour party, founded with the purpose of serving the workers‟ interests

(Kaela, 2000).

The existence of several political parties in the country also contributed to the weakening of

the labour movement. The absence of a strong opposition party meant that the labour

movement could not threaten the MMD with defection to gain leverage with the government.

When Chiluba became president of Zambia after leading the labour movement for seventeen

years, he used his knowledge of the movement to push through economic policies which hurt

50

the workers but which Kaunda had found difficult to push through because of opposition

from the Chiluba-led labour movement (Webster, 2007).

In this regard, as has been argued by several writers, the fact of Chiluba being president of

Zambia became a big challenge for the labour movement as he contributed to weakening the

movement which had given him so much. Some trade unions had over the years suffered

from having weak leadership, especially at branch level. This meant that members of such

unions with weak leadership did not receive good guidance and sometimes engaged in

activities which tended to undermine trade union strength, such as wildcat strikes. The

leadership which took over the labour movement after Chiluba and the others moved into

government was seen to have weakened itself and the labour movement by identifying itself

too closely with the MMD, for which it had a „soft spot‟. The MMD leadership took

advantage of this friendship to implement policies which hurt the workers. The IMF and

World Bank policies which the MMD government implemented with a lot of determination

further undermined the position of labour leaders as they affected collective bargaining in the

country. It became common for the Ministry of Finance to decide the percentages of salaries

and wages to be awarded to workers outside the collective bargaining unit. This meant that

the labour leaders were no longer gaining much for their members in terms of improved

salaries and wages and conditions of service (Greene, 2006).

Concomitant to the obstacles to trade union growth already identified (global economic

reforms, technological advancement, drastic change in climatic and environment changes,

and labour market dynamics) trade union education in Africa is undergoing teething

problems. For instance, trade union educational activities remain heavily dependent on

outside financial resources. Moreover, these foreign sources are shrinking while demand for

them continues to grow. This means unions have to take certain bold steps, among other

things, by having to do so much with so little. Trade unions must, as a matter of urgency, take

appropriate measures to address this issue. National trade union centres and their affiliated

organizations need to value education by explicitly budgeting for basic training activities

within their respective organizations. Unions should also be encouraged to undertake

educational activities (Spencer, 2007).

51

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter discusses the methods that were used in this study. It describes the research

design, population, sample size, sampling procedure, research instruments and data collection

techniques and the analysis of the data.

3.1 Research design

Research design referred to the plan and structure of investigation used to obtain evidence to

answer research questions. The research design describes the strategy for conducting the

study, including when, from whom, and under what conditions the data will be obtained

(Kagan, 2012).

The research design of this study was a survey, and both qualitative and quantitative

techniques were used to gather data. This combination was necessary as the study sought to

collect quantitative data as well as in-depth information about the subject area. The

quantitative design was used in order to categorise and summarise data obtained from

questionnaires. The qualitative strategy was used to get the views and opinions about

workers‟ education. In these two strategies, the researcher gathered data by interviewing and

administering questionnaires to a sample of respondents.

3.2 Population

The population of the study comprised of all the workers‟ who are affiliated to Mine Workers

Union of Zambia and the members of staff in the department of workers education. The

headquarters of Mine Workers Union of Zambia is situated on the Copperbelt Province of

Zambia, in Kitwe. Amin (2012) defines population of the research as a target group from

which the researcher wishes to draw responses from. A population is a large collection of

individuals or objects that is the main focus of study; it is from the population that a sample

size will be drawn.

3.3 Sampling Procedure and sample size

This research used simple random sampling techniques, in order to obtain a sample of thirty

(30) respondents. Kombo and Tromp (2009) stated that a sample was a process of selecting a

52

number of individuals or objects from a population such that the selected group contained

elements representative of the characteristics found in the group.

3.4 Research Instrument

A questionnaire will be used for all the study respondents and an interview guide will only be

used to collect information from the director of workers‟ education. The questionnaire will

only have closed-ended questions. Gay and Airasian (2010) reveal that the closed ended

question format in questionnaire is easy to analyse statistically.

3.5 Data Collection

The researcher will request for an introduction letter from the Department of Adult Education

and Extension Studies from the University of Zambia, main campus. When authority to

conduct the research is granted, the researcher shall personally administer the questionnaire

to prospective respondents. The questionnaires will be collected on the same day of

administering. The rule of confidentiality will be observed by excluding the names and

identities of the respondents.

3.6 Data analysis

Data collected was analysed by making a comparative analysis following statistical

guidelines used in descriptive statistics. The process of data analysis involved the use of

statistical package for social sciences (SPSS). SPSS as a software is selected because it has

provisions for data entry screen design as well as statistical analysis functions at the same

time. It is also user friendly. The data from the interviews was coded and analysed by

categorising information under research objectives.

3.7 Ethical Considerations

The researcher accepts individual responsibility for the conduct of the research and ensured

that informed consent from respondents in the study was obtained in order to make sure that

all respondents participate freely and voluntarily.

53

PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS

4.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the findings of the study; the work will be presented in accordance with

the objectives of the study. This section is divided in two sections, Section A highlights the

demographic information of the respondents and Section B is concerned with the research

objectives of the study.

SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHICS

4.1.1 Sex of Respondents

The study revealed that 80% (24) of the respondents were male while 20% (6) were female.

This showed that there was a gender disparity in workers‟ education in the mining industry as

shown by the figure below:

Figure 1: Sex of Respondents

Source: Field Data (2014)

4.1.2 Education Level of Respondents

According to the findings of the study, 15 respondents indicated that they only had grade 12

qualifications, 10 respondents had Certificates in Trades skills such as Boiler making and

metal fabrication, while 3 indicated that they had Diploma, and 2 indicated they had Degree

qualifications in Civil Engineering and Mining Engineering respectively. The figure below

illustrates the findings of the study pertaining to education levels of the respondents:

Male 80%

Female 20%

Sex of Respondents

54

Figure 2: Education Level of Respondents

Source: Field Data (2014)

The findings of the study indicated that majority of the respondents working in the mines

only had Grade 12 education; this made it very difficult for them to participate in civic and

labour issues that affected their day to day lives. Hence, the need for the provision of workers

education designed to bring forth critical consciousness. Freire (1970) affirmed that,

education is a necessity for survival of man. The concept education suggests development of

valuable knowledge and skills in a society. The educational system of any society is an

elaborate social mechanism designed to bring about in the persons submitted to it certain

skills and attitudes that are adjudged to be useful and desirable in the society. As a result of

the necessity for education, there has been the view that one who ceases to learn ceases to

exist although the one may be living. Thus, one who exists has attributes of transcending,

discerning, communicating and participating with others who exist whereas one who is

merely living does not possess these critical attributes.

Despite respondents possessing literacy in the sense of the ability to read and write, they

remained ignorant on the issues that oppressed them such as labour issues, for instance some

respondents worked over time and got the normal salaries, some were denied leave even

when they had family crisis which required their attention. The respondents also displayed on

civic issues like the issue of the enactment of the draft Zambian constitution. Amid such

ignorance the working class especially the miners comprised majority of the electorates

during elections, it was therefore imperative to equip them with appropriate knowledge.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Grade 12 Certificate Diploma Degree

15

10

3 2

Educational Level of Respondents

55

4.1.3 Respondents Period As Union Member

According to the findings of the study 33% (10) of the respondents indicated that they had

been members of the Mine Workers Union of Zambia (MUZ) for a period of 5 years, 17% (5)

respondents had been members of MUZ for a period ranging from 5-10 years, 30% (9) of the

respondents had been members of MUZ for a period of 10-15 years and 20% (6) had been

members of MUZ for a period of 15-20 years. The table below shows the duration that

respondents had been members of the union.

Table 1: Respondents’ Duration as a MUZ member

Duration Frequency Percentage (%)

0-5 Years 10 33

5-10 Years 5 17

10-15 Years 9 30

15-20 Years 6 20

Total 30 100

Source: Field Data (2014)

4.1.4 Respondents Period in Employment

The findings of the study showed that 17% (5) of the respondents had only been in

employment for a period of 0-5 years, 27% (8) had worked between 5-10 years, while 33%

(10) had worked for a period of 10-15 years, only 6% (2) had worked for period of 15-20

years, while another 17% (5) had worked for 20 years and above. The table below is an

illustration of the respondents‟ period in service.

Table 2: Respondents’ Period In Employment

Duration in Employment Frequency Percentage (%)

0-5 Years 5 17

5-10 Years 8 27

10-15 Years 10 33

15-20 Years 2 6

20 Years and above 5 17

Total 30 100

Source: Field Data (2014)

56

SECTION B

4.2.1 Type of Workers Education Provided

According to the results of the study 15 respondents indicated that the type of workers

education focussed on safety at work, 2 respondents indicated that workers education focused

on company rules, 3 respondents indicated that it focussed on workers‟ obligation and 10

respondents indicated that workers education focussed on new technology. The figure below

shows the respondents perceptions of the focus of workers education:

Figure 3: Focus of Workers Education

Source: Field Data (2014)

From the above figure it is evident that the focus of workers education provided was on

safety at work and the new technologies introduced in the workplace to improve production.

4.2.2 Workers Education and Political Literacy among Workers

The findings of the study discovered that when asked whether workers education brought

about political literacy among workers, 63% (19) of the respondents disagreed while only

37% (11) of the respondents agreed.

The figure below is an illustration of the findings of the study:

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Safety at Work Company Rules Workers'Obligations

NewTechnology

15

2 3

10

Focus of Workers Education

57

Figure 4: Workers Education and Political Literacy

Source: Field Data (2014)

From the above pie chart it was evident that majority of the respondents indicated that the

workers education which was provided did not bring about political literacy among workers.

4.2.3 Workers Education and Human and Labour Rights

The findings of the study showed that when the respondents were asked whether the workers

education was concerned with making workers know their human and labour rights, 60% (18)

indicated that workers education was not concerned with making workers know their human

and labour rights, while 40% (12) stated that workers education was concerned with making

workers know their human and labour rights.

The figure below illustrates the findings of the study.

Yes 37%

No 63%

Workers Education and Political Literacy

58

Figure 5: Workers Education and Human and Labour Rights

Source: Field Data (2014)

The study found that despite workers education being the channel of transmitting knowledge

on human and labour rights, the curriculum was more concerned with professional and

technological advancement.

4.2.4 MUZ’ Values in Providing Workers Education

According to the findings of the study the respondents indicated that, the mission of the

Mineworkers‟ Union of Zambia (MUZ) is to protect and promote the interests and welfare of

mine and allied workers in the mining industry in Zambia and to organize and unite

mineworkers into strong miners as a basis for promoting social justice, positive economic and

safe working environment. The findings showed that the union is not usually regarded as a

workplace in a traditional sense, but it is also regarded as a school of labour. The most

common form of work activity engaged in by union members in MUZ are meetings. There is

a range of forums in MUZ in which workers participate and take collective decisions, from

general meetings of union members. The primary purpose of union meetings is to take

collective decisions rather than to carry out education; nevertheless meetings are educational

in that they facilitate information-sharing amongst members, help to develop common

perspectives, and contribute to the renewal of leadership capacity at a time when worker

leaders are constantly being siphoned off into positions of greater responsibility within the

union or, increasingly, into management or government.

Yes 40%

No 60%

Workers' Education and Human Rights

59

4.2.5 The Provision of Workers Education

The findings of the study showed that 60% (18) of the respondents indicated that workers

education was provided occasionally, 20% (6) indicated that it was provided twice in a year,

while 13% (4) indicated that it was provided monthly and only 7% (2) of the respondents

indicated that workers education was provided weekly. The figure below shows the findings

of the study:

Figure 6: The Provision of Workers Education

Source: Field Data (2014)

From the figure above, it was evident that access to workers education was a challenge facing

the workers as the union and management provided workers education programmes

occasionally.

4.2.6 Methods of Teaching in Workers Education

The study revealed that 33% of the respondents indicated that the method of instruction in

workers education was dialogue, another 33% stated that seminars were methods of delivery

in workers education, 27% indicated that lectures were used as a media of delivering workers

education, only 7% of the respondents indicated that workshops were used to deliver workers

education.

The table shows the findings of the study concerning the method of instruction in workers

education:

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

Weekly Monthly Twice/ Year Occassionally

2

4

6

18

Provision of Workers Education

60

Table 3: Method of Teaching Workers Education

Method of Teaching Frequency Percentage (%)

Dialogue 10 33

Seminar 10 33

Lecture 8 27

Workshop 2 7

Total 30 100

Source: Field Data (2014)

From the table above it was evident that the most used methods in teaching workers

education were Seminars and Dialogue.

4.3.0 THE FUNCTION OF WORKERS’ EDUCATION

4.3.1 Workers Education and the Social, Economic and Political Issues of Workers

The findings of the study showed that 67% of the respondents did not agree that the workers

education they were given addressed the social, economic and political issues that they faced,

on the other hand 33% of the respondents were of the view that through the workers

education they received their social, economic and political challenges were been addressed.

The figure below illustrates the findings of the study.

Figure 7: The Role of Workers Education in Socio-Economic and Political Issues

Source: Field Data (2014)

Yes 33%

No 67%

Workers Education and Social, Economic and Political Issues

61

4.3.2 Benefit of Workers Education to Workers

According to the opinions of the respondents majority of the respondents indicated that they

had benefited a lot of skills which enhanced their job performance through workers

education. It was found that new technology had an influence on workers education. The

mining industry largely depended on technology in their production, as a result whenever

new technology was introduced, the respondents were given workers education programmes

to equip them with skills and knowledge of how they can adapt to changes in the working

place and become more productive.

Other benefits of workers education were that respondents underwent first aid training which

equipped them with skills and knowledge of how to respond to emergence situations in the

workplace in case of an emergence and also precautionary measures which were necessary to

ensure safety in the workplace. Some respondents stated that through the provision of

workers education they had gained knowledge on the HIV/AIDS pandemic and the use of

condoms during sex. It was found that stigmatisation in the workplace had also reduced

owing to the knowledge gained through workers education activities.

4.3.3 Results of Providing Workers Education

According to the results of the study 12 respondents indicated that workers education resulted

in more participation in union activities, 8 respondents indicated that unions were

strengthened as a result of workers education, 6 respondents indicated that workers education

provided information and knowledge to respondents which liberated them from oppression in

the workplace, and only 4 respondents indicated that workers education resulted in the

improved social welfare of workers.

The figure below is an illustration of the findings of the study:

62

Figure 8: Results of Workers Education to Workers

Source: Field Data (2014)

From the above figure it is evident that the provision of workers education resulted in

increased participation in union activities by the workers as they gained knowledge on the

importance of belonging to a union.

4.4.0 IMPACT OF WORKERS’ EDUCATION ON CRITICAL CONSCIOUSNESS

4.4.1 Workers Education and Workers’ Critical Consciousness

The findings of the study were that 73% of the respondents agreed that workers education

awakened critical consciousness among workers and the desire to defend their interests,

however 27% of the respondents disagreed that workers education awakened critical

consciousness among workers.

The figure below is an illustration of the findings:

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Participation inUnion

Workers Social-welfare

Liberation StrengtheningUnions

12

4

6

8

Results of Workers Education

63

Figure 9: Workers Education and Critical Consciousness

Source: Field Data (2014)

The figure above indicated that workers education programmes increased the critical

consciousness of the workers.

4.4.2 The Role of Workers Education In Social Transformation

According to the results of the study, 33% (10) of the respondents indicated that workers

education created an awareness about the realities of social injustice, 23% (7) of the

respondents indicated that workers education enlightened workers about their obligations at

work and to society, 17% (5) indicated that when workers under went workers education

programmes they became more effective and productive, while 27% (8) stated that workers

education brought about civic education.

The table below is an illustration of the findings of the study:

Yes 73%

No 27%

Workers Education and Critical Consciousness

64

Table 4: The Role of Workers Education In Social Transformation

Effect of Workers Education Frequency Percentage (%)

It creates awareness about the realities of

social injustice

10 33

Workers are enlightened about their

obligations at work and in the society

7 23

When workers are educated they become

effective and productive

5 17

Workers education brings about civic

education

8 27

Total 30 100

Source: Field Data (2014)

From the Table above it was clear that workers education brought about social transformation

by creating awareness among workers about the realities of social injustice and enlightening

them about their obligations at work and in the society.

4.4.3 Workers education enables workers to know and defend their rights

According to the results of the study 70% (21) of the respondents indicated that workers

education enabled workers to know and defend their rights at the place of work and in the

community, while 30% (9) of the respondents indicated that workers education did not enable

workers to know and defend their rights.

The figure below illustrates the findings:

65

Figure 10: Workers Education and Human Rights

Source: Field Data (2014)

The pie chart above, majority of the respondents agreed that workers education programmes

empowered them to defend their human rights.

4.4.4 The Role of Workers Education in Addressing Un-democratic Tendencies

The results showed that 73% (22) of the respondents stated that workers education enabled

workers to address the undemocratic tendencies by management and government, while 27%

(8) of the respondents indicated that workers education did not help workers to address

undemocratic tendencies.

The figure below is an illustration of the findings of the study:

Yes 73%

No 27%

Workers Education and Defence of Human Rights

66

Figure 11: Workers Education and Undemocratic Tendencies

Source: Field Data (2014)

From the pie chart above, majority of the respondents indicated that they were able to oppose

undemocratic tendencies in the workplace and the community as a result of the workers

education activities.

4.5.0 CHALLENGES IN PROVIDING WORKERS EDUCATION

4.5.1 Transforming the Society through Workers Education Programmes

The results of the study showed that 77% (23) of the respondents agreed that workers

education had the potential to transform society economically, socially and politically while

23% (7) of the respondents did not agree that workers education had a potential to transform

society.

The figure below illustrates the findings:

Yes 73%

No 27%

The Role of Workers Education in Addressing Undemocratic

Tendencies

67

Figure 12: The Role of Workers Education in Social Transformation

Source: Field Data (2014)

From the pie chart above, majority of the respondents indicated that workers education had

the potential to transform society.

4.5.2 Challenges In Providing Workers Education

According to the results of the study, the general and key respondents indicated that workers

education was characterised by various challenges ranging from inadequate financial and

learning resources to lack of qualified trainers. The majority of respondents stated that there

is generally a lack of resources like money, but also a lack of skills and training or teaching

materials. Moreover, it is very difficult to access the workers, they are cut-off from society

and in other words trainers find it difficult to access them. Most of the workers work

overtime. They are under big pressure, so workers don't have any time to attend classes. At

the same time the trainers themselves are not very well organised. It is difficult to meet the

needs of workers and use the right strategy.

4.5.3 Funding Allocated To Workers Education

The study found that there was no serious funding allocated to the provision of workers

education, most of the funding of workers education came from management, and when

Yes 77%

No 23%

The Role of Workers Education in Social Transformation

68

provided they determined what should be taught to workers. As a result workers education

became limited to only skills training to the negligence of awakening critical consciousness

among the respondents.

4.5.4 Government’ And Employers Perception Of Workers Education

According to the findings of the study 10 respondents indicated that employers and

government perceived workers education as a propaganda, 8 respondents indicated that

workers education was a threat to governance and smooth operations in the industry, 7

respondents stated that workers education was perceived as a means to conflict resolution and

only 5 respondents indicated that it was a means to social transformation.

The figure below illustrates the findings of the study:

Figure 13: Respondents Perception of Workers Education

Source: Field Data (2014)

From the figure above it was evident that most respondents indicated that workers education

was perceived as propaganda and a threat to governance by management.

0123456789

10

Propaganda Threat toGovernance

ConflictResolution

SocialTransformation

10

8 7

5

Management's Perception of Workers Education

69

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction

This chapter tackled the interpretation of research findings outlined. Not only were the

findings interpreted but also discussed in their individual sense. The findings discussed are

those that had bearing on the research objectives. The general objective of this study was to

investigate the role of workers education in raising critical consciousness among workers: a

case of Mine Workers Union of Zambia in Kitwe district. The general objective was further

narrowed to specific research objective which were answered by research questions.

Following the discussion, the conclusion was drawn and recommendations made.

5.1.0 Discussion

The study investigated the role of workers education programmes in raising critical

consciousness among workers: a case of MUZ in Kitwe district. The type of workers

education which was provided to the workers and its role in raising critical consciousness is

discussed below in accordance with the objectives of the study.

5.1.1 The Type of Workers Education Provided

The type of workers education which was provided focused mostly on safety in the

workplace and new technological innovations that could enhance production. In Figure 3, it

was revealed that 15 respondents indicated that the focus of workers education was on safety

at work, 10 respondents indicated new technology, 3 respondents indicated workers

obligations in the workplace as the focus of workers education and 2 respondents indicated

that workers education focused on company rules. The nature of workers education which

was provided by the trade unions was largely influenced by management in terms of funding

and learning objectives and constantly gave reference to programmes such as production and

safety programmes. Ideally workers education is an approach to education, which refers to

education as a lifelong involvement and lifelong engagement and struggle. It involves people

in a process of critical analysis so that they can act collectively to change the oppressive

structures. The emphasis of workers education on safety in the work place and new

technology in the industry inhibits workers from attaining critical consciousness; on the other

hand it is education for complacence. This implies that the benefit of this education is not to

the learners but to the employers given that when the workers have acquired new knowledge,

production goes up and the employers enjoy high profits.

70

Freire (1970) agrees that, that education can never be neutral. It can either be domesticating

or liberating. The study discovered that the type of workers education provided to the

respondents was domesticating, originally workers education is supposed to liberate the

learners by enabling them become critically conscientised. Conscientisation, therefore, leads

to people organizing themselves to take action so as to change their social realities. The

concept of conscientisation has attracted those who believe in humanistic implications for the

participation of the masses and in the necessity of a rapid restructuring of society. It rests on

value assumptions of equality of all people, their right to knowledge and culture, and their

right to criticise their situation and act upon it. It also implies having a faith in the capacity of

all people, including the illiterate, to engage in critical dialogue. Conscientisation requires

that an individual change his or her attitudes, perception or beliefs. In other words,

individuals must not accept that social reality cannot be questioned and changed (Taylor,

1993).

In Figure 4 it was also revealed that 63% (19) of the respondents disagreed with the statement

that the workers education they were given brought about political literacy among workers,

the other 37% (11) of the respondents agreed that workers education brought about political

literacy among workers. It was found that respondents were reluctant to organise so as to

change their social realities. Despite the various social problems such as poverty, illiteracy,

unemployment, stigmatisation in the work place, gender discrimination, exploitation of

labour and corruption. The need for efforts to eradicate illiteracy among workers cannot be

overemphasised. Nyirenda (1995) stated that, Illiterate people tend to be apathetic and accept

their reality or condition as God-given and believe that they cannot do anything to change it.

This is reflected, for example, in their behaviour during political elections. Some countries

which have recently changed to multi-party politics have complained about the low turnout at

elections by illiterate rural people.

Spencer (2007) who opined that, trade unions were established by workers to represent,

protect and defend their collective social and economic interests. However, given the

complex dimensions that these interests have assumed due to global economic and socio-

political environments, the case for continual relevant and strengthened learning processes for

personal and collective development has become an unrelenting imperative within the labour

movement. The labour movement should not only represent the interests of workers, it should

also value education as a means to strengthen workers' capacities and empower them to

transform society.

71

In Figure 5, the study showed that 60% (18) respondents indicated that workers education

was not concerned with making workers know their human and labour rights, the other 40%

(12) stated that workers education was concerned with making workers know theirs rights.

The study found that the type of workers education which was provided emphasised workers‟

compliance to company regulations and increased production in the workplace. Despite,

workers education, been a channel through which workers can be conscientised on their

rights, most of the respondents were not aware of their rights.

According to Hills (2005), workers education has succeeded in preparing leadership to

perform their duties and also informing membership of their rights and obligations.

Nevertheless, for labour education to be more responsive to the dynamic changes of trade

liberalization, advancement in technological developments, increasing cases of violation of

human and trade union rights, it is necessary to initiate deliberate improvements in the

curriculum by raising awareness on the need for acquisition of new skills and the larger civil

society and sensitization and building of trade union militancy. The challenge to respond

dynamically will call for the introduction of non-traditional courses such as democracy and

good governance.

In Figure 6, the results showed that 60% (18) of the respondents indicated that workers

education was provided occasionally, 20% (6) indicated that it was provided twice in a year,

13% (4) indicated that it was provided Monthly, and the other 7% (2) indicated that workers

education was provided weekly. The study discovered that the issue of access in workers

education was a great challenge; the respondents were occasionally given access to workers

education.

Abu (2002) affirmed that, one of the instruction methods used in workers education is that of

resident lecturer. A visitor is invited to spend a month with workers for the purpose of giving

courses and lectures. Educational conferences are periodically held with two delegates from

each union and one or two delegates from each class. Some people refer to workers'

education as the two hours session with workers while others refer to it as the three days‟

workshop. Workers' education is not only a programme where workers come to attend or

participate. The scope of workers' education is not only the range of issues and topics that are

relevant.

72

In Table 3, 33% (10) of the respondents indicated that the method of teaching used in

workers education was dialogue, another 33% (10) indicated that the method of teaching

were seminars, 27% (8) indicated that lectures were used as a method of teaching, and 7% (2)

indicated that workshops were used as a method of teaching in workers education. The

method of delivery in workers education was determined by the content and objectives of the

lesson. The findings indicated that the methods in workers education were participatory

especially methods such as dialogue.

The findings of the study were in consonance with the observation by society Freire (1985)

who stated that, dialogue was an intricate part of learning; it is a measure of critical

consciousness. The process of social transformation occurs when learners increasingly gain

greater understanding of their role in the world around them through the intersection of the

subjective and objective conditions of their situation in. Education is a continuous process of

building consciousness that links knowledge to the broader struggle for political freedom. For

man this process of orientation in the world can be understood neither as a purely subjective

event, nor as an objective or mechanistic one, but only as an event in which subjectivity and

objectivity are united. Orientation in the world so understood, places the purposes of action at

the level of critical perception of reality.

5.1.2 The Function of Workers Education

In Figure 7, the results of the study showed that 67% of the respondents disagreed that

workers education addressed the social, economic and political issues they faced, the other

33% agreed that the workers education programmes they participated in helped them to

address the social, economic and political issues which they faced. From the findings of the

study it was found that most of the respondents despite attending workers education

programmes they were still faced with social, economic and political challenges. The

researcher observed that respondents were hesitant to participate in socio-economic and

political issues owing to the fact that they were deprived of information, and the formal

education they had acquired did not commiserate this need.

Greene (1988) asserted that, the function of workers education in its broad sense is to

compensate for the failures of the formal education system and to support a variety of social

movements attempting to redress social, economic, cultural and political disadvantage. In

fact, workers' education with a focus on basic skills and, for example, access courses, can

improve the problem of disadvantage. But for overcoming the inequalities built into society

73

arguably, a more radical, challenging, and transformative model of education: one in which

working people are enabled to develop a critical political consciousness is needed. So, the

study of workers education would therefore have social significance for the operation and

development of the social structure. Education is certainly a way to obtain the goal, but the

opportunities available to workers for further learning depend on the structure and

distribution of power in society.

In Figure 8, the findings of the study showed that 12 respondents that 12 respondents

indicated that workers education resulted in increased member participation in union

activities, 8 respondents indicated that workers education resulted in strengthening the

unions, 6 respondents indicated that they were liberated from exploitation in the workplace as

a result of workers education programmes which they had participated in, the other 4

respondents indicated that their social welfare had improved as a result of workers education.

The study found that as the respondents took part in workers education activities, they begun

to participate in the union activities. The researcher observed that those who did not

participate in workers education programmes were accompanied by an acute understanding

of the importance of union presentation and participation.

Welton (1999) agreed that, workers education introduces the labour force in taking active

participation in trade unionism at all levels of the polity. Through workers education, workers

identify common problems and create solutions to them. It thus brings development and

awareness to them with a strong sense of solidarity between them in achieving recognition

and strength as a group.

5.1.3 The Impact of Workers Education

In Figure 9 the findings of the study showed that 73% of the respondents agreed that workers

education awakened critical consciousness among workers, the other 27% of the respondents

indicated that the workers education did not awaken critical consciousness. Thus, majority of

the respondents affirmed that the overall aim of workers education should be the attainment

of critical consciousness among the workers, but the attainability of critical consciousness is

determined by the methods used in workers education. Critical consciousness is not just

knowledge, but more importantly, the way in which knowledge is achieved and the

consequent action it stimulates.

74

Freire (1970) agrees, to achieve critical consciousness of the facts, it is necessary to be the

owner of one‟s own labour and labour constitutes part of the human person. A human being

can neither be sold nor can he sell himself. Therefore, to achieve critical consciousness calls

for going a step beyond the deception of palliative solutions. It requires engaging in authentic

transformation of reality in order, by humanizing that reality, to humanize men.

In Table 4, the findings of the study were that 33% (10) of the respondents indicated that

workers education created an awareness in them concerning the realities of social injustice,

27% (8) indicated that workers education brought about civic education, 23% (7) of the

respondents indicated that workers education enlightened workers about their obligations at

work and to their communities, the other 17% (5) of the respondents indicated that they had

become more effective and productive in the workplace as a result of the workers education

programmes. The respondents indicated that when dialogue was used in workers education

the consequence there was social transformation given that critical consciousness was

awakened and respondents were ignited to change the oppressive elements in the work place.

From the findings of the study it can be asserted that, in a broad sense, the transformative role

of workers education is a process for building critical consciousness among politically

disenfranchised sectors of the population.

According to Freire (1970), the process of social transformation occurs when learners

increasingly gain greater understanding of their role in the world around them through the

intersection of the subjective and objective conditions of their situation in society. Education

is a continuous process of building consciousness that links knowledge to the broader

struggle for political freedom. For man this process of orientation in the world can be

understood neither as a purely subjective event, nor as an objective or mechanistic one, but

only as an event in which subjectivity and objectivity are united. Orientation in the world so

understood, places the purposes of action at the level of critical perception of reality.

In Figure 10, the findings showed that, 70% (21) of the respondents indicated that workers

education enabled them to know and defend their rights at the workplace and in their

communities, the other 30% (9) of the respondents indicated that workers education did not

educate them on their rights, as a result they were unable to defend their rights at the

workplace and in their communities. Thus, workers education was a process through which

workers expanded their role as citizens and activists, organized, mobilized, and subsequently

strengthened their capacity to influence the political decision-making process.

75

According to Freire (1985), the fundamental objective of education is the transformation of

people from the objects of history to the subjects of history. This radical transformative

process does not exist in a world different from the one in which we live, nor is there a

neutral approach to the object of study. The process of education does not occur devoid of

societal influences and constraints, nor do students and educators exist in isolation from the

prevailing socioeconomic structure.

In Figure 11, the findings of the study were that 73% (22) of the respondents stated that

workers education enabled respondents to address the undemocratic tendencies by

management and government, the other 27% (8) of the respondents indicated that workers

education did not help them to address the undemocratic tendencies by management and

government. From the findings of the study it is evident that majority of the respondents

affirmed that workers education brought critical consciousness which enabled respondents to

address the undemocratic tendencies by government and management.

5.1.4 Challenges in Providing Workers Education

In Figure 12, the results of the study showed that 77% (23) of the respondents agreed that

workers education programmes empowered them to transform their societies socially,

economically and politically while the other 23% (7) indicated that workers education did not

empower them to transform their societies socially, economically and politically. From the

findings of the study, it was evident that workers education was education aimed at

transformation, thus, it had the potential to transform society socially, economically and

politically. It was found that through workers education, workers can be equipped with the

critical consciousness necessary for social transformation. Abu (2007) agrees that,

Historically, African trade unions have been active in broad popular struggles for

independence and national liberation. Trade unions have been central in resistance to

authoritarian and dictatorial rule.

The study also found that despite workers education having the potential to transform society,

the provision of workers education was characterised by challenges ranging from insufficient

finances, inadequate learning material to a shortage of qualified trainers. Access to workers

education was another challenge as the respondents often worked overtime and did not have

time to attend workers education programmes. Lack coordination was another challenge that

surrounded the provision of workers education; the trainers well not organised and seemed to

prepare workers education activities at random without a written curriculum.

76

According to Spencer (2007), trade union education in Africa is undergoing teething

problems. For instance, trade union educational activities remain heavily dependent on

outside financial resources. Moreover, these foreign sources are shrinking while demand for

them continues to grow. This means unions have to take certain bold steps, among other

things, by having to do so much with so little. Trade unions must, as a matter of urgency, take

appropriate measures to address this issue. National trade union centres and their affiliated

organizations need to value education by explicitly budgeting for basic training activities

within their respective organizations. Unions should also be encouraged to undertake

educational activities.

In Figure 13 the results of the study were that, 10 respondents indicated that employers and

government perceived workers education as a propaganda, 8 respondents indicated that

workers education was a threat to governance and smooth operations in the industry, 7

respondents stated that workers education was perceived as a means to conflict resolution and

only 5 respondents indicated that it was a means to social transformation. The findings of the

study were that the union had lost their militancy, as the labour movement had become

compromised, the mushrooming of unions in the mining industry had weakened the voice of

the unions, the workers‟ interests no longer took central place in the activities of the unions,

as the unions were stressed with growing their membership and surviving in the fast growing

labour movement.

Holst (2006) agreed that, limitations in workers education arises when the trade unions are

compromised by their associations with the ruling elites. Workers education which is

supposed to be premised on the liberation of workers, if not properly handled can be a

conduit of domesticating workers, and spreading government propaganda. Radical education

traditions within the labour movement remain, although the trade union movement has lost

much of the militancy that characterised its early years, and its education work has been

weakened and compromised. Radical learning does not only take place in these organised

spaces, however; members' participation in on-going union activities develops their political

understanding and working class identity, while moments of mass action 'teach' workers not

only about tactics, but also about political and economic power.

77

5.2 Conclusion

In conclusion, workers education has a social purpose which is to promote and develop the

union presence and purposes, so as to advance the union collectively. However, Workers'

Education is not only about advancing the union collectively; it can also be about developing

a critical political consciousness for fundamental changes in the lives of workers and in

society at large. Workers education must generate an attitude of ethical commitment, given

the demanding task of achieving the common good. This also implies promoting political

awareness among workers, so that they are in a position do judge and question historical

contexts and shackling structures.

Education is a necessity for survival of man. The concept education suggests development of

valuable knowledge and skills in a society. Hence, the educational system of any society as

an elaborate social mechanism designed to bring about in the persons submitted to it certain

skills and attitudes that are adjudged to be useful and desirable in the society. As a result of

the necessity for education, there has been the view that one who ceases to learn ceases to

exist although the one may be living. To exist is more than to live because it means being in

the world and at the same time with the world. Thus, one who exists has attributes of

transcending, discerning, communicating and participating with others who exist whereas one

who is merely living does not possess these critical attributes. Therefore, one whose

development of knowledge ceases has also stopped to exist, he is merely living.

In formulating workers‟ education, we need first and foremost, to analyse the contexts of

workers before we can discern content that are relevant and appropriate methods to use. Part

of this contexts analysis includes an analysis of the role of the state, laws and policies in the

country and how, as well as what types of workers action is possible at that time and place.

Participatory methods that can evoke participation is important but not enough. There must

also be participatory methods that engage collective analysis and action. In any programme

we need to have a vision of the kind of society we are working for and a set of objectives to

guide our educational work. Finally continuous evaluation is necessary not only to assess the

effectiveness of the programme but also to evaluate whether the programmes are empowering

the workers apart from the attainment of the specific goals.

78

5.3 Recommendations

Arising from the findings of the study the following recommendations are made:

Workers education programmes should be centred on addressing the socio-economic and

political problems which the workers face in the workplace and society.

There has to be coordination amongst officers involved in workers education programmes

so as to promote consistency

Teachers of workers education should be trained in appropriate methods of teaching in

workers education

Participatory methods such as dialogue and plays should be used to deliver workers

education to the learners

A curriculum in workers education should designed to cater for the social, economic and

political challenges facing the workers

The study further recommends that future research should be conducted in the following

areas:

The effect of the multiplicity of unions on the provision of workers education

Constraints to effective planning and implementation of workers' education in mining

unions: A case of Mine Workers Union of Zambia

79

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Appendix 1

THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

School Of Education

Department Of Adult Education and Extension Studies

OUESTIONAIRE FOR RESPONDENTS

Dear Respondent,

My name is Walamba Mulenga Titus, a Bachelor of Adult Education degree student from the

University of Zambia main campus. You have been randomly chosen as a possible source of

information for the research on “The Role of Workers’ Education in Raising Critical

Consciousness among Workers: A Case of Mine Workers Union of Zambia in Kitwe”.

This study is purely for academic purposes only, the information you provide shall be treated

with strict confidentiality.

Instructions:

i. Please complete this questionnaire as correctly and truthfully as possible

ii. Tick (√) against the answer of your choice. Fill in the spaces where answers are not

provided.

iii. Do not write your name on the questionnaire.

Section A: Demographic Data

1. State your sex

a. Male [ ] b. Female [ ]

2. How far did you go in your education?

a. Grade 12 Certificate [ ] c. Certificate [ ]

b. Diploma [ ] e. Degree [ ]

f. Others specify ………………………………………………………………….

3. How long have you been a member of Mine Workers‟ Union of Zambia?

………………………………………………………………………………………

4. How long have you been in employment? …………………………………………

84

Section B:

The Type of Workers Education

5. What does the workers education which is provided focus on?

A. Safety at work

B. Company Rules and Regulations

C. The Workers Obligation

D. New Technology

6. Does workers education bring about political literacy among workers?

A. Yes

B. No

7. Is workers‟ education concerned with making workers know their human and labour

rights?

A. Yes

B. No

8. What values does the Mine Workers Union of Zambia hold in providing workers

education?

………………………………………………………………………………………………..…

………………………………………………………………………………………………..…

.……………………………………………………………………………………………….…

…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

9. How often do workers participate in workers education?

A. Weekly

B. Monthly

C. Twice per year

D. Occasionally

10. What methods are used in teaching workers education?

A. Dialogue

B. Seminars

C. Lectures

D. Workshops

E. Others Specify…………………………………………………………………………

85

The Function of Workers Education

11. Does workers education address the social, economic and political problems that workers

face in the community and at work?

A. Yes

B. No

12. How does workers education benefit the workers?

………………………………………………………………..…………………………………

……………………………………………………………..……………………………………

…………………………………………………………..………………………………………

Which of the following is as a result of providing workers education?

A. Workers‟ participation in union activities

B. Advancing the workers‟ social welfare

C. Liberates workers from exploitation

D. Strengthening the union

The Impact of Workers’ Education on Critical Consciousness Among Workers

13. Does workers education awaken the consciousness of workers on the need for collective

efforts to defend their interests at work and to solve problems in the community?

A. Yes

B. No

14. How can workers education help workers to contribute to transformation in the

community?

A. It creates awareness about the realities of social injustice

B. Workers are enlightened about their obligations at work and in the society

C. When workers are educated they become effective and productive

D. Workers education brings about civic education

15. Workers education enables workers to know and defend their rights.

A. Yes

B. No

16. Does workers education enable workers to challenge undemocratic tendancies by

management and government?

A. Yes

B. No

86

Challenges in Providing Workers Education

17. Does workers education has the potential to change society economically, socially and

politically?

A. Yes

B. No

18. What challenges exist in providing workers education?

…………………………………………………………………………….……………………

………………………………………………………………………….………………………

……………………………………………………………………….…………………………

………………………………………………………………………………..…………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

19. How would you describe the funding that is allocated to workers education?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………….

20. How does government and employers perceive workers education?

A. Propaganda

B. Threat to smooth operations and democracy

C. A means to resolving industrial disputes

D. A means to social transformation

Thank you for your honesty and cooperation!

87

Appendix 2

RESEARCH TIME FRAME

ACTIVITY TIME FRAME

Topic formulation January, 2014

Research Proposal first draft submission February to April, 2014

Final Research Proposal Submission May to June, 2014

Data Collection and Analysis July, 2014

Report Writing July, 2014

First Draft Submission August, 2014

Final Report Submission and Binding August, 2014

88

Appendix 3

BUDGET FOR THE STUDY

INCOME

DESCRIPTION UNIT AMOUNT TOTAL (K)

Group member

contributions K 600 per person K 1200

EXPENDITURE

Serial Number Item

AMOUNT

(K)

1 Transport to and from the field 200

2 Internet bundles and airtime 200

3 Printing research proposal 40

4 Printing data collection instruments 10

5

Photocopying of data collection

instruments 200

6 4 pencils for data collection 8

7 4 erasers 6

8 4 Pens 6

9 Binding Research proposal 10

10 Binding final report 350

TOTAL K 1030