The Role of School Design in Adolescents' Identity - Minerva ...

Pathways to a Better Personal and Social Life through Learning Spaces:

The Role of School Design in Adolescents’ Identity Formation

Neda Abbasi

Submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements

of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

December 2009

Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning The University of Melbourne

80 word summary

This research examined the contributions of school design to adolescents’ identity

formation. Framed within an exploratory qualitative inquiry, it integrated literature

review of theories of identity, their implications for education, relevance to recent

history, research and practice of school design and investigation of four innovative

secondary schools in Australia. Five design principles were identified including

‘downsizing schools’, ‘maximising flexibility’, ‘creating social spaces’, ‘furniture

solutions’ and ‘promoting transparency’ that through supporting adolescents’ identity

formation have implications for the better design of future secondary schools.

Abstract

Identity formation, which is about an individual developing a sense of uniqueness as a person and being recognised and confirmed by the society, is the major developmental task of adolescence. This developmental task determines much of adolescents’ personal and social well-being and success in life (Erikson 1968). This research examines the contributions of design of physical spaces to adolescents’ identity formation in the context of schools. In order to provide an interpretation of adolescents’ identity formation that informs the research and practice of school design, central theories of adolescents’ identity formation and their implications for education were examined. This review of literature led to identifying two characteristics of schools that contribute to adolescents’ identity formation: 1. A supportive environment addressing adolescents’ needs for individuation and social integration, and 2. Offering adolescents opportunities for developmental exploration Applying the two characteristics as a basis, a brief historical review of school design in the past century was conducted in order to track the relevant changes in the history of designing spaces for learning. In addition, empirical studies in environmental psychology and architecture as well as the educational research that addresses the role of design-related variables in various dimensions of education were reviewed. In order to place the inquiry within the context of Australian education and examine the current practice of school design, fieldwork was also carried out. The fieldwork involved a study of four exemplary secondary schools in three states of Australia as well as focused interviews with school principals, professional educators, educational facilities planners and architects. The research concluded with suggesting five design principles that contribute to adolescents’ identity formation. They include ‘applying design related strategies to downsize schools’, ‘designing social spaces’, ‘considerations with regard to school furniture and its arrangement’, ‘maximising flexibility’ and ‘promoting transparency’. Keywords: School design, adolescents’ identity formation, supportive school environment, individuation, social integration, opportunities for developmental exploration, school size, social spaces, school furniture, flexibility, transparency

This is to certify that

i. the thesis comprises only my original work towards the PhD except where

indicated,

ii. due acknowledgement has been made in the text to all other material used,

iii. the thesis is less than 100,000 words in length, exclusive of tables, maps, bibliographies and appendices.

To my parents

Dr. Mohammad Mehdi Abbasi

And

Mrs. Fatemeh Hosseini Nejad

Without their endless emotional and financial support this PhD would never be possible.

Acknowledgement

I would like to express my gratitude to all those who gave me the possibility to

complete this thesis.

First of all my deep gratitude goes to my supervisors Assoc. Prof. Greg Missingham

and Assoc. Prof. Kenn Fisher for their ongoing support, critical reviews of my drafts

and their rigorous comments.

I would like to acknowledge the contributions of my research panel, Prof. Kim Dovey

and Ms. Clare Newton as well as Prof. Graham Brawn who made significant

contributions to my thinking in the early stage of this research.

Special thanks go to academics, staff and colleagues in the Faculty of Architecture of

the University of Melbourne among them Ms. Jane Trewin a very helpful and

friendly research support officer, Ms. Lorenne Wilks and Prof. Paolo Tombesi.

I have further to acknowledge individuals in the departments of education in South

Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia as well as school authorities for

granting the permissions and accepting to participate in the fieldwork stage of this

research. In particular, I would like to send respect and thanks to individuals who

kindly accepted to be interviewed. Their insightful responses, thoughts, research data

and comments made crucial contributions to this thesis. They include professional

educators Ms. Jayne Heath and Mr. Kevin Nelson; school principals Mr. Bruce

Armstrong, Mr. Graeme Harder, Mr. John O’Shea, Mr. Ron Bamford, Ms. Cindy

Johnston; architects Mr. John Wood and Dr. Andrew Bunting from Architectus, Mr.

David Gulland from Hassells, Mr. Dick Donaldson from Donaldson + Warns;

educational facility planner Mr. Jeff Philips; and Mr. Keith Lightbody an educational

facilities analyst. I also thank Mr. Jim Taylor, Mr. Colin Marshal, Ms. Dene

Cranwell and Mr. Bernard Brown for their help during the fieldwork of this research.

Finally, I would like to mention Ms. Lyndell Kohut, the counsellor in the Counselling

Service of the University of Melbourne, Dr. Ali Abbasi a great companion whose

invaluable encouragement and advice helped me in tough times and Dr. Tien Kheng

Khoo a wise and supportive friend who patiently edited some of my initial drafts.

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Table of Content List of Figures...............................................................................................................v

List of Tables .............................................................................................................xiv

Chapter one ..................................................................................................................1

Backgrounds, Research Questions and Methodology ..........................................1

1.1. Why is this research worth doing personally? ........................................................... 2

1.1.1. My Lived Experience of Studying in Bleak Educational Spaces ....................... 2

1.1.2. Masters Degree Research and Design Project: “The Youth House: A Cultural

and Recreation Centre for Enriching Adolescents’ and Youth’s Leisure Time” ......... 8

1.2. Why is adolescents’ identity formation important? ................................................. 11

1.3. Why do schools matter in adolescents’ identity formation? .................................... 14

1.4. Why do schools’ physical spaces and school design matter in adolescents’ identity

formation?....................................................................................................................... 15

1.5. What were the main questions of this research? ...................................................... 18

1.6. How did I respond to the research main questions?................................................. 19

1.7. How is this document organised? ............................................................................ 20

Chapter Two...............................................................................................................22

Adolescent Identity Formation .............................................................................22

2.1. Identity Formation during Adolescence................................................................... 22

2.2. Important Factors and Experiences Involved in Adolescents’ Identity Formation.. 30

2.3. Identity formation in the school context .................................................................. 34

2.4. Implications of adolescents’ identity formation for Schooling................................ 39

2.5. Integration and synthesis of literature in education and psychology ....................... 48

2.5.1. A supportive school environment addressing adolescents’ needs for

individuation and social integration ........................................................................... 49

2.5.2. Offering Opportunities for Adolescents’ Developmental Exploration............. 53

Chapter Three ............................................................................................................55

A Brief Historical Review of School Design.........................................................55

3.1. Early Forms of Spaces for Learning ........................................................................ 56

3.2. John Dewey’s Educational Ideas and Their Influences on School Buildings.......... 62

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3.3. Emergence of Radical and Experimental Educational Philosophies and Their

Associated Ideas about School Buildings ....................................................................... 63

3.4. The Modern Movement and Its Implications for School Buildings ........................ 64

3.5. Open-air Schools and Duiker’s open-air school in Amsterdam .............................. 66

3.6. Henry Morris’s Idea of Village Colleges and Impington Village College .............. 68

3.7. Denis Clarke Hall’s Richmond High School for girls, 1940 ................................... 72

3.8. Crow Island School, 1940........................................................................................ 74

3.9. Denys Lasdun’s Hallfield School, 1948 .................................................................. 76

3.10. Open-space schools of the 1960s and 1970s.......................................................... 78

3.11. Hans Scharoun’s School Designs .......................................................................... 83

3.12. Aldo van Eyck ....................................................................................................... 93

3.13. Herman Hertzberger’s School Designs................................................................ 100

Chapter Four............................................................................................................105

Current Research and Practice of School Design .............................................105

4.1. Design-related factors that contribute to ‘a supportive school environment

addressing individuation and social integration’ .......................................................... 105

4.1.1. Privacy............................................................................................................ 106

4.1.2. Personalisation................................................................................................ 111

4.1.3. Design to Support Social Interactions ............................................................ 116

4.1.4. The Idea of Smallness ................................................................................... 123

4.1.5. Accessibility of teachers’ and other supportive staff’s offices....................... 129

4.1.6. Design to support cooperative learning.......................................................... 130

4.2. Design-related factors that contribute to ‘offering opportunities for developmental

exploration’................................................................................................................... 132

4.2.1. Design to support a school curriculum and school-based cocurricular programs

.................................................................................................................................. 132

4.2.2. Developing school connection with the world outside................................... 136

4.2.3. Design-related implications of incorporating ICTs into schools.................... 137

Chapter Five .............................................................................................................142

Placing the Research Inquiry within the Australian Educational Context ....142

5.1. Examining national and state level documents on educational goals and curricula for

adolescent students ....................................................................................................... 142

5.2. Fieldwork Plan of the Research ............................................................................. 146

5.2.1. Case studies .................................................................................................... 146

5.2.2. Methods of data collection ............................................................................. 159

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5.2.3. Data Analysis ................................................................................................. 161

Chapter Six ...............................................................................................................163

An Account and Analysis of Interviews and Case Studies Observations .......163

6.1. Design to contribute to ‘a supportive school environment addressing individuation

and social integration’................................................................................................... 163

6.1.1. Creating a situation in which a small number of adolescents work with one

teacher or a team of teachers .................................................................................... 164

6.1.2. Creating social and public types of spaces ..................................................... 172

6.1.3. Creating an open and visible learning environment ....................................... 179

6.1.4. Design to support programmes and activities that encourage relationship

building..................................................................................................................... 182

6.1.5. Considerations with regard to teachers’ preparation areas and offices .......... 182

6.1.6. Design to Support Privacy.............................................................................. 184

6.1.7. Design to Support Spatial Personalisation...................................................... 199

6.1.8. Design to Support Cooperative Learning ....................................................... 217

6.2. Design to contribute to ‘schools that offer opportunities for developmental

exploration’................................................................................................................... 226

6.2.1. Design to support a school curriculum and school-based cocurricular

programmes .............................................................................................................. 227

6.2.2. Connections with educational contexts outside a school................................ 239

6.2.3. Integrating Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) ............... 243

Chapter Seven ..........................................................................................................250

Discussion and Concluding remarks..................................................................250

7.1. Back to the main question, aim and research design ............................................. 250

7.2. From Theories of Adolescents’ Identity Formation and their Implications for

Education to Two Characteristics of Schools that Support Adolescents’ Identity

Formation...................................................................................................................... 251

7.2.1. Central Theories and Empirical Studies of Adolescents’ Identity Formation 251

7.2.2. Implication of Adolescents’ Identity Formation Theories for Education....... 252

7.2.3. Implication of Adolescents’ Identity Formation in the context of Australian

Education.................................................................................................................. 253

7.3. Emergence of Innovations Contributing to Adolescents’ Identity Formation within

the Recent History of School Design............................................................................ 257

7.4. A Study of Current Research and Practice of School Design in Search for

Contributions to Adolescents’ Identity Formation ....................................................... 261

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7.5. A Snapshot of Exemplary Practice of School Design in Australia in Search for

Contributions to Adolescents’ Identity Formation ....................................................... 265

7.6. From Integrating and Synthesis of the Findings to Defining Five Design Principles

that Contribute to Adolescents’ Identity Formation ..................................................... 265

7.6.1. Downsizing Schools / Design to Support the Idea of Smallness.................... 266

7.6.2. Designing Social Spaces................................................................................. 267

7.6.3. Maximising Flexibility ................................................................................... 271

7.6.4. School Furniture and its Arrangement............................................................ 274

7.6.5. Promoting Transparency ................................................................................ 277

7.7. Further Considerations and Limitations of the Current Research.......................... 279

7.8. Conclusions............................................................................................................ 281

Appendix 1................................................................................................................284

A Detailed account of the policy and curriculum documents reviewed..........284

Appendix 2................................................................................................................293

Design-related contributions to a supportive school environment addressing

individuation and social integration - findings from literature ................................ 293

Design-related contributions to a school that offers adolescents opportunities for

developmental exploration - findings from literature............................................... 294

Appendix 3................................................................................................................295

Key themes of interviews with architects, educational planners, school principals and professional educators................................................................295

Appendix 4................................................................................................................307


individuation and social integration - findings from interviews and case studies ... 307


developmental exploration – findings from interviews and case studies ................. 308

Appendix 5................................................................................................................309

Samples of interview questions with an educator and an architect ................309

Reference ..................................................................................................................313

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List of Figures

Chapter 1 Fig 1. 1. The central colonnade that acted as a space to see people and be seen - Author ........ 5

Fig 1. 2. Some of the little pocket landscaped spaces linked and readily accessible by the central colonnade - Author ........................................................................................................ 6

Fig 1. 3. Two sets of stairs linking two landscaped spaces at different levels; the stairs acted as spaces where students could hang out - Author .................................................................... 7

Fig 1. 4. An image from the model of The Youth House: A Cultural and Recreation Centre for Enriching Young People’s Leisure Times - Author .................................................................. 9

Fig 1. 5. A 3D model of the library and computer laboratory building in the Youth House - Author...................................................................................................................................... 10

Fig 1. 6. Two views of the 3D model of the building that accommodates Arts and Designs educational spaces in the Youth House - Author .................................................................... 10

Fig 1. 7. Schematic map outlining main stages of the research, their sequences and relationships - Author .............................................................................................................. 20

Chapter 3 Fig 3. 1. Floor plan of a Lancasterian Schoolroom - (Markus 1993, p.60) ............................. 57

Fig 3. 2. a. Hatfield House 1607-11 (Fletcher 1996) and b. Typical Robson School 1911 (Robson 1972) ......................................................................................................................... 58

Fig 3.3. Comparison between seating arrangement of a classroom in Southwark Central School, above (Seaborne 1977) and Robson’s suggestion for an ideal classroom, below (Robson 1972) ......................................................................................................................... 59

Fig 3. 4.The model of Scotland Street school - Flickr (http://www.flickr.com/photos/tobester_35/887100681/ Access date: 31/03/2009)............... 60

Fig 3.5. Ground, first and second floor plans of Scotland Street School - Flickr (http://www.flickr.com/photos/tobester_35/887038699/ Access date: 31/03/2009)............... 61

Fig 3.6. The corridor in the ground floor next to the school hall and exterior of Scotland Street School - Left; Flickr (http://www.flickr.com/photos/tobester_35/887038699/ Access date: 31/03/2009) - Right; Flickr (http://www.flickr.com/photos/stevecadman/197406196/ Access date: 31/03/2009)..................................................................................................................... 62

Fig 3.7. An image of Hillside Home School 1903 - (http://www.peterbeers.net/interests/flw_rt/Wisconsin/Hillside_II/Hillside-II.htm Access date: 31/03/2009) ............................................................................................................................. 63

Fig 3.8. Images and plans of three schools designed by Dudok in Hilversum between 1921 and 1930 as examples that established school a building type with classrooms on one or two sides of a corridor - (Hertzberger 2008, p.11) ........................................................................ 65

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Fig 3.9. An image and a section of a classroom in an Open-air school showing that one side of it can be completely opened up to outside environment, Suresnes, Paris, 1936 - (Hertzberger 2008, p.18)............................................................................................................................... 67

Fig 3.10. An image and two plans (original and later extension) of Duiker’s Open-air school in Amsterdam - (Hertzberger 2008, p.14) ............................................................................... 67

Fig 3.11. Floor plan of Impington Village College - (Saint 1987, p.42) ................................. 70

Fig 3.12. Top: The community wing in Impington Village College. Below: The courtyard looking ahead to promenade, workshops on the left and classrooms wing on the right - (Smith 1997, 2007).............................................................................................................................. 71

Fig 3.13. Site plan of Impington Village College that shows its growth to a full community college through additions over subsequent years - (Saint 1987, p.42) .................................... 72

Fig 3.14. Ground floor plan and a model of Richmond Girls High School - (Clarke Hall 2007, pp.72,73).................................................................................................................................. 73

Fig 3.15. Richmond Secondary Modern School built in 1957-1959 - (Clarke Hall 2007, p.77)................................................................................................................................................. 74

Fig 3.16. An aerial view sketch and the floor plan of Crow Island School - (Brubaker, Bordwell et al. 1998, pp.11-12)............................................................................................... 75

Fig 3.17. An axonometric drawing of a classroom in Crow Island School illustrating five components of each classroom unit - (Tanner and Lackney 2006, p.14) ................................ 75

Fig 3.18. Top: drawing of a plant as a metaphor for the layout of urban school – Below: a plan of Hallfield School - (Dudek 2000, p.91)................................................................................ 76

Fig 3.19. external of Hallfield School; from top left A, B, C and D shot in the plan - (http://www.artandarchitecture.org.uk/search/results.html?qs=hallfield+estate+school Access date:15/04/2009)...................................................................................................................... 77

Fig 3.20. A plan from Granada Community School, Belvedere-Tiburon, California, 1964 - (Educational Facilities Laboratories 1965, p.22)..................................................................... 81

Fig 3.21. Interior of Granada Community School - (Educational Facilities Laboratories 1965, pp.13, 28)................................................................................................................................. 81

Fig 3.22. Plan of Darmstadt Primary and Secondary School project; the orange line is a passage that links school spaces - Modified by the author from Blundell-Jones (1995)......... 84

Fig 3.23. Part plan of the lower grades school; A. ‘gatehouse tower’ with cloakrooms, B. communal space, C. classroom, D. external teaching space - (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.139).. 85

Fig 3.24. Part plan of middle grades school; A. ‘gatehouse tower’ with cloakrooms B. communal space C. classroom D. external teaching space - (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.139).... 85

Fig 3.25. Part plan of upper grades school; A. ‘gatehouse tower’ with cloakrooms, C. classroom, D. external teaching space, E. corridor, F. shared seminar space - (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.139)............................................................................................................................. 86

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Fig 3.26. First and ground floor plans of Geschwister School, Lünen - (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.143)....................................................................................................................................... 88

Fig 3.27. Typical plan of a classroom unit in Geschwister School; A. main teaching space, B. annex ,C. entrance lobby and cloakroom, D. external teaching space - (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.142)....................................................................................................................................... 89

Fig 3.28. Two different layouts in a typical classroom unit in Geschwister School - (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.144)................................................................................................................... 89

Fig 3.29. Plan of School at Marl-Drewer; the part highlighted in blue show circulation space that embraces passages and meeting places in itself, B. theatre, C. gymnasium, D. lower grades units, E. middle grades units, K. upper grades unit - Modified by the author from Blundell-Jones (1995, p.148) .................................................................................................. 90

Fig 3.30. Part plan of a lower grades unit in School at Marl-Drewer - (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.149)....................................................................................................................................... 91

Fig 3.31. Street-like circulation spaces in Geschwister Scholl school (left) and School at Marl-Drewer (right) - (Blundell-Jones 1995, pp.145,151) ............................................................... 92

Fig 3.32. A plan of the school in Nagele 1954-1959 - (Strauven 1998, p.281)....................... 93

Fig 3.33. A part plan of the school in Nagele showing one of the identical L-shaped classroom - modified by the author from Strauven (1998, p.281)........................................................... 94

Fig 3.34. A classroom in the school in Nagele 1954-1959 - (Strauven 1998, p.87)................ 94

Fig 3.35. An aerial view of Amsterdam orphanage 1955-1960 - (Strauven 1998, p.285) ...... 96

Fig 3.36. Ground floor plan of the Amsterdam Orphanage 1955-60 - (Van Eyck 1999, p.94)97

Fig 3.37. Part plan of 14-20-year-old departments - (Van Eyck 1999, p.106) ........................ 98

Fig 3.38. Internal streets in Amsterdam orphanage 1955-60 - (Van Eyck 1999, p.93)........... 98

Fig 3.39. The large open square as an intermediary place in Amsterdam Orphanage - (Van Eyck 1999, p.92)...................................................................................................................... 99

Fig 3.40. Ground and first floor plans of Apollo Schools, Amsterdam - (Hertzberger 2005, p.213)..................................................................................................................................... 101

Fig 3.41. A section and an image of Apollo Schools demonstrating the idea of split level design - (Hertzberger 2005, pp.213-214) .............................................................................. 102

Fig 3.42. A typical central hall of Apollo schools - (Hertzberger 2005, p.215).................... 102

Fig 3.43. A plan and images from a transitional space between a classroom and the corridor in Apollo schools - (Hertzberger 2005, p.31) ............................................................................ 103

Chapter 4 Fig 4. 1. Personal workstations for group of five students recommended by Jilk et al. (1992, p.34)....................................................................................................................................... 113

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Fig 4. 2.‘Turf’ concept: ‘five students’ places for individual learning - (Brubaker, Bordwell et al. 1998, p.36)........................................................................................................................ 114

Fig 4.3. ‘IPad’, an individual workstation for each student and three ways of arranging them in two advisory groups - (FieldingNair International 2006).................................................. 114

Fig 4.4. A social space created in the outdoors, Scotch Oakburn College, Australia - http://schoolstudio.typepad.com/school_design_studio/2009/03/scotch-oakburn-colleges-middle-school-in-tasmania-australia-opens-as-excited-students-and-teachers-j.html , Access date 26/05/2009 ..................................................................................................................... 116

Fig 4. 5.Examples of design practices aiming at turning circulation spaces into welcoming social spaces, Williamstown High School, Australia - http://www.spowers.com.au/projects/learning/williamstown-high-school/ Access date 19/05/2009............................................................................................................................. 117

Fig 4.6. An examples of design practices aiming at turning circulation spaces into welcoming social spaces, Carey Baptist Grammar School, Australia - http://www.designshare.com/index.php/projects/carey-baptist-grammar/images@1912 Access date 19/05/2009......................................................................................................... 118

Fig 4. 7. An example of gathering spaces in schools, Carey Baptist Grammar Senior School, Australia - Photo by Peter Hyatt (OECD 2006) ................................................................... 120

Fig 4.8. An example of gathering spaces in schools, Titaan School, Netherlands - http://www.archined.nl/nieuws/herman-hertzbergers-titaan-in-hoorn/ Access date 19/05/2009............................................................................................................................................... 120

Fig 4.9. Montessori College Oost, The Netherlands - http://www.floornature.com/worldaround/img_magazine/dial10_wrk2_2_popup.jpg Access date 19/05/2009 ..................................................................................................................... 122

Fig 4.10. Widened stairs linking the levels on two sides of the Montessori College Oost, The Netherlands - http://www.ciaow.nl/images2/876/1196.jpg, Access date 10/10/2009........... 123

Fig 4.11. Four classroom suites around a central core functions of a school - (Moore and Lackney 1995, p.16) .............................................................................................................. 124

Fig 4.12. An aerial view of Bishops Park College; the three wings on top of the image are the three schools - Photo by Alex Deverill (Beard, Davies et al. 2006)...................................... 127

Fig 4.13. Ground floor plan of Bishops Park College showing three self-contained schools around a central atrium space - (Beard, Davies et al. 2006).................................................. 128

Fig 4.14. Central hall space shared by the three small schools in Bishops Park College - Photo by Morley von Sternberg from http://www.bdonline.co.uk/story.asp?storycode=3080923, Access date: 24/05/2009........................................................................................................ 128

Fig 4.15. Atrium space of one of the smaller schools in Bishops Park College - Photo by Andrew Beard (Beard, Davies et al. 2006)............................................................................ 129

Fig 4.16. A plan showing the central computer area model of incorporating computers into a school - (Ehrenkrantz 2000) .................................................................................................. 139

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Fig 4.17. A central computer area shared by four classrooms around it in the middle school building of Balwyn High School, Australia - Author............................................................ 139

Fig 4.18. A plan of the lecture style computer lab model of incorporating computers into learning spaces - (Ehrenkrantz 2000) .................................................................................... 140

Fig 4.19. A plan of the six-student cluster model of incorporating computers into learning spaces - (Ehrenkrantz 2000) .................................................................................................. 140

Chapter 5 Fig 5. 1. A first floor plan of School A; learning commons are the areas in yellow and learning studios the areas in orange - (Fisher 2003, p.27)..................................................... 149

Fig 5.2. An aerial view of School R that shows the major buildings - Modified by the author on a photo obtained from a school information brochure...................................................... 154

Fig 5. 3. A site plan of School M - Modified by the author on the plan obtained from the school’s architect ................................................................................................................... 156

Fig 5. 4. A site plan of School C - Designshare website (www.designshare.com) ............... 158

Chapter 6 Fig 6. 1.A site plan of School R; three principal learning areas of the middle school part of the school are highlighted - Modified by the author on a plan obtained from a school information brochure................................................................................................................................. 166

Fig 6.2. A plan from a 'principal learning area – From a school information brochure ........ 167

Fig 6.3. A classroom in a principal learning area of the middle school part of School R - Author.................................................................................................................................... 167

Fig 6.4. A learning neighbourhood - Image below shows the area that has been assigned to a 'family' - Author..................................................................................................................... 168

Fig 6.5. A plan of school C showing two learning neighbourhoods from two learning communities – The official website of School C .................................................................. 169

Fig 6.6. A general learning space that some tutor groups share - The image on the left shows the movable lockers - Author ................................................................................................ 171

Fig 6.7. The atrium space of School M: Above is a shot from the main entrance looking to the external courtyard, Below is Two views from the first floor of the atrium space looking to the external courtyard and the main entrance - Author ............................................................... 174

Fig 6.8. A site plan of School M and an enlargement of the hatched area that is the atrium space and its adjacent functional spaces - Modified by the author on the plan obtained from the school’s architect ............................................................................................................. 175

Fig 6.9. The interior and exterior of the café space in school M as a 'social central hub' - Author.................................................................................................................................... 177

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Fig 6.10. A 'gathering space' incorporated into a staircase in School C - Department of Education and Training of a state in Australia ...................................................................... 179

Fig 6.11. Visual connection between a general learning space and a specialised learning space in School A - Author ............................................................................................................. 180

Fig 6.12. First floor plan of School A - Modified by the author from Fisher (2003) ............ 181

Fig 6.13. The interior of the first floor of School A: The image above shows the general learning space in the South, The images below show the circulation route in the middle of the first floor - Author ................................................................................................................. 181

Fig 6.14. The teachers' preparation areas in School A are open to and part of learning spaces - Author.................................................................................................................................... 183

Fig 6.15. A space in the library of School C - Author........................................................... 187

Fig 6.16. A site plan of School M showing the location of two substantial outdoor spaces - Modified by the author on a plan obtained from Department of Education and Training of a state of Australia.................................................................................................................... 188

Fig 6.17. The courtyard space (courtyard MA) of the School M - Department of Education and Training of the relevant state .......................................................................................... 189

Fig 6.18. Images of the courtyard MA in School M showing the seating areas that provide a variety of choices for students - Author ................................................................................ 190

Fig 6.19. The sheltered seating spots in the courtyard MA in School M allows students to be separate from but stay connected to the rest of students – Author ........................................ 191

Fig 6.20. The sheltered seating locations in the western side of the courtyard MA in School M - Author ................................................................................................................................. 191

Fig 6.21. Courtyard MB in School M showing the various seating areas created to offer choices to students to use them according to their privacy needs - Author........................... 192

Fig 6.22. The retreat zones at the end of the learning neighbourhoods in School C - Author193

Fig 6.23. An image from the retreat space with soft seating in School C - Source: www.fieldingnair.com........................................................................................................... 193

Fig 6.24. The bench strip running along one side of the library of School M - Author ........ 194

Fig 6.25. Two examples of retreat spaces incorporated into circulation spaces in School M - Author.................................................................................................................................... 195

Fig 6.26. The retreat space created off the corridor in the senior building of School R - Author, Designshare website (http://www.designshare.com/index.php/home), Access date: 10/3/2009............................................................................................................................... 196

Fig 6.27. A typical plan of principal learning areas of School R showing a common space shared by four learning spaces that acts as a retreat space - Modified by the author on a plan obtained from a school information brochure ....................................................................... 196

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Fig 6.28. The common space in the middle school principal learning areas of School R - Author.................................................................................................................................... 197

Fig 6.29. A classroom space in the senior building of School R showing the difficulties in reconfiguring classroom spaces and different size grouping of students due to the specific form of individual desks - Author ......................................................................................... 201

Fig 6.30. A plan of the year 9&10 principal learning area in School R showing that in the initial design individual desks were meant to meet students’ need for independent learning - Modified by the author on a plan obtained from a school information brochure.................. 202

Fig 6.31. An individual workstation in school A - Author.................................................... 203

Fig 6.32. The tackable surfaces incorporated into the foldable walls between every two classrooms of the middle school principal learning areas in School R - Author................... 205

Fig 6.33. The atrium space of School M that acts as an exhibition space for displaying of students' works and achievements - Author .......................................................................... 206

Fig 6.34. The detail of hanging students paintings on a wall of the atrium space of School M - Author.................................................................................................................................... 207

Fig 6.35. Site plan of School R. The highlighted areas are three designed outdoor spaces. The blue arrows show the direction of the camera views – Modified by the author on a plan obtained from a school information brochure ....................................................................... 211

Fig 6.36. Some significant outdoor spaces in School R - Author.......................................... 211

Fig 6.37. An aerial view of School R complex showing the outdoor space that is considered as a students social space - Modified by the author on a plan obtained from a school information brochure................................................................................................................................. 212

Fig 6.38. An outdoor students social space in the heart of the school grounds in School R - Author.................................................................................................................................... 212

Fig 6.39. An aerial view of School R complex; the arrows show the location of covered walkways - Modified by the author on a plan obtained from a school information brochure213

Fig 6.40. The covered walkways connecting the building blocks in School R as a form of students social spaces - Author.............................................................................................. 213

Fig 6.41. A site plan of School C. The red arrow shows the location of café strip - Designshare Website (http://www.designshare.com), Access date: 10/3/2009..................... 214

Fig 6.42. The café strip in School C as a form of student social spaces - Author ................. 214

Fig 6.43. First floor plan of School A showing the location of café space in relation to three learning commons and two main circulation routes - Modified by the author on the plan obtained from Fisher (2003).................................................................................................. 215

Fig 6.44. The café space in the first floor looking to the eastern external glass wall of the building - Author ................................................................................................................... 216

Fig 6.45. The café area in the ground level of School A - Author ........................................ 216

xii

Fig 6.46. Sketches from the L-shaped classroom and the Techno Cubby described by an architect interviewed - Author............................................................................................... 219

Fig 6.47. Three ways that tables in the middle school classrooms of School R can be reconfigured to accommodate various groupings of students - Author................................. 220

Fig 6.48. The square tables in the classrooms of the senior students building in School C can be arranged for various groupings of students - Author ........................................................ 220

Fig 6.49. The semi-circular tables on wheels in School A that support students cooperative learning – Author, Fisher (2003) ........................................................................................... 221

Fig 6.50. Design of computer tables in school A facilitate cooperative learning - Author ... 222

Fig 6.51. A schematic figure of a bean-shaped table, an image from the resource centre in School M with bean-shaped tables - Author ......................................................................... 222

Fig 6.52. The use of data projectors in a general learning space of School A - Author ....... 225

Fig 6.53. The two meeting rooms in School A that can be used by small groups of students who are working together on a task - Author ........................................................................ 225

Fig 6.54. A plan of School M showing the location of a ‘learning suite’ on the first floor - Modified by the author on the plan obtained from the Department of Education in a state in Australia ................................................................................................................................ 231

Fig 6.55. A part plan of School M showing the details of a ‘Learning Suite’ - Modified by the author on the plan obtained from the Department of Education in a state in Australia......... 232

Fig 6.56. A plan of the performing arts building in School R - Modified by the author on the plan obtained from a school information brochure ............................................................... 232

Fig 6.57. A project studio space in the performing arts building in School R - Author........ 233

Fig 6.58. Some ways that the performing art building in School R can be reconfigured - (Nair 2004)...................................................................................................................................... 233

Fig 6.59. Above: The first floor plan of the senior building of School C. The area marked by red lines is the shared space created in the circulation space - Modified by the author on the plan obtained from the school’s architect.............................................................................. 235

Fig 6.60. The performing arts spaces in School C (above) and School M (below) with retractable seating in order to create a level of flexibility in these specialist facilities - Author............................................................................................................................................... 238

Fig 6.61. A plan and two images of School A showing the location of the assembly area - Modified by the author on the plan obtained from Fisher (2003), (Fisher 2003), author...... 241

Fig 6.62. The gathering space in School C that functions for informal gathering, formal school assemblies, lectures and presentations - Department of Education and Training of a state in Australia ................................................................................................................................ 242

Fig 6.63. The computer alcoves in School M - Author ......................................................... 245

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Fig 6.64. A plan of the first floor of senior school building in School C. Areas bounded with orange lines are the two linear desks for computers within the circulation space outside the classrooms. Below are two images of the linear desks for computers in the corridor - modified by the author on the plan obtained from the school’s architect, author, Department of Education of a state in Australia ....................................................................................... 246

Fig 6.65. Two sketches and an image showing the way that computer desks can be combined with semi-circular tables and also dismissed when they are not necessary - (Fisher 2003).. 247

Chapter 7 Fig 7. 1. An outline of the research design – Author............................................................. 250

xiv

List of Tables

Chapter 2 Table 2. 1. The developmental perspective on identity formation; comparison of two influential theorists, Erik Erikson and Peter Blos - Author ..................................................... 25

Table 2. 2. Eight stages of development elaborated by Erik Erikson and comparison with life stages theory of Freud - Author............................................................................................... 27

Chapter 4 Table 4. 1. Pedagogical approaches and activities that support community building in learning spaces and their corresponding design features - (Bickford and Wright 2006, p.12)............ 126

Chapter 5 Table 5. 1. A summary of national and state level educational documents outlining the ways that adolescents’ identity formation is addressed and their implications for education of adolescents – Source: author ................................................................................................. 145

Table 5. 2. Percentage Agreement by year level in 2007 and by all in 2004/2005/2006/2007 - (ASMS 2007, p.50) ............................................................................................................... 150

Table 5. 3. Percentage Agreement by gender in 2004/2005/2006/2007 - (ASMS 2007, p.51)............................................................................................................................................... 150

Table 5. 4. Summary of Educational philosophy, design principles and design responses of School A relevant to the issue of adolescents’ identity formation – Author ......................... 151

Table 5. 5. Summary of Educational philosophy, design principles and design responses of School R relevant to the issue of adolescents’ identity formation - Author .......................... 154

Table 5. 6. Summary of Educational philosophy, design principles and design responses of School M relevant to the issue of adolescents’ identity formation - Author ......................... 156

Table 5. 7. Summary of Educational philosophy, design principles and design responses of School C relevant to the issue of adolescents identity formation - Author ........................... 159

Chapter 7 Table 7. 1. A summary of literature on adolescents’ identity formation and the educational documents from four Australian states government Department of Education - Author ...... 255

1

Chapter one

Backgrounds, Research Questions and Methodology

I really began to think about my own identity over the past two years. I’ve had little

responsibility other than schoolwork and a weekend job. I’m young enough to feel like an

adult, yet I’m not expected to act like one. I’m taking this time to really experiment with

friendships, family relations, and my personality (17-year-old female high school student

cited in Kroger 2007, p.62).

The church-affiliated high school I attended was intent on creating boys with a certain type

of identity. It had rules like you couldn’t have hair down below your collar or you couldn’t

wear jewelry. We spent most of our time trying to buck the system at school. That school

just took away so many options for trying new things … it really hindered rather than

helped me to grow (19-year-old male, looking back, cited in Kroger 2007, pp.79-80).

The above quotations from two adolescents point to a key developmental task of

adolescence: the quest for forming a sense of identity. This research is about

adolescents’ identity formation in schools with a focus on the contributions of design

of schools’ physical spaces. Through the eyes of an architect, I reviewed the literature

in developmental, social and educational psychology on theories of adolescents’

identity formation. I examined ways by which adolescents’ identity formation is

supported and encouraged in schools through educational practices. Parallel to this

investigation, I explored the possible implications of those theories and educational

practices for design of schools’ physical spaces.

In what follows, drawing on my personal experience, theoretical research, empirical

studies and the practices of psychologists, educators, architects and educational

facilities planners, I elaborate reasons for the significance of this research. The main

question of this research is addressed next. I also point to the methodology applied in

the course of this research. Finally, the structure of this document is briefly described.

Chapter One Backgrounds, Research Questions and Methodology

2

1.1. Why is this research worth doing personally?

1.1.1. My Lived Experience of Studying in Bleak Educational Spaces

I went to a high school almost devoid of any opportunity for getting to know my

classmates and teachers beyond the framework of lessons and coming into contact

with values and beliefs that they brought with themselves. Looking back to my lived

experience, I also doubt that I had enough chances to fully discover many aspects of

my own skills, talents and interests that I have discovered in the past few years.

Passing time was definitely a factor helping me to unearth hidden interests, skills and

talents along with establishing a set of life values and aspirations. Nevertheless, the

educational environment of that high school simply left little space for exploration of

values, roles, relationships, skills, talents and interests.

Various factors such as lack of learning choices within the curriculum structure, a

didactic teaching approach as the school’s only pedagogy, a strict and fixed timetable

and limited future pathways could significantly contribute to lack of explorational

opportunities. Nevertheless, the school’s physical spaces were agents deterring any

significant transformation of those factors.

Describing the high school and the university buildings where I attended as physical

entities represents a picture of this type of bleak educational spaces and provides

insights on what was happening within them.

The school’s main entrance was a worn out metal gate in pale colours through which

students were led to a bland school yard. There were a volleyball net in the middle of

the yard, a basketball net on one of its ends, a toilets block and a small building block

for the janitor in its two corners. The yard had asphalt pavement and except for two

trees on its two corners, it was almost devoid of any greenery. There was no place for

students to sit by themselves or have a chat with their friends. If a student decided not

to stay in the classroom, he/she had to spend the fifteen to twenty minute break time

walking in the school yard or standing in some spots in it.


3

The school building was no better than this bland yard. It was a two-storey building

within which classrooms were organised off the sides of two double loaded corridors.

The corridors were rather dark spaces as the only source of penetrating the natural

light was from a staircase halfway along each of them. During the time when classes

were taking place with their doors shut, the corridors were rather empty and quiet.

During the break time, these empty and quiet spaces were flooded with students

leaving classrooms and turned into noisy and crowded passages. This took away any

chance of informal learning and social interactions among students that could happen

in the corridors. In addition, hard mosaic pavement, poor natural light and lack of

seating were other factors that explained why the corridors did not lend themselves to

spaces for hanging out. The unattractive corridors were mainly conceived of as spaces

for passing through rather than spaces for staying in.

Classrooms were completely isolated from each other. Students only knew a couple of

people among their own class groups and had no idea of what other students in other

classrooms were doing. Each student group was assigned a classroom, if it was not for

the number or sign on the door, they could have had difficulty in distinguishing their

classroom from other classrooms.

A typical image of the classrooms was rows of individual chairs with small writing

pads attached to them facing to the front. The front part of every classroom had a

raised platform with the teacher’s desk on it and a blackboard on the wall. Little

collaboration could be happening among students during the lesson time. The form of

chairs literally did not allow organising them in groups for students to work

collaboratively. In addition, the small size of the classrooms could not support small

group configurations.

The typical image of that high school’s classrooms remained mainly unchanged when

I began my studies in the university. The campus to which I am referring had been

designed by a number of modernist architects of the 1930s. There were still identical

classrooms for lectures with rows of chairs facing a raised platform and a blackboard

on the wall. The chairs were even bolted to the floor and this took away any


4

possibility to change the configuration of classrooms. Those classroom spaces simply

impeded collaboration and discussion among students by not allowing them to face

each other and maintain eye contact. The classrooms were not made for discussions

and collaboration in mind. The thinking behind the design of them seemed to be more

“a sage on the stage” approach with a teacher who knows everything students need to

learn is delivering it to them.

Spaces for learning outside the structured and timetabled lessons were quite limited in

the buildings of the university. Organizational factors such as a strict timetable placed

significant limitations on what classroom spaces could offer. For example, if a student

found an interesting topic or idea during a lesson and wanted to further discuss it with

his/her colleagues or instructor at the end of a timetabled lesson, the student could not

do it in the classroom. On many occasions another student group had a class in that

space and needed to take over the space. The bleak narrow circulation areas linking

classrooms could not offer any possibility for such informal learning and social

interactions between people to happen.

Accessibility of the faculty for students was another problem that could be linked to

physical spaces of that university. The strict timetable and the faculty’s

responsibilities were the two factors that accounted for this problem. Nevertheless, the

difficulty in accessing the faculty could partly be explained by the inappropriate

location of their offices. The faculty’s offices were located on the fourth floor of a

building block in the campus that accommodated administrative spaces and their

common spaces on the ground floor and two exhibition spaces on the second and third

floors.

Perhaps the very places in the university that informal learning, discussions and social

interactions between people could occur were in studios and outdoor spaces. The

studio spaces called ‘ateliers’ were far more flexible than the general lecture type

classrooms. Students could move around freely and arrange the drafting tables in

clusters. There were constraints such as organizational rules and requirements

resulting from groupings of students to be supervised by a number of instructors.


5

Nevertheless, the atelier themselves did not impede being reconfigured to more

discussion-like and collaborative environments.

For some time, a student-driven initiative led to dramatic changes in our atelier. We

started to beautify our atelier by pinning up our works on the walls. I remember how

the space simply turned into ‘our place’ instead of an identical atelier. This form of

personalisation appeared to transform the once dull and boring feel of our atelier and

fostered a sense of pride in and ownership of that space among us.

In comparison to the yard of the high school I attended, the outdoor spaces in the

university offered far more opportunities to students for mingling and hanging out.

The university had a campus plan comprised of a number of buildings linked by a

central colonnade. There were little pockets of landscaped spaces created among the

building blocks.

Fig 1. 1. The central colonnade that acted as a space to see people and be seen - Author

The central colonnade acted as the spine of the complex through which everyone

whether students or the faculty passed at least once a day. Whether students wanted to

get to the dining area from their studio at lunch time or they needed to borrow books

from the library in a short interval between two classes, the shortest and most defined

way was through this colonnade. In this space, students bumped into their colleagues

or the faculty, saw people and were seen.


6

Small pockets of open spaces among building blocks were linked by and readily

accessible to the colonnade. These outdoor spaces were conceived as gathering spaces

where students could hang out. In addition to small landscaped spaces among building

blocks, there were also nooks shaded by trees or buildings, away from coming and

going of people, quiet and some with greeneries and views. These nooks acted as

places for retreat where students could have some quiet times reflecting by themselves

or chatting, sharing thoughts and ideas with one or two close friends.

Fig 1. 2. Some of the little pocket landscaped spaces linked and readily accessible by the central colonnade - Author

Some of the outdoor landscaped spaces were at different levels and the stairs linking

them were widened. This allowed the stairs to act as seating for students who chose to

hang out there while giving them good views of what was going on around them.


7

Fig 1. 3. Two sets of stairs linking two landscaped spaces at different levels; the stairs acted as spaces where students could hang out - Author

My experience of the educational spaces within which I studied developed in me an

interest in the role that the built-environment can play in individuals’ social life. The

outdoor landscaped spaces of the university along with the ateliers where informal

learning and discussions took place could attend to some of the social needs of myself

and my colleagues. But what about all those young people who have the same needs

for social relationships and exploration of values, opinions and ideas as ours and

could not take on a pathway in University studies? Where can they go to spend their

free time? Could such places as libraries, parks or sport centres attend the diverse

needs of these young people and in particular their needs for social interactions?

Questions such as these encouraged me to further examine the idea of ‘a cultural and

recreation centre which is responsive to many diverse needs of young people’ in a

Masters Degree research and design project.


8

1.1.2. Masters Degree Research and Design Project: “The Youth House: A

Cultural and Recreation Centre for Enriching Adolescents’ and Youth’s Leisure

Time”

The brief was developed for a cultural and recreation centre that addresses young

people’s diverse personal and social needs. It was conceived of as a centre that

welcomes all young people and is capable of attending to their different needs and

interests.

The research part involved a literature review of young people’s personal and social

needs, interests and characteristics as well as their preferences for leisure activities

and the role that these activities play in their lives. A questionnaire was prepared and

seventy five people aged between fifteen and twenty years old responded to its

questions. The multiple choice questions covered such topics as preference for

different types of leisure activities and existing natural and built spaces in the city to

pass leisure time. In addition, I was interested in examining the young participants’

opinions about and imaginations of such a cultural and recreation centre. In order to

examine this, I asked them about spaces and facilities that should be included in a

Youth House and provided them with some images to choose from.

The fieldwork data from the Youth House suggested a preference among participants

for passive forms of leisure activities such as watching TV, playing games and

studying alone. The young people participated in the study also referred to parks and

nature as two popular places for passing leisure.

A couple of public places in the city such as the library, the city theatre and a number

of neighbourhood hubs did not appear to be perceived as appropriate from young

people’s points of view. The data suggested that integration of nature and spaces for

such activities as arts, performances and sports is a solution to the prevalence of

passive form of leisure activities and contributes to enrichment of young people’s

leisure time.


9

Located in a forest area outside Gorgan, a city in the North of Iran, the site enjoyed

some moderate natural slopes that created good views to the river and the mountain.

The site was alongside Nahar Khoran Boulevard which was quite popular among

young people. In the afternoon or during the weekends many young people were just

walking along the pedestrian lines of the boulevard or driving with their cars up and

down it.

Fig 1. 4. An image from the model of The Youth House: A Cultural and Recreation Centre for Enriching Young People’s Leisure Times - Author

The Youth House was designed as a campus with special attention to outdoor spaces.

The building blocks were arranged around a pond created in the centre of the campus

that got the water pumped into it from the river. A significant emphasis was placed on

public spaces and spaces that bring young people together and encourage them to

socially interact. An open amphitheatre, covered walkways and gazebos were among

outdoor design features of the Youth House campus.

The campus was composed of a number of shops to present and sell young people’s

art works, a theatre and performance space, a library and a computer laboratory, arts

and design educational spaces, sports facilities, a place of prayer and a residential

building block for young visitors from other cities.


10

Fig 1. 5. A 3D model of the library and computer laboratory building in the Youth House - Author

Fig 1. 6. Two views of the 3D model of the building that accommodates Arts and Designs educational spaces in the Youth House - Author

It was within the context of the research and design project of the Youth House that I

first came across the concept of ‘adolescents’ identity formation’.


11

1.2. Why is adolescents’ identity formation important?

The notion of identity achievement built into the name of one of the identity statuses reflects

researchers’ idea that formulation of identity is an achievement − that is, something to be

valued, encouraged, and viewed as in the service of psychological health. And this seems

beyond dissent. To take a place in the social world, a place reached through dialogue

between individual capacity and inclination on one side and social possibility on the other,

is certainly to be lauded. Surely this serves growth and can be deemed healthy. No one

seriously contests this (Josselson 1994, p.19).

A large body of research provides evidence for the role that identity formation during

adolescence, coming into knowledge about who a person is to him/herself and others

and what his/her major life goals are, plays in an individual’s life. Identity

achievement during adolescence is regarded to influence important aspects of

individuals’ personal and social life through adulthood. In this section, I briefly refer

to some of the theoretical research and empirical studies examining the important role

of identity in individuals’ lives in particular during adolescence.

Referring to adolescence as an important life stage for identity formation, Erikson

maintains that “only a firm sense of inner identity marks the end of the adolescent

process and is a condition for further and truly individual maturation” (1968, p.88).

During adolescence, significant resources to form a sense of identity become available

to individuals. Stepping into adolescence, an individual has experienced physical

maturity and acquired a greater level of thinking and cognitive skills. Society also

comes to take adolescents more seriously as its members. This makes adolescence an

important life period that brings both hope and fear for the process of identity

formation.

Theoretical research and empirical studies suggested various outcomes associated

with adolescents’ identity formation. Four significant common outcomes suggested

include supporting psychological well-being, reducing the risk of problem behaviours,

encouraging intimacy and promoting academic performance.


12

Psychological well-being was regarded as the main outcome of optimal identity

formation by the passage through adolescence. In Erikson’s words:

An optimal sense of identity, on the other hand, is experienced merely as a sense of

psychological well-being. Its most obvious concomitants are a feeling of being at home in

one’s body, a sense of “knowing where one is going,” and an inner assuredness of

anticipated recognition from those who count (Erikson 1968, p.165).

The link between identity formation in adolescence and psychological well-being was

also born out by a number of empirical studies (e.g. Waterman 1992; Pulkkinen and

Rönkä 1994; Meeus 1996; Coatsworth, Palen et al. 2006; Palen and Coatsworth 2007;

Waterman 2007). A common finding of these studies is that identity achievement,

making commitments to some domains of life after actively exploring alternatives, is

positively related to psychological well-being. In Waterman’s words

There are ample theoretical and empirical grounds for advancing the hypothesis that success

in the task of establishing personally meaningful identity commitments through a process of

exploration should provide a developmental foundation for experiencing personal well-

being in any of its various forms. With the exploration of a variety of possibilities, there is

an increased likelihood that individuals will identify possibilities consistent with their

personal talents and dispositions (Waterman 2007).

Reducing the risk of problem behaviours such as drug use, risky sexual and

aggressive behaviours is another issue examined in a number of studies on

adolescents’ identity formation (e.g. Arehart and Smith 1990; Dollinger 1995; De

Haan and MacDermid 1999; Schwartz, Pantin et al. 2005; Ferrer-Wreder, Palchuk et

al. 2008; Schwartz, Mason et al. 2008). These studies basically suggested that

adolescents in identity achievement status are less likely to report delinquent

behaviours than those who have not yet resolved identity crisis and formed a sense of

identity.

Identity formation during adolescence was regarded as playing an important role in

the developmental task of ‘intimacy’ or an individual’s ability to develop intimate

relationships. Adams and Archer (1994) argue that the contributions of identity

formation to social life are reflected in intimacy. In Erikson’s model of stages of


13

psychosocial development, successful resolution of identity crisis during adolescence

was regarded as setting the foundation for the crisis of the next life stage, intimacy

versus isolation. According to Erikson

It is only when identity formation is well on its way that true intimacy − which is really a

counterpointing as well as a fusing of identities − is possible … The youth who is not sure

of his identity shies away from interpersonal intimacy (Erikson 1968, p.135).

Grounded in Erikson’s theoretical foundation (1964; 1968), the relationship between

identity formation and intimacy was examined in a number of empirical studies and

research reviews (e.g. Kacerguis and Adams 1980; Fitch and Adams 1983; Craig-

Bray, Adams et al. 1988; Adams and Archer 1994; Arseth, Kroger et al. 2009).

Adams and Archer (1994) maintain that a consistent finding of studies that assessed

direct measures of identity and intimacy (e.g. Orlofsky, Marcia et al. 1973; Hodgson

and Fischer 1979; Kacerguis and Adams 1980; Fitch and Adams 1983; Craig-Bray,

Adams et al. 1988; Arseth, Kroger et al. 2009) was that more advanced and active

identity development was associated with higher levels of intimacy.

Research provided evidence for the supportive role that adolescents’ identity

formation plays in adolescents’ academic success and competence (e.g. Ferrer-

Wreder, Palchuk et al. 2008). Many studies in this category deal with the relationship

between racial identity and academic achievement (e.g. Byrd and Chavous 2009;

Robinson and Biran 2006).

What was reviewed suggests that identity achievement by the passage through

adolescence establishes the foundation for psychological well-being. Success in the

task of identity formation is also linked to a lesser tendency to problem behaviours. In

other words, a coherent and less confused sense of personal identity acts as an

intrapersonal protective factor against problem behaviours in adolescence (Schwartz,

Mason et al. 2008). Identity formation in adolescence is associated with the ability to

develop and maintain intimate relationships in adulthood. Finally, adolescents’

identity formation has significant influences on adolescents’ academic performance in

schools.


14

1.3. Why do schools matter in adolescents’ identity formation?

If places serve to provide a sense of individuality to those within them − ‘place-identity’ in

Proshansky’s terms (Proshansky et al., 1983) certainly the school must make a significant

contribution toward children’s personal development. One’s sense of identity may begin to

develop at home, but the school is a major social and psychological force that adds much to

a child’s sense of self and the interests, skills, and personal qualities that define identity

(Rivlin and Weinstein 1984, p.359).

School was regarded as one of the major institutions (Adams and Palijan 2004) and

among the significant social contexts (Grotevant 1987) within which adolescents’

identity formation unfolds. In an empirical study of areas of life which are personally

relevant for adolescents, Bosma (1992) found school among the areas with relatively

high popularity.

The considerable amount of time that adolescents spend in school is a basic reason for

the significance of school in identity formation. Further, in schools, adolescents are

engaged in activities and programmes that can help them in discovering their skills,

abilities and interests and further develop them.

A considerable part of adolescents’ social interactions and interpersonal relationships,

in particular with peers, are formed and developed in schools. In that sense, schools

can become arenas for exploration and socialisation where young people experiment

with different roles, values and relationships. This is particularly the case for many

adolescents who live in poor and working class urban communities and may be

deprived of enough opportunities for exploration outside schools (Nakkula 2003).

In schools, adolescents are confronted with the necessity of making decisions or

selecting pathways for such issues as a career direction, gender orientation and life

values and attitudes for the future. Choices and decisions made in school are

affirmative of adolescents’ identities and can facilitate emergence of commitments

which is the first sign of identity achievement (Lannegrand-Willems and Bosma

2006).


15

Referring to the reasons such as the time adolescents spend in schools and important

decisions that they have to make in it, Kroger argues that

factors such as general school structure and climate, alongside interactions with teachers

and peers will all provide social and emotional experiences with possible long-term

implications for identity (Kroger 2007, p.80).

The research and studies referred suggest that there are enough reasons for the

significance of school in adolescents’ identity formation and turning attention to it as

a potential context for interventions with regard to this developmental process.

1.4. Why do schools’ physical spaces and school design matter in adolescents’ identity formation?

What is formed in school is a large part of people’s sense of themselves, their sense of

competence, their ability to relate to peers and adults, equals and authorities. A good deal is

abstracted from the teacher’s responses to the child as an individual and the quality of the

setting as haven. Whether children are able to project and develop their individual interests

and skills, whether there are opportunities for privacy, whether there are places in the room

that the child can personalize and with which they identify are issues salient to

environmental psychologists and their colleagues (Rivlin and Weinstein 1984, p.357).

For some time, policy makers, educators and others involved in education and

decision-making for education of children and young people have come to a general

agreement about the importance of design of schools’ physical spaces. For example,

in a study of public school educators’ attitudes towards and opinions of school design,

it was found that

Teachers and administrators alike recognize that design issues can strongly affect, either

positively or negatively, the learning process. In many ways, educators are dissatisfied with

their current school buildings – they feel that too often these structures have been designed

without taking into account the changing needs of students and teachers. They hope that the

school building of the 21st century will enhance the educational experience, creating new

opportunities for both educators and students (Beth Schapiro & Associates 1998, p.8).


16

The educators’ and educational policy makers’ ever-growing awareness of the

importance of school design has brought some valuable insights into the field of

school design and significantly influenced and enriched the research and practice.

Research reviews on the relationship between physical spaces of schools and students’

and teachers’ behaviours and attitudes are examples of the increasing awareness of the

significance of school design (e.g. Weinstein 1979; McGuffey 1982; Gump 1987;

Earthman and Lemasters 1996; PricewaterhouseCoopers 2000; Higgins, Hall et al.

2005). Other examples include international and national organisations and initiatives

aiming at examining the various effects of school design on students’ and teachers’

experiences and improving spaces where children and young people learn.

Organisations such as the American Architectural Foundation1, British Council

for School Environments2 and School Works3 are cases in point. One of the national

initiatives of the American Architectural Foundation is ‘Great Schools by Design’, a

programme that aims at improving the quality of America’s schools. The programme

promotes good design, encourages collaboration in the design process and provides

resources to empower schools and communities to transform themselves. In a similar

manner, the British Council for School Environments conducts research,

communicates and develops best practice in all aspects of school design and

construction of schools. It organises various events such as training sessions, design

festivals, study tours, conferences and seminars. School Works is also another

organisation in the UK dedicated to improving schools. It endeavours to link the

design of school buildings with their impacts on teaching, learning and school

management. School Works has a focus on participation of those who teach and learn

in schools in the design process.

In Australia, there has been an ever-increasing interest in and awareness of design of

school spaces. This is reflected in the significant investments in school infrastructure

as well as publications of departments of education in different states of Australia.

1 http://www.archfoundation.org/aaf/gsbd/index.htm 2 http://www.bcse.uk.net 3 http://www.school-works.org


17

The significant point in many of these departmental publications on school design is

that they moved beyond an approach that tends to standardise plans and details of

schools. Instead, these publications outline best practices of school design and

emphasise a number of overarching design principles.

In Australia, for example, one of the most significant programmes that show the

increasing awareness of the role of school physical spaces is Building the Education

Revolution (BER). The programme which began in 2009 includes $14.7 billion

investment in school infrastructure in order to help Australia’s schools to meet the

needs of 21st century students’ and teachers’ (Building the Education Revolution

2009).

The two documents of Victorian School Design and Building Futures, Caring for

Your Child are other manifestations of the attention to the role of school design in

children’s and young people’s educational experiences in Victoria.

The document Victorian School Design (Department of Education and Early

Childhood Development Victoria 2008) recognises the important role of physical

spaces in schools in the teaching and learning required for a modern curriculum. It

acknowledges the implications of The Principles of Learning and Teaching

underpinning The Victorian Essential Learning Standards for design of schools’

learning spaces.

The document Building Futures, Caring for Your Child outlines the state Government

of Victoria’s policy and process for all capital investments in school facilities and

infrastructure. It recognises the importance of school design and aims at providing

“the conceptual framework to ensure the educational needs of every student inform

the development of school infrastructure” (Department of Education and Training

Victoria 2006, p.1)

In the state of Tasmania, Building Better Schools: Improving School Buildings to

Support Learning is a similar document dealing with school design. The document


18

recognises that “buildings need to be suited to the educational or other service

delivery purposes and appropriately located across the state to meet student needs”. It

outlines the application process for Capital Investment programme and details how

priorities are assessed (Department of Education Capital Planning and Development

Tasmania 2007, p.4).

Research reviews of the relationship between the physical spaces of learning and

students’ and teachers’ behaviours and attitudes as well as international and national

programmes and initiatives such as examples referred to earlier provided evidence for

the importance of physical spaces in children’s and young people’s school

experiences.

My initial review of these studies found no study that deals with the relationship

between physical spaces of schools with the important developmental task of

adolescents, identity formation. This gap in the research urged addressing the main

question of this research.

1.5. What were the main questions of this research?

Beginning this research inquiry, I predicted that I would achieve insights into a

number of design-related factors and concepts that contribute to adolescents’ identity

formation in schools. Given this knowledge claim, the main question of this research

was addressed as:

How might school design contribute to adolescents’ identity formation?

An initial review of existing writings on school design in environmental psychology,

architectural and educational discourses did not provide evidence of any explicit

concern with the role of school design in the process of adolescents’ identity

formation that could help to begin the inquiry. The complexity of adolescents’ identity

formation process and the lack of a clear understanding about the nature of the

process within the realm of architecture and environmental psychology were


19

considered to account for that. Given this, a strategy to begin and develop the inquiry

was to provide an interpretation of adolescents’ identity formation process that

informs the research and practice of school design. This led to identifying two

characteristics of schools that support adolescents’ identity formation. They included

1. A supportive environment addressing adolescents’ needs for individuation and

social integration, and

2. Offering adolescents opportunities for developmental exploration

Drawing on these two characteristics, the two sub-questions of the research were

addressed as:

1. How might school design contribute to a supportive school environment

addressing adolescents' needs for individuation and social integration?

2. How might school design contribute to offering adolescents opportunities for

developmental exploration?

1.6. How did I respond to the research main questions?

The current research was structured within an exploratory qualitative framework,

an approach often adopted when a concept or phenomenon and the variables involved

need to be understood because little research has been done on it previously (Creswell

2003). The plan to search for responses to the research questions was composed of

theories and practices of school design. The findings of the research evolved from

integration of theoretical discussions within the relevant literature and the outcomes of

fieldwork process (see the Figure 1.7).

Four interrelated domains of literature were reviewed including central theories of

adolescents’ identity formation and their implications for schooling, history of school

design, existing research and practices of school design as well as writings in the

realm of architecture and environmental psychology that deal with the relationship

between built spaces and individuals’ self-identities.


20

Fig 1. 7. Schematic map outlining main stages of the research, their sequences and relationships - Author

As seen in the Figure 1.7, the two components of literature review and fieldwork were

not isolated from each other but interrelated and guided one another. The four

interrelated domains of literature review helped me to develop a theoretical base and

outline a plan for initiating the fieldwork. The theoretical discussions and findings of

previous studies within the relevant literature were revisited and reinterpreted as the

fieldwork progressed.

1.7. How is this document organised?

The rest of this document is organised as follows:

Chapter Two revolves around the issues related to adolescents’ identity formation and

the role that schooling plays in this developmental process. The aim is to provide an

interpretation of adolescents’ identity formation within the school context that informs

the research and practice of school design.


21

In Chapter Three, I provide a brief review of some of the major transformations that

design of school spaces have undergone through within the past century. My aim of

this historical review is to track those changes in the history of designing spaces for

learning that were in some way related to the issue of adolescents’ identity formation

and the two identified characteristics of schools that contribute to this developmental

process: a supportive environment addressing adolescents’ needs for individuation

and social integration; offering adolescents opportunities for developmental

exploration.

Chapter Four deals with the existing literature on school design. The focus of this

review is the research and studies that are in relation to the two identified

characteristics of schools that support adolescents’ identity formation.

In chapter five, I place the research inquiry within the context of education in

Australia. The chapter is organised in two sections. The first section presents a

summary of some of the national and state level documents on educational goals and

curricula for adolescent students. In the second section, the fieldwork plan of this

research is elaborated.

Chapter six provides a detailed account of the findings of interviews and case studies

observation about the implications of the two characteristics of schools that support

adolescents’ identity formation.

In chapter seven, I integrate and synthesise the findings of the literature review and

the fieldwork. I argue for the important contributions of five design principles to

adolescents’ identity formation in schools. In addition, further considerations and

limitations in relation to the current research are referred. Finally, I draw conclusions

and suggest the potential areas for further and future research.

22

Chapter Two

Adolescent Identity Formation

Young people must become whole people in their own right, and this during a

developmental stage characterized by a diversity of changes in physical growth, genital

maturation, and social awareness. The wholeness to be achieved at this stage I have called a

sense of inner identity. The young person, in order to experience wholeness, must feel a

progressive continuity between that which he [sic] has come to be during the long years of

childhood and that which he [sic] conceives himself to be and that which he [sic] perceives

others to see in him [sic] and expect of him [sic] (Erikson 1968, p.87).

This chapter revolves around issues related to adolescents’ identity formation and the

role that schooling plays in this developmental process. My aim is to provide an

interpretation of adolescents’ identity formation within the school context that informs

the research and practice of school design.

I begin the chapter with providing an overview of some central definitions and

theories of adolescents’ identity formation. Crucial processes and experiences

involved in this developmental process are turned to next. Implications of the process

of identity formation for education of adolescents are also discussed. Finally, I

suggest two characteristics of schools that support adolescents’ identity formation and

elaborate the factors and issues associated with them.

2.1. Identity Formation during Adolescence

I was losing myself. The ground, once so firm beneath my feet, now quivered; the path

below disappeared. And then I met the abyss, where my own name and possessions became

strangers, unfamiliar baggage in this formless place. But this very abyss, where all was lost,

somehow, somewhere gave rise to what I now dare to call ‘me’ (A 16-year-old voyager

cited in Kroger 2004, p.174).

The above quotation provides a snapshot of a crucial developmental experience of

adolescence, the quest for shaping a mature identity.

Chapter Two Literature Review on Adolescents’ Identity Formation

23

Identity is a complex phenomenon. Defining identity and the ways that it evolves and

develops over the course of human life have inspired many researchers for many

years. In the literature on identity different terms such as ‘self’, ‘ego’, ‘identity’, ‘I’

and ‘me’ have been used interchangeably. Nevertheless, there are arguments about the

distinct nature and definition of each term (Erikson 1968; Marcia 1994). It is not

within the limit of this research to further address these distinctions and differences.

Depending on the context to mean the same developmental process, I use the terms

‘identity’, ‘ego identity’ and ‘self-identity’ throughout this review.

Kroger (2004) points to two broad perspectives on identity: the linear perspective and

the developmental perspective.

The ‘linear perspective’ on identity holds that something which exists early in life

only becomes bigger or intensifies through time. This perspective is evident in the

ancient Greek definition of personality in terms of four basic character types which

are never likely to be exposed to qualitative changes. More recent versions of this

view are descriptions of personality in terms of the body build, character disposition

and psychiatric diagnostic classification (Kroger 2004). Berger (1974 cited in Kroger

2004, p.7) points out that the common theme among these views is that “a person’s

type resides within and is stimulated to unfold with experience”. In other words, it is

this inside entity which determines a person’s self. Contextual factors such as family,

society and culture only can play the role of stimulators.

In the ‘developmental perspective’, identity is described within a model which

includes qualitatively different stages of organisation and reorganisation. Each of

these stages has some unique features which are not the same as previous stages and

will never be repeated in the next stages (Kroger 2004). A hierarchy and invariant

sequence rules the developmental stages. Each stage builds on that which has gone

before, incorporates yet transcends the previous stage in order to set the foundation

for the next stage (Loevinger 1987). Erik Erikson (1959; 1963; 1968), Peter Blos

(1962; 1967), Lawrence Kohlberg (1980a; 1981; 1984), Jane Loevinger (1970; 1976;

1987) and Robert Kegan (1982; 1994) are five theorists whose writings were central


24

to the construction of the developmental theory of adolescents’ identity formation and

fundamental to the later research on this developmental task of adolescence (Kroger

2004).

When identity is considered as a developmental phenomenon, the significance of

contextual factors becomes clear. According to Kegan (1986 cited in Kroger 2004),

identity in the developmental perspective is conceptualised as a structural organisation

which is responsive to both promotive or obstructive opportunities and situations.

This means that, for example, experiencing a developmental arrest resulting from the

condition of childhood can be overcome and the individual guided to a more

normative developmental course and a successful mature life through appropriate

interventions.

Given the attention to the role of contextual factors external to individuals in the

developmental perspective on identity, the emphasis of my discussions is on this

perspective. The Table 2.1 provides a summary of a number of common themes

among theories within the developmental perspective to identity formation. Erikson’s

(1968) and Blos’s (1962; 1979) theories within this perspective are briefly outlined as

well.

Erikson was among the first theorists who introduced and elaborated important

concepts related to identity in adolescence including “ego identity”, “identity versus

role confusion”, “identity formation process” and “psychosocial moratorium” (Adams

and Marshall 1996; Kroger 2003).

Erikson refers to an earlier use of the term identity by Freud when

he tried to link to Judaism that he spoke of an “inner identity” which was not based on race

or religion, but on a common readiness to live in opposition, and on a common freedom

from prejudices which narrow the use of the intellect (Erikson 2008, p.223).

He interprets Freud’s reference to the term identity as “an individual’s link with the

unique values, fostered by a unique history, of his people” which was also relates to

“cornerstone of this individual’s unique development” (Erikson 2008, p.223).


25

Table 2. 1. The developmental perspective on identity formation; comparison of two influential theorists, Erik Erikson and Peter Blos - Author

In conceptualising identity, Erikson (1968) drew on an early theoretical use of the

term ‘identity’ by Sigmund Freud as well as his own clinical experiences with

veterans returning from World War II and emotionally disturbed young people. He

defines “a sense of identity” as “a subjective sense of an invigorating sameness and

continuity” (Erikson 1968, p.19). According to Erikson (2008), forming and

reforming of this sense of identity is a life long process:


26

… identity formation neither begins nor ends with adolescence: It is a life long

development largely unconscious to the individual and to his society. Its roots go back all

the way to the first self-recognition: In the baby’s earliest exchange of smiles there is

something of a self-realization coupled with a mutual recognition … Such a sense of

identity, however, is never gained nor maintained once and for all. Like a “good

conscience,” it is constantly lost and regained, although more lasting and more economical

methods of maintenance and restoration are evolved and fortified in late adolescence

(Erikson 2008, pp.226-227, 230).

Identity formation is the “normative crisis” of adolescence thanks to development of

“the prerequisites in physiological growth, mental maturation, and social

responsibility to experience and pass through the crisis of identity” (Erikson 1968,

pp.23,91).

It is necessary to refer to Erikson’s model of personality development in order to

locate the identity crisis during adolescence within a life span and to better understand

its relationship to the developmental tasks of other stages of individuals’ lives.

According to Erikson an individual’s personality can be regarded

… to develop according to steps predetermined in the human organism’s readiness to be

driven toward, to be aware of, and to interact with a widening radius of significant

individuals and institutions (Erikson 1968, pp.92-93).

Erikson’s model of personality development consists of eight stages. Each life stage is

marked by a developmental crisis which involves a conflict between two positive and

negative alternatives. The outcome of the successful resolution of the crisis of each

stage is an ego-identity quality or “virtue”. Successful resolution of the crisis of one

stage sets a reliable foundation for subsequent stages whereas unsuccessful

negotiation of the crisis of the stage results in progressively heightened challenge

(Erikson 1968). A summary of these life stages, their developmental crises and the

result of successful resolution of the crises are outlined in the Table 2.2.


27

Table 2. 2. Eight stages of development elaborated by Erik Erikson and comparison with life stages theory of Freud - Author


28

The fifth stage in Erikson’s model of personality development involves a conflict

between identity and role confusion during adolescence. Successful resolution of the

crisis of adolescence and achieving a sense of ego identity leads to the emergence of

the virtue of ‘fidelity’.

Erikson defined fidelity as the ability to exhibit loyalty and commitment and to live

by the society’s standards despite their imperfections, incompleteness and

inconsistencies. Commitment is the hallmark expression of fidelity because it

indicates that, in successfully resolving the identity crisis, the individual is equipped

to align and commit to ideological causes and concerns (Erikson, 1964).

Forming an identity that sets a firm foundation for adulthood is the central

developmental concern and issue of adolescence. Identity significantly comes to

individuals’ consciousness or awareness during adolescence due to the emergence of

physical and psychological changes. In addition, new social expectations from

individuals in adolescence stimulate this identity consciousness (Adamson and Lyxell

1996). The changes and social expectations are indeed resources upon which

adolescents’ identities can be developed. In Marcia’s (1994) words

Although there are opportunities for its [Identity] resolution later in life than adolescence,

the pubertal and postpubertal period provides the optimal conditions for its initial

resolution. Never again in the life cycle will there be the fortuitous confluence of individual

physical, cognitive, and psychosexual changes with relevant social sanctions4 and

expectations (Marcia 1994, p.68).

In his conception of identity, Erikson (1968) considered a significant role for the

social context. According to him, identity is shaped by the confluence and

interrelation of three elements:

I. An individual's biological characteristics

4 Marcia refers to forms of social sanction in Western societies and more traditional societies. In Western societies, the social sanction may be in the form of “a period of time-out so that they [adolescents] may leave the position of being cared for and orient themselves to the imminent roles of caretakers”. In more traditional societies, adolescents may be provided with “rites of passage” in order to confirm “their culturally sanctioned identity” (Marcia 1994, p.70).


29

II. Psychological needs, interests and defences

III. The social and cultural context within which a person resides

Social and cultural contexts support the formation of individuals’ identities by

recognising their biological characteristics and psychological needs and providing

opportunities for their expression (Erikson 1968). In Adams’s (1992) words

Erikson views individual development as occurring within a social context where societal

expectations require a selection from available choices, with the individual, in turn, needing

confirmation of choices and community acceptance … This same society must allow for

experimentation, acceptance and support of commitments made (Adams 1992, p.2).

James Marcia is another person who is credited for his significant contributions to

broadening empirical investigations on identity formation (Adams 1992). Observing

the insufficiency of the dichotomy of ‘identity versus identity confusion’ in Erikson’s

conception to capture the variety of styles of identity resolution for different

individuals, Marcia (1994) proposed a practical conceptualisation of ego identity

development, the ‘ego identity status model’. The ego identity status model is

composed of four identity statuses:

Identity achievement

Moratorium

Foreclosure

Identity diffusion.

In the ego identity status model, identity statuses are determined based on “the twin

criteria of exploration and commitment”. Exploration is defined as “the extent to

which an individual has genuinely looked at and experimented with alternative

direction and beliefs”. Commitment is defined as “the choice of one among several

alternative paths in the different interview domains” (Marcia 1994, p.73).

The positive end of the identity status model, identity achievement, is in place when

an adolescent experienced a period of exploration and made rather firm commitments.

Adolescents in moratorium status are those who have not yet made commitments but


30

are experiencing a state of exploration in search for proper choices. Those adolescents

in identity foreclosure status formed firm commitments without actively questioning

alternatives or experiencing identity exploration. Finally, individuals in the category

of identity diffusion may have gone through a period of exploration or not but they

did not make any commitments (Marcia 1994).

Two statuses of identity achievement and moratorium are considered to be associated

with positive outcomes including high levels of autonomy and self-esteem.

Foreclosure and identity diffusion are accompanied by negative outcomes including

low levels of autonomy and self-esteem (Marcia 1993). This finding provides

evidence for the importance of ‘exploration of identity alternatives’ and ‘making

commitment’ in adolescents’ identity formation.

Along with the theoretical conceptions of identity that were examined, it is

worthwhile to refer to a more practical definition of ‘identity’ and ‘identity formation

process’ presented by Waterman (2004). He defines ‘identity’ as “the goals, values,

and beliefs to which an individual is unequivocally committed, and that give a sense

of direction, meaning, and purpose to life”. Identity formation is a task that involves

the processes by which some ranges of goals, values, and beliefs are identified and

evaluated, and by which commitments to particular identity elements are formed and

activities toward their implementation begun (Waterman 2004).

2.2. Important Factors and Experiences Involved in Adolescents’ Identity Formation

Review of central theories of adolescents’ identity formation and empirical studies

emanating from them suggests a number of factors and experiences involved in this

developmental task of adolescence.

The first issue to be discussed has to do with the importance of relational context in

identity development during adolescence. This idea was built upon Erikson’s

emphasis on the role of social context and the importance of individuals being


31

recognised by the community in the process of identity formation. Studies on

women’s identities also bore out the importance of relational context. A case in point

is the longitudinal study done by Gilligan et al. (1990) on adolescent girls’ identities.

They found that girls tended to talk about their interpersonal abilities when asked to

describe themselves.

Adolescents’ identities are not the mere products of separation, marked by autonomy

and independence, or ‘intrapersonal dialogue’ (Flum and Levi-Yudelevitch 2008).

Instead, adolescents’ identity formation process involves a complex interplay of

intrapsychic processes and interpersonal experiences (e.g. Marcia 1993; Guisinger and

Blatt 1994; Josselson 1994; Blatt and Blass 1996). As Josselson (1994) states

Adolescents, to be sure, do undergo a separation-individuation process on the road to

identity. But at the same time, they are not becoming “lone selves” needing no one, standing

to face the forces of life alone. Rather, they are editing and modifying, enriching and

extending their connection to others, becoming more fully themselves in relation.

Individuation is reinvested in revised relatedness, and in these commitments lies the

integration of identity (Josselson 1994, p.83).

A factor in relation to the relational context of identity is provision of response and

support for adolescents. This is what Josselson (1994, p.90) calls the relational

dimension of “holding” and suggests that its presence has powerful consequences for

the formation of identity. She describes the very earliest experience of holding as that

of “feeling arms around one, supported”. The early need to be held physically takes a

symbolic form and continues to be important throughout a person’s life, in particular

during adolescence. In her words

Like the securely held infant who, as a result of being securely held, is able to play and

imagine, the adolescent who has been held enough is able to venture forth into new

experience, to risk separation and individuation, confident of a grounded world. Holding,

then, becomes background to the more overt dramas of individuation (Josselson 1994,

p.90).

In addition to “an internalized representation of trustworthy others”, adolescents need

“external holding environments” that “contain and stay constant during periods of


32

growth”, Josselson (1994, p.90) continues. A supportive school environment as well

as teams, teachers and other trusted adults who provide adolescents with support for

exploration of identity alternatives and confirm adolescents’ commitments embody

these external holding environments (Josselson 1994; Good and Adams 2008).

Research on adolescents’ identity formation in the family context (e.g. Cooper,

Grotevant et al. 1983; Grotevant and Cooper 1985; Grotevant and Cooper 1986;

Allen, Hauser et al. 1994 ; Berzonsky 2004; Matheis and Adams 2004 ) provides

further evidence for the importance of a “holding environment” and the

interrelationship between separatedness, relatedness and exploration of identity

alternatives.

A consistent finding among these studies is that adolescents in families that encourage

individuation and a degree of exploration within a warm and supportive relational

environment tend to be in identity achievement status. According to Cooper et al.

(1983), families that promote both individuation and connectedness establish bases for

adolescents’ exploration in identity formation. They state that

[the] leaving process is facilitated by individual family relationships, characterized by

separateness, which gives the adolescent permission to develop his or her own point of

view, in the context of connectedness, which provides a secure base from which the

adolescent can explore [the] world outside the family (Cooper, Grotevant et al. 1983, p.56).

I further elaborate the element of ‘support’ and the characteristics of a ‘holding’

school environment that provides support in the following sections.

The literature on adolescents’ identity formation also suggests psychosocial

moratorium as a crucial experience.

During adolescence, individuals are faced with the urgency of making choices and

decisions that lead them to a more final self-definition, irreversible role patterns and

life-long commitments. It is during this period that societies offer individuals

intermediary periods between childhood and adulthood, in Erikson’s (2008) words


33

“institutionalized psychosocial moratoria”. He describes psychosocial moratorium as

a period “during which the individual through free role experimentation may find a

niche in some section of his society, a niche which is firmly defined and yet seems to

be uniquely made for him” (Erikson 2008, pp.224-225).

Kroger (2007) defines psychosocial moratorium as “a delay of adult commitments by

youth as well as a period of permissiveness by a society to allow young people the

exploration time”. She regards this exploration time as a necessary period for

adolescents if they are to form “deeper and more meaningful psychosocial

commitments” (Kroger 2007, p.12).

A period of exploration along with commitment were also referred as the twin criteria

according to which identity statuses are assessed in ego identity status model (Marcia

1966). Marcia (1994) proposes exploration and commitment as appropriate variables

for intervention. He maintains that a starting point for intervention with regard to

adolescent identity formation is providing adolescents with an ‘exploratory period’. In

his words

One may consider intervention on societal, educational, and psychotherapeutic levels. If a

society can sanction an exploratory period (Erikson’s “psychosocial moratorium”) and

provide multiple valid niches for commitment, then it can contribute greatly to the ego

development of its late adolescents (Marcia 1994, p.78).

In the context of educational institutions, the exploratory period can be reflected in the

less pressure on students to make firm decisions, the possibility of switching major

areas of studies, flexible curricular requirements and counselling services, Marcia

(1994) continues:

Educational institutions, within which late adolescents will develop a sense of identity, can

refrain from requiring too hasty decision making about major areas of study and can support

late adolescents in their occupational and ideological experimentation while, at the same

time, they can facilitate and reward commitment when it emerges from the individual. One

form this might take is allowing university students to switch major areas of study without

serious penalty, offering some flexibility in curricular requirements, and providing


34

counselling services geared specifically to identity crises. This would represent a move

beyond mere training to true education of our young people (Marcia 1994, p.78).

2.3. Identity formation in the school context

Erikson’s (1974) conception of identity in adolescence as an interplay between

context or the outside world and an individual’s inner world acknowledges the

significant role that different social contexts play in the process of identity formation.

This idea was also born out by a number of research and empirical studies that place

emphasis on the role of context (e.g. Adams and Marshall 1996; Goossens and

Phinney 1996).

School is one of these contexts that play a significant role in the development of

adolescents’ identities. In the previous chapter, I pointed to some of the reasons for

the significance of schools in adolescents’ identity formation. Here, I aim to provide

insights into ways through which schools might contribute to adolescents’ identity

formation. In doing so, I draw upon existing research on the role of schools in

adolescents’ lives and empirical studies of adolescents’ identity formation in schools

and colleges.

Despite the many reasons for the significance of schools in adolescents’ identity

formation, few empirical studies investigate the ways that school context might

influence identity formation processes.

In one study Lannegrand-Willems and Bosma (2006) studied the impact of school

climate on adolescents’ identity formation in three high schools which were different

in terms of socioeconomic backgrounds of students. They found that impacts of

school context in the three schools became stronger as the school year progressed.


35

However, the level of students’ identity exploration and commitment was higher in

the school with students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds5.

The findings of this study confirmed the important role of school context in students’

identity development and suggested that school experience acts as a personal resource

in the development of identity (Lannegrand-Willems and Bosma 2006). Nevertheless,

the study does not provide a clear image of factors and variables in the schools that

support adolescents’ identity formation. However, by referring to the confluence of

students’ socioeconomic background and the impacts of schools on their identity

formation the study outlines an image of the complicated process through which

schools might support or deter adolescents’ identity formation.

In another study, Roker and Banks (1993) examined the effect of school structure on

identity formation. Controlling the age and family background of participants, they

studied identity development of adolescent girls who were attending both private and

state schools6. The findings of this study showed a significantly greater number of

girls attending private schools in foreclosure status compared to those attending state

schools who tended to be in moratorium and identity achievement statuses. The

authors argued that the homogenous environment of the private school that exposed

students to few ideological viewpoints along with the pressure on students to make

decisions about career plans might account for a higher number of foreclosed

adolescents. On the contrary, adolescent girls in the state school were exposed to a

greater range of different ideological viewpoints and belief systems, a context that

facilitates exploration of alternatives and making commitments (Roker and Banks

1993). This study provides evidence for the influence that schools may have on

adolescents’ identity formation through facilitating or preventing exploration of

different alternatives.

5 The sample was composed of 311 students in 8th-grade. The different measures were concerned with the students’ academic status, school experience (school self-image, school strategies, and integration) and identity in terms of exploration and commitment. To study identity development-in-context, a French paper-and-pencil adaptation of the Groningen Identity Development Scale (GIDS) (Bosma, 1985) was used. 6 The sample was composed of 127 girls. The participants were interviewed in depth and assessed based on Marcia’s (1966) identity status model in the domains of politics and occupation.


36

Building on the available preliminary evidence, Kroger (2007) suggests

schools providing a homogeneous environment may give little opportunity for student

exploration of differing alternatives and discourage more mature forms of identity

development (Kroger 2007, p.83).

Two other studies of identity formation in the context of college and university are

also relevant.

Adams and Fitch (1983) studied possible psychological environment effects on

identity status and ego stage development of university students. Their findings

suggested that educational environments that promote a supportive intellectual

environment while offering critical and analytic awareness of societal issues facilitate

identity development (Adams and Fitch 1983). In their words

… societal awareness, whether it is encouraged by peers or faculty, creates one necessary

condition for exploring and broadening one's perspective, and this condition appears to

facilitate identity status advancement or stability for males and females, respectively

(Adams and Fitch 1983).

In another study, Adams et al. (2000) examined the impacts of family and

educational environments on university students’ identity formation and ego

strength. Their findings suggested that supportive educational environments and

democratic families positively correlate with ego strength and facilitate identity

formation during the college or university experience. They observed that

…for any given single year, and from one year to the next, academic relational

environments had similar predictive associations with the ego strength of fidelity. That is,

academic, scholarly, and intellectual pursuits within a supportive, helpful, open-minded, and

encouraging system of communication and behavior were observed to predict higher levels

of fidelity. Likewise, a family relational environment that was open, expressive,

communicative, warm, and supportive also facilitated fidelity. Late adolescents and young

adults who are provided with an opportunity to balance individual self-expression with a

supportive, helpful, and warm connection to the group are likely to have a sense of, and

fidelity and commitment to, their pursuits (Adams, Ryan et al. 2000).


37

Building upon the findings of their study, Adams et al. (2000) suggest that

…university officials need to assist in building opportunities for performance, expression,

and analytic thinking, but within a warm, supportive, communal setting if they aspire to

facilitate students’ personal and social development (Adams, Ryan et al. 2000).

These findings along with similar findings from the studies conducted in the context

of adolescents’ families (e.g. Cooper, Grotevant et al. 1983; Grotevant and Cooper

1985; Grotevant and Cooper 1986) point to the link between relational context of

identity formation and adolescents’ exploration of identity alternatives. Simply put,

support systems embodied in democratic family environments and supportive

educational environments encourage adolescents’ exploration. Adams and Palijan

(2004) capture this idea well in the following quotation:

By having a safe environment at home and at school, adolescents feel comfortable to more

fully explore their identity options. Otherwise, they may feel pressured to adhere to certain

values by the school or from their parents, especially in the case of adolescents from

migrant families (Adams and Palijan 2004, p.240).

A study with somewhat different findings was carried out by Ferrer-Wreder et al.

(2008). One of the study’s ancillary questions was concerned with possible relations

between adolescents’ perception of the school environment and identity coherence or

identity confusion and the ego strength of competence. The researchers examined

perception of the school environment in terms of three variables: adolescents’ views

on student and teacher respect, school quality and students’ sense of belongingness to

and engagement in their school (Mitra 2004 cited in Ferrer-Wreder, Palchuk et al.

2008).

The findings of this study did not demonstrate any significant association between

adolescents’ perception of the school environment and identity coherence or identity

confusion and the ego strength of competence (Ferrer-Wreder, Palchuk et al. 2008).

Nevertheless, the authors called for future research to continue to cast light on the

relation between contextual variables and adolescents’ identity formation.


38

The study of undergraduate university students by Good and Adams (2008) is another

case in point that provides findings inconsistent with previous studies that found an

association between positive relationships with faculty members and adolescents’

successful resolution of identity crisis (e.g. Adams and Fitch 1983; Adams, Ryan et al.

2000). Drawing on a review of empirical studies and Erikson’s theory of identity

formation, Good and Adams (2008) hypothesized that “socially supportive contexts

(particularly the school environment) promote the successful resolution of the identity

crisis (Identity achievement)”. The educational social environment was measured

according to students’ relationships with their fellow students, faculty members and

programme advisors and other officials.

While relationships with the faculty members were shown to influence academic

outcome, these relationships did not turn out to influence the identity statuses of

achievement or diffusion. An explanation could be that the contacts of faculty and

students are limited to large lecture sessions. This then resulted in negligibility of the

influence of faculty members on students’ day-to-day lives (Good and Adams 2008).

Similarly, students’ relationships with their fellow students in an individual

department or programme were not found to be associated with identity achievement

or diffusion. Good and Adams (2008) maintain that

In essence, positive relationships with fellow students provide an enjoyable work

environment. These positive relationships and work environments may enhance students’

drive and determination to succeed in their chosen program (i.e., will), or increase their

capacity to imagine and follow school- or career-related goals (i.e., purpose), but may not

necessarily facilitate processes associated with identity formation, such as individuation,

exploration, or commitment (Good and Adams 2008).

The review of the existing studies of adolescents’ identity formation mapped an image

of the complex interrelationships of factors that influence this developmental process

in the context of educational environments. For example, in the study conducted by

Lannegrand-Willems and Bosma (2006), students’ socioeconomic backgrounds were

found to influence the school’s role in their identity formation. The study conducted


39

by Adams et al. (2000) also addressed the interaction of adolescents’ family

environment and college environment in their identity formation processes.

Given this complexity of influences on adolescents’ identity formation, the mere

provision of alternatives for identity exploration in a school may turn out to be less

effective if relational contexts within and outside the school do not provide necessary

support, guidance and affirmation for exploration, making free choices and

commitments. It is necessary to take these complex interrelationships of factors into

account when examining the implications of adolescents’ identity formation for

schooling.

2.4. Implications of adolescents’ identity formation for Schooling

The emerging identity is shaped in part by the social environment of the school: the role

possibilities it offers, the coping processes it fosters, the resources for identity exploration it

provides (Cotterell 1996, p.111).

In the discipline of education there have been efforts to achieve better understanding

of different types of learning environments and activities in the middle- and high-

schools that are based on adolescents’ developmental needs and characteristics

(Phelan, Davidson et al. 1998). Yet, research about the implications of adolescent

identity formation for schooling is a wasteland.

One explanation for this gap in research on the role of education in adolescents’

identity formation may be the long history of neglecting discussions about

psychosocial needs of children and youth in most national reports or calls for

educational reforms. As Dreyer (1994) points out, many policy makers and those

involved in education either show little concern for psychosocial issues or often

address them with less seriousness. Another explanation may lay in the complexity of

this developmental process. The process of identity formation is influenced by a

variety of intrapersonal and interpersonal factors, from individuals’ biological and

psychological characteristics and family structure to social system and culture. It then


40

becomes difficult to understand and observe its impacts on outcomes such as

academic motivation and achievement, prosocial behaviours and delinquent

behaviours such as drug use and crime.

It should be noted that in many cases more concrete outcomes, contents and

constructs associated with identity formation process such as self-esteem, self-

concept, social and emotional well-being, received attention within educational

research and policies.

Reviewing existing educational research concerning the ways that educational

environments and curricula can be structured to support identity development, a

sketchy image of implications of adolescents’ identity formation for schooling was

mapped. Three common interrelated themes that were identified include

1. Providing opportunities for exploration of identity alternatives

2. Relationship building

3. Creating a supportive culture in schools.

For Erikson (1968), an optimal identity achievement by the passage through

adolescence depends to a great extent upon the experience of “psychosocial

moratorium” or exploring identity-related alternatives. Building upon this idea, some

educational researchers consider creating opportunities for exploring diverse

values, roles and relationships as one main concern of schooling (e.g. Dreyer 1994;

Nakkula 2003).

Nakkula (2003, p.12) regards multiple possibilities for exploration as a way that helps

adolescents to “redirect their investment of mental or psychic energy” and by doing so

increases their options for healthy development. In his view

… a program, an activity, or a hobby that calls for a deep investment of time and energy

does more than build skills and interests in a particular area; deep investment builds into and

upon the very sense of who we are (Nakkula 2003, p.13).


41

Mentoring programmes and sport activities are two examples of opportunities for

adolescents’ investment of their psychic energies. Referring to a sport activity

developed in Boston Public high schools, G-Row, “designed to use the activity of

rowing to help girls build strength, character, and a sense of self”, Nakkula (2003)

views “relational connectedness” as the underpinning factor embedded in the

programme to support adolescents’ development:

… the guiding centre of these self-development tasks is relational connectedness … G-Row

is much less about the skills and excitement of rowing, or even about individual growth,

than it is about relationship development (Nakkula 2003, p.14).

Provision of multiple opportunities for exploration was also suggested by Waterman

(2004) as an implication of personal expressiveness, the main criterion of intrinsic

motivation that he proposed as a third dimension of identity formation along with

exploration and commitment, for promoting adolescents’ identity formation. In his

words

… it would appear beneficial for children and students to be presented with opportunities to

engage in a diverse array of activities, so that there is an increased likelihood that they will

discover some things that surprise them with the feeling “ where has this been all my life …

why didn’t I know about this before?” (Waterman 2004).

Dreyer (1994) argues that adolescents’ identity formation is encouraged in

educational environments that stimulate exploration and commitment. In the book

chapter Designing Curricular Identity Interventions for Secondary Schools, he

outlines some characteristics of an “identity-enhancing curriculum”. Providing

opportunities for exploration of alternatives in such areas of life as occupation,

religion and politics is one way that curriculum can promote identity achievement

(Dreyer 1994).

Adolescents need to develop the ability to control the process of exploration, make

reasonable decisions and arrive at firm commitments. In doing so, they need

knowledge, critical thinking skills and a sense of self-determination. While most

schools pay attention to the first two elements, it is the focus on promoting self-


42

determination that distinguishes an identity-enhancing school environment. One way

to help adolescents develop self-determination is offering them 'choice' and allowing

them to pursue their logical conclusions (Dreyer 1994).

In creating possibilities for exploration in schools, special attention needs to be paid to

providing real-world work experiences for adolescents and guiding them to make

decisions about their future careers. According to Cooper (1998), a characteristic of

schools which foster identity formation experiences is that they provide adolescent

students with real-world work experiences, internships and mentoring programmes for

career decisions. This is because vocation and career is one of the important domains

of adolescents’ identity formation. Indeed, it is uncertainty about vocational direction

and inability to make commitments in the realm of occupational identity that disturb

most adolescents (Erikson 1968).

The second theme derived from the literature on implications of adolescents’ identity

formation for schooling is relationship building.

In addition to providing rich, engaging activities for adolescents to invest their

psychic energies in, schools that promote positive identity development value the role

of relationship building, Nakkula (2003) maintains. He views fostering connectedness

to school and engaging adolescent students as the key to identity development in

school. In doing so, a significant responsibility is on the part of teachers and other

supportive adults in schools to develop caring and compassionate relationships with

adolescents. In his words

Teachers who have this kind of impact do more than impart knowledge; they engage their

students, they relate to them, and in turn they foster students’ relationship to learning. The

act of engagement is the key to identity development in schools, as elsewhere. This act can

occur in classrooms between teacher and pupil, in gymnasium between coach and player, in

hallways among friends, and in the guidance office between counsellor and future college

applicant (Nakkula 2003, p.15).


43

Dreyer (1994) points out the importance of teachers’ building supportive relationship

with their students when referring to the issue of adolescents’ experiences of multiple

social roles and the way that an identity enhancing curriculum should respond to it.

According to him, multiplicity of social roles in adolescence brings both opportunities

for growth and developing identity as well as confusion and loss of identity. The issue

for adolescents then becomes how to maintain consistency across roles7.

School can contribute to the role continuity in adolescents through caring and

compassionate responses from teachers and other school personnel. In doing so,

teachers need to take time to know each student as “a whole person with a complex

life and dreams that extend far beyond the classroom” (Dreyer 1994, p.132).

Similarly, Stanton-Salazar (1997) and Phelan et al. (1998) suggest that a dimension of

teachers’ responsibility with regard to supporting students’ connection to the identities

of their families, communities and peers is to develop meaningful and trusting

relationships with their adolescent students. In this way, teachers are able to attempt

linking their students’ out-of-school experiences and knowledge to classroom

practices as much as possible.

School-based extracurricular programmes are other examples of explorational

opportunities. In addition, they help adolescents to connect to the world in different

ways and experience meaningful relationships with peers and adults.

Drawing on an extensive literature review, Feldman and Matjasko (2005) refer to

providing “a place to act out the developmental tasks” as an outcome of participation

in extracurricular activities for adolescents. In their view, participation in

extracurricular activities is “a means to express and explore one’s identity, generate

7 An adolescent boy may start working part time in a restaurant. He may be a member of his school basketball team. He may have some different responsibilities at home. He also may be a member of a social or cultural club with his friends. He may start developing a romantic relationship with a girl. In each of these different social roles he needs certain knowledge and skills and should respond differently. He is also expected to be in control of these different roles and act consistently.


44

social and human capital, and offer a challenging setting outside of academics”

(Feldman and Matjasko 2005).

Participation in extracurricular activity also provides adolescents with support for

relationship building and developing social capital “in the form of extended

supportive networks of friends and adults”. The setting of extracurricular activities

allows students “to get to know other peers and adults through personal bonding and

mutual trust and commitment” (Feldman and Matjasko 2005). This factor in turn

enriches the relational context of the identity formation process.

Finally, research suggests that the setting of extracurricular activities acts as a means

to foster engagement and connectedness to schools for those adolescent students who

may not obtain success through academics (Feldman and Matjasko 2005).

The third theme in the literature on the contributions of education to adolescents’

identity formation is creating a supportive school culture. Cotterell (2007) views

relationship building and creating relational connectedness as essential elements of a

school’s support system that contributes to adolescents’ identity formation. In his

words

Schools are engaged in the business of creating ‘developmentally instigative environments’

through support systems that connect students to other students, teachers, and the wider

community. The disconnection that some young people experience in society challenges the

school to find ways of connecting them so that they form attachments and gain a sense of

belonging. The support structures that are put in place in schools, and the actions performed

by school personnel, help young people build attachments to society (Cotterell 2007, p.199)

According to Cotterell, “how the school presents itself to the outsider” is the basic and

most obvious element in creating connection support structure. This begins with a

number of basic questions that a newcomer might ask; “what is the school like? Is it a

friendly place? do the teachers care about their students? will I be happy here?”

(Cotterell 2007, p.200).


45

Support should be integrated within the school culture rather than merely being

enacted through specific programmes and activities, Cotterell (2007) argues.

According to him, this type of support in schools is reflected in the concept of a

“supportive school environment” which is best captured in Mcmillan’s and Chavis’s

(1986) concept of “sense of community”:

Strong communities are those that offer their members positive ways to interact, important

events to share and ways to resolve them positively, opportunities to honour members,

opportunities to invest in the community, and opportunities to experience a spiritual bond

among members (McMillan and Chavis 1986, p.14).

Cotterell (2007) identifies three types of support in schools: transition support; crisis

support; everyday support. In his words, schools that integrate everyday support in

their environments

adopt practices to humanise their environment, and try to cultivate an atmosphere that is

open, friendly, and welcoming. They conduct their work with the minimum of fuss and

formality so students can move around the school relaxed and comfortable in its many

settings…The philosophy of openness and accessibility is endorsed by the teaching and

administrative staff as part of their meeting routine (Cotterell 2007, p.210).

De-instituionalizing schools, humanizing curriculum, maintaining connections

between the school and its constituency and ensuring accessibility of staff for students

are among the factors that help in creating a supportive school environment, Cotterell

(2007) maintains.

De-institutionalizing schools means “establishing an environment that emphasizes the

human aspects of organization”. This has to do with managing time and space by the

school in a way that students’ experiences can be enriched. Provision of ample sized

and appropriately located spaces for students to socialize and hang out in break time is

a step towards space management to enrich students’ experiences (Cotterell 2007,

p.221).


46

In order to ensure accessibility of teachers and school staff for students, Cotterell

(2007) suggests that schools need to

design physical settings and plan social events within the school to increase the opportunity

for informal contact among teachers, as well as between students and teachers. Locate

teacher common rooms near to the students. Remove as many institutional barriers as

possible between the teachers and their students so that students can approach any teacher

without fear, confident that the teacher has their best interests in mind (Cotterell 2007,

p.222).

Woolfolk Hoy et al. (2001) recommend a number of teaching approaches that might

promote self-regulation, identity development, connection, cultural competence and

engagement for students. Elements common to their identified approaches are

“structuring graduated practice in increasingly real setting, providing models - not just

of skills but of commitment, social connection and support, challenge, and task that

have meaning and authenticity” (Woolfolk Hoy, Demerath et al. 2001, p.153).

The teaching approaches include helping students to become self-regulated learners,

cognitive apprenticeships that “teach thinking and problem solving in the social

context of a master/apprentice relationship”, problem-based learning that “situates

learning in authentic and meaningful dilemmas that give a reason for learning”,

community service learning and cooperative learning (Woolfolk Hoy, Demerath et al.

2001, p.131).

Community service learning is “a way to make school learning more relevant and

meaningful for students by giving them occasion to critically reflect and act upon

difficult social problems” (Woolfolk Hoy, Demerath et al. 2001, p.151). Waterman

(2004) also refers to community service learning as pedagogy that promotes intrinsic

motivation, the third dimension of adolescents’ identity formation. In his words:

Service-learning, connecting the curriculum with activities benefiting others outside of the

classroom, allows students to make a difference in the world, while advancing their

intellectual understanding of how the world functions. The effectiveness of well-designed

service-learning activities drives from the increased likelihood that educational experiences

will be accompanied by the various markers for intrinsic motivation (Waterman 2004).


47

Research provides evidence that involvement in community service learning activities

in schools increases adolescents’ social awareness, allows them to explore identity

alternatives and supports adolescents’ identity development (e.g. Youniss and Yates

1997; Adams and Palijan 2004). Drawing on the findings of their studies on

adolescents who participated in a year-long service learning programme, Yates and

Youniss (1998; 1999) argue that community service learning by closing the gap

between schools and the communities outside provides positive identity-defining

experiences for adolescents.

Cooperative learning is another teaching approach recommended by Woolfolk Hoy et

al. (2001) that might promote identity development. The significance of this pedagogy

for identity formation appears to be linked to its impacts on the relational dimension

of identity formation.

Ideas about collaboration and cooperative learning can be related to John Dewey’s

(1916) criticism of the use of competition in education. He urged the necessity of

structuring schools as democratic learning communities. Constructivist perspectives in

education also favour cooperative learning. From different theoretical perspectives on

learning (e.g. advocates of information processing theorists, Piaget’s (1985 ) theory

and Vygotsky’s (1978) theory), cooperation was considered to have significant

benefits for students’ learning, understanding and higher mental functioning such as

reasoning, comprehension and critical reflection (Woolfolk Hoy, Demerath et al.

2001).

In addition to the benefits of students’ cooperation for their learning, research

demonstrates that cooperative learning has social benefits. Reviewing an extensive

body of research on cooperative learning, Slavin (1995) points out that cooperative

learning supports interracial friendships, prejudice reduction, acceptance of disabled

students, self-esteem, peer support for academic goals, altruism, empathy, social

perspective-taking, liking fellow classmates and feeling liked, sense of responsibility

and control over learning and time on task.


48

In the beginning of this section when referring to the key themes derived form the

literature on implications of adolescents’ identity formation for schooling, I pointed to

the interrelationship among the themes. Just like identity formation that is a

complicated process influenced and shaped by the interplay of various intrapersonal

and contextual factors, implications of this developmental task of adolescence for

schooling are not simple.

Evidence for this complex interplay of factors influencing adolescents’ identity

formation is the link between the quality of relational environment in a school and

opportunities for exploration. It is in the context of relational connectedness and

belonging to a social group that adolescents are offered a secure base for exploration

of identity alternatives and making meaningful commitments, Cotterell (1996) states.

He continues:

In schools, these identities find expression in a student’s participation in everyday tasks and

social relations. They have much to do with the sense of connectedness and belonging to the

school community and the social groups which it contains. Successful identification

depends upon whether the conventional classroom group, with the concurrence of the

teacher, allows the adolescent enough breathing space for exploring identity so that

commitment to the goals of the school become possible (Cotterell 1996, p.115).

2.5. Integration and synthesis of literature in education and psychology

The review of literature concerning the process of identity formation suggested two

main factors involved in this developmental process:

1. The interaction of separation process and relational connectedness

2. The experience of psychosocial moratorium or the exploration of roles, values and

relationships.

Educational research addressing the implications of adolescents’ identity formation

for education also recommended creating opportunities for exploration through

engaging activities. This effort should be associated with offering adolescent students

'choice' and allowing them to pursue their logical conclusions. In addition, importance


49

of relationship building within school was emphasised. In this regard, it was

recommended that teachers knowing their students in a holistic way beyond subject

matters plays a significant role in supporting adolescents’ identity formation. This

building relationship strategy was considered to be an initial step in designing

programmes within which adolescents are encouraged to invest their psychic energies.

Creating a support structure that goes far beyond caring and compassionate teachers

and school staff and embraces the whole school culture was also proposed.

Reflecting on these recommendations, I defined two characteristics of schools that

support adolescents’ identity formation. Firstly, they have supportive environments

addressing adolescents’ needs for individuation and social integration. Second

characteristic of schools that support adolescents’ identity formation is that they offer

opportunities for developmental exploration.

In the following two sections I elaborate these characteristics.

2.5.1. A supportive school environment addressing adolescents’ needs for

individuation and social integration

One dimension of providing for adolescents’ needs for individuation and social

integration in schools deals with supporting adolescents’ autonomy and

independence. In a school that embraces this dimension each individual feels known

and valued as an autonomous and independent member of the school community.

At the most basic level, adolescents’ needs for social integration in schools have to do

with encouraging social interactions and encounters. At a deeper level, social

integration is manifested in a supportive community where its members have a

sense of connectedness and belongingness to the community. In the context of a

school, this means that students and teachers feel that they are part of the school

community and particularly on the part of students they perceive availability and

accessibility of teachers’ and other school staff’s support.


50

The element of support is an inseparable and vital part of identity formation during

adolescence. Josselson (1994) argues that the process of identity formation requires a

dialogue between adolescents and the external world. It is necessary that some people

are there for adolescents to explore with and against; people who make limits and help

adolescents to find boundaries, people who provide support for adolescents when they

need guidance in times of crisis.

In addition, given its social benefits, the cooperative learning referred to earlier is

regarded as a means to contribute to adolescents’ social integration needs.

Findings of studies on ‘school and classroom size’ provide support for the proposition

that smallness of school and classroom might support adolescent students’ needs for

individuation and social integration.

Considering identity formation as “a product of the individual interface with the

society”, Josselson (1994, p.22) defines two forms of interventions for identity

formation; individual-level intervention and social intervention. She considers the

attempt to reform social institutions as one form of social intervention. Reducing

classroom size and faculty teaching loads is one aspect of this reform in the context of

schools, she suggests. For Josselson, individuals’ knowing each other and being

known in a personalised environment is supported in smaller classrooms. In her words

…we can reduce the size of classes and faculty teaching loads in order to encourage

personal interaction between faculty and students in the conviction that education for

identity is beyond what one learns in books and can be evaluated on exams. Providing

conditions where students can get to know new (and perhaps admired) others in unpressured

circumstances and learn about possibilities for being and doing in a way that can make some

personal sense to them is an example of intervention at an institutional level (Josselson

1994, p.24).

Questioning large high schools and efforts to investigate possible positive effects of

smaller schools are traced back to the work of Roger Barker and his team (Barker and

Gump 1964). Their work provided evidence for the existence of a relationship

between school size and students’ experiences in terms of understanding environment,


51

using available resources and participating in programmes. In a small school or an

“undermanned” facility there are more opportunities for participation of individual

students. In addition, the chances that each student takes on multiple roles are higher

too. There are few students and in order to fill the roles needed for various

programmes and activities sometimes an individual student may participate in more

than one activity and programme (Barker and Gump 1964).

One comprehensive analysis of the issue of school size was carried out by Cotton

(1996). He reviewed 69 documents that studied the relationship between school and

unit size with students’ performance, attitude and behaviour measures. Topics

investigated in these documents included achievement (31), attitudes toward school or

particular school subjects (19), social behaviour problems such as discipline

problems, vandalism and drugs or alcohol (14), levels of extracurricular participation

(17), feelings of belongingness versus alienation (6), interpersonal relations with other

students and school staff (14), attendance (16), dropout rate (10), self-concept in terms

of academic and general (9) and college-related variables such as acceptance and

completion (6).

Due to their relevance to adolescents’ needs for individuation and social integration, I

briefly refer to the findings of those documents that examine impacts of school and

unit size on ‘self-concept’ and ‘interpersonal relations’.

A common finding of studies that examine the relationship between school size and

self-concept (e.g. Grabe 1981; Foster and Martinez 1985; Rutter 1988; Stockard and

Mayberry 1992) is that small schools have positive impacts on both personal and

academic self-regard. Cotton (1996) argues that this finding is closely related to the

findings of the “quality of the interpersonal milieu in these environments”.

The studies that explore the impact of size on the interpersonal climate in schools (e.g.

Burke 1987; Smith and Gregory 1987; Fowler and Walberg 1991; Kershaw and Blank

1993) mainly focus on “elements such as relations among students and between

students and teachers, especially teacher attention and demonstrations of caring


52

toward students”. Findings of these studies show positive correlations between small

schools and favourable interpersonal relations (Cotton 1996). For example, Kershaw

and Bank state that

Students perceive the most positive conditions of the alternative school to be the

interpersonal relationships with faculty members, the supportive atmosphere of the school,

and the opportunities provided by the school (Kershaw and Blank 1993).

In addition to empirical studies and research reviews, reports and policy statements of

some national and international organisations urge for considering the importance of

“smallness” of schools and classrooms for adolescents’ education. A case in point is

the Policy Statement of The National Forum to Accelerate Middle-Grades Reform in

the United States (2004). In this report, policymakers are recommended to provide

resources and support to create small schools at the middle-grades level. Breaking

down the scale of large schools into smaller schools or learning communities is

suggested where small schools may not be feasible.

Drawing on the literature on school size, some advantages of ‘smallness’ are pointed

out including the increase in student performance, more positive school climate, more

personalised learning environment, more collegial cooperation for teachers, greater

parental involvement and satisfaction and cost efficiency. A more personalised

learning environment is regarded mainly in terms of opportunities to form meaningful

relationships both among students as well as students with teachers and other

supportive adults in schools. It is stated that in small schools or learning communities

teachers know their students well, they can more easily identify individual talents and

unique needs and offer a more tailored learning experience. Being known well and

acknowledged is essential to students’ psychological wellbeing and learning, especially for

those students who are typically overlooked in large and impersonal settings (The National

Forum to Accelerate Middle-Grades Reform 2004).

Some research demonstrates that ‘smallness’ in itself does not account for positive

social consequences and academic-related benefits. It is a personalised school

environment that contributes to these positive effects. The study carried out by


53

Conchas and Rodriguez (2008) is a case in point. They examined students’

experiences in four small urban schools with different structural settings; two Career

Academies in Oakland as small learning communities and two urban high schools in

Boston. Cross-school comparisons of students’ lived experiences and the differences

across schools through a student-by-student analysis of interviews were conducted.

Drawing on their finding, they confirm the potential of small schools for providing

meaningful relationships. Nevertheless, “personalization is the key for the creation of

healthy and positive small communities of learning” (Conchas and Rodriguez 2008,

pp.117-118). They conclude:

The four case studies in Boston and Oakland illustrate that smallness does not automatically

guarantee school success. While all four small school settings showed higher levels of

community building than larger schools typically show, distinct school culture produced

differing levels of student engagement and unique form of school success (Conchas and

Rodriguez 2008, p.110).

2.5.2. Offering Opportunities for Adolescents’ Developmental Exploration

The essence of opportunities for developmental exploration is experimentation with

various social roles and values, trying out diverse activities and programmes and

exploring different interpersonal relationships.

At a primary level creating opportunities for developmental exploration to support

adolescents’ identity formation has to do with a school curriculum as well as school-

based structured extracurricular and leisure activities. Given the importance of

making commitments in the realm of occupation within the process of identity

formation (Erikson 1968), providing adolescents with explorational opportunities with

regard to occupation and future career needs to be emphasized. In doing so, one way

is offering adolescents real-world work experiences.

In a broader sense, connection to the world outside school is regarded as a key

factor that expands the scope of opportunities for adolescents’ developmental

exploration.


54

The idea of a school connecting with the world outside of it refers to both physical or

actual connections as well as to virtual connections.

Schools may be linked to their local communities, others schools and educational

institutions, industries and business as well as museums and libraries. By encouraging

adolescent students to obtain part of their learning in these learning environments,

schools benefit from these institutions’ expertise and resources for creating more

opportunities for adolescents’ exploration.

Community service learning recommended by some educational researchers and

psychologists as a means to support adolescents’ identity formation is relevant to

developing a school connection to its community. This type of learning becomes a

ground for adolescents’ further exploration of roles, values and relationships as well

as achieving knowledge about their skills, abilities and interests.

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are other means that

virtually connect schools to the world outside them. ICTs have potential to open up

new learning opportunities. They allow students to learn with and from people in

distant geographical locations through means such as video-conferencing. ICTs

enable adolescent students to communicate and exchange ideas with a great variety of

audiences across the world and reduce the isolation of schools in remote area (DfES

2002). In addition to being creative tools to actively engage students in learning

activities, providing access to an enormous amount of information and facilitating

personalised learning and distant assessment, ICTs allow students to have ‘virtual’

practical experiences where practical activities may be expensive or even dangerous.

Identifying the two characteristics of schools that support adolescents’ identity

formation sets the ground for exploring their design-related implications. I start the

exploration in this regard with a historical review of school design in the past century

followed by a review of current research and practice of school design.

55

Chapter Three

A Brief Historical Review of School Design

In this chapter, I provide a brief review of some of the major transformations that

design of school spaces have undergone within the past century. This historical

review is by no means intended as a comprehensive history of school design and

designing spaces for teaching and learning. Neither do I intend to provide a detailed

sequential account of changes in school design in the past century.

My aim of this historical review is to track those changes in the history of designing

spaces for teaching and learning that were in some way related to the issue of

adolescents’ identity formation and the two identified characteristics of schools that

contribute to this developmental process: a supportive environment addressing

adolescents’ needs for individuation and social integration; offering opportunities for

adolescents’ developmental exploration. Given this, my focus is on the emerging

historical interest in and attention to schools as contexts for socialisation and

psychological development of children along with their implications for school

buildings.

The schools presented in this chapter, for various reasons, are recognized as iconic in

the history of school design. I do not limit the discussions to school buildings and

their architecture. I examine the influential educational theories that appeared within

this period as well. Emerging educational ideas and philosophies were one of the key

drivers of transformations of school buildings.

This historical review begins with a brief reference to some earlier forms of schools.

The question is ‘how did it all start?’. This takes the discussion from monitorial

system schools with a big hall schoolhouse where many children of different ages

were taught simultaneously to the establishment of the urban school typology.

Educational ideas of John Dewey and their influences on school buildings in

subsequent years are reviewed. In addition, I allude to a number of radical and

Chapter Three A Brief Historical Review of School Design

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experimental educational philosophies that built upon Dewey’s educational ideas and

examine associated ideas about school buildings.

The Modern movement in architecture and its implications for school buildings are

reviewed. I begin the exploration in this regard with open-air schools. The discussion

is then continued with examining Henry Morris’s aspirations for new societies and

democratic and open schools reflected in his idea of Village Colleges. A detailed

account of the most architecturally significant village college, Impington Village

College, designed by Walter Gropius and Max Fry is presented.

I also turn to open space schools of the 1960s and 1970s, key drivers of their

emergence and their contributions to school design of subsequent years.

In the final section of this chapter, the works of Hans Scharoun, Aldo Van Eyck and

Herman Hertzberger are examined. Scharoun and Hertzberger shared common

overriding ideas about the social role of schools. Their emphasis on the social role of

schools in children’s lives was manifested in the significant attention that has gone

into designing spaces for mingling of students and social gatherings as well as

circulation spaces to increase and encourage social interactions.

3.1. Early Forms of Spaces for Learning

Some early forms of schooling for masses were Sunday schools which “operated in

chapels, mills, converted houses and barns” as well as schools located in factories and

workhouses for the poor (Burke and Grosvenor 2008, p.30). It was the development

of the monitorial system that significantly extended education for working-class

children in England at the end of the eighteenth century.

The development of the monitorial system was claimed by two educational reformers,

Dr Andrew Bell (1752-1832) and Dr Joseph Lancaster (1776-1838). The monitorial

system was accompanied by radical changes in the design of schools. According to

Burke and Grosvenor (2008),


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… the monitorial system involved the subdivision of a single space − a large or smaller-

sized rectangular school room − to allow for ‘mutual education’. This mechanical system

enabled very large numbers to be schooled in spaces under the single gaze of one master by

means of monitors spread around the class − pupils who instructed small groups of children

through drill and repetition (Burke and Grosvenor 2008, p.33).

Two types of schools within the monitorial system could be recognized; smaller

single-room schools in rural areas and large urban halls with two or three storeys.

Burke and Grosvenor (2008) describe a model of these schools elaborated by

Lancaster as follows:

Designed to accommodate 320 pupils, it contained twenty rows of desks and forms arranged

to face a master on a raised platform, and set out to enable the pupil-monitors to move

easily between the rows. Floor space was left at the side of the room to enable the children

to stand in semicircles facing the walls, on which lesson boards were hung (Burke and

Grosvenor 2008, p.34)

Fig 3. 1. Floor plan of a Lancasterian Schoolroom - (Markus 1993, p.60)

Teaching spaces in these schools were very rigid with little freedom for pupils to

move around and little room for enacting their independence and autonomy. Learning

was perceived as an individual task each pupil is engaged in. Formal interactions

between pupils and their instructors were the dominant form of interpersonal

interactions. Objectives were defined as strict order and discipline (Markus 1993)

rather than attending to every individual student’s needs.

According to Markus (1993, p.92), disciplining pupils’ minds and spirits started from

disciplining their bodies. “The body itself needed discipline if the mind and character


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were to become tractable”, he states. Spaces and furniture were then designed to

respond to the objectives of discipline and order. In Markus’s words

In the monitorial schools the prescriptions for individual posture, gesture and eye contact

were as detailed as those for groups of bodies controlled by painted lines or brass strips on

the floor and monitors’ rules. The face, and especially the eyes, signified character and

willingness to learn. The sloping floor, the raised master’s platform, the raked gallery and

the tiered desks were direct instruments for visual surveillance (Markus 1993, p.92).

Following the UK Elementary Education Act of 1870 that required compulsory

education for all children between six to eleven years old, a significant investment in

school buildings was made. The London School Board appointed architect E. R.

Robson to direct the massive construction of school buildings throughout the working

class area of the capital. The first school that Robson designed adopted a model based

on the form of the eighteenth century houses with fixed function spaces. In this

school, classrooms were clearly defined around a circulation route with an assembly

hall in the middle (Dudek 2000).

Fig 3. 2. a. Hatfield House 1607-11 (Fletcher 1996) and b. Typical Robson School 1911 (Robson 1972)

The classrooms of Robson’s schools had things in common with earlier examples of

one large hall schools such as Southwark Central School built in 1816. Nevertheless,

subdividing the typical large hall into smaller classrooms in order to create smaller

spaces that had a more human scale to them was an added positive quality in Robson's

schools.

In comparison with earlier examples such as Southwark Central School, the furniture

and seating arrangement of classrooms in Robson’s schools were more flexible.


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Classrooms were furnished with double desks spaced out with little distance from

each other. This arrangement provided enough space for pupils and their teacher to

move through desks (Robson 1972). This improvement in seating arrangement not

only could offer students a greater degree of freedom to move around but also could

increase teachers’ contact with students for they had the opportunity to walk along

between the desks.

Fig 3.3. Comparison between seating arrangement of a classroom in Southwark Central School, above (Seaborne 1977) and Robson’s suggestion for an ideal classroom, below (Robson 1972)

Tight and overshadowed external spaces bounded by high walls of the school building

and street are considered as a weakness of Robson’s schools. Dudek (2000) argues

that the neglect of external spaces in Robson’s schools might stem from his view of

education as a process of control. School spaces accordingly manifested his view

through being autonomous and enclosed to the world outside.


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Similar to the monitorial system schools, discipline and order appear to be significant

objectives in Robson’s schools. Students’ learning experiences were limited to what

teachers had to offer them. As seen in the existing images and plans, classrooms were

rather isolated from each other and narrow gridded corridors left little room for social

interactions and informal learning activities.

Keeping the classrooms from outside stimuli was another downside of Robson’s

schools. As seen in the Figure 3.3, connection to external spaces and even views to

the outside are nonexistent in both the large hall of Southwark Central School and

Robson’s model of an ideal classroom. Windows are placed high in the walls so that

students do not to have the ability to glance outside that was considered to be a source

of distraction.

Another group of influential school buildings that had many similarities to Robson’s

schools was designed by Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Scotland. Nevertheless,

elegant spatial qualities of the interior put Mackintosh’s schools high above the

austerity of those designed by Robson. Scotland Street School built in 1906 is a case

in point that established an architectural typology called ‘urban schools’ (Dudek

2000).

Fig 3. 4.The model of Scotland Street school - Flickr (http://www.flickr.com/photos/tobester_35/887100681/ Access date: 31/03/2009)


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Fig 3.5. Ground, first and second floor plans of Scotland Street School - Flickr (http://www.flickr.com/photos/tobester_35/887038699/ Access date: 31/03/2009)

Enclosed and isolated classrooms along corridors were still the key elements of

Scotland Street School. However, attention was paid to the spatial quality of corridors.

Tiles were among the materials used in the corridors and one of the corridors on the

ground floor also had a view to its adjacent hall.


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Fig 3.6. The corridor in the ground floor next to the school hall and exterior of Scotland Street School - Left; Flickr (http://www.flickr.com/photos/tobester_35/887038699/ Access date: 31/03/2009) - Right; Flickr (http://www.flickr.com/photos/stevecadman/197406196/ Access date: 31/03/2009)

3.2. John Dewey’s Educational Ideas and Their Influences on School Buildings

Dewey’s primary focus was creating schools that are cooperative and democratic

communities within which individuals’ potential can be fulfilled. Dewey (1916)

maintained that stimulating students’ senses is an important part of the educative

process.

The relevance of Dewey’s ideas to the characteristic of ‘a supportive school

environment addressing adolescents’ needs for individuation and social integration’

has to do with his emphasis on individual students and the necessity of understanding

the experiences that they bring to schools with themselves. Dewey’s emphasis on

maintaining a balance between ‘informal or incidental education’ that comes from

living with others and ‘formal education’ is relevant to the second characteristic of

schools that contribute to adolescents’ identity formation, ‘offering adolescents

opportunities for developmental exploration’.

Hillside Home School designed in 1902 and built a year later was the result of

integration of Dewey’s educational ideas with Frank Lloyd Wright’s architectural


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ideas. The school was open to its surroundings and embraced spaces for hands-on

learning such as laboratories, workshops, gymnasium and art studios (Dudek 2000).

The school building spread across the landscape and the use of transparent walls

suggested a special relationship between inside and outside spaces.

Fig 3.7. An image of Hillside Home School 1903 - (http://www.peterbeers.net/interests/flw_rt/Wisconsin/Hillside_II/Hillside-II.htm Access date: 31/03/2009)

3.3. Emergence of Radical and Experimental Educational Philosophies and Their Associated Ideas about School Buildings

Following the First World War, a second period of school-building activity developed

in Europe. In summary, the main characteristics of this period were major changes in

educational theories and policies, a significant attention to health and hygiene and the

influence of the Modernist movement in architecture (Burke and Grosvenor 2008).

Dewey’s educational ideas along with ideas of thinkers like Freud and Jung

contributed concepts to the educational theory after the First World War that

emphasised the importance of freedom and pupils’ emotions in the learning process.

This resulted in the emergence of radical educational systems including free schools

introduced by Bertrand Russell (1960; 1967), Susan Isaac (1930; 1933), Rudolf

Steiner (1965) and Maria Montessori (1964; 1967).

According to Hertzberger (2008, p.77), a common goal of radical educational ideas

about renewal in education was broadening the traditional learning programme. In


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order to achieve this goal, schools needed to open up more to the outside world and

new types of spaces were required.

For example, in the context of the Montessori system, the goal of broadening

traditional programmes required providing students with more applicable and physical

learning activities. Spatially, this was translated into a conception of the classroom as

a workshop (Hertzberger 2008). In Hertzberger’s words

… An essential aspect here is the offering of options … spatially this requires that

everything pupils are to make use of should be arranged openly and invitingly. As everyone

is occupied with their own work either alone or with others, this creates the ambience of a

workshop … In the modern Montessori School you see children working everywhere,

outside the classroom too; the school is itself a workshop with activity spilling out at every

corner (Hertzberger 2008, pp.77-78).

A majority of these educational systems such as those of Maria Montessori and Susan

Isaac focused on the education of younger children. Nevertheless, they introduced

new ideas that made significant contributions to the design of schools for older

children in subsequent years. Some of these important educational ideas had to do

with attention to certain abilities and needs associated with children’s and young

people’s developmental stages, emphasis on self-directed learning and students’

independent activities as well as acknowledgement of the role of classroom

environment in students’ educational experiences.

3.4. The Modern Movement and Its Implications for School Buildings

Trends in school building design experienced a shift toward modernistic and almost

Bauhaus aesthetics after the Second World War. Dudek (2007) argues that one

explanation for it was the emergence of new aspirations and educational approaches.

In Germany, for example, the educational emphasis was on developing thinking

individuals who have democratic spirits and do not accept authorities like Hitler

submissively. Open-air schools “which was interpreted as a symbol of liberation from


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authoritarian rules and regulation” were considered as models for the schools built

after the Second World War (Dudek 2007, p.15).

Modern school buildings were usually one-storey, had flat roofs with glass and metal

window walls and brick or concrete walls (Brubaker, Bordwell et al. 1998). Despite

the considerable shift in the architectural style of modern schools, only in a few of

them were basic assumptions about what education is, what children’s and young

people’s needs are and how education should respond to that rethought.

Hertzberger (2008, p.14) argues that many modern school buildings express the ideas

of a generation of modernist architects who were “simply not concerned with the

spatial consequences of renewal in education”. In that sense, modernist architecture

did not succeed in making any significant change to the internal arrangement of

schools and opening up the self-contained enclosed classrooms. Some cases in point

were schools instigated and drafted by the local Public Works departments between

the 1920s and 1930s in the Netherlands. They established schools as a building type

with long corridors and classrooms on either one side or both sides of them

(Hertzberger 2008).

Fig 3.8. Images and plans of three schools designed by Dudok in Hilversum between 1921 and 1930 as examples that established school a building type with classrooms on one or two sides of a corridor - (Hertzberger 2008, p.11)


66

Modifications to the traditional arrangement of school spaces could mainly be found

in the schools built for a particular type of innovative education, for example

Montessori schools. However, these exceptions failed to be welcomed as a new type

within the public education system, Hertzberger (2008) maintains.

Similarly, Saint (1987) states that almost all the schools built in the later 1930s were

conventional:

Classrooms whether they were strung out in long, airy pavilions or jammed together more

densely, would be grouped together in runs off corridors, each would be strictly oriented

towards a blackboard and equipped with rows of rigid, uncomfortable locker-desks (Saint

1987, p.37).

It was the “movement for improved natural lighting” that played an important role in

destroying formally planned schools of this period, Saint (1987) argues. The schools

built under this influence tended to be over-glazed. This was not the mere result of an

“architectural craze for Modern-Movement detailing”. The movement for improved

natural lighting also stemmed from an investigation done by the Medical Research

Council and the Building Research Station that showed children’ poor eyesight

resulted from poor school lighting (Saint 1987, p.37).

3.5. Open-air Schools and Duiker’s open-air school in Amsterdam

The focus on hygiene and the physical health of children was a key characteristic of

open-air schools. This focus was reflected in the significant use of glass in order to

bring air and natural light into the classrooms. In addition, foldable walls were used in

order to provide direct access to the outside environment. The foldable walls could

allow a classroom to open up to the outside environment and be part of it (see the

Figure 3.9).


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Fig 3.9. An image and a section of a classroom in an Open-air school showing that one side of it can be completely opened up to outside environment, Suresnes, Paris, 1936 - (Hertzberger 2008, p.18)

The Open-air school in Amsterdam designed by Duiker was an example that

embodied this approach quite well. The significant use of glass that brought natural

light in and offered views to the outside along with purity of forms and construction

were some of the design features of the school. Nevertheless, the internal planning

structure of the school and classrooms remained the same as they were before.

Hertzberger (2008) describes the school as follows:

This celebrated Open-Air School (1929-1930) by J. Duiker may be spectacular in its

transparency and its marvellously pure construction, but in fact it is a version, opened up to

the outside, of the traditional classroom system in which children, all that light and air

notwithstanding, are still taught along traditional lines. The corridors are actually widened

landings of the main stair containing nothing but pegs hung with coats (Hertzberger 2008,

pp.13-14).

Fig 3.10. An image and two plans (original and later extension) of Duiker’s Open-air school in Amsterdam - (Hertzberger 2008, p.14)


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Design-related implications of the emphasis on hygiene included “purity and

directness of form” and “creating spaces for maximum daylight”, Hertzberger (2008)

points out:

For Duiker the emphasis was on how architecture could contribute to hygiene as the

condition for bodily well-being. In this he saw a legitimation of his quest for purity and a

directness of form, in other words without ribs, ridges, corners, gaps and other potential

gatherers of dust and bacteria. To get rid of dust through dematerialization and lightness −

as much in the sense of construction as in that of creating spaces of maximum daylight − for

him stood for a better and healthier world. Development of the mind came second

(Hertzberger 2008, p.14).

The idea of open-air schools did not lead to any change in the traditional organization

of schools. However, open-air schools “did replace the school building as a bastion of

severity and gravity with an image of openness and accessibility that attested,

outwardly at least, to a new spirit in education” (Hertzberger 2008, p.15).

3.6. Henry Morris’s Idea of Village Colleges and Impington Village College

Within the context of the Modern movement in architecture a number of school

buildings were designed that had significant influences on school buildings in

subsequent generations and were imitated widely. Impington Villege College in

Cambridgeshire is a case in point (Jeffs 1999). Before reviewing the school in greater

detail it is worthwhile to examine the context within which village colleges were

established.

A radical educator, Henry Morris, who held the responsibility of Secretary of

Education for Cambridgeshire from 1922 to 1954, is the person associated with the

most significant vision of what community schooling and community colleges could

be. There was some significant concern about the future of the rural community in

Cambridgeshire. The mechanisation of farming had led to a decrease in job

opportunities and movement to towns and cities that in turn had resulted in the loss of

rural crafts. It was within this context that Morris proposed a new institution, the


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village college, in order to encourage the regeneration of the rural community (Smith

2005).

Morris (1925) envisaged that the village college would “provide for the whole man”,

reflect the notion of life-long learning and “abolish the duality of education and

ordinary life” in that it creates a learning place connected to its local environment,

whether it be local community or family. In his words:

It would take all the various vital but isolated activities in village life − the School, the

Village Hall and Reading Room, the Evening Classes, the Agricultural Education Courses,

the Women's Institute, the British Legion, Boy Scouts and Girl Guides, the recreation

ground, the branch of the County Rural Library, the Athletic and Recreation Clubs − and,

bringing them together into relation, create a new institution for the English countryside …

As the community centre of the neighbourhood it would provide for the whole man, and

abolish the duality of education and ordinary life … It would be a visible demonstration in

stone of the continuity and never ceasingness of education … It would have the virtue of

being local so that it would enhance the quality of actual life as it is lived from day to day −

the supreme object of education ... It would not be divorced from the normal environment of

those who would frequent it from day to day, or from that great educational institution, the

family … The village college could lie athwart the daily lives of the community it served;

and in it the conditions would be realised under which education would not be an escape

from reality, but an enrichment and transformation of it (Morris 1925, Section XIV).

Morris considered an important educative role for buildings, landscape and public

works of art and paid special attention to the design and architecture of village

colleges (Jeffs 1999). In Morris’s words

The design, decoration and equipment of our places of education cannot be regarded as

anything less than of first-rate importance - as equally important, indeed, as the teacher.

There is no order of precedence - competent teachers and beautiful buildings are of equal

importance and equally indispensable ... We shall not bring about any improvement in

standards of taste by lectures and preachings; habitation is the golden method. Buildings

that are well-designed and equipped and beautifully decorated will exercise their potent, but

unspoken, influence on those who use them from day to day. This is true education. The

school, the technical college, the community centre, which is not a work of architectural art

is to that extent an educational failure (Henry Morris quoted in Jeffs 1999, p.58).


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Morris’s effort led to the construction of four village colleges in Cambridgeshire

among which Impington Village College was particularly marked by imaginative

design. The college was designed by Walter Gropius and Max Fry in 1938.

Fig 3.11. Floor plan of Impington Village College - (Saint 1987, p.42)

The central promenade walkway was considered as a specific feature of the school

building. It could well accommodate a variety of functions including informal social

gatherings or meetings, exhibitions and a spill-over area during intervals when

evening programmes were being performed in the school assembly hall (Dudek

2000). Spaces envisaged to be used by the community were in a wing close to the

assembly hall and away from the classrooms wing.

Two key themes within Henry Morris’s ideas about village colleges and community

schooling were identified that are closely relevant to students’ identity formation and

its implications for schooling. The first has to do with his idea about ‘educating the

whole man’. He regarded this to be achieved through connecting formal education to

everyday life or connecting the college to its local community. The idea of creating

connection between the college and community was reflected in design of spaces for

the use by the local community. In addition, the school plan was organised in a way

that spaces used by community such as the theatre and workshops were separated

from spaces specific for the use by students such as classrooms. The second theme in


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Morris’s educational ideas relevant to adolescents’ needs for social integration or the

relational context of identity formation is his emphasis on ‘social encounters’ in the

village college.

Smith (1997, 2007) refers to the emphasis on social encounters in Impington Village

College. The role of the college in increasing social encounters and enriching a sense

of community is clearly conceived from Morris’s description and interpretation of the

college’s daily life:

How is this vitality to be realized - this activity of body and mind, of emotion and feeling,

both personally and in groups, that is the precious essence and core of culture at any level?

It comes about when teacher and student, student and student, young and old meet face to

face in lecture and debate, in song and dance; or in orchestras, choirs and plays. I have seen

groups absorbed in workshops, laboratories, studios, libraries. And there are the virtues of

eating and drinking together and conversations in the common room, and all that happens in

games and on the playing fields and running track. A community that has these things

enjoys the deepest satisfaction which nothing can replace (Morris 1925).

Fig 3.12. Top: The community wing in Impington Village College. Below: The courtyard looking ahead to promenade, workshops on the left and classrooms wing on the right - (Smith 1997, 2007)


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In subsequent years, other parts such as gymnasium, youth centre and playing fields

were added to the college site and it turned into a full community college.

Fig 3.13. Site plan of Impington Village College that shows its growth to a full community college through additions over subsequent years - (Saint 1987, p.42)

3.7. Denis Clarke Hall’s Richmond High School for girls, 1940

Saint (1987) points out the short-term considerable interest in school building design

among architects between 1936 and 1939. This was manifested in the News Chronicle

competition for an ideal school promoted by Gerald Barry and Paul Reilly, the Royal

Institute of British Architects (RIBA) exhibition showcasing latest international

schools and a series of articles on school design by two architects, Myles Wright and

Robert Gardner-Medwin, in the Architects’ Journal. Many schools envisaged in this

period were not built. However, they established the foundation for post-war school

buildings.

One of the schools designed and built in this period was Richmond High School for

Girls in North Yorkshire, England. Denis Clarke Hall took the commission for the

school after his success in the News Chronicle competition held a year earlier. The

specific architectural feature of the school was pairs of classrooms isolated as

independent pavilions and connected by a wide central corridor. The corridor was

considered as the spine of the building. It accommodated lockers and floor ducts

carrying main services. The school building adopted the spirit of modernity (Dudek


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2000). Clarke Hall refers to the Modern choice of style for the school that aims at

bearing a meaning for young girls:

There was an extraordinary jumble of architectural styles. I had gone through the AA

looking at all sorts of traditional styles, while searching for something that really meant

something to a young person. Then I discovered the Modern Movement with its traditional

classic proportions, pure logic and beautiful use of form in relation to windows. It was an

absolute revelation and it altered the whole of one’s attitude towards architecture (Clarke

Hall 2007, p.71).

He carried out research on requirements of a school the outcome of which appeared in

a report in 1937. Three key design features of Richmond High School for Girls

included natural light, separation of noisy area from quiet areas by a circulation space

and classrooms’ views to the outside (Clarke Hall 2007).

Fig 3.14. Ground floor plan and a model of Richmond Girls High School - (Clarke Hall 2007, pp.72,73)


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Three radical elements of school design introduced by Clarke Hall included ‘the use

of prefabricated materials, the relaxed plan and the attention given to natural daylight’

(Harwood in Charlton, Harwood et al. 2007, p.77). However, all were abandoned in

subsequent years and during the 1950s.

The need to build very large schools for secondary education along with the strict

economy of post war years were two factors that made loose planning difficult

(Clarke Hall 2007). This contrast can clearly be seen between the Richmond Girls

High School of 1940 and the post-war Secondary Modern School on the adjoining site

which has all the facilities in a single building block.

Fig 3.15. Richmond Secondary Modern School built in 1957-1959 - (Clarke Hall 2007, p.77)

Clarke Hall’s design for Richmond High School was criticised for treating education

as a process and paying little attention to the various needs of the users. The building

had problems with regards to the internal environmental comfort. It was also difficult

to accommodate contemplative activities that need more private spaces (Dudek 2000).

3.8. Crow Island School, 1940

The design of schools during that post World War II period did not immediately

develop aligned to educational programmes (Tanner and Lackney 2006). Within this

context, a school that could well define itself as a modern educational architecture

evolved from a progressive and innovative educational program: Crow Island School

built in 1940 in Illinois.


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In the school plan, classrooms were arranged in three wings each of which

accommodated two grades. One of the design features of the school was the L-shaped

classroom that could “facilitate large group instruction as well as ongoing individual

and team projects, and reading and study areas as well as science centers” (U.S.

Department of Education 2000, p.13)

Fig 3.16. An aerial view sketch and the floor plan of Crow Island School - (Brubaker, Bordwell et al. 1998, pp.11-12)

Each typical classroom of Crow Island School was composed of the main classroom

space, a separate workshop area for wet activities, a lavatory, a storage space and an

outdoor court that could act as an outdoor classroom (Tanner and Lackney 2006).

Fig 3.17. An axonometric drawing of a classroom in Crow Island School illustrating five components of each classroom unit - (Tanner and Lackney 2006, p.14)


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3.9. Denys Lasdun’s Hallfield School, 1948

The school designed by Denys Lasdun in Paddington, London in 1948 was “a

dynamic composition in a ville radieuse layout, which nevertheless related well to its

traditional urban context” (Dudek 2007, p.31). The main difference of Lasdun’s

approach with some earlier modernist schools was that the school had a relaxed layout

and blended into its natural surrounding. According to Dudek (2000),

Lasdun dismissed the diagrammatic approach to design, eschewing modernist devices such

as grids, boxes and stilts. Standardization for its own symbolic purpose, which dismissed

the human element, was rejected perhaps as a response to Richmond. Instead an integration

into its 2.75 acre urban site was sought, retaining most of the existing trees (Dudek 2000,

p.31).

Lasdun’s main concern about retaining most of the existing trees led to designing

curvilinear blocks and organising various elements in fragmented positions. This

produced a poetic and appealing form in a humane scale compared to the adjacent

high rise housing blocks.

Fig 3.18. Top: drawing of a plant as a metaphor for the layout of urban school – Below: a plan of Hallfield School - (Dudek 2000, p.91)


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Curtis (1994) refers to Lasdun’s humane approach to the design as an approach

… in which individual human activities are enhanced by the articulation of spaces of

different character … The humanism of this approach and the departure from mechanistic

modern architecture are underlined by the biological analogies of the plan, especially the

resemblance to the unfurling form of a plant, with stem, leaves and petals (Curtis 1994,

p.13) .

Junior school classrooms and administrative spaces were placed in a two storey linear

block. A route that crossed the linear block linked two assembly halls, one on top of

the other. Eight typical spaces linked by a pavilion in the south functioned as a

kindergarten.

Fig 3.19. external of Hallfield School; from top left A, B, C and D shot in the plan - (http://www.artandarchitecture.org.uk/search/results.html?qs=hallfield+estate+school Access date:15/04/2009)

A key theme identified in the trajectory of changes from open-air schools to Clarke

Hall’s and Lasdun’s schools is a decrease in formality and rigidity of school


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buildings. This was reflected in more relaxed plans as well as spaces that were well-lit

and open to the outside environment. Classrooms were still the main element of the

design and their structure as enclosed self-contained entities isolated from each other

was still taken for granted. Nevertheless, there was a move from structuring them in a

building around a corridor to more village-like site plans. This move to a more relaxed

and less formal structure appeared to be taken inside the school buildings through the

introduction of open-space schools of the 1960s and 1970s.

3.10. Open-space schools of the 1960s and 1970s

In his extensive review of the research on open-space schools, George (1975) states

that more than fifty percent of the schools built between 1967 and 1970 were open-

space schools. Open-space schools are considered “the first major architectural

departure from the traditional “egg-crate” building of one hundred years ago”. They

took various forms but some common characteristics of all of them were “lack of

interior walls” and “instructional areas ranging in size from 2 ordinary classrooms to

over 30” (Weinstein 1979).

New beliefs about education and the whole process of schooling was a key driver of

the transformation in school design from traditional “egg-crate” school buildings to

open-space schools of the 1960s and 1970s. A number of dynamic changes preceded

these new beliefs about education after World War II included revolution in areas of

communication and construction technology, population growth, expansion of

knowledge particularly in behavioural and social sciences, the appearance of

automation, cybernation and a variety of new social movements:

This new society demanded a new process of education. The emphasis changed from

teaching to learning, from passive to active student participation, from lecture and recitation

to inquiry and discovery. Originality and creativity, self-discipline, and responsibility

combined with a new cultural feeling of freedom and independence. All of these factors

produced a heightened awareness of the importance of the individual and a concern of the

many individual differences in styles and personality (York County, 1973, cited in George

1975).


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Changes in educational beliefs led to the emergence of open-space schools in three

stages, George (1975) states.

In stage one, the shift in educators’ perceptions of teaching and learning was reflected

in incorporation of new spaces into traditional schools. They were such spaces as

team planning rooms, seminar rooms and teaching auditoriums. In addition, non-

loadbearing and foldable walls were introduced to school buildings as architects and

educators began to cooperate (George 1975).

Similarly, in the report prepared by Educational Facilities Laboratories, the

emergence of open-space schools is traced back to the approach of “flexibility

through variety”. The approach was about the intelligent arrangement of interior

partitions in order to define appropriate spaces that accommodate a variety of

programs. It was applied through the use of demountable walls for long-term

convertibility and operable walls for short-term convertibility. The report continues

With all this juggling of walls in an effort to make form follow function, it was inevitable

that someone should think of leaving the walls out altogether. For while it is often true that

special functions need special spaces, it is also true that the spaces can be made special not

only by their size or shape but by what goes on in them − the people, equipment, and

activities assigned to different areas at different times (Educational Facilities Laboratories

1965, p.16).

The second stage of development of open-space schools involved questioning

traditional school structures to accommodate innovations in teaching and learning.

This led to efforts to team a number of teachers with one hundred or more students in

a single teaching area. It was in this stage that the rationale for open-space schools

became fully developed. Open-space schools in this stage incorporated “large

instructional areas referred to as pods, units, suites, or classroom clusters” into

themselves (George 1975, p.7).

In the third stage of development of open-space schools, a significant number of these

schools was built. These schools were characterized by the disappearance of enclosed

classrooms and partitions as well as moveable and foldable walls (George 1975).


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Facilitating three innovations were predicted to be outcomes of the new teaching and

learning spaces: team teaching; variably-sized and rapidly changing learner grouping

patterns; individualized instruction (Frazier, 1972 cited in George 1975).

Similar advantages of open-space schools mentioned in the report published by

Educational Facilities Laboratories in 1965 included ‘encouraging interactions among

teachers and pupils’, ‘more freedom for teachers and pupils’, ‘flexible programming’

and ‘contributing to individualised learning’. The report states that

There are no partitions to fragment learning by dividing teachers, children and subject

matter into tight standardized compartments. And there are no halls to funnel children from

compartment to compartment at the arbitrary dictate of bells. Each child finds his own

place, creates his own path … the disappearance of walls has been accompanied by (if not

indeed stimulated by) the appearance of less rigid patterns of teaching and learning:

nongrading, team teaching, or both. At the very least, concentration of a greater number of

children and a greater reservoir of teaching talent in the same space simplifies the logistics

of tailoring instruction to the needs of the individual child (Educational Facilities

Laboratories 1965, pp.3-5).

Refinements on the basic theme of open-space schools gave way to a second-

generation of open-space schools. This new variation of open-space schools had three

common features:

I. The use of a number of architectural elements

II. Having more of open space

III. Being clustered with separate special-purpose areas of various types and size

(Educational Facilities Laboratories 1965).

Architectural elements such as interior partitions were incorporated into open spaces

so that they could function more effectively and provide more flexible opportunities.

The Educational Facilities Laboratories report states that

By providing for the installation of partitions if and when they are wanted, they extend the

flexibility of the space beyond the options immediately available because of the absence of

walls. If the teachers decide they need a separate, fully enclosed area for some purpose, they

can have it. If changing educational programmes and prOECDure suggest a step toward

self-containment in all or part of the school, the step can be taken easily and economically

(Educational Facilities Laboratories 1965, pp.16-17).


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The addition of more of open space meant adding to the distance between student

groups and reducing the risk of their interfering with one another.

Finally, separate special-purpose areas could “help reduce the need for careful

scheduling − which imposes its own brand of inflexibility − by providing a place to

isolate noisy or messy activities” (Educational Facilities Laboratories 1965, p.17).

The Granada Community School in California was an example of open-space schools.

In this school, four hexagonal teaching stations were arranged around a cluster’s

central common. Each teaching station had its own entrance, sink and other

equipment. In addition, tracks were fixed in their ceilings so that partitions could be

added to them if need arose (Educational Facilities Laboratories 1965).

Fig 3.20. A plan from Granada Community School, Belvedere-Tiburon, California, 1964 - (Educational Facilities Laboratories 1965, p.22)

Fig 3.21. Interior of Granada Community School - (Educational Facilities Laboratories 1965, pp.13, 28)


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The open-space school movement could not go through without dissatisfaction

expressed by teachers, school authorities and parents. Noise was repeatedly referred to

as a major downside of open-space schools. Alongside possible physical deficiencies

of open-space schools, people’s inability to adapt to changes was another explanation

for the poor performances of some open-space schools. Drawing on the evidence from

a number of open-space schools that worked effectively, the Educational Facilities

Laboratories report noted that these open-space schools capitalize on “the adaptability

of people instead of relying wholly on the manipulation of architectural elements”

(Educational Facilities Laboratories 1965, p.12).

Hertzberger (2008) argues that open spaces could foster a greater sense of community

thanks to “a view of each other and each other’s work”. Nevertheless, compromising

the privacy of groups and the distraction caused by lack of visual and acoustical

privacy were two main problems of open-space schools. In his words

Omitting the partitions between classrooms may impact on the social pattern but is not

enough to create its own space. So spatially it failed to satisfy what was needed to give

groups working alongside each other the privacy they require. In other words spacious does

not mean space. Photos of ‘open school’ reveal an assertive position on teaching and

learning, yet surely the different groups, occupying a collective field of vision without the

slightest spatial modelling, must have caused each other considerable inconvenience


The issue of noise, some teachers’ and administrators’ tendencies to return to the

traditional model of enclosed classroom spaces supported by negative responses from

parents in some communities led to erecting walls in open-space schools. According

to Weinstein (1979), “many facilities, once completely open, are now “modified open

space”; some are almost indistinguishable from traditional egg-crate schools”.

Open-space schools were good examples that demonstrated the influences of changes

in educational philosophy and ideas in the physical spaces of schools. Heightened

awareness of individual students’ needs and attention to the difference and diversity

that they bring to school with themselves preceded the spatial transformation in open-

space schools. One way to respond to the challenge of new educational demands was


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through school spaces that were flexible and offered many opportunities. Openness

and lack of physical barriers in a space were considered to contribute to the purpose of

flexibility and offering many opportunities.

Open-space schools challenged the conception of the classroom as a self-contained

enclosed space. They were not built in abundance in subsequent years. However, their

underpinning objectives of freedom offered to students and teachers, attention to

individual student needs, team teaching and considering flexible programming in

terms of student groupings and the activities they are engaged in recurrently appeared

in school spaces of years to come. This influence could even be observed within the

confines of classroom spaces that became more articulated in the school buildings of

coming years.

3.11. Hans Scharoun’s School Designs

Scharoun was one of the few architects who explicitly addressed the development of

adolescent students’ personal identity in his designs.

Scharoun designed three schools between 1951 and 1971, two of which were built.

The first school designed by Scharoun was an outcome of the conference ‘Man and

Space’ held in 1951 in Germany that brought together a number of architects,

sociologists and philosophers. The design was for a primary and secondary school

complex in Darmstadt. The school design project was considered as an introduction to

Scharoun’s ideas about school design which were yet to be embodied in his two

subsequent school buildings (Blundell-Jones 1995).

A significant feature of the Darmstadt school design was a deep theoretical foundation

upon which the design was based and developed. This had to do with Scharoun’s

conception of what role a school should play in children’s and young people’s lives:

The school as an institution possessed for him likewise a mediating function between

individual and society as well as between family and city. The school is planned after the

model of a town to make possible the experience of the relationships between these poles

(Syring and Kirschenmann 2004, p.57).


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The design consisted of a series of spaces joined together with a long circulation

space or in Scharoun’s word, “meeting path”.

Fig 3.22. Plan of Darmstadt Primary and Secondary School project; the orange line is a passage that links school spaces - Modified by the author from Blundell-Jones (1995)

The resemblance to a model of a town is seen in the school plan. The path acted like a

main street linking the three grades zones resembling three neighbourhoods with their

own identities and characteristics.

In each of the three zones a certain classroom type was considered in order to be

responsive to the age group of pupils. In addition to differences in terms of scale

according to different body size of pupils, the zones differed in the “quality to

accommodate the changing needs of a growing consciousness”. This was due to

Scharoun’s “emphasis on the way in which an educational process should gradually

integrate individuals into the community, making them socially responsible without

repressing their individuality” (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.138).

The emphasis for the pupils in the lower school, children aged six to nine called the

“playing group” by Scharoun, was on ‘social integration’:

Their work is an extension of play, unconsciously developing their social awareness through

being together. Although at this stage they are not conscious of the quality of space, it must

nevertheless welcome and protect them, cave-like and nest-like, an extension of the parental

home. Thus both the classrooms and the external teaching space are small and tightly

enclosed (Blundell-Jones 1995, pp.138-39).


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An orientation to the South to receive sunlight and the use of warm colours were

suggested as design requirements for the physical and spiritual development of

children of these ages.

Fig 3.23. Part plan of the lower grades school; A. ‘gatehouse tower’ with cloakrooms, B. communal space, C. classroom, D. external teaching space - (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.139)

The emphasis for the pupils in the middle school, children aged nine to twelve called

the “working group” by Scharoun, was on ‘discipline’:

At this stage discipline must be imposed as there is more attention to serious learning, with

a stress on skill and precision. This discipline is reflected in the planning of the middle

grade, ‘Space holds firm and makes firmer’. Thus the unit is formed out of two completely

square enclosures and the classroom themselves are square (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.139).

East and West orientations for the classrooms were suggested in order to bring

reflected sunlight instead of direct sunlight that was thought to cause distraction for

children of these ages. Cool colours to foster ‘seriousness of purpose’ were also

recommended.

Fig 3.24. Part plan of middle grades school; A. ‘gatehouse tower’ with cloakrooms B. communal space C. classroom D. external teaching space - (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.139)


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The emphasis for the pupils in the upper school, children aged twelve to fourteen, was

on the ‘relation of individual to the group’:

The consciousness of social responsibility is growing, but so is the sense of personal

identity, and imposed discipline is gradually replaced by self-discipline. The classroom

form therefore becomes more open and accommodating, less rigid. Instead of looking in on

a limited space like the middle school classroom, it looks out towards the world beyond.

The external teaching spaces, one per classroom, are only half enclosed. The shared hall

between the classrooms is more specialised than in the other units, having a distinct lecture/

seminar area to hold events involving more than one class, rather than just an enlarged

passage (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.139).

The lighting condition appropriate for pupils at this developmental stage was

suggested to be northlight and hence the classrooms were orientated to the North:

This means that when the pupils look out to the world beyond, it presents itself brightly

illuminated by the sun, clarifying the contemplative distance of self from world which

develops with an understanding of personal identity (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.139).

Fig 3.25. Part plan of upper grades school; A. ‘gatehouse tower’ with cloakrooms, C. classroom, D. external teaching space, E. corridor, F. shared seminar space - (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.139)

Creating smaller schools or communities within a whole school or in Blundell-Jones’s

translation of Scharoun’s word “schoolhood” was a design idea introduced in the

Darmstadt school design. In addition, attention was given to articulating hierarchy of

privacy and space ownership. This was observed in the design of an “open zone” that


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was conceived of as a public space in comparison with a number of “secret zones”

that were more private spaces. In Blundell-Jones’ (1995) words:

The space linking the grades with the rest of the school serves both as passage and as

meeting place and is considered along with the assembly hall and its ancillary rooms as an

‘open zone’, being available for use by all pupils, whereas each grade only belongs only to

the pupils of one particular group, a ‘secret zone’ (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.140).

The key objective of the hierarchy of privacy and space ownership was gradually

integrating children into society. Offering children a spatial network that followed a

hierarchical pattern in line with the social network they are engaged in was considered

as a means of supporting this objective. Classrooms were the units where pupils

developed belongingness to. They then identified with the grade level followed by the

school and finally with the neighbourhood or probably a neighbouring school

(Blundell-Jones 1995).

Circulation spaces in the Darmstadt school design were considered more than

passages and their potential were used to function as meeting places. Blundell-Jones

(1995) describes this recurrent feature of Scharoun’s design as follows:

His buildings do not consist just of rooms and corridors but rather of a whole series of

carefully modulated spaces, sometimes more open sometimes more closed. He can take a

passage and by widening it, punctuating the space with a level change and opening it up

visually with a view, turn it into a meeting place. Then just as confidently he contracts it

again and closes the view so it becomes once more a passage, yet the whole is one

continuous space (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.142).

The second school designed by Scharoun was Geschwister School in Lünen, 1956-

1962. Almost all ideas and design features in the Darmstadt school design project

were repeated in this school. A case in point is the passage that linked the territories of

three grade groups: lower, middle and upper grades.


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Fig 3.26. First and ground floor plans of Geschwister School, Lünen - (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.143)

The design feature introduced in Geschwister school was a typical classroom unit

called Klassenwohnung (class-dwelling) by Scharoun. The classroom unit shaped the

basic element from which the school plan was generated. Each classroom unit was

composed of a main space, an annex, an entrance lobby and an external teaching

space. The annex that was a partially detached space could allow a variety of uses

such as independent individual study or small group work.


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Fig 3.27. Typical plan of a classroom unit in Geschwister School; A. main teaching space, B. annex ,C. entrance lobby and cloakroom, D. external teaching space - (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.142)

An explanation suggested for the oblong hexagonal shape of the classroom layout was

to provide flexibility (Blundell-Jones 1995). This classroom shape could easily

accommodate both a straight teaching approach and a seminar function. The light and

moveable furniture also contributed to the flexibility in seating arrangements.

Fig 3.28. Two different layouts in a typical classroom unit in Geschwister School - (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.144)


90

Scharoun’s third school design was for a School at Marl-Drewer in Westpalia, 1969-

1971. The school was another example that embodied Scharoun’s school design

principles.

Fig 3.29. Plan of School at Marl-Drewer; the part highlighted in blue show circulation space that embraces passages and meeting places in itself, B. theatre, C. gymnasium, D. lower grades units, E. middle grades units, K. upper grades unit - Modified by the author from Blundell-Jones (1995, p.148)

Similar to Geschwister School, the classroom units composed of four parts of general

teaching space, annex, cloakroom and external teaching space were the basic element

of design. Only the communal hall shared by four classroom units was something new

introduced in this school design in comparison with Scharoun’s previous school

designs.

Classrooms for lower and middle grades were organised in four groups of four. The

shape of the classrooms was hexagonal similar to that of Geschwister School. For the

lower grades, the hexagon tended to be more “rounded and nest-like” compared to

that of middle grades (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.149) .


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Fig 3.30. Part plan of a lower grades unit in School at Marl-Drewer - (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.149)

In the school at Marl-Drewer special attention was also paid to the design of theatre or

assembly hall. In Blundell-Jones’ words

The assembly hall gains pride of place, forming the heart of the complex and also its highest

building. This is the social centre and the starting point of the obviously cumulative plan …

The hall is of a rather more ambitious size than that of the Lünen school [Geschwister

School], being intended for use not only by the school but by the neighbourhood as well,

serving as a small theatre, cinema or concert hall, and to accommodate these functions it is

fan-shaped in plan. But it was not just to be used for special occasions: Scharoun intended it

also to be open to pupils as a break hall, thus to become familiar to them as the ‘axis’ and

even as the ‘soul’ of the school (Blundell-Jones 1995, p.149).

Some of Scharoun’s important contributions to the theory of school design can be

summarized as follows:

-Introducing the concept of smaller schools or communities within a whole school

-Paying attention to the spatial sequence by creating a hierarchy from private to public

spaces

-Attempting to spatially respond to each stage of the child’s development by such

means as orientation of spaces, inside-outside relationships, natural light and use of

colours

- Attention to social life of schools reflected in his designs in two main forms:

1. Creative design of circulation spaces in the service of social interaction by

turning them into meeting places and break halls

2. Emphasis on the role of assembly hall or theatre as a ‘social centre’ of school.


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Fig 3.31. Street-like circulation spaces in Geschwister Scholl school (left) and School at Marl-Drewer (right) - (Blundell-Jones 1995, pp.145,151)

Addressing some of the developmental needs of children and young people by

Scharoun in his first school design projects showed that he had examined the

developmental needs of pupils. As Blundell-Jones (1995) states, Scharoun benefited

from consultation with an educator and a psychiatrist through the process of design.

However, the reference to the developmental needs of pupils and rather poetic

descriptions of classroom spaces for individuals in different ages were not elaborated

and did not further appear in his two later designs.

For example, ideas about spaces being more open, accommodating and less rigid in

order to respond to the development of personal identity and autonomy in adolescence

were substituted by rather identical classrooms in Scharoun’s later designs. The

difficulty in translating those ideas into the design language may be a factor that

accounts for that. Moreover, generalising of pupils’ needs at each developmental stage

might be limiting because it overlooked individual differences within each age group.


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In Schools designed by Scharoun classrooms were still the basic element of the school

structure. Their clearly defined boundaries left little space for interaction between

these classroom units. However, Scharoun’s classrooms moved away from the rigid

and formal structure of conventional classrooms with rectangular unarticulated plans.

The classrooms he designed were like little flats with different spaces to

accommodate varied functions. A more embryonic version of these classrooms was

observed in the Crow Island School. Despite the flexibility that classrooms designed

by Scharoun could offer, the hexagonal plan of the classrooms could provide

limitations in terms of configuring furniture and grouping of students.

3.12. Aldo van Eyck

Two educational buildings designed by Aldo van Eyck are worth examining in this

historical review. They include the project for three schools in Nagele designed and

built between 1954 and 1956 and the Amsterdam Orphanage project designed and

built between 1955 and 1960.

A typical plan of the primary schools in Nagele included six classrooms organised

around four centrifugal hall spaces. Each school’s spaces were also designed around a

centrifugal playground.

Fig 3.32. A plan of the school in Nagele 1954-1959 - (Strauven 1998, p.281)


94

As seen in the plans of schools, a typical plan of classrooms is rather an “articulated”

(Hertzberger 2008, p.24) space and has an L-shaped form. These L-shaped classrooms

were seen in Crow Island School and Scharoun’s schools.

Fig 3.33. A part plan of the school in Nagele showing one of the identical L-shaped classroom - modified by the author from Strauven (1998, p.281)

In each typical classroom, a little space was created right after the entrance that

functioned as a cloakroom. The main classroom area was the fatter leg of the L-

shaped plan. The smaller space in the other leg of the L-shaped plan had similarities

to the annex in a typical classroom unit of schools designed by Scharoun. However, it

was a less-defined space compared to the annex in Sharoun’s typical classroom (see

the Figure 3.33). An image from a classroom in the school in Nagele shows that this

space is being used by two students as a form of quiet corner.

Fig 3.34. A classroom in the school in Nagele 1954-1959 - (Strauven 1998, p.87)


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A similar design approach to that of the schools in Nagele was used in Van Eyck’s

subsequent commission for the Amsterdam Orphanage. The brief given to the

architect was not a mere account of functions and requirements for the building.

Instead, as Strauven (1998, p.285) points out, “it was a impassioned piece of prose,

vividly evoking the pattern of life as it was to develop in the new house, in the

building as a whole and in each of its rooms”. At the most primary level, the

orphanage had to not look like a “boarding school or any other type of oppressive

institution”. Instead it should be

a friendly, open home, whose fanciful outward form and snug, well-proportioned internal

arrangement give the children staying there a feeling of being home, safe and sound. No

endless corridors and doorways, where a child can get lost, but links between the various

areas of habitation and resort, links ingeniously forged which do nothing to disrupt the

conviviality of a communal dwelling. For even though the house has differing components,

the highest ideal of its internal architectural order must nonetheless be to create a unity,

whose parts will ultimately form living constituents of a living, lively whole (Frans van

Meurs cited in Strauven 1998, p.287).

In doing so, Van Eyck adopted a “more articulated version of the Nagele approach”

rather than a “static symmetrical form favoured for school institutions”. Spaces were

grouped in L-shaped blocks around courtyards. This allowed a mediation between

inside and outside spaces that in theory could create a “more fluid welcoming effect”

(Dudek 2000, p.35).

The ‘friendliness’ and ‘receptiveness’ quality of the building needed to be perceived

from the appearance and structure of it. Given this, special attention was given to the

location of the permanent staff:

The office of the director, the ‘head of the family’, was not to be sited at some remote or

hidden spot but in the very centre of the house, close to the entrance, where he could keep in

constant touch with all the comings and goings of the house and where the children could

walk in for a chat at any time without hesitation (Strauven 1998, p.286).


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Fig 3.35. An aerial view of Amsterdam orphanage 1955-1960 - (Strauven 1998, p.285)

Grouping of children was ‘horizontal’ meaning that each group consisted of children

of roughly similar ages. This was due to the director of the old orphanage in Sint-

Luciёnsteeg, Frans van Meurs’s assumption about specificity of each group’s needs

and wishes that required specific facilities. This meant that while all groups needed

some similar basic equipment, each group was to have “its own atmosphere and

interior design and even if possible its own internal subdivision” (Strauven 1998,

p.286). For example the living rooms for young girls and boys were designed with

some differences in order to be responsive to their different needs:

The living room for older girls (aged 14-20) was to be provided with ‘intimate nooks and

spots’ where they would be able to ‘relax quietly around a low coffee table in comfortable

low chairs’ … The living room of their male peers, on the other hand, required an ample

workshop area where they could do all kinds of handwork, carry out minor repairs and so on

… Though accommodated separately, the boys and girls were to be encouraged to socialize

by holding parties or in other ways (Strauven 1998, p.286).


97

Fig 3.36. Ground floor plan of the Amsterdam Orphanage 1955-60 - (Van Eyck 1999, p.94)


98

Fig 3.37. Part plan of 14-20-year-old departments - (Van Eyck 1999, p.106)

Attention was also paid to the ways that architecture could be used as an aid in

mitigating the hierarchical effects of the orphanage structure of eight departments.

This was reflected in the design of an interior street. In Van Eyck’s words

… for all departments, service spaces and rooms for special activities give onto a larger

interior street in such a way as to invite the children to mix and move from one department

to another, visiting each other. This interior street is yet another intermediary (Van Eyck

1999, p.89).

Fig 3.38. Internal streets in Amsterdam orphanage 1955-60 - (Van Eyck 1999, p.93)

A design feature of the building was the special attention to transitional spaces and

creating intermediary places. This design feature helped to reduce anxiety that abrupt

transition causes, sustain sense of belonging, mitigate the hierarchy of grouping of

children and encourage interactions among groups. Van Eyck (1999) describes the

design feature as follows:


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The building was conceived as a configuration of intermediary places clearly defined. This

does not imply continual transition or endless postponement with respect to place and

occasion. On the contrary, it implies a break away from the contemporary concept (call it

sickness) of spatial continuity and the tendency to erase every articulation between spaces,

i.e., between outside and inside, between one space and another. Instead, I tried to articulate

the transition by means of defined in-between places which induce simultaneous awareness

of what is signified on either side. An in-between place in this sense provides the common

ground where conflicting polarities are reconciled and again become twin phenomena (Van

Eyck 1999, p.89).

The ‘large open square’ in front of the main entrance of the orphanage was an

example of the intermediary places in order to reduce the anxiety that resulted from

transition.

Fig 3.39. The large open square as an intermediary place in Amsterdam Orphanage - (Van Eyck 1999, p.92)

Within the architectural establishment, the design was received with extremely

positive views. Some viewed it as a building which “had an influence on school

buildings throughout the world” (Norwich 1975, p.235). Similarly, Kultermann

(1993) considered Van Eyck as an important personality

whose orphanage in Amsterdam (1958-1960) became known all over the world, due to the

exemplary concept of this building. A home for 125 children of all ages was created here,


100

articulating a revolutionary synthesis in the consideration of the individual and the group,

inner and outer space, extended and small areas (Kultermann 1993, pp.137-138).

Despite the strong theoretical ground upon which the design was developed and being

applauded in the architectural establishment of that time, the reality of the Amsterdam

Orphanage’s life turned out to be something different. It was not a success and did not

take on the life that the director and the architect had envisaged when occupied.

After being occupied, the building was altered repeatedly. Strauven (1998) refers to

some aggressive changes which were made in the 1970s as follows:

… the building fell into the hands of a new generation of educators with an out-spoken anti-

authoritarian attitude. These educators rejected everything they felt was authoritarian, which

happened to include the architectural quality of the building they worked in − this in spite of

(or perhaps because of) the international esteem it enjoyed. They saw the specific

equipment of the individual living room areas merely as obstacles that obstructed the

spontaneous development of their pedagogic activity and therefore had to be removed as

soon as possible. Time and again the building was transformed and at various places

thoroughly mutilated (Strauven 1998, pp.319-320).

By 1986 the orphanage was in a very bad state and about to be demolished when a

group of architects led by Herman Hetzberger managed to restore the building and

turn it into a new use.

The extreme contractual difficulties and pressure from which the Orphanage

construction process suffered might be explanations for its failure after occupation

(Strauven 1998; Dudek 2000). Another reason that accounts for the failure of design

was the inflexibility of arrangements for later directors of the institution, Dudek

(2000) argues. The Orphanage design was too deterministic and left little room for

occupants to come up with creative ways to use the spaces.

3.13. Herman Hertzberger’s School Designs

Herman Hertzberger is another influential architect within the history of designing

spaces for education. According to Dudek (2000), Hertzberger established an


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approach that sought to enhance social interactions through the organisation and

details suggested by the built form of schools. Apollo Schools and subsequent schools

that he designed were exemplars of a more social approach in designing schools.

Apollo Schools in Amsterdam built in 1980 were Hertzberger’s first school design

commission. Each school was designed in three storeys with split-level classrooms on

two sides of the building.

Fig 3.40. Ground and first floor plans of Apollo Schools, Amsterdam - (Hertzberger 2005, p.213)

Hertzberger introduced a number of important design features in Apollo schools

which were evolved and recurrently appeared in his subsequent school designs. One

of these design features was the split-level design that maximised views to the school

hall and promoted visual connectivity in the building. At a higher level, this provision

could foster within students and teachers a sense of community. Hertzberger (2005)

describes the idea of the split-level design as follows:

The split level design of the central space not only gave rise to the adaption of the

amphitheatre idea, it also provided a point of attachment for the six classrooms, disposed in

two groups of three with maximum mutual visibility. This visual link draws all the

classrooms together in a way that would not be possible with a strict division into

superimposed storeys (Hertzberger 2005, p.213).

The spatial dynamic created by staircases and stepped terraces of the central atrium

enabled the pupils to develop a constant awareness of their relationship with their own

class community and the wider school community (Dudek 2000).


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Fig 3.41. A section and an image of Apollo Schools demonstrating the idea of split level design - (Hertzberger 2005, pp.213-214)

The school central hall was another important design feature. Visual contacts

provided by the split-level design as well as widened steps made this space a central

hub for the school community. Widened steps allowed the space to function as an

amphitheatre for both informal gatherings and more formal social events.

Fig 3.42. A typical central hall of Apollo schools - (Hertzberger 2005, p.215)


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Hertzberger (2005) describes the central hall of Apollo schools as a “communal

classroom” and a public space with qualities of a “large living room”:

The hall space functions rather like a big communal classroom, where the teachers also have

their own place (with a corner screened off for the school head) on the top ‘balcony’. The

location of this teachers’ corner, and its open and inviting nature – the children can go right

up to them at any time- gives the hall space as a whole the quality of a large living room


The third significant design feature in Apollo Schools was special design of

transitional spaces between each classroom and the corridor. These transitional spaces

accommodated individual independent study quite well.

Fig 3.43. A plan and images from a transitional space between a classroom and the corridor in Apollo schools - (Hertzberger 2005, p.31)


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Attention to the social role of schools was manifested in meeting places created along

the passages and circulation routes in the schools designed by Sharoun. Hertzberger

followed that idea posing a more advanced approach. In Scharoun’s Geschwister

School, each group of four classrooms had a communal area. This communal area

shared by four classrooms was given the form of a central hall for all classrooms in

Hertzberger’s Apollo Schools. The central hall not only could promote social

interactions but also a whole range of activities such as school assemblies or

performances could take place within it. All of those along with the visual connection

of classrooms at three levels to the hall could reinforce a sense of belonging to the

school community.

Through the two past centuries, there has been a significant evolution in ways of

thinking about and creating physical spaces for education. Individual students and

ways of supporting their personal and social growth and development have been at the

core of this evolution. Interestingly, traces of a heightened attention to the two

characteristics of schools that support adolescents’ identity formation, ‘a supportive

environment addressing individuation and social integration’ and ‘offering

opportunities for developmental exploration’ can be observed in the historical

evolution of places for teaching and learning.

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Chapter Four

Current Research and Practice of School Design

Rather than viewing the school building − its various rooms, walls, windows, doors and

furniture, together with outdoor ‘nooks and crannies’, gardens and open spaces − as a

neutral or passive ‘container’, architects and educators have considered it to be an active

agent, shaping the experience of schooling and promoting and even pioneering a particular

understanding of education (Burke and Grosvenor 2008, p.10).

In this chapter I provide an outline of the existing literature on school design. The

focus of this overview is the research and studies that are in relation to the two

identified characteristics of schools that support adolescents’ identity formation.

Given this, the chapter is structured in two sections. The first section deals with the

contributions of design to ‘a supportive school environment addressing adolescents’

needs for individuation and social integration’ and its associated factors. In the second

section, design-related factors that contribute to ‘schools offering opportunities for

adolescents’ developmental exploration’ are explored.

A part of this literature reviewed includes reports of departments of education in

different countries and publications of organizations that work to improve places

where children and young people learn. Another part of the literature comes from

reflective practice of architects, educational facilities planners, educators and others

involved in education. Finally, a small part of the literature reviewed here includes

empirical studies on physical spaces of schools mainly conducted in the discipline of

environmental psychology.

4.1. Design-related factors that contribute to ‘a supportive school environment addressing individuation and social integration’

In chapter two, I presented an account of the studies in relation to this characteristic of

schools that support adolescents’ identity formation. It was discussed that within a

supportive school environment that addresses individuation and social integration,

Chapter Four Current Research and Practice of School Design

106

individual students’ autonomy and independence are promoted and valued. In

addition, interpersonal relationships and feelings of connectedness and belonging to

the school community are encouraged among school members. Adolescent students

are also able to perceive the accessibility of teachers’ and other school staff’s support.

Smallness of school size was also referred to as a factor that facilitates creation of a

personalised and supportive school environment (Conchas and Rodriguez 2008).

Referring to some of the benefits of cooperative learning, I also argued that

encouraging cooperation among adolescents is another factor to be considered in

relation to adolescents’ needs for social integration.

In this section, I present an overview of the research that deals with the translation of

these factors into design of school spaces. I begin with elaborating the concept of

privacy that is in close relation to adolescents’ needs for individuation and social

integration. Personalisation of school environment and contributions of school

design to this end is turned to next. Design-related factors to support social

interactions in schools is the next heading in this section. I also review research and

practice of school design that emanate from the idea of smallness of school size.

Finally, I turn to cooperative learning and explore design-related implications of this

pedagogical approach.

4.1.1. Privacy

In different disciplines various definitions of privacy exist. Common to some of these

various definitions of privacy is an emphasis on seclusion, being alone and avoiding

social interactions (e.g. Chapin 1951; Bates 1964).

There is another group of definitions that place less emphasis on the seclusion and

being alone character of privacy. Instead, in this category of definitions, the focus is

“the idea of control – opening and closing of the self to others and freedom of choice

regarding personal accessibility” (Altman 1975 , p.17). Based on this theme, Altman


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(1975 , p.18) presented a conception of privacy as “selective control of access to the

self or to one’s group”. In his words

Privacy is better approached as a changing self/other boundary-regulation process in which

a person or a group sometimes wants to be separated from others and sometimes wants to be

in contact with others … As a corollary, being alone too often or for too long a period of

time (isolation) and being with others too much for too long (crowding) are both

undesirable states (Altman 1975, p.207).

Building on Altman’s conception of privacy, having privacy does not merely mean

having a place to be alone or separated from others. Instead, having privacy means an

individual’s ability to control the degree of social interactions with others. Sometimes

a person wants to be alone. He/she may want to see what is going on further away, to

keep an eye on other people mingling but not necessarily to be involved with them.

Sometimes, he/she may need to interact with two or three close friends and does not

want to be distracted or disturbed by others. At other times, interactions with a large

group of people and being around others may be sought. Thus, supporting an

individual’s privacy needs deals with supporting his/her desired varied degree of

interpersonal interactions.

Adopting the conception of privacy as “a changing self/other boundary-regulation

process”, researchers consider the development and maintenance of self-identity and

personal autonomy as a function of privacy (e.g. Westin 1970; Simmel 1971; Altman

1975; Wolfe and Laufer 1975).

Westin (1970) points to the main function of privacy as ‘personal autonomy’ that has

to do with important issues about self including self-worth, self-independence and

self-identity. Similarly, Altman (1975, p.19) argues that privacy regulation plays a

role in helping people to “define what they are, how they relate to the world”:

Privacy mechanisms define the limits and boundaries of the self. When the permeability of

those boundaries is under the control of a person, a sense of individuality develops. But it is

not the inclusion or exclusion of others that is vital to self-definition; it is the ability to

regulate contact when desired (Altman 1975, p.50).


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In a study conducted by Pedersen (1997) the functions served by different types of

privacy (Pedersen 1979; 1982) were investigated empirically. These functions include

contemplation, autonomy, rejuvenation, confiding, creativity, disapproved

consumptions, recovery, catharsis, and concealment8.

Two of the functions identified by Pedersen (1997), contemplation and autonomy are

clearly relevant to adolescents’ identity formation. According to Pederson (1997),

contemplation function of privacy “ involves planning and self-discovery in settings

where people are free to express themselves”. The autonomy function of privacy is

also about having “a chance to experiment with some new behaviours without fear of

social condemnation. They can ‘do their own thing’”.

In their review of the selected research on classroom and school environments, Rivlin

and Weinstein (1984) point out that a limited number of research investigations have

focused on children's need for privacy. However, it is difficult to make generalizations

because of the variety of approaches used, they argue. What is most apparent is the

fact that privacy, “chosen physical aloneness” (Golan 1978 cited in Rivlin and

Weinstein 1984), is important to children in schools and does not vanish as a domain

of life in the group atmosphere of a classroom (Rivlin and Weinstein 1984).

One study of privacy in schools was conducted by Weinstein (1982). The study dealt

with privacy-seeking behaviours in an elementary school in terms of individual

differences. One of the findings is that ‘visual connection’ to the rest of the

classroom group is a factor that influences preferences for privacy booths9 that were

8 Westin (1967) proposed four types of privacy: solitude; intimacy; anonymity; and reserve. Revising Westin’s dimension of privacy, Pederson (1979; 1982) found six types of privacy regulation: intimacy with family; intimacy with friends; solitude; isolation; anonymity; and reserve. ‘Solitude’ is achieved when an individual places him/herself in a situation where other people can not see or hear what he/she is doing. ‘Reserve’ involves an individual’s control of the verbal disclosure of personal information to others (especially to strangers). ‘Isolation’ is about using physical distance to separate oneself from others to obtain privacy. ‘Intimacy with family’ deals with being alone with one’s family separated from other people. ‘Anonymity’ is achieved by going unnoticed in a crowd of strangers. ‘Intimacy with friends’ involves being alone with one’s friends to the exclusion of other people 9 “A classroom niche, in which a single student could work in relative seclusion” (Sanoff 1993)


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placed in classrooms. According to Weinstein (1982), “self-reported preferences

clearly favored the booth that allowed visual access to the rest of the classroom when

desired”.

In another study, Brunetti (1972) compares conventional and open-space school

environments in terms of noise, distraction and privacy. When students were asked

about how often they were able to find a proper place to study individually if they

needed, 50% of students in two open-space elementary schools reported that they are

able to find a place for doing so “most of the time”. However, the result for students

in one traditional school studied was 25%.

A similar question was asked from high school students in one open-space school and

two schools with traditional buildings. The students were asked to indicate how often

they were able to find quiet places for studying by themselves and where they were

not seen by others. The findings demonstrated that many students in the open-space

school were able to find such places. Only 27% of the students in the open-space high

school reported that they were unable to find quiet places for studying alone and not

to be seen. On the contrary, in conventional high schools a greater number of students

were unable to find quiet places for independent study (34% and 40% of students in

the two conventional high schools). Brunetti concludes that

the standard size classroom seems to provide students with far less opportunity to

geographically separate themselves from their classmates; the lack of classroom boundaries

in open space [schools] ... provide[s] many more alternatives for choice of personal study

space (Brunetti 1972, p.6).

The lack of interior walls in open-space schools may be thought of as a factor that

eliminates any possibility for privacy. Nevertheless, the finding of Brunetti’s (1972)

study suggests that open-space schools “may actually provide more opportunities for

solitude and seclusion than traditional buildings” (Weinstein 1979).

From the view point of privacy as a process of regulating social interactions, open-

space schools can also be argued to support students’ privacy needs. The explanation

is that absence of significant barriers in open-space schools can offer students more


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freedom in dealing with spaces and hence more control over the regulation of social

interactions.

Adopting a view of privacy as an excluding process, architects often translated this

concept into the design language as creating spaces for being alone or ‘solitude

areas’. An example was the introduction of the privacy booth in schools (Sanoff

1993) to satisfy students’ need for privacy that came out of the research on children’s

needs for secluded and private areas in schools especially for quiet reading (e.g. Mack

1976; Ahrentzen 1982). While provision of such spaces for being alone is important,

it is not a means that fully responds to privacy as a process by which an individual

regulates his/her desired levels of interpersonal interactions.

Considering a conception of privacy as a process of regulating interpersonal

interactions means that privacy needs are not two clear-cut and distinct needs of being

completely alone and being among a crowd. An individual’s privacy needs cover a

range of needs with different degrees of interactions with other people. For example,

two or three adolescent girls may want to chat in a corner of the school grounds, not

wanting to be disturbed and not necessarily wanting to be completely detached from

the rest of the students, yet keeping an eye on what is going on around them every

now and then. The range of privacy needs then requires the design responses that are

more comprehensive than providing only spaces for solitude.

Altman (1975, p.207) suggests designing “responsive environments” as a general

design principle to support privacy. According to him, environments responsive to

privacy needs allow for “easy alteration between a state of separateness and a state of

togetherness”. They have the flexible capability “to permit different degrees of control

over contact with others”. He refers to a door as an example of a design feature

responsive to the regulation of social interactions.

Designing “changeable environments” is a design-related implication of privacy

needs (Altman 1975, p.208). An environment designed for a certain function requires

individuals to change their location according to their changing privacy needs. On the


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contrary, a changeable environment is able to serve for different functions and attend

to an individual’s different levels of privacy needs. Altamn (1975, p.213) also argues

that the environment should also permit a degree of “evolutionary flexibility”. In

doing so, one step is to “maximize environmental capabilities”. So for example

even though primary territories10 may not be a central concern, design might allow for the

possibility of their development in a flexible fashion at some future time. In this way, if

people have inclinations toward territorial usage, or if a norm gradually develops that

involves use of territories, then the environment will be sufficiently adaptive to permit that

to happen (Altman 1975, p.213).

In search for implications of adolescent students’ privacy needs for design of school

spaces, it is worthwhile to turn to a mechanism that individuals use to fulfil their

privacy needs, ‘personalisation’.

4.1.2. Personalisation

Altman (1975) defines personalisation as a form of territorial behaviors by which

individuals make use of their personal belongings in order to demarcate and defend

their territories, regulate their privacy needs and achieve their desired level of social

interactions. Personalisation was also defined as individuals’ intentional decoration or

modification of their environments in order to reflect their identities (Sommer 1974;

Heidmets 1994). Edney and Buda (1976) also suggest that individuals’ personalisation

of an environment may support their feelings of personal control. Halpern (1995)

regards the issue of ‘control’ as a possible factor involved in the psychological

importance of personalisation.

There are few empirical studies on personalisation in schools and its influences on

students. The focus of existing studies is pre-school and primary school children. A

case in point is the study conducted by Maxwell and Chmielewski (2008). They

examined effects of personalization of a classroom environment on an aspect of self-

10 Altman (1975, p.111) defines three types of territory based on “how central a territory is to a person or group or how close it is to their everyday lives”.


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identity, self-esteem. Their finding suggested that “young children’s self-esteem may

be influenced and enhanced by specific aspects of the classroom’s physical

environment”, in this particular case, personalisation (Maxwell and Chmielewski

2008).

Interpreting studies such as this, a design-related implication of students’

personalisation needs is providing ‘display surfaces or spaces’ for works and items

that are meaningful for them. An argument in this regard is that the supportive

outcomes of this provision for students’ personalisation needs may be influenced by

the degree to which students themselves have a say in what to be displayed instead of

teachers’ making decisions upon what is to be placed on display spaces.

The idea of providing display surfaces or spaces so that students personalise them and

perceive school spaces as personalised over which they have a degree of control can

be developed even further into a ‘personal workstation’ for each student and a

‘home-base’ for a group of students.

The idea of giving each student a personal workstation has been widely advocated

both in educational and school design-related research and practice (Jilk, Shields et al.

1992; Fiske 1995; Merritt, Beaudin et al. 2005; Fielding 2007). Some advocate

‘personal workstation or individual home-base for the sense of belonging and

ownership that it fosters in a student. Others view the necessity of giving students a

workstation as a result of changes in thinking about education, in particular the

emergence of the idea of ‘personalised learning or individualised plan’ for each

students, a requirement of which is providing spaces for independent individual study.

Jilk et al. recommend personal workstation as one of the design concepts for New

Design high school environments. In their words

the personal workstation is an alternative to the classroom, and should be the basic building

block of the high school design … considering the significance that the usual student locker

plays in the high school experience such a personal place will enhance the student’s self-

concept (Jilk, Shields et al. 1992, p.7).


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Fig 4. 1. Personal workstations for group of five students recommended by Jilk et al. (1992, p.34)

Referring to the structural education reform driven by the effort to replace the factory

model of education with a new set of values, Fiske (1995) identifies a number of

broad ideas and themes that are likely to influence the architecture of the restructured

schools. One of these design ideas has to do with rethinking teachers’ and students’

roles. Regarding teachers as “coaches” and students as “workers”, Fiske (1995, p.6)

proposes the idea of moving away from the traditional classroom as a “public space

for communication between the teacher and a group of students” to a collection of

personal workstations for students. According to him, “the concept of a personalized

working area as opposed to a piece of public space is important”.

There were attempts to translate the idea of a classroom as a personalised working

area into the design language. For example, Brubaker et al. (1998) explored ‘Q-space’

which was composed of places for individual students integrated with teachers’

studies and various kinds of group spaces. Their idea was evolved into the concept of

“Turf”, “which would give five students an office-size home base for individual

study, projects, computer work, small group sessions, and meetings with faculty

members” (Brubaker, Bordwell et al. 1998, p.36).


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Fig 4. 2.‘Turf’ concept: ‘five students’ places for individual learning - (Brubaker, Bordwell et al. 1998, p.36)

‘IPad’ is another form of personal workstation for students proposed by FieldingNair

International (2006). As seen in the Figure 4.3, the desk has two side surfaces that by

shifting them up a level of privacy for an individual student could be created and by

shifting them down the student’s visual connections to the rest of group could be

maintained.

Fig 4.3. ‘IPad’, an individual workstation for each student and three ways of arranging them in two advisory groups - (FieldingNair International 2006)


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Provision of a home-base for a group of students is another means to foster

personalisation and in turn support privacy needs. This necessity is felt even more in

school designs that there is a move beyond traditional closed classrooms to alternative

options that offer more choices and freedom to students and teachers. To put it in

Hertzberger’s (2008) words:

With classrooms disappearing entirely to be taken up in an open learning landscape, the

need for a home base is felt all the more, for a place for the children to fall back on, a place

they feel responsible for and where they can leave their belongings. It is not enough to have

lockers in anonymous surroundings so that pupils wander daily through the building like

nomads. There has to be a space where they can engage socially with others of their group

or year … Not everyone is equipped to stand alone in a world rife with opportunities,

challenges and surprises without having a recognizable and familiar smaller unit where they

have a sense of belonging. To satisfy this new spatial condition is a new challenge for

architects, one that may give an entirely different shape to the idea of a home base if the

classroom were indeed to disappear completely (Hertzberger 2008, p.36).

Viewing ‘personalisation of place’ as an important objective for designing

environments for adolescents, Sanoff (1993) recommends some manifestations of this

objective in learning environments. Display of items of special interest to young

adolescents is one way in which personalisation is exhibited. Use of spaces in a way

that reflects connections between home, school and community is another

manifestation of personalisation in learning environments. Finally, social places

where adolescents can gather and engage in stimulating activities, conversation and

exploration of ideas are other manifestations of personalisation in learning

environments.

Before turning to a further review of social spaces in schools, it is worthwhile to refer

to Wells’ (2000) study of personalisation in the context of office environments, its

relationship with employees’ well-being and the effect of gender difference on this

relationship and a key design-related implication suggested. Drawing on her findings,

Wells (2000) suggested ‘flexibility’ as a key design-related implication of

personalisation for office designers. In her words


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Office designers should begin their designs knowing that employees are going to

personalize their workspaces and, therefore, should build flexibility and space for

personalization into their office designs. Rather than designing rigid offices that do not

allow room for employees' personal items, designers should create spaces for employees to

personalize, such as bookshelves on which to place personal items or tackable surfaces such

as wall panels or bulletin boards (Wells 2000).

4.1.3. Design to Support Social Interactions

Whatever an architect does or deliberately leaves undone – the way he concerns himself

with enclosing or opening – he always influences, intentionally or not, the most elementary

forms of social interactions. And even if social relations depend only to a limited extent on

environmental forces, that is still sufficient reason to aim consciously at an organization of

space that enables everyone to confront the other on an equal footing (Hertzberger 2008,

p.214).

At a very basic level, one way to encourage social interactions among school

members is by designing ‘social spaces’. Social spaces can take various forms and be

created in different parts of a school. A school space may have a certain function but

at the same time act very well as a social space. A café, an external courtyard and an

entrance lobby all can act as social spaces.

Fig 4.4. A social space created in the outdoors, Scotch Oakburn College, Australia - http://schoolstudio.typepad.com/school_design_studio/2009/03/scotch-oakburn-colleges-middle-school-in-tasmania-australia-opens-as-excited-students-and-teachers-j.html , Access date 26/05/2009


117

A social space may even be created in a part of an open space by simply placing a

number of items of comfortable furniture that draw people together to interact. This

means that social spaces do not necessarily need to be thought of as some spaces

added to the overall school spaces.

‘Creative design of circulation spaces’ can turn them into social spaces beside their

basic function of accommodating flow of people’s movement (e.g. DfES 2002;

Hertzberger 2008). Widening circulation routes, bringing natural light to them from

clerestories, the colours and materials used and furniture placed in them are some

features that add qualities of social spaces to circulation spaces. These design features

are able to transform circulation routes into welcoming spaces where adolescent

students and other school members are encouraged to pause and have a chat for while.

This is in stark contrast with dark narrow corridors that have classrooms off their

sides and lockers throughout.

Fig 4. 5.Examples of design practices aiming at turning circulation spaces into welcoming social spaces, Williamstown High School, Australia - http://www.spowers.com.au/projects/learning/williamstown-high-school/ Access date 19/05/2009


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Fig 4.6. An examples of design practices aiming at turning circulation spaces into welcoming social spaces, Carey Baptist Grammar School, Australia - http://www.designshare.com/index.php/projects/carey-baptist-grammar/images@1912 Access date 19/05/2009

The principle of “meandering circulation spaces to provide areas conducive to

informal meetings” proposed by Tanner and Lackney (2006, p.38) has to do with the

idea of using circulation spaces to serve for increasing social encounters among

school members. In their words

Many times the only meeting these occupants have is in areas of circulation. It is important

to take advantage of these impromptu meetings by designing the circulation space within

the school as a place to converse and share information and ideas (Tanner and Lackney

2006, p.28).

‘The spatial layout of a school building’ was also referred to as a factor that

influences social interactions. Pasalar’s (2003) study about how physical spaces,

spatial layout and architectural elements of schools influence contacts, encounters and

interactions among occupants is a case in point. She found that “spatial layout and

distribution of educational facilities in school buildings modulate patterns of use,

movement, and the potentials for interactions”. Her overall analysis provided

evidence suggesting that “layouts, with higher accessibility, shorter and direct

walking distances, and highly visible public spaces, generated higher rates of

incidental interactions among students” (Pasalar 2003, Abstract). In her words

Students’ ability to get to know others in the same grade through interactions was higher in

academic house type school buildings. However, the rate to know students from different


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grade levels was higher in finger plan type schools, which offered better visual and physical

access among the public areas. Overall findings indicated that single-story school buildings

were the more advantageous for fostering social interactions among students (Pasalar 2003,

Abstract).

Hertzberger’s (2008) idea about ‘considering a school building as a micro-city’

provides some insights into the qualities that schools social spaces should have. He

regards ‘square’ and ‘street’ as two basic forms of spaces in cities that bring people

together and thus have a centripetal11 effect. However, each form draws people

together in its own way. Streets contribute to chance encounters whereas in squares

encounters have a more deliberate nature. He describes the potential of squares for

social interactions as follows:

… a square lends itself to meetings, whether arranged or by chance. If the street-form is

more suited to movement, the square-form is more likely to encourage lingering … the

square suggests its spatial capacity for gathering and encounters, even when there is nothing

special going on there, thereby elevating it in importance above its surrounding

(Hertzberger 2008, pp.129,133).

Squares and streets as two forms of ‘relational spaces’ in every city can become

models for thinking about social spaces in schools. A gathering space in school where

a school’s members or even its local community can come together for special events

functions in the same way as a main square in a city does (Hertzberger 2008).

Gathering spaces in schools may be large spaces or in Brubaker’s words (Moore and

Lackney 1994), ‘great spaces’, where a large group of school members can gather.

Moore and Lackney (1994, p.48) suggest that large spaces “recognize the need for

community identity within a school” and “ afford connections to the community at

large and may act as a symbolic connection of school to community”.

11 The terms ‘centrifugal’ and ‘centripetal’ are analogous to the words ‘sociofugal and ‘sociopetal’. Centripetal or sociopetal spaces are spaces conducive to interpersonal communication thanks to how they are organized whereas centrifugal or sociofugal spaces encourage solitary behaviours (Low and Lawrence-Zúñiga 2003).


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Fig 4. 7. An example of gathering spaces in schools, Carey Baptist Grammar Senior School, Australia - Photo by Peter Hyatt (OCED 2006)

An example of gathering spaces in schools is the hall of Titaan School in Hoorn,

designed by Hertzberger. The hall space is located in the core of the school building

and widened steps in it act as a gallery. Hertzberger (2008) describes this social space

as follows:

Usually there are tables and chairs where you can sit together and where others can join you

at will. Most prefer the more informal seating of the steps where you feel freer to come and

go with no strings attached. The U-shaped stairs encourage children to sit in a semicircle,

expressing a sense of community, though with everyone retaining their freedom as

individuals (Hertzberger 2008, p.145).

Fig 4.8. An example of gathering spaces in schools, Titaan School, Netherlands - http://www.archined.nl/nieuws/herman-hertzbergers-titaan-in-hoorn/ Access date 19/05/2009


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Being an open space and accessible to all school members are basic qualities that

gathering spaces in schools should have (OCED 2006). Nevertheless, openness and

being accessible do not necessarily guarantee a good social space in a school. As

Tanner and Lackney (2006, p.33) point out, instead of viewing a public type of space

in schools as a “big open undifferentiated space”, spatial qualities like those of “town

square” and “living room” are necessary to be considered. Two of these spatial

qualities are having smaller spaces for specific activities and having semiprivate

spaces for individuals’ or small groups’ meetings.

Thinking of a school as a city, then there is a need for spaces at smaller scales like

neighbourhood hubs that belong to a group of students and their teachers. This need is

particularly felt when a large school is divided into smaller schools (schools-within-a-

school). The communal hall shared by a group of classrooms in Hans Sharoun’s

School at Marl-Drewer in Westpalia, 1969-1971, reviewed earlier in this chapter,

provides an example of the neighbourhood hub type of space.

Designing public spaces in schools in a way to maintain people’s views of each

other or ‘visual relation’ is a spatial means to support social relations in schools

(Hertzberger 2008) . Hertzberger argues that

At secondary schools in particular, visual relationships are all-important. When the mutual

interest between boys and girls take over and infatuations begin to seem more than just that,

keeping an eye on each other is all-important … You have to have a connection of some

sort to feel a sense of belonging together. So you must be able to see and be seen by each

other (Hertzberger 2008, pp.123-124).

Visual relation is achieved in a number of ways. Designing voids and split-level

divisions are two ways of tying building storeys together and preventing their

isolation horizontally. Another way to maintain visual relations in schools is though

making mobility in the building visible, for example by “making it as central and as

open as possible, a high street through the building where you cross each other’s paths

at random or by design” (Hertzberger 2008, p.124).


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Montessori College Oost in Amsterdam, designed by Hertzberger in 1993, is a good

example where the idea of ‘visual relation’ to enhance a school’s social life was put in

practice. The stairs, landings, voids and open spaces of the school are related spatially

in order to make visible the full presence of others, inviting encounters and

impromptu discussions.

Fig 4.9. Montessori College Oost, The Netherlands - http://www.floornature.com/worldaround/img_magazine/dial10_wrk2_2_popup.jpg Access date 19/05/2009

The school is a hundred-metre-long building the front and the rear of which are

shifted a half-storey. This split-level division of one metre height facilitates visual

relations between different physical and organizational components of the school. All

communal facilities of the school including cloakrooms, toilets and coffee corners are

located along a street-like internal traffic artery. Given that students have to change

classrooms from one period to the next and move through the building continually

without a certain territory of their own, this street-like internal traffic artery functions

as an inviting social space. The stairs between levels were widened so that they act

like seating. They are ideal places for students to meet between classes, drawing them

there like a magnet12.

12 The information in this part was taken from Architectuurstudio Herman Hertzberger website, http://www.hertzberger.nl/index_proj.html , Access date 19/05/2009


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Fig 4.10. Widened stairs linking the levels on two sides of the Montessori College Oost, The Netherlands - http://www.ciaow.nl/images2/876/1196.jpg, Access date 10/10/2009

4.1.4. The Idea of Smallness

The strategies of clustering classroom spaces into small suites, creating small

learning communities and neighbourhoods and schools-within-a-school all are

built upon a key idea. This idea is smallness of school and classroom size to support a

personalised learning environment and to foster a sense of community among students

and teachers. As discussed earlier in Chapter Two, smallness of size supports

adolescents’ needs for individuation and social integration. The following excerpt

from a fact sheet of Building Education Revolution in Victoria, Australia, captures a

summary of that previous discussion:

The design of learning neighbourhoods supports the educational and personal needs of each

learner by providing an environment that promotes supportive relationships, provides

security, a sense of belonging, develops a culture of respect and pride and inspires learning

(Department of Education and Early Childhood Development of Victoria Australia 2009).


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In this section, I elaborate some of the strategies to achieve smallness of school and

classroom size and refer to examples that embody their underpinning principles and

design responses.

Moore and Lackney (1995) regard community building as the philosophy

underpinning the idea of clusters of classrooms or self-contained classroom

community. This means that teachers and students in a cluster of classrooms build a

small community or family. They describes the architectural manifestation of clusters

of classrooms as

…a series of small suites of classrooms and support facilities around the central core

functions of the school. Support facilities might include lounges, informal learning spaces, a

computer hub, office space for teachers, lockers, bathrooms, display cases, and seminar

rooms. Layout can accommodate different teams and community philosophies: classrooms

can vary with relation to size and openness, the relationship of the teachers’ offices to

classroom space, and so on (Moore and Lackney 1995, p.15).

Fig 4.11. Four classroom suites around a central core functions of a school - (Moore and Lackney 1995, p.16)

Similarly, referring to ‘clustering classrooms’ as one of the principles for classroom

design pertaining to all grades and levels, Butin (2000) states that


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Clustering fosters a sense of community, unites a manageably sized group of teachers and

students, and provides a sense of order and cohesiveness to the physical layout of the school

(Butin 2000).

A learning community is composed of a number of classrooms or student groups

that may be called a ‘family’ or ‘home group’ with their teachers working together as

a team. A learning community is particularly recommended for younger adolescents

experiencing a transition form primary schools to secondary schools and may be

overwhelmed and feel alienated in a new school environment (Chadbourne 2001). In

the document ‘Secondary School Planning Guide’ prepared by the Education

Department of Western Australia, learning community was defined as

… a grouping of staff and students to encourage a ‘sense of place’ for younger students

whilst enhancing the delivery of an integrated learning program (The Education Department

of Western Australia 2002).

Brickford’s and Wright’s argument about the importance of community building for

students’ learning is of relevance to the strategy of ‘learning community’ discussed

here. Arguing for “a community paradigm that emphasizes the role social interactions

play in facilitating learning and improving student engagement”, Bickford and Wright

(2006) state that

The term community here refers to the social context of students and their environs. A

community is a group of people with a common purpose, shared values, and agreement on

goals (Bickford and Wright 2006, p.2).

‘Meaningful interactions’ among students and teachers is the keystone of a learning

community, they maintain:

A real community, however, exists only when its members interact in a meaningful way that

deepens their understanding of each other and leads to learning. Many equate learning with

the acquisition of facts and skills by students; in a community, the learners−including

faculty−are enriched by collective meaning-making, mentorship, encouragement, and an

understanding of the perspectives and unique qualities of an increasingly diverse

membership (Bickford and Wright 2006, p.2).


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Bickford and Wright (2006) refer to a number of pedagogies and activities that

encourage community building in learning spaces and suggest a number of their

implications for design of learning spaces. These pedagogical approaches that foster a

sense of community in learning environments along with their implications for design

of learning spaces are outlined in the Table 4.1.

Some of the pedagogical

approaches that foster sense of

community

Implications for learning

Environment Design

Students experience a community-friendly learning environment from the beginning of the first class.

Community-centric ambience of physical and virtual spaces should be readily discerned by faculty and students, from room lighting and decoration to learning management system usability.

Faculty and students learn about each other and from each other.

Mechanisms for learning each other’s names available in and out of the classroom. Students and instructor(s) post interests, photos, and backgrounds on course Web site.

Students participate in discussion in class. Classroom “front” is deemphasized (removing the lectern, for example) to create open, discussion-friendly space. Choice and placement of furniture allows students to see and hear each other.

Active learning activities in class use cooperative techniques.

Students are seated in proximity to each other but with flexibility for movement and space between chairs for instructor mobility.

Team-based projects are conducted outside class and culminate in student-led presentations.

Room technology enhancements and lighting controls should be immediately intuitive to student presenters.

Table 4. 1. Pedagogical approaches and activities that support community building in learning spaces and their corresponding design features - (Bickford and Wright 2006, p.12)


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In summary, welcoming spaces and broad pathways, accessibility of faculty offices

and glass walls to provide students with an inviting visual cue to interact with faculty

are suggested as design factors that contribute to social interactions and people getting

to know each other and in turn support community building. In addition, common

areas between classrooms encourage multiple classes to meet for joint experiences.

This shared common space can become an extension of the pathways connecting

other rooms and support impromptu gatherings (Bickford and Wright 2006).

Schools-within-a-school or ‘house plan’ is another way of implementing the idea of

‘smallness’ in large schools. In this model, “a larger school is subdivided into some

smaller schools, each with its own space and identity” (Brubaker, Bordwell et al.

1998). The model enjoys advantages of large schools including more educational

opportunities, variety and quality of specialist facilities such as swimming pools,

bigger and better art studios and greater number of staff with various expertises.

Bishops Park College, founded in 2001 in Clacton, Essex, UK, is a good example of

schools-within-a-school and embodies some of the ways that design can contribute to

the idea of ‘smallness’. The school is comprised of three smaller schools each serving

for about 300 students.

Fig 4.12. An aerial view of Bishops Park College; the three wings on top of the image are the three schools - Photo by Alex Deverill (Beard, Davies et al. 2006)


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Fig 4.13. Ground floor plan of Bishops Park College showing three self-contained schools around a central atrium space - (Beard, Davies et al. 2006)

A multi-purpose space was designed at the centre of the college in order to achieve

unity and interlinkage among three smaller schools. This bright and airy hall space is

“the focus of the college to foster a sense of togetherness and community” and “the

meeting/social centre of the college” (Beard, Davies et al. 2006).

Fig 4.14. Central hall space shared by the three small schools in Bishops Park College - Photo by Morley von Sternberg from http://www.bdonline.co.uk/story.asp?storycode=3080923, Access date: 24/05/2009


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In addition to this central hall, each school has a central atrium space around which

general and specialist classrooms are organised. The atrium space in each small

school is considered the social heart of each school. The space also function as a

flexible space for independent and small-group learning (Beard, Davies et al. 2006).

Fig 4.15. Atrium space of one of the smaller schools in Bishops Park College - Photo by Andrew Beard (Beard, Davies et al. 2006)

4.1.5. Accessibility of teachers’ and other supportive staff’s offices

Cotterell (2007) proposes two means to ensure the accessibility of teachers and other

school staff. One means is through increasing opportunities for informal interactions

among teachers and students by planning social events and design of places for social

mingling of students and teachers. Another means is locating teachers’ and school

staff’s common rooms close to students’ learning and social spaces.

Similarly in the Victorian School Design document (Department of Education and

Early Childhood Development Victoria 2008), students’ access to teachers’ offices

was regarded as an implication of the principle of teaching and learning of ‘a

supportive and protective learning environment’.


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In addition to the location and proximity of teachers’ offices in relation to learning

spaces and main public spaces of a school, spatial qualities such as openness and

transparency of these offices are factors that support adolescents’ perception of

accessibility and availability of adults’ support in school.

Openness of teachers’ spaces and their accessibility are qualities that communicate the

“degree of hierarchy prevailing” and in turn influence student-teacher relationships

and the emergence of a sense of community in schools, Hertzberger (2008) argues:

The staffroom is in fact the school’s government centre, much like the municipal hall in the

city, and the relationship between staff and pupils says much, if not everything, about

relationships as a whole in the school … the degree of openness of this staffroom expresses

spatially the distance between teachers and pupils and the degree of hierarchy prevailing;

the more open, the less evident that hierarchy. If pupils have access to the room and maybe

are even allowed to work there, you see a situation of trust and community emerge. It

expresses whether there is a regime or an atmosphere of teamwork (Hertzberger 2008,

p.150).

The research and practice of education and school design provide evidence

demonstrating the ways that design contributes to accessibility of teachers’ and school

staff’s support. Two key themes that were identified are:

I. The location and spatial qualities of teachers’ and other school staff’s office

II. Social spaces for mingling of students and teachers.

4.1.6. Design to support cooperative learning

Cooperative learning is a teaching approach that can promote identity development

through the relational dimension of identity formation process (Woolfolk Hoy,

Demerath et al. 2001). School spaces can be designed in a way that is conducive to

students’ cooperation, participation in discussions and carrying out team-based

projects. In this section, an overview of a number of studies on the design-related

implications of cooperative learning is presented.


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Bickford and Wright (2006) suggest the features of spaces that support cooperative

learning. They include deemphasizing the classroom front and the seating

arrangement that allows individuals to face each other and sit close to each other

with ample space among them for free movement.

Defining collaborative learning as “educational activities in which human

relationships are the key to welfare, achievement and mastery”, Bruffee (1999, p.83)

describes an ideal classroom for collaborative learning:

A level floor, movable seats, chalkboards on three or four walls, controlled acoustics

(acoustical-tiled ceilings and carpeted floors), and no central seminar table (or one that can

be pushed well out of the way without threatening an attack of lumbago). An alternative is

six to ten movable four- or five-sided tables of roughly card-table size (Bruffee 1999,

p.259).

Graetz and Goliber (2002 ) point to ‘spatial density’, the number of people

occupying a space, and movable furniture as two design-related factors that

influence students’ collaborative learning. According to them, consideration needs to

be given to the spatial density in a collaborative learning place so that both teachers

and students have enough space to be able to move easily from one group to another.

Movable furniture is another design feature recommended in order to create an

effective collaborative learning space (Graetz and Goliber 2002 ). Light tables and

chairs that can be moved easily support cooperative learning. The shape and size of

tables need to allow students in groups of various sizes to sit together, keep eye-

contact and interact comfortably.

The size of a learning space needs to allow for the easy movement of students and

teachers. For better functioning and not distracting each other, student groups need to

have enough distance from each other.


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4.2. Design-related factors that contribute to ‘offering opportunities for developmental exploration’

In chapter two, two key factors were identified that support and broaden opportunities

for adolescents’ developmental exploration:

I. A school curriculum and school-based cocurricular programs

II. Connections to the world outside a school

Creating connections to the world outside a school was also mentioned as a factor that

broadens explorational opportunities for adolescents whether in terms of

experimenting with skills, abilities and interests or exploring different social roles and

relationships. The connections were determined to be both physical and virtual;

physical ones through developing ties to educational context outside a school and

virtual ones by means of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and

its incorporation into schools.

In this section, I provide an overview of educational research and practice of school

design that address the contributions of school design to offering opportunities for

adolescents’ developmental exploration.


programs

At a very basic level, opportunities for adolescents’ developmental exploration may

be provided within the school curriculum and formal learning programmes as well as

school-based cocurricular programmes. The necessity of broadening and enriching

schools curricula has been recognised in the recent calls for educational reforms,

national and international educational documents. In the document Schools for the

Future: Design for Learning Communities, for example, changes in the school

curriculum was referred to as among the five key issues for 21st century schools

(DfES 2002). It is stated that

The school curriculum is becoming broader and more flexible. While the National

Curriculum remains as a framework, schools are being encouraged to offer a diverse range


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of provision to suit local circumstances, often in partnership with the local community,

including business. Schools are being encouraged to develop more flexible curriculum

pathways, particularly from the age of 14, to provide an education that matches the talents

and aspirations of individuals (DfES 2002, p.6).

In relation to providing a curriculum rich in choices and pathways, the main

responsibility may be on the part of curriculum designers, policy makers, schools,

their local communities and educators. Nevertheless, design of a school spaces can

contribute to a school formal curriculum and cocurricular programmes in three main

ways:

I. Design of specialist facilities

II. Flexibility

III. Considerations with regard to outdoor spaces and school grounds.

At a very basic level, specialist facilities need to be provided to support different area

of curriculum and cocurricular programmes (OCED 2006; Commission for

Architecture and the Built Environment 2007). Referring to the major reform of

secondary education planned to offer young people the choice of a number of

specialist diplomas, in the document Creating Excellent Secondary Schools, the

implication of this broadening of curriculum for school design is described as follows:

The specialist diplomas will be a mix of academic and vocational study, covering areas such

as construction and the built-environment, creative and media studies and engineering.

Inevitably, a certain amount of specialist accommodation will need to be provided. The

whole range will be available not just in one school but in linked schools, so students may

be required to travel between schools depending on their specialism (Commission for

Architecture and the Built Environment 2007, pp.16-17).

It is important to note that changes in the curriculum do not necessarily entail

considering new specialist facilities in a school or adding to its overall area. One way

to respond to this challenge is through creating a network of schools, local

community and business educational providers to serve various demands of the

school curriculum:


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An increase in vocational courses is likely to have an effect on the area or balance of spaces

in only some schools. Links between schools and other learning places will increase,

allowing pupils whose school does not have specialised facilities to attend courses at nearby

specialist schools, colleges or training centres, or to gain experience at places of work

(Department for Education and Skills 2002, p.20).

This means that schools should no longer be thought as isolated settings from the

world outside them. It is important to consider ways of developing schools’

connections to the world outside. The issue of linking a school to other educational

providers and its corresponding design considerations are turned to in greater detail in

the next section.

When it is determined that a school will cater for certain programmes and activities

such as sports, food technologies and arts, design of specialist facilities for those

programs and activities is one basic contribution of design. However, in many

situations, architects and educational facilities planners do not have clear ideas about

what the choices and pathways in a curriculum are and will be in the near future to

plan and design specifically for them. Educational trends, schools’ and communities’

needs, demands of societies and above all students’ talents, interests and abilities

change over time. Space needs to keep pace with these changes if they are to support

the changing and emerging choices and pathways offered by schools. Flexibility or

design of flexible spaces was suggested as a response.

The document Schools for the Future: Design for Learning Communities addressed

flexibility as an overarching design-related consideration associated with the key

issues influencing education of the future:

A school of the future must have the flexibility to cater for a wide range of users and

varying activities including learning and recreational activities, teachers’ preparation and

meetings involving teachers and other professionals (Department for Education and Skills

2002, p.18).

One approach in achieving flexibility is the ‘loose fit’ approach. This is achieved by

“making classrooms large enough to cater for a range of different users and activities,

avoiding too close a fit to any one space” (Department for Education and Skills 2002,


135

p.18). In addition to the size of a space, shape is another factor that affects the

flexibility of the space:

It is useful to standardise room proportions as far as possible so that different activities can

be accommodated in a number of different spaces. Oddly-shaped spaces which can only be

organised in one way should be avoided. Simplicity is usually the key to flexibility

(Department for Education and Skills 2002, p.19).

Similarly, in the document Pedagogy and Space: Transforming Learning through

Innovation, ‘innovative flexible spaces and furniture’ were regarded among one of the

main design-related considerations for 21st century learning. An innovative flexible

space was described as a space where

students are able to engage in a range of activities at one time. Ready access to resources is

available so that students can demonstrate learning in different ways. The opportunity for

working alone, in a small group, or large group exists (Department of Education and Early

Childhood Development Victoria 2009, p.16).

In summary, the documents reviewed suggest size and shape of a space as well as

access to necessary resources including ICTs as factors that influence the degree of

the flexibility of the space.

Outdoor spaces and school grounds were pointed to as playing a role in delivering

and enriching teaching and learning across all areas of the school curriculum

(Department for Education and Skills 2006; Commission for Architecture and the

Built Environment 2007; Department of Education and Early Childhood Development

Victoria 2009).

Outdoor spaces can contribute to a school formal curriculum and informal or social

learning in different ways. They can act as an alternative to an internal teaching space.

In addition, specialist facilities that are difficult or impossible to provide inside a

school building can be created in outdoor spaces. Spaces for physical education and

sports as well as spaces to support specific features and requirements of curriculum


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areas such as horticulture, agriculture, arts and music as well as maths and science are

example of these specialist facilities (Department for Education and Skills 2006).

Creating indoor-outdoor connection is a consideration with regard to the role of

outdoor spaces in supporting a school curriculum and cocurricular programmes:

… the connectivity between indoor and outdoor learning spaces should be fluid and

conducive to exploration and activities in small or large groups . Complementary indoor and

outdoor learning environments diversify in the range of resources that students can use to

demonstrate play-based learning, team work, social networking, authentic inquiry and

physical fitness (Department of Education and Early Childhood Development Victoria

2009, p.18).

4.2.2. Developing school connection with the world outside

Connecting schools to the world outside of their confines is a factor that broadens

opportunities for adolescents’ developmental exploration.

Educational contexts that a school can benefit from for creating explorational

opportunities for adolescent students may include the school’s local community,

museums, libraries, other schools and universities, workplaces and industries. The

connection to these other contexts for learning may take the forms of either bringing

local and international expertise and skills inside a school or taking students outside

the school to obtain parts of their learning in those contexts.

Drawing on the existing literature and a number of school designs that tackled this

issue, some design-related implications of a school’s connection to the world outside

are identified.

At a basic level, a design implication of a school’s connection to the world outside is

provision of spaces for bringing local and international expertises and skills

inside the school. Open and accessible spaces for public gatherings are examples of

the spaces that help in connecting a school to its local community and other


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educational contexts (Jilk, Shields et al. 1992; Graves 1993; Brubaker, Bordwell et al.

1998).

The idea of taking adolescent students outside the confines of a school to take parts of

their learning brings to the fore the importance of the location of a school (Merritt,

Beaudin et al. 2005). This has to do with the location of a school within a network of

key neighbouring educational contexts as well as access to public transportation.

4.2.3. Design-related implications of incorporating ICTs into schools

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are tools that facilitate

connecting of schools virtually to the world outside them. They have profound effects

on students’ experience in schools and the qualities of teaching and learning. These

technologies can open up new learning opportunities if they are used imaginatively.

ICTs allow students to have ‘virtual’ practical experiences where otherwise the

actually practical activities may be expensive or dangerous (DfES 2002).

The internet, for example, provides access to a significant amount of information.

Through video conferencing, adolescent students are able to benefit from the expertise

and knowledge of people who might be miles away from their schools.

A number of factors were identified though which design may contribute to the

incorporation of ICTs into schools.

The ways that technologies are introduced to schools influence the responsibility on

the part of school designers to support them. For example, when incorporating

technologies into a school had to do with the addition of computers and printers into

classrooms, for school design this means consideration of additional areas to

classrooms, ample wiring for voice, video and data capabilities (Butin 2000; North

Carolina Department of Public Instruction 2002). However, with an ever-increasing

advance in technologies such as wireless technologies and the use of laptop

computers, the issue of wiring will not be so important in the near future.


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Effective incorporation of technologies has implications for furniture in schools.

Dolan (2003 cited in Rogers 2005) points to some of these implications for design of

tables in schools as follows:

Tables need non-permanent wire cables that provide flexibility in movement. With the

move toward wireless technology, traditional desks or tablet armchairs are unacceptable.

Further, to create an environment of collaboration, a table that can accommodate a computer

system, books, and at least two students, should be at least five feet by two feet (Dolan 2003

cited in Rogers 2005).

In a broader sense, a key implication of integrating technologies into schools for

design is considered to be flexibility (Ehrenkrantz 2000; Rogers 2005; OCED 2006).

In Rogers’ words

The key to successful classroom design that effectively and efficiently integrates technology

into the learning environment is flexibility. Change is inevitable, and no matter how

carefully a facility is planned, the plan will be out of date over time. A flexible classroom

that can envision the learner’s needs but be ready for change will be one that addresses the

heart of teaching and learning (Rogers 2005).

Presenting a brief summary of how incorporation of technologies into school

buildings has evolved, Ehrenkrantz (2000) also refers to flexibility as a key

implication of incorporating rapid changes in technologies for school design.

According to Ehrenkrantz (2000), the high cost of remodelling classrooms for

technologies led to their initial introduction in the form of computers being

concentrated in computer labs. An obvious downside of this form of incorporating

technologies into schools was that “the work done with the computers was not

integrated into the learning process taking place outside of the labs”. In response to

this limitation, computers were moved from computer labs and put in classrooms.

Spreading out the computers in classrooms instead of concentrating them into a

computer lab did not turn out to be a model free from limitations. Given the limited


139

area in each classroom space along with the hardware space and wiring that

computers needed, the number of computers that could be placed in every classroom

was limited. This gave way to the design of a central computer area shared by a

number of classrooms. However, cooperative learning with small teams of students

working together could not be facilitated in the central computer area model

(Ehrenkrantz 2000).

Fig 4.16. A plan showing the central computer area model of incorporating computers into a school - (Ehrenkrantz 2000)

Fig 4.17. A central computer area shared by four classrooms around it in the middle school building of Balwyn High School, Australia - Author

Another model of incorporating computers into learning spaces of schools was the

lecture style computer lab model where computers are placed around the perimeter

(Ehrenkrantz 2000). The class group can be sitting in the middle of the space to have a

lecture. In addition, the students have the option to work individually at their own

computer workstation. A downside of the lecture style computer lab is the limited


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number of ways by which a learning space could work because the computers are all

hardwired in the perimeter of the space.

Fig 4.18. A plan of the lecture style computer lab model of incorporating computers into learning spaces - (Ehrenkrantz 2000)

Computers were also incorporated into schools based on the idea of cooperative

learning. In this model, for example, there could be five clusters within which six

students are working as a team. The six-student clusters model also had its own

limitations and inflexibilities in that it is not always the case to have cooperative

learning with groups of six students (Ehrenkrantz 2000).

Fig 4.19. A plan of the six-student cluster model of incorporating computers into learning spaces - (Ehrenkrantz 2000)

According to Ehrenkrantz (2000), building in fixed solutions as exemplified in the

models reviewed does not meet the rapid changes in technologies along with various

dimensions of education such as pedagogies, curricula and educational tools. He

suggests flexibility as a response to incorporation of technologies and their rapid


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changes into schools. Flexibility in schools happens in three different ways, he

argues:

One, is the demountable partition where you move things around and major changes require

major capital budgets. It is appropriate for the old way of education where changes are

going to made maybe every twelve to twenty years and they are going to be implemented at

one time throughout the school. This is not going to support the kind of flexibility for the

changes that I am talking about. The second way of achieving flexibility is to provide

enough space within classrooms to permit multiple and different activities to occur … We

must have enough space to provide flexibility wherein the teachers and the students control

that flexibility. We can go one step further. We may have more than just classrooms and

spaces of a uniform size. We can have spaces of varying size that can house the range of

larger group activities and smaller group activities … However, we still have to be able to

have multiple activities taking place within a single classroom. As we look towards the

future, one of the key criteria for the design of any school building is that the building

should become a laboratory for its own evolution … To achieve this we must have space

and we must be able to service that space (Ehrenkrantz 2000).

Provision of a variety of spaces that serve for multiple activities and various

groupings of students is regarded as a manifestation of ‘flexibility’ in this perspective.

This variety of spaces is achieved both through designing different spaces with

varying sizes and spatial qualities and designing spaces that are “a laboratory for its

own evolution” in Ehrenkrantz’s (2000) words.

Chapter Five Placing the Inquiry within the Australian Education Context

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Chapter Five

Placing the Research Inquiry within the Australian

Educational Context

I have so far identified two characteristics of schools that support adolescents’ identity

formation. They are ‘a supportive school environment addressing adolescents’ needs

for individuation and social integration’ and ‘offering opportunities for adolescents’

developmental exploration’. I have also looked at the history of school designs and

reviewed existing research and practice of school design in order to see if these

characteristics were implicitly or explicitly addressed and to examine their

corresponding design-related concepts and features.

In this chapter, I aim to place the research inquiry within the context of education in

Australia. In doing so, I present a review of some of the national and state level

documents on educational goals and curricula for adolescent students in the first

section of this chapter. This review highlighted the ways that issue of adolescents’

identity formation has received attention within policy and curriculum documents and

set a working ground that informed the next stage, fieldwork. In the next sections of

this chapter, the fieldwork plan of this research is elaborated.

5.1. Examining national and state level documents on educational goals and curricula for adolescent students

A number of national and state level educational documents were examined in order

to achieve insights into the ways that adolescents’ identity formation were addressed

and reflected in the educational goals and plans and their implications for adolescent

education.


143

The documents reviewed are as follows:

Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (The

Ministerial Council on Education Employment Training and Youth Affairs

2008)

The Tasmanian Curriculum: Health and Wellbeing (Tasmania Department

of Education 2008)

South Australian Curriculum, Standards and Accountability Framework-

Middle Years Band (Department for Education and Children's Service South

Australia 2009a)

South Australian Curriculum, Standards and Accountability Framework-

Senior Years Band (Department for Education and Children's Service South

Australia 2009b)

Victorian Essential Learning Standards (The Victorian Curriculum and

Assessment Authority 2007; 2008a; 2008b)

Principles of Learning and Teaching P-12 (State of Victoria Department of

Education and Early Childhood Development 2004a)

Curriculum Framework for Kindergarten to Year 12 Education in

Western Australia: Overarching Statements (Curriculum Council Western

Australia 1998).

In the Table 5.1, a summary of the documents reviewed are provided.


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Addressing issue of

identity in adolescence

Implications for education of

adolescents

Mel

bour

ne D

ecla

ratio

n

Helping young Australians become confident and creative individuals as an educational goal:

-Having a sense of self-worth, self-awareness and personal identity

- Developing personal values and attributes

- Forming and maintaining healthy relationships

-Making rational and informed decisions about their own lives

Providing challenging, and stimulating learning experiences and opportunities for students to explore and build on their gifts and talents

Promoting ‘personalised learning’

Developing stronger partnerships between students, parents, carers and families, the broader community, business, schools and other education and training providers

Offering a range of pathways

Sout

h A

ustr

alia

Middle Years students:

The increasing need to independence

Separation process from parents/ developing their own voice

Greater interdependence with peers

Senior Years students:

Shaping and reshaping their lives and are forming and reviewing their personal values

Complexity of their lives in dealing with learning and living responsibilities in an ever-changing world and uncertain future

Learning environments in Middle Years

-Social and interactive

-Fostering connections between practical experiences and abstract knowledge

-Collaborative

-Based on flexible structures and processes

Learning environments in the Senior Years

-Valuing learners as young adults

-Supportive environments that recognise and value students’ involvement

-Acknowledging students’ needs for learning independently

Tas

man

ia

Establishing a supportive learning environment:

-Building caring relationships

-Fostering a sense of belonging

-Provision of new challenges at school

-Using cooperative learning strategies

-Opportunities for participation in diverse groupings


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Vic

tori

a

Years 7 and 8 students:

Developing an individual sense of identity

Years 9 and 10 students

Greater independence of mind and interests

Peers as a source of support and influence

Exploring connections between learning and the world around

The need to experience learning in work and community settings

Encouraging students to initiate, maintain and manage positive social relationships

Helping students to develop capacity to work cooperatively

A school and classroom culture where all students are respected and valued as individuals

Helping students to develop an understanding of their strengths and potential

Providing appropriate feedback for them from their teachers, peers and other members of the community

Wes

tern

Aus

tral

ia

Middle Years students (years 7 to 10):

Growing independence

Peer group orientation

Exploration of physical, social and technological world

Senior Years students (year 10 to 12):

Developing a sense of self as active and responsible members of community

Receiving part of their learning in the contexts outside schools

Focusing on particular fields that meet their personal aspirations

Providing opportunities for individual learning and learning with other people

Providing supportive school and classroom environment:

-Having intellectual, social and physical conditions for effective learning to occur

-Cooperative atmosphere

-Respect for difference and diversity

-Access to a suitable and varied range of resources

Table 5. 1. A summary of national and state level educational documents outlining the ways that adolescents’ identity formation is addressed and their implications for education of adolescents – Source: author


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5.2. Fieldwork Plan of the Research

5.2.1. Case studies

Examining case studies is a qualitative approach that has been adopted in this

research. Educational research addressing implications of identity formation process

in the education of adolescents suggested a number of strategies for curriculum

design, pedagogy and their underpinning educational philosophies that may support

the process. In addition, the literature on school design outlined a number of design-

related implications that may contribute to the two characteristics of schools that

support adolescents’ identity formation process. An integration of the findings of

these two strands of the literature became a basis and set the criteria for the selection

of case studies.

The aim was to place the inquiry within the context of a number of secondary schools

and closely examine the educational ideas and design-related factors contributing to

adolescents’ identity formation applying in the case studies. The underpinning

question that was asked in the beginning of examining every case study was ‘what are

the design-related factors in this school that contribute to a supportive environment

addressing adolescents’ needs for individuation and social integration and offering

them opportunities for developmental exploration?’. This key question was explored

with the consideration of social, organisational and educational contexts of every case

study school and the broader context of the local community within which it was

situated.

The focus was not on comparing the case study schools and their differences. Instead,

the effort was made to closely examine each case study in its own right and collect as

much information in relation to the design-related strategies and features that might

contribute to the two characteristics of ‘supportive environment addressing

adolescents’ needs for individuation and social integration’ and ‘the school as a

context offering opportunities for developmental exploration’ as possible. It was

expected to identify a number of key themes that drive these design-related strategies

and features and are common to the four case studies.


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In the following pages, a brief description of the four case studies selected is

presented. The description of every case study covers the following topics:

1. Size of the school in terms of the number of students and the year levels it serves

2. Certain social, economic and geographic contexts considered to influence

adolescents’ identity formation along with the school educational and design-related

responses to those contexts

3. Significant educational philosophies and strategies in relation to adolescents’

identity formation

4. Key design principles corresponding to those educational philosophies and

strategies

5. Practical responses and design features13 related to the key design principles

6. A site plan or an aerial view of each school building in order to locate the main

parts of the school and it general configuration

7. Existing post-occupancy evaluations and outcomes of the school design if there

are any.

5.2.1.1. School A

School A is a specialist public school that started in 2003 and now has an enrolment

of 260 students in year ten, eleven and twelve. The school building was recognized as

a model for 21st century schools by the Organisation for Economic and Cooperative

Development (OECD) in 2006.

It is important to note that the school is located within a university campus. This

factor makes significant contributions to broadening the scope of exploration for

students in terms of access to the university resources, academic professionals and

other connections to industry professionals developed through the university.

Becoming autonomous and self-directed learners, accepting associated responsibilities

to self and others and being able to work independently and in groups are among the

school’s learning expectations from its adolescent students. Building upon these

13 A more detailed description of these practical responses and design features is found throughout the chapter analysis of interviews and site visits to the selected schools.


148

learning expectations, the school’s innovative curriculum and conception of teaching

are based on offering learning choices to students, encouraging personalised learning

as well as collaborative and social learning.

The school’s focus on attending to individual students’ different needs most obviously

contributes to adolescents’ needs for individuation. In doing so, the school encourages

personalized learning. In this regard, offering 'choices' to students was suggested as a

very important element of personalized learning in the school. Jayne, a professional

educator interviewed in School A, put it as follows:

Instead of us talking to a whole homogenous group of kids for maybe 50 minutes about the

same thing and expect students to work through the same thing at the same pace … we're

designing more activities where students work individually or selection of activities that

they might choose the one that most interests them. They might choose the way that more

suits their approach to learning and they can also choose the way that they will show us

what they understand (Jayne, Professional educator, School A).

She suggested two strategies that promote personalised learning in the school:

I. Providing a range of resources for students to easily access information

II. Enhancing support for students through the ‘tutor group program’.

These strategies are translated into a number of design responses including creating a

technology-rich environment and designing teachers' preparation spaces as a part of

the learning spaces.

In School A, there is also a great emphasis on collaborative learning and encouraging

students to learn in groups. In Jayne’s words:

We designed a structure [which includes] lots of work for students to do in groups, in small

groups ... We have 100 minutes sessions so a teacher may talk with the class for a short

period of time at the beginning and then the students would break off in groups … it [the

task that students work on] could be a task for just that 100 minute lesson or might run over

several lessons (Jayne, Professional educator, School A)


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The school being located in a university campus and collaborating with it contributes

to one of the characteristics of schools that support adolescents’ identity formation,

‘offering adolescent students opportunities for developmental exploration’. The

partnership with the university in terms of using libraries, equipment, facilities and

technical support as well as benefiting from academic professionals and industry

experts has enriched the school curriculum and expanded academic and social

learning opportunities for students.

Another strategy with regard to connecting students to the world outside is the

school’s rich ICTs environment that allows students to use a wide range of learning

sources by communicating and collaborating with national and global communities.

The school is a building on two levels and includes an area of about 3456 Square

Meters. It is composed of 'learning commons' and 'learning studios' which can be

considered its specific design features. Compared to a traditional model of enclosed

and self-contained classrooms, these learning spaces can provide more opportunities

for various learning styles, teaching approaches, programs and activities.

'Transparency' and 'mobile furniture' are two other design features of School A.

Fig 5. 1. A first floor plan of School A; learning commons are the areas in yellow and learning studios the areas in orange - (Fisher 2003, p.27)


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For School A, the result of the ACER school life questionnaire14 (Australian Council

for Educational Research) showed a quite high percentage of students' agreement on

various items of social integration that reflect their ability to understand and get on

with others in schools. The percentage of social integration items for students who

participated in the survey are given in the Table 5.2 and Table 5.3.

Table 5. 2. Percentage Agreement by year level in 2007 and by all in 2004/2005/2006/2007 - (ASMS 2007, p.50)

Table 5. 3. Percentage Agreement by gender in 2004/2005/2006/2007 - (ASMS 2007, p.51)

In the Table 5.4, a summary of the description of School A is presented.

Educational Philosophy

contributing to adolescents’

identity formation

Design Principles Design Responses and

Features

Providing for 'Personalised Learning' and encouraging learning choices

Spaces for theory, practice and social

Replacement of classroom and laboratories with “Learning

14 . The ACER School Life Questionnaire is designed to measure important school outcomes such as attitudes towards school in general, learning, teachers and other students. One of the questionnaire’s key aims is to enable schools to look at their social environments and students’ experiences of these environments. Designed for upper primary and secondary students, the questionnaire is composed of forty questions revolving around a series of scales that reflect different aspects of school life.


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Encouraging social and collaborative Learning

Connecting students to the world outside

Student-centred spaces

Integration of ICTs into design

common” and “Learning studio”

Openness and transparency between spaces

Teachers' preparation areas as part of the Learning Commons and easily accessible for students

Table 5. 4. Summary of Educational philosophy, design principles and design responses of School A relevant to the issue of adolescents’ identity formation – Author

5.2.1.2. School R

School R is a public school catering for students from year seven to year ten. It started

in 2002 and had an enrolment of 800 students in 2008. The school received two

awards in 2002 and 2003 for its building design. It also received an award for major

transformation in secondary education through innovative learning environments in

2004 from the relevant department of education.

The school is in a community that suffers from many economic downturns and has a

high rate of unemployment. Given this, the educational emphasis of the school is on

offering students real-world experiences and applicable skills that can be taken

directly to workplaces or refined in colleges. In doing so, the school curriculum

focuses on 'rigorous and relevant knowledge'. The school puts a lot of effort into

developing connections to its local community. The connections take the form of

encouraging students' activities to take place in the local businesses and industries as

well as welcoming community groups inside the school and benefiting from their

expertise for students’ learning.

The school is composed of two parts: the junior school that serves for year seven and

eight students and the senior school that serves for year nine and ten students. There

are slightly different educational concerns for each of the two groups of students.

In the junior school, the educational focus is 'building relationships' that concerns

developing and strengthening the relationships among students and their teachers. One


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of the main educational strategies in place to encourage ‘building relationships’ is the

'principal teaching model'. In the principal teaching model a teacher works with a

group of up to twenty-five students and spends significant time with them providing

various types of support.

To support the principal teaching model and in turn the ‘building relationships’ goal,

‘principal learning areas’ were created. Each principal learning area is composed of

four classrooms and a number of shared spaces assigned to certain groups of students

and their teachers. Principal learning areas also support the school’s emphasis on

fostering a sense of ownership and belonging to the school within students. Given that

students and their teacher spend a significant part of their learning and teaching time

in their assigned principal learning area, they develop a collective ownership over that

space.

The educational emphasis in the senior school is placed on helping students to pursue

their personal future pathways and encouraging independent work habits. Senior

students spend a part of their learning time in contexts outside the school in order to

gain work experience and become involved in community-based projects. Personal

workstations were provided to support students’ independent work and create a home

base to return to for those students who spend some time outside the school.

For both middle and senior years students, the school has a focus on personalised

learning. The concept of ‘personalised learning’ in the context of School R needs to

be elaborated further as its nature is slightly different from what was understood with

regard to School A.

In the context of School R, personalised learning is framed within the Realising

Potential curriculum area that targets individual students’ strengths, interests and areas

of concern. All grade seven students undertake a compulsory set of personal learning

subjects in order to be introduced to a wide range of options available. Experimenting

with a wide range of options available in schools provide students with a foundation

for the future decision making and selecting areas of interest. In grades eight, nine and


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ten, students are able to personalise their learning by selecting courses offered through

the ‘Realising Potential’ curriculum area. Media technology, catering, performing

arts, sports, dance and music are examples of courses offered15. This approach to

personalising learning for students differs from the approach taken in School A where

a limited set of subjects are offered and all students need to undertake them. However,

in School R, the choices for students to personalise their learning for themselves are

embedded within areas such as topics of inquiry, approaches to learning and ways of

presenting their understanding and learning.

A design principle in relation to personalised learning framed within the Realising

Potential curriculum area in School R is incorporating flexibility and diversity into

design. Two design responses to this principle are providing multiple teaching and

learning spaces and the use of spatial elements such as operable walls.

The school includes an area of 7590 Square Meters and is composed of a number of

buildings connected by covered walkways. There are three middle school principal

learning areas each of which consists of four classrooms that can be opened up to

create bigger spaces, a teachers’ preparation area and a common space shared by the

classrooms where students can be doing group work or engaging in individual

learning. The ‘MDT building’ accommodates arts, graphic design, photography and

wood, metal and plastic work spaces. The ‘Performing Arts building’ includes music

rooms, a dance studio, a performing arts area, a textiles area and a commercial

kitchen.

15 The information was taken from the official website of School R.


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Fig 5.2. An aerial view of School R that shows the major buildings - Modified by the author on a photo obtained from a school information brochure

In the Table 5.5 a summary of the description of School R is presented.

Educational Philosophy contributing

to adolescents’ identity formation Design Principles

Design Responses and

Features

Encouraging each individual student's potential by means of personalised learning

Encouraging independent learning skills in the senior years

Creating connections between the school and the community

To foster within students a sense of ownership and belonging to the school

A focus on building powerful relationships between students as well as between students and teachers (Social dimension of learning)

Incorporate diversity and flexibility

Provision of attractive, safe and secure spaces for formal and informal learning to emphasize the social dimension of learning

Seamless ICT provision

Providing multiple teaching and learning spaces of various sizes to reflect diversity/different learning modalities

Using spatial elements such as operable walls to enhance flexibility of spaces

Principal learning areas in the middle school

Personal workstations in the senior school

Table 5. 5. Summary of Educational philosophy, design principles and design responses of School R relevant to the issue of adolescents’ identity formation - Author

5.2.1.3. School M 16

School M is a private senior school that caters for year eleven and twelve students.

The school opened in 2003 and now has around 780 students. It was featured among 5

16 The information in this section was taken from the official website of School M, OECD (2006) and a critique of the school architecture in the journal Architecture Australia (Hobbs 2003).


155

other Australian schools in 2006 in the PEB Compendium of Exemplary Educational

Facilities (OECD 2006).

In School M the emphasis is placed on treating students as 'young adults' and

supporting them to move to increasing independence and becoming self-directed

learners. The expectation is that students be able to understand, appreciate and accept

responsibility for the choices that they make. A design response in relation to this

educational philosophy is the creative design of circulation spaces in order to

accommodate spaces for individual and small group learning.

There is also a focus on the social dimension of education and building relationships.

As mature young adults, students are expected to develop the ability to establish and

maintain complex and supportive relationships within a network of friends and

supportive adults. A design principle in relation to the emphasis on the social

dimension of learning is creating a warm and welcoming learning environment that is

well suited to young adults’ needs. To respond to this design principle, a variety of

spaces for social interaction and informal learning is designed inside and outside of

the school building.

Developing connections to the local community is embedded in the school’s

educational philosophy. Numerous community partnerships offer students the

opportunities for real-life learning, enabling them to be engaged in relevant and

meaningful experiences. There is also attention to promoting the seamless integration

of learning and cross-fertilization of ideas across a number of curriculum areas. This

attention is reflected in the move beyond a combination of different building blocks of

specialist faculties to combining all learning areas in one single building.

The main school building is composed of two double storey wings splayed around the

central courtyard and connected together by an atrium space. A resource centre and a

covered Basketball Court were added to the school site in later years.


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Fig 5. 3. A site plan of School M - Modified by the author on the plan obtained from the school’s architect

Table below presents a summary of the description of School M discussed earlier.



identity formation


Features

To help students develop their self-esteem, move towards increased levels of independence where they understand, appreciate and accept responsibility for their choices

To guide students to develop the ability to establish and maintain complex and supportive relationships within a network of friends and supporters

Developing connections to the local community through strong community partnerships

Promoting cross-fertilization of ideas across the curriculum areas

A warm, welcoming and modern learning environment well suited to young adults

Design to foster and promote flexible learning approaches

A degree of spatial customization to give the school members a sense of ownership and control over their environment

A move beyond a combination of different building blocks of specialist faculties to concentrating all school facilities in one building

A variety of spaces for social interaction and informal learning inside and outside the building particularly in circulation spaces

Creative use of circulation spaces for individual and small group learning

A variety of learning and teaching spaces that can be used separately or combined together

Table 5. 6. Summary of Educational philosophy, design principles and design responses of School M relevant to the issue of adolescents’ identity formation - Author


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5.2.1.4. School C 17

School C is a public school established in 2004 with 371 year eight and nine students.

The school catered for about 1200 students in years eight to twelve in 2006.

The school is divided into two independent sub-schools: a middle school for students

in years eight and nine and a senior school for students in years ten to twelve. The

middle school has a strong pastoral care focus whereas the senior school emphasises

students’ future pathways, career and vocation.

Developing an environment, structure and curriculum that help young adolescents to

explore themselves and their place within the world is at the core of the school’s

educational philosophy. The school also strives to create a variety of learning

opportunities for students to enable them to choose appropriate pathways. In doing so,

attention was paid to the learning opportunities beyond the confines of the school in

such contexts as TAFE, work places and universities.

The principle of ‘designing flexible spaces’ is in relation to creating a variety of

learning opportunities for students as an aspect of the school’s educational

philosophy. The flexible spaces were considered as those spaces that are able to

morph into something different in order to accommodate various activities, programs,

student groupings and students’ and teachers’ needs. Two design responses to the

principle of ‘designing flexible spaces’ are as follows:

I. Moveable walls on tracks in the learning neighbourhoods

II. Large classrooms to enable a variety of teaching and learning strategies such as

whole class instruction, students collaborating in groups and individual independent

learning or reflection

Fostering ownership and belonging to the school community within students is

included in the school’s educational philosophy. This is being practiced by creating a

17 The information in this section was taken from OECD (2006), Fisher (2005), Fielding Nair website (www.fieldingnair.com), Designshare website (www.designshare.com), Teachweb website (www.teachweb.com.au) and the official website of School C.


158

care system that builds upon a family group of twenty five students. The design

principle of ‘breaking down the scale and organization of the facility’ to foster

belongingness to a small community is in relation to this educational philosophy. This

design principle is embodied in the concept of ‘learning neighbourhood’. The learning

neighbourhood is a large open space that accommodates four family groups and is led

by seven specialist teachers.

In line with the emphasis on encouraging students’ ownership and belonging to the

school community, one of the school’s design principles dealt with creating various

opportunities throughout the campus for informal collaborative and social learning.

This design principle is reflected in the creative use of circulation spaces to provide

opportunities for socializing and large group gatherings. In addition, indoor nooks

with soft seating in learning neighbourhoods provide opportunities for students to

gather in small groups or be doing independent study and learning with technology.

The school covers an area of about 13600 Square Meters. It is composed of a number

of buildings including administration and staff spaces, the middle school learning

neighbourhoods, specialist learning spaces, cafeteria, library, the senior school

building and sports hall. These building blocks are linked by a fabric roofed street-like

area.

Fig 5. 4. A site plan of School C - Designshare website (www.designshare.com)


159

Table below presents a summary of the description of School C discussed earlier.



identity formation


Features

To develop an environment, structure and curriculum that help young adolescents to explore themselves and their place within the world

A variety of learning opportunities for students created inside and outside the confines of the school

To foster ownership and belonging to the school community within students

Designing flexible spaces/the architecture to allow end users a degree of customization

Breaking down the scale and organization of the facility to foster belongingness to a small community

Various opportunities throughout the campus for informal collaborative and social learning

Moveable walls on tracks in the learning neighbourhoods

Large classrooms that enable them to use a variety of teaching/learning strategies

'Learning neighbourhoods'

Creative use of circulation spaces to provide opportunities for socializing and large group gatherings

Indoor nooks with soft seating in learning neighbourhoods

Table 5. 7. Summary of Educational philosophy, design principles and design responses of School C relevant to the issue of adolescents identity formation - Author

5.2.2. Methods of data collection

In the fieldwork process of this research, multiple sources of evidence were collected.

It was envisaged that various sources of data would complement each other and enrich

the findings (Yin 2003). Three methods of data collection that were applied in the

course of this research include:

I. Review of documentary data

II. Focused Interviews

III. Visiting school facilities.

Documentary data used in this research includes plans, elevations and photos obtained

from the official websites of schools, architects, presentations, books, relevant reports

published by organizations dealing with innovations and initiatives in school design

as well as a number of national and state level educational policy and curriculum

documents in Australia.


160

The collection of documentary data was carried out early in the fieldwork process

before conducting interviews and visiting school facilities. By doing so, some

inferences about both educational and design-related implications of adolescents’

identity formation in the context of selected case studies were made. The inferences

were then further investigated through visiting the schools and asking questions

specific to each case study from the relevant interviewees.

The second method applied for collecting data in the course of this research was

focused interview. One of the objectives of the fieldwork stage of the research was to

study architects’, planners’ and educators’ views on the design-related factors that

might influence adolescents’ identity formation. Given this, open-ended questions

were asked to facilitate participants expressing their views on the issue being

investigated (Creswell 2003).

A total number of thirteen focused interviews were conducted. Participants of the

interviews include four school principals, one associate principal, one professional

educator, one school counsellor, two educational facilities planners, three architects

and one educational facilities analyst in a department of education in an Australian

state. Interviewees were selected because of their involvement and sound familiarity

with one of the four case studies. Interviews lasted from thirty to forty minutes

depending on interviewees’ responses to interview questions. All interviews were

recorded and transcribed.

Two series of interview questions were prepared. One series of questions was asked

from individuals who directly deal with design and planning of school physical

spaces. Another series of questions was prepared for those individuals who are

involved in education of adolescents. Interview questions for educators were mainly

focused on implications of the two characteristics of schools that support adolescents’

identity formation for pedagogical practices and curricula. The emphasis of interviews

with architects and educational facilities planners was placed on corresponding

supportive design features.


161

The third method of data collection was visiting school facilities. I visited each case

study once taking notes and photographs. Every school visit lasted from two to three

hours. The visit from School A was carried out with the company of the professional

educator interviewed. With regard to School C, half the visit was carried out with the

company of an assistant principal of the middle and in the other half I was

accompanied by an assistant principal of the senior school. The educational facilities

planner interviewed showed me around School M. Finally, the assistant principal of

School R interviewed accompanied me in the school visit18.

5.2.3. Data Analysis

In this section the steps followed and the tools used to organize and analyse the

documentary data, interview transcripts and visits from schools are elaborated.

A tool used to organize documentary data for each case study was a table composed

of three categories of evidence including educational philosophies, design principles

and specific design features. By doing so, I was able to study the relevance of

educational philosophies, design principles and responses of each case study to the

process of adolescents’ identity formation (see the tables 5.4, 5.5, 5.6 and 5.7).

A preliminary stage of analysing interviews involved organising the interviewees’

quotations based on their relevance to aspects of the two characteristics of ‘school as a

supportive environment addressing individuation and social integration’ and ‘school

as a context offering opportunities for developmental exploration’. The interviewee’s

quotations that support an aspect of the two characteristics of schools that contribute

to adolescents’ identity formation were placed in the relevant column. Key design-

related concepts and features were also highlighted in red within the quotations to

facilitate the next step of analysis.

18 Prior to visiting selected schools, the ethics approval of the University of Melbourne and necessary permissions from the relevant departments of education and schools were obtained.


162

In the second stage of analysis of interviews, the key themes and concepts of every

interview were identified. In doing so, I closely examined the content of interview

transcripts, interpreted interviewees’ quotations and wrote down the key themes and

concepts regardless of the aspects defined and used in the initial stage of interview

analysis (see appendix 2). This step was followed by an attempt to understand the data

deeply. At this stage, I compared the key themes of interviews in order to identify the

most common themes pointed out by interviewees and provide an integration of the

themes and concepts.

Analysis of site visits from the four case studies was framed within the reports that

focused on translations of the factors under investigation into the language of

designing spaces. To develop the reports, I relied upon the documentary data,

interviews, my observation and the photographs taken.

The site visit report of every case study started with two tables summarizing design-

related features and provisions in relation to the two characteristics of schools that

contribute to adolescents’ identity formation: ‘a supportive environment addressing

individuation and social integration’ and ‘offering opportunities for developmental

exploration’. The summary tables of each case study report were then followed by

detailed descriptions of the design-related factors pointed out.

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Chapter Six

An Account and Analysis of Interviews and Case Studies

Observations

In this chapter I provide a detailed account of the findings of interviews and case

studies observations. The chapter is organised in two main sections. The first section

deals with implications of the characteristics of ‘a supportive school environment

addressing adolescents’ needs for individuation and social integration’. The second

section of this chapter concerns the contributions of design to the characteristics of ‘a

school as a context offering adolescents opportunities for developmental exploration’.

6.1. Design to contribute to ‘a supportive school environment addressing individuation and social integration’

Interviewee’s responses to the questions addressing aspects of this characteristic of

schools that support adolescents’ identity formation led to identifying a number of

common design-related concepts, features and factors. Examining the practical

translations of the points raised by interviewees into the design language in the

context of schools studied further revealed the potential of the design-related

concepts, features and factors.

The common themes identified are as follows:

I. Creating a situation in which a small number of adolescents work with one

teacher or a team of teachers

II. Creating social and public types of spaces

III. Creating an open and visible learning environment

IV. Design to support programmes and activities that encourage relationship

building

V. Considerations with regard to teachers’ preparation areas and offices

VI. Physical spaces and spatial qualities that support privacy and personalisation

VII. Design to support cooperative learning.

Chapter Six An Account and Analysis of Interviews and Case Studies Observations

164

6.1.1. Creating a situation in which a small number of adolescents work with one

teacher or a team of teachers

Creating a situation where a small number of adolescents work with one teacher or a

team of teachers was a key theme raised by ten interviewees with regard to promoting

adolescent students’ individualities and increasing accessibility of adults’ support for

them.

Creating a small community of students with one teacher or a team of teachers is a

strategy that helps students and their teacher to get to know each other very well and

become connected to a particular group. The group becomes an “emotional and social

central point” for students (Kevin, School Counsellor, School A).

Reducing the number of students for each teacher also expands the scope of support

that teachers can provide for students. Having a fewer number of students and

spending more time with each of them, teachers are able to get to know their students

in a more holistic way instead of dealing merely with their subject-related issues.

'Principal teaching model', 'tutor group programme' and 'learning community' are

terms that have been used to refer to a structure that creates a situation where a small

number of students work with a teacher or a team of teachers. All these models, in

some ways, embody the idea of ‘smallness’ as a factor that contributes to creating a

supportive and personalised school environment:

… classroom structure with the principal teaching model is about making sure that

teachers build significant relationships with students … because some of the students do

not have significant adults in their life outside the school … students in grade 7 and 8 have

one teacher who takes some responsibilities like the primary school teacher for their

learning … and spends two thirds of a day with them (Cindy, Professional educator, School

R).

The tutor group programme is a strategy to help students feel connected to the school …

teachers spend 40 minutes each day with 14 students from the year 10 to year 12. So

students get quite connected to a group of students within their tutor group and their tutor

… they have a kind of emotional and social central point for themselves… programmes of


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social learning and personal development are built into the tutor group programme (Kevin,

School Counsellor, School A).

The visual conception for tutor group programme was to have strong relationships with

students in our school … a group of no more that 15 students that work with a teacher. We

meet with them every day for 40 minutes over the three years … every day the conversation

is around learning, learning goals and career aspirations … that means that students are able

to better see the relevance of what they're doing in schooling to their personal goals, that

they are able to make decisions about choices they have within our curriculum (Jayne,

Professional educator, School A).

The organizational model of a learning community has three or four classes of students

together … with additional facilities where students might be able to take some scientific

inquiry, theatre works and creative arts … they have one team of teachers working with

them … It's almost like a family unit which in terms of younger students is a better way of

forming them because they develop a stronger relationship with just one group of teachers

and this comes out from a lot of research about the alienation of young adolescents in

education. It is about forming relationships because children at 11 or 12 to 14 or 15 years

old are trying to find out about themselves and the most important thing for them is where

they stand and who they are. So the best idea is to try and provide them as much support as

you can in terms of not only learning but also behaviours and human development (Jeff,

Educational Facilities Planner).

The above quotations from some interviewees suggested that the strategy of creating

smaller communities of students and teachers is very important in terms of the support

structure that is created. This support structure then helps adolescents in exploring

alternatives, evaluating choices, making decisions and committing themselves to a set

of choices. But what might be the translation of this educational strategy into the

language of design?

A contribution of design of school spaces to this end is fostering ownership and

belongingness to a particular space for a group of students. In the four case studies,

slightly different approaches to implementing this idea were observed.


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A classroom as an enclosed and self-contained learning space where students spend a

significant part of their school time is a manifestation of this idea at a very basic and

preliminary level:

Because the students and their principal teacher have a classroom space which is their main

space, they have ownership as a group over that space … Instead of teachers and students

moving around three or four classes a day, they have got one space that take care and look

after it … the teachers' office is between four classes (Cindy, Professional educator, School

R)

However, a self-contained and enclosed classroom is not a responsive model for

various teaching and learning styles particularly in secondary schools. Given this, in

some schools the basic model of classroom space is modified so that the boundaries

between classrooms are more permeable and students can collaborate with one

another.

In School R, the modification to enclosed and self-contained classrooms was observed

in what is called the 'principal learning area'.

Fig 6. 1.A site plan of School R; three principal learning areas of the middle school part of the school are highlighted - Modified by the author on a plan obtained from a school information brochure


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The principal learning area is where four groups of students and their teachers spend

most of their time and develop a collective ownership over it. Each principal learning

area is composed of four clearly defined classroom spaces.

Fig 6.2. A plan from a 'principal learning area – From a school information brochure

Foldable walls between every two neighbouring classrooms can open up and allow

two class groups to work together.

Fig 6.3. A classroom in a principal learning area of the middle school part of School R - Author


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A slightly different approach was taken in School C. In this case study, learning

neighbourhoods are the equivalents of principal learning areas. However, there is no

wall between spaces assigned to each student group. Here, about one hundred middle

school students are divided into four groups of twenty-five students called ‘family’.

Every four ‘families’ makes a learning neighbourhood.

Fig 6.4. A learning neighbourhood - Image below shows the area that has been assigned to a 'family' - Author

In terms of space, each learning neighbourhood is an open space shared by four

families that might take over a certain corner of the neighbourhood and also work

collaboratively with each other. The two learning neighbourhoods are in two levels of

a relatively self-contained building called a 'learning community' and share a number

of spaces such as teachers’ offices and general purpose studios.


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Fig 6.5. A plan of school C showing two learning neighbourhoods from two learning communities – The official website of School C

Observation of the way that the learning neighbourhoods are being used now showed

that teachers have used elements such as bookshelves to partially define their class

group boundaries and reduce possible distractions. The decision was also made to

place operable walls in the learning neighbourhoods.


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This may bring to the fore questions about the efficiency of this type of design.

However, there are many variables to be considered in this equation. They include the

age of students and the grade groups, activities that they are engaged in, teachers and

their pedagogical approaches.

Examining School A that has a similar design to School C but is working effectively,

as observations and interviewees’ responses showed, casts light on the issue and

reveals subtleties that are at work. School A has an open plan with many similarities

with regard to physical spaces to School C. However, in School A, students are older

and the focus is more independent learning and collaboration of students in small

groups.

Offering freedom to move around and control over spaces is another common idea

derived from interviews about how design can support a 'class group', 'tutor group' or

a 'family' of students. This is an alternative strategy compared to an enclosed

classroom space and if applied properly facilitates fostering of belonging and

ownership even to an open space that is shared by some tutor groups.

School A embodies the idea of offering freedom to move around and control over

spaces in order to support tutor groups. In School A, except for a number of

specialised spaces, service spaces and administrative areas, the general learning

spaces are open and shared by tutor groups. Although tutor groups do not have certain

enclosed spaces like classrooms assigned to them, they have “loosely defined areas”

within the open learning space:

There are nine learning spaces in the school so there is not enough space for every tutor

group to take a whole space … There are loosely defined spaces that tutor groups have in

the learning commons. They meet for 40 minutes a day but do not necessarily spend much

other time there … lockers are designed on wheels under the tables so that the lockers are

moved around a little bit and students can put their lockers near where their tutor groups

bases (Kevin, School Counsellor, School A).


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Fig 6.6. A general learning space that some tutor groups share - The image on the left shows the movable lockers - Author

Having an open space as well as students' lockers on wheels means that the tutor

groups can literally gather in any part of the school. In addition, the small scale of

School A was suggested as a factor that supports this strategy:

… students do not own a physical space in the school because they have a tutor group for

only 40 minutes a day in that space … they feel a kind of belongingness once they are in the

school building. They feel belongingness within the whole building because it is not a very

big school. There are only nine main learning spaces on two floors. It is not like a school

with a hundred rooms (Kevin, School Counsellor, School A).

In School A, student groups do not tend to feel lost in the school and perceive the lack

of having a point of reference. They do not have a defined space like a classroom in

the school but this does not prevent them from developing ownership of and

identifying with the whole school building.

Schools R and C adopt a strategy based on the ownership of classroom spaces and

learning neighbourhood spaces in supporting student groups. Comparing these two

schools with School A, a number of reasons were identified that account for the

difference in the ways that they are dealing with the issue.

The emphasis on creating defined spaces and assigning them to each student group in

schools R and C may arise from their students’ specific needs and characteristics.

They have students in their early adolescence (grades seven and eight) whose needs


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for belonging to a certain part of their school are prominent middle years issues. The

students have not yet developed enough independence to deal with moving from one

space to another. They still have the need to identify with a classroom sort of space

which can function as their point of reference.

On the contrary, School A serves for students in grades ten, eleven and twelve or

students in their middle adolescence who tend to be more autonomous in using spaces

and the need to belong to a certain school space may not be prominent for them.

The size of the schools and the number of students in schools R and C, which are

larger than School A, are other reasons that emphasise the need for assigning defined

spaces to student groups.

6.1.2. Creating social and public types of spaces

Creating social and public types of spaces was regarded by interviewees as a factor

that supports adolescents’ needs for social integration in schools. With regard to the

idea of creating social and public types of spaces in schools, there were many

consistent views as well as critical suggestions.

Social types of spaces in schools were viewed as means to reduce the formality and

institutional feeling of school environments that in turn can support social integration.

A sense of community comes from being involved in something … in a school situation …

creating non threatening environments and fostering relationships between students and

teachers in informal sense …informal spaces in schools … [are] spaces where kids can feel

like hanging out without any pressure, nobody particularly owns the space, it is not

owned by the staff, it is not owned particularly by the kids (Andrew, Educational Facilities

Planner).

… Spaces that are shared by teachers and students can have a significant influence on

reducing the formality of ambience and institutional feeling of the school (John, Architect).


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Drawing on the theoretical background, interviewees’ comments and an examination

of case studies, I defined the following categories of 'social spaces' in schools:

1. Gathering spaces

2. Student social spaces

3. Social central hubs

4. Incidental social spaces.

‘Gathering spaces’ are school spaces that allow for bringing a large number of people

together for various programmes and social events such as school assemblies, parents

nights, talks and conferences and students’ performances and exhibitions. Given the

significance of gathering spaces in expanding explorational opportunities for students,

these spaces are turned to later in the next section where I examine the factors that

support opportunities for developmental exploration.

‘Student social spaces’ are those social spaces where mainly students can socialise

and mingle with each other. A degree of control over the space is a necessary quality

associated with this type of social space if students are to take over and use them.

Student social spaces are discussed under the heading of ‘privacy and personalisation’

due to the role that they play in satisfying students’ privacy needs.

‘Social central hubs’ are spaces where school members including staff, students and

even visitors share and have opportunities to socialise with each other. Some common

characteristics of social central hubs in schools that play a role in encouraging social

integration could be drawn from interviewee’s responses.

Social central hubs were regarded to be open and easily accessible spaces with lounge

type furniture. Interviewees suggested that social central hubs are public spaces

shared by school members. This means that neither staff nor students particularly own

the spaces and have an exclusive control of them.

[a social space is a] space that is quite open, that doesn’t have feeling like formal classroom

… there’re lounges that they can sit on (Jayne, Professional educator, School A).


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The atrium space in School M clearly embodies the characteristics of a social central

hub. Spaciousness, natural light, seating and views to an external courtyard are some

design features of this space.

Fig 6.7. The atrium space of School M: Above is a shot from the main entrance looking to the external courtyard, Below is Two views from the first floor of the atrium space looking to the external courtyard and the main entrance - Author


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The plans in the Figure 6.8 show the atrium space in School M in relation to main

functional spaces.

Fig 6.8. A site plan of School M and an enlargement of the hatched area that is the atrium space and its adjacent functional spaces - Modified by the author on the plan obtained from the school’s architect

The area bounded by orange lines is the atrium space. It is directly linked to the

administration and performance arts spaces. The atrium space is both functionally and

visually connected to the external courtyard in the West. The corridors on two sides of

this external courtyard (Orange arrows in the plan in Figure 6.8) link the atrium space


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to the library and café in the South as well as to a number of specialised and general

learning spaces in the North. A staircase in the atrium space provides access to a small

lecture hall and other learning and support spaces on the first floor.

Given the location of the atrium space, every school member has to pass it a number

of times each day. This makes the atrium space a very well known space in the

school. In addition, a lot of social activities and events that happen in the atrium space

facilitate building relationships and a sense of being members of the school

community. The school’s architect and an educational planner describe the atrium

space as follows:

… within the large atrium space in the entrance a whole variety of things happens … the

space has got fixed seating downstairs and upstairs … it’s actually like a set, they show

movies down here, information distribution [happens here], the students' works and daily

notices [are in it]. They have concerts and bands in all the different occasions. They all had

them in this space so this is definitely a specially designed space that would give this kind

of feeling of prestige for the school but also provide these opportunities for flexibility (Dick,

Architect, School M).

It is a sort of social space because it is a pretty good signpost or place to meet … they have

the art exhibition, the parent nights, students assemblies [in this space]…it's close to

administration … and a very safe place (Jeff, Educational facilities planner).

Another example of social central hubs in schools is the café in School M. This café

substituted for the traditional form of canteens in some schools. In School M, the café

was planned for use by both staff and students and by doing so can promote building

relationships. The café is easily accessible from the entrance atrium space of the

school, has physical and visual connection to the external courtyard and enjoys a good

view to the ocean


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Fig 6.9. The interior and exterior of the café space in school M as a 'social central hub' - Author

A comparison of the way that the café in School M works with a similar space in

School C showed that the idea of promoting building relationships and social

integration of students and their teachers by means of café type spaces depends on

various factors. One of these factors may be the management of a school and the way

that a school decides to run things. The size of the space and its location in relation to

other school spaces and spatial qualities such as views and natural light are other

factors that might be important.

In a school like School C, architects had envisaged the school café to be used by both

staff and students but this idea did not eventuate. The space becomes too noisy at

lunch time and a management strategy is setting different lunch times for middle and


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senior school students. Students tend to get their lunch from the café and have it in the

covered outdoor space rather than inside the café.

The social types of spaces do not necessarily need to be thought of as separate

functional spaces in schools. In practice, social spaces can be integrated into other

functional spaces in schools such as circulation spaces and spaces between

buildings. Among interviewees’ responses, there were allusions to the role of

circulation spaces in supporting 'social integration' in schools:

The size and furniture used in transition spaces can facilitate people being able to sit down

and have a chat (John, Architect).

The walkways are really important [in encouraging social interactions]…because the school

is like a little village and classrooms are in pairs or fours, people constantly have to walk

from one building to the other…that encourages social interaction because people see each

other in the walkways (John, School Principal).

These social spaces, that I call incidental social spaces, can be considered as a

subcategory of student social space, social central hub and even gathering spaces.

Some examples of creative use of circulation spaces to act as student social spaces are

presented in the next section where I refer to the design contributions that support

students’ privacy needs.

Examining an example of incidental social gathering spaces in School C clarifies

some characteristics of incidental social spaces. In this school, a gathering space is

incorporated into the stairs that connect two levels of the senior school building. In the

school’s architect’s words:

We made the staircase wider and had the steps spaced out so they are almost like tiers in the

form of a lecture theatre. [Our intent was] to make it into an informal gathering [area], even

for lectures and talks kids can sit on steps (David, Architect, School C).


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Fig 6.10. A 'gathering space' incorporated into a staircase in School C - Department of Education

and Training of a state in Australia

6.1.3. Creating an open and visible learning environment

Creating an open and visible learning environment where every school member,

whether being a teacher or a student, is observing what others are doing was

suggested as a strategy that supports establishing a sense of community that in turn

encourages social integration. Openness of spaces and visibility were pointed to by

interviewees as two important design features in relation to this idea:

In our middle school building … spaces are more open and collaborative … It’s all very

visible with lots of glass between spaces. [By this means the intent was to communicate


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that] we are all in this together. We are a community of learners. It’s not just about me and

my little group with my teacher but we are learning together (Bruce, School Principal).

In School A, this idea was implemented. The school has an open-plan layout and a

great deal of visibility is provided thanks to the use of glass walls between spaces.

Except for a number of service and administrative spaces, the rest of the school spaces

are open to one another. They are either accessible to one another with no boundaries

or visually connected by means of glass walls.

Fig 6.11. Visual connection between a general learning space and a specialised learning space in School A - Author

The Figure 6.12 is the first floor plan of School A. The area bounded by green lines

includes a number of general learning spaces and the middle circulation route that are

open to each other. Areas in orange are specialised learning spaces visually connected

to them.

A professional educator described the school spaces as follows:

Teachers' offices, preparation spaces and learning spaces are all together. It's just a big

open space. I think that's really important in terms of establishing a sense of community in

the school … Teachers, kids, visitors, all feel like that they’re in a learning community

when they come here because there’s that kind of buzz happening. And year 12s become

mentors really for our year 10s and 11s because they’re in the same space (Jayne,

Professional Educator, School A).


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Fig 6.12. First floor plan of School A - Modified by the author from Fisher (2003)

Fig 6.13. The interior of the first floor of School A: The image above shows the general learning space in the South, The images below show the circulation route in the middle of the first floor - Author


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6.1.4. Design to support programmes and activities that encourage relationship

building

Developing programmes and activities such as sports and camping that involve

teachers and students was suggested to support 'social integration'. Involvement in

these programmes and activities allows students and teachers to “see and get to know

each other outside the classroom context” and can be considered as a ‘building

relationships’ strategy (Cindy, Professional educator, School R). Kevin, a school

counsellor, pointed out:

Although we don’t have a sport curriculum in a lesson time, there are strong sport

programmes at lunch time and after school hours … And the staff will often participate with

the students in those programmes. So there is community notion built up around a lot of the

activities that happen around the school where the difference between staff and students is

blurred [such as sports programmes at lunch time and after school] … the students feel

more connected to the staff (Kevin, School Counsellor, School A).

The interviews and site observation did not suggest any specific design-related feature

that might be supportive of this ‘building relationship’ strategy. A basic implication of

these programmes and activities can be provision of appropriate facilities. However,

given the wide range of programmes and activities that might involve different groups

of teachers and students, the mere provision of facilities such as gym or performing

arts spaces may not have a significant influence in the equation. Some enthusiastic

teachers or students who plan to do a programme in a community fitness centre or one

expertise in the community such as canoe building that bring some students and

teachers to cooperate are some manifestations of the ‘building relationship’ strategy

that do not need certain facilities in a school.

6.1.5. Considerations with regard to teachers’ preparation areas and offices

Among the recommendations for the ways that adolescents’ needs for social

integration might be supported in schools is fostering a perception of adult's support.

In terms of school spaces, the special attention in design of teachers' preparation

areas and offices to increase teachers' accessibility for students and to promote


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perception of being in a supportive learning community was suggested by

interviewees.

Everybody can see what everybody else is doing here … The design of the school is made

for the students and the staff to support each other. For example, teachers' preparation

areas are parts of where the students are learning. That’s a demonstration that we are a

community that support each other (Kevin, School Counsellor, School A).

The special attention in design of teachers' preparation areas was observed in School

A. In this school, the teachers' preparation areas are open to and part of general

learning spaces. This allows students’ easy and quick access to teachers and in turn

fosters students’ perception of accessibility of teachers’ support.

Fig 6.14. The teachers' preparation areas in School A are open to and part of learning spaces - Author


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6.1.6. Design to Support Privacy

In chapter two I reviewed some theoretical research in the discipline of environmental

psychology that suggests supporting individuals’ self-identities as a function of

privacy regulation and its mechanisms such as personalisation and territoriality. A

study of this function of individuals' privacy regulation revealed the relevance of the

process to adolescents’ needs for individuation and social integration.

When asked ‘how might adolescents’ privacy needs be addressed in schools?’, a main

concern pointed out by interviewees was the issue of 'duty of care' and

'supervision'.

[Being] completely isolated might not … happen in the school system … because of the

duty of care … some sort of visual observation of students is necessary all the time. Many

schools are designed in a way so that there are not many places where students can hide

away (Jeff, Educational facilities planner).

… individual retreat spaces are harder than social interaction types of space for architects to

do. [Firstly] given the limited budget, it takes more area to provide for lots of spaces that

kids can retreat into … the other issue is in terms of supervision … If [a school] has too

many hiding holes, nooks and crannies, architects would get criticised by the Department of

Education (David, Architect, School C).

It’s very difficult to find places for students to withdraw because of the duty of care issues

and [the need for] supervision of the young people (Bruce, School principal).

'Transparency' was proposed as a design quality that helps to compromise the issue

of supervision to some extent.

… lots of spaces for students to work independently and in groups … for them to work in a

space without a teacher being there but due to transparency teachers can be sitting in their

desks and looking through into the adjoining learning space. Kids feel autonomous when

you do that (Jayne, Professional Educator, School A).

There is a high level of transparency through the whole school. There is lots of glass … it

provides connectivity to students and teachers but also from the teachers’ point of view


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creates some levels of surveillance. If a kid is going here and using the computer and they

aren't in the classroom, teachers can easily see what they are up to (Dick, Architect, School

M).

Despite my emphasis on Altman's (1975) conception of privacy as a degree of control

over being alone or with other people, interviewees’ responses showed that they

mainly perceived privacy as a student’s need to be alone and overlooked the element

of control in this concept. This view was particularly evident in describing those

school spaces in the service of privacy as quiet spaces that allow students to be alone

and not to be disturbed.

Nevertheless, one educational planner interestingly referred to the two terms used by

Altman (1975), ‘isolation’ and ‘separation’, and argued for the necessity of making a

distinction between the terms:

… If you do not want anyone to interrupt you … you might like to have a table in the

library … and carrel yourself away from people … [In another situation] You can sit out for

example in the corner of that external courtyard where you have got the space to get away.

The rest of the students might be milling around here but you do not want to be with them.

So [in this situation] you have a choice of staying connected but staying separate. Wanting

to be separate is not the same as wanting to be isolated from the group. I don't think the

students can ask teachers to put them in particular spaces [to be completely isolated]. So we

do not consciously set out to design spaces in schools for individuals to be isolated (Jeff,

Educational facilities planner).

Jeff believed that it is unlikely that students need ‘isolation’ in schools. Besides, it is

not easily possible given the issues of duty of care and supervision. It is the need for

‘separation’ which is more common and acceptable in schools. An adolescent student

might need to be separated from other students but stay visually connected.

Building upon the common themes of responses, I identified two main categories of

recommendations about the implications of privacy for design of school spaces. They

include:


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I. Those suggestions that have to do with designing spaces that support

privacy needs in particular the need for being alone or with close friends

II. Those suggestions that deal with spatial qualities that facilitate

adolescents' control of social interactions.

6.1.6.1. Designing spaces that support privacy needs

'Quiet places' where students have the opportunity to retire for a while, be alone and

not to be disturbed or spend time with a small group of friends were viewed as a form

of spaces that support privacy in schools. The 'library' was mentioned as a space in

schools where this quality is embodied:

Students who want privacy during recess or lunch times would probably go to quiet places

to sit … more likely to the library complex (Graeme, School principal).

In traditional schools, the place where this [being alone and on their own] happens is the

library where students who want to be alone or just do work on their own can go to. The

general rule in the library is you do not make a lot of noise and disturb people who want to

work or just read for their enjoyment (Andrew, Educational facilities planner).

The library is also good for that … at lunch time a student who might just decide to have

time away and sit in the library would go there … it’s important that they are places for kids

to just be alone (John, School principal).

The Figure 6.15 shows a space in the library of School C. The space has a foldable

glass wall on one side and can be closed from the rest of the library space. Individual

students or small groups of them can have some quiet time here. The space also can

function as a more formal teaching space.


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Fig 6.15. A space in the library of School C - Author

It is important to note that the role of the library is being changed in contemporary

learning environments thanks to advances in Information and Communication

Technologies that provide easy and quick access to an enormous amount of

information. The library is no longer merely a quiet place for reading books and

journals. It is becoming more like a resource centre for quick access to information

and a meeting venue for small groups of students beside a place for independent

learning.

In this sense, the potential of the library with regard to supporting students’ privacy

needs has to do with the ‘control’ and ‘choice’ in dealing with spaces offered to

students. Students generally go to the library at times other than structured learning

times. They choose to go there and have different needs and interests in mind.

Sometimes a student chooses to be in the library as he/she may need to be alone, not

to be disturbed and study individually. At other times, a small group of students may

go to the library to meet and collaborate on a project. Library spaces should allow for

all those diverse needs.

'Outdoor spaces' were also pointed out as spaces that have the potential to support

privacy. The responses showed that these potentialities are both in terms of providing

for students to be alone and allowing them to control their desired degrees of social

interactions:


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… [In the school grounds] there are lots of spaces where students can disappear to, sit and

talk to each other … There are also some private places where kids can take themselves off

and gather in small groups and talk (John, School principal).

Students who feel alone … not wanting necessarily to attach to anyone, sometimes just walk

on their own around the school grounds (Graeme, School principal).

Sometimes it [being alone and on their own] can happen outside, under a tree, in the school

grounds (Andrew, Educational facilities planner).

Examples of creative design of outdoor spaces in the service of students’ privacy

needs were observed in School M. The design of outdoor spaces in this school is

particularly significant in terms of offering students a degree of control for their

desired level of social interactions. This is provided by means of creating a variety of

choices in dealing with space for students. I present a description of two courtyards in

School M to clarify my point. I call one of the courtyards in the main building of

School M ‘courtyard MA’ and the other one bounded by a resource centre, basketball

court and the northern wing of the main building ‘courtyard MB’.

Fig 6.16. A site plan of School M showing the location of two substantial outdoor spaces - Modified by the author on a plan obtained from Department of Education and Training of a state of Australia


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A number of features makes courtyard MA a substantial external space that not only

plays a significant role in encouraging students to socialise but also offers them

different opportunities for spending time alone or with a small group of close friends.

Firstly, courtyard MA is clearly defined by the spaces that surround it including a café

in the South, a circulation route of the main building in the North and the atrium space

in the East. In addition, it enjoys good views to the ocean from its western side.

Fig 6.17. The courtyard space (courtyard MA) of the School M - Department of Education and Training of the relevant state

Another important feature in courtyard MA that supports adolescents' privacy needs is

the thoughtful design of seating locations. Various choices of seating locations are

offered to adolescent students in this outdoor space to be alone, converse with a small

group of close friends and congregate in larger groups. Criticising the limitations on

the budget for designing outdoor spaces that leads to having plenty of areas where

kids have to sit on the ground or grass, the school’s architect referred to the significant

attention to providing choices for students in the school’s outdoor spaces:

Externally we tried to create different seating areas … we tried to get this veranda where

they can sit and bring the tables and chairs here … in this middle courtyard there is various

numbers of seating located around the court. They are set up in different ways so that in

some instances you have got one seat opposite to another so you can sit and look at each

other and communicate or they will be in a row where you can sit side by side. There are

[seating spots] underneath trees here. There is a big raised grassed area. It’s 400 millimetres

off the ground so you can sit all the way around here (Dick, Architect, School M).


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There are various seating locations in courtyard MA that can be used in many

different ways. For example, as can be seen in the images below, two strips of

benches that are free from both sides allow students to take different orientations

while sitting. Students have choices of sitting either side by side or facing each other

and communicating.

Fig 6.18. Images of the courtyard MA in School M showing the seating areas that provide a variety of choices for students - Author

There are also benches protected within the roofed areas along the wall of the

northern wing of the main building. These areas are rather free from students moving

around in the courtyard. They can be used by individuals or small groups who might

choose to be partially alone or separate from but stay connected to the rest of students.


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Fig 6.19. The sheltered seating spots in the courtyard MA in School M allows students to be separate from but stay connected to the rest of students – Author

Another form of seating location in courtyard MA is placed on its western side. Here,

the tree canopies somehow cover the benches that are free from two sides. They create

a natural ceiling that protects from the sun and foster a perception of enclosure.

Students might choose to turn back to the courtyard looking towards the ocean if they

want to have some time away from the rest of students.

Fig 6.20. The sheltered seating locations in the western side of the courtyard MA in School M - Author

Courtyard MB has a more private feeling to it compared to courtyard MA thanks to its

location in the school site. Shaded spots created by the tree canopies can attract

students to congregate or hang around. There are also a number of benches and some


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seating strips running along a curved external wall of the main building (the areas

marked by red in the Figure 6.21).

Fig 6.21. Courtyard MB in School M showing the various seating areas created to offer choices to

students to use them according to their privacy needs - Author

Designing retreat spaces or indoor nooks and niches in schools were among

interviewees’ other recommendations with regard to designing spaces that support

privacy. Retreat spaces are spaces where students can be alone, reflect quietly and

congregate in small groups. They may take different forms in schools and be created

indoors or outdoors. Examples of retreat spaces in Schools C and M are presented

below.


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In the corner of each learning neighbourhood in School C there is a little curved space

with a low ceiling. David, the school’s architect, pointed out that these “little bean bag

corners” were specifically designed to function as “a sort of retreat zone” for students.

Fig 6.22. The retreat zones at the end of the learning neighbourhoods in School C - Author

Fig 6.23. An image from the retreat space with soft seating in School C - Source: www.fieldingnair.com


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However, it is not quite clear if these retreat spaces are popular among students and to

what extent they are successful in satisfying students’ privacy needs. Further

investigations need to be carried out to examine students’ perception of these spaces

and clarify this issue.

In School M, a bench strip running along the windows on one side of the library is

another form of retreat zone. It has views to the ocean and can serve for individual

reading or quiet reflection.

Fig 6.24. The bench strip running along one side of the library of School M - Author

Indoor nooks and niches can also be incorporated into circulation spaces and

corridors. When asked about the contributions of design to supporting adolescents’

privacy needs, one of the architects interviewed referred to the potentiality of

circulation spaces in the service of activities and needs that are not prescribed ones

and may not be considered in the initial brief:

we have got pressure of prescriptive space upon us … the actual amount of floor area we

need to provide is usually prescribed … spaces which are dedicated spaces for certain

activities are prescribed by the department of education … where we try to provide for

activities that aren't necessarily prescribed type ones is within circulation area spaces and …

external unenclosed area spaces (David, Architect, School C).


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Two examples of indoor nooks and niches incorporated into the corridors were

observed in School M. One example is a small space adjacent to the painting and

sculpture studio which has soft furniture for small groups’ congregation. Another

example is along the corridor on the northern wing of the main building. It is a place

with a tiled strip-form of seating and a view to the courtyard. Students are able to take

over this space, be separated from but visually connected to the rest of students (Fig

6.25).

Fig 6.25. Two examples of retreat spaces incorporated into circulation spaces in School M - Author

In the senior building of School R, there are a number of retreat spaces in the form of

little pocket spaces created off side corridors. These spaces that enjoy good natural

light and views to the outside serve for students' independent learning or quiet

reflection as well as small group gatherings.


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Fig 6.26. The retreat space created off the corridor in the senior building of School R - Author, Designshare website (http://www.designshare.com/index.php/home), Access date: 10/3/2009

Common spaces in the middle school’s principal learning areas in School R can be

considered as a form of retreat space. In a professional educator’s words

Within our junior school each of the classrooms has a middle space which is a common

space that four classes share and there is an opportunity for students to move and work in

there if they need space for themselves (Cindy, Professional educator, School R).

Fig 6.27. A typical plan of principal learning areas of School R showing a common space shared by four learning spaces that acts as a retreat space - Modified by the author on a plan obtained from a school information brochure


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A smart board and a white board on the walls of this space suggest that the space was

designed to function as an additional and informal learning space shared by the four

classes. However, provision of lounge type furniture and soft elements such as plants

could significantly add to potential of the space to act as a retreat space for students.

Fig 6.28. The common space in the middle school principal learning areas of School R - Author

The individual workstation or desk was recommended as a space that supports

adolescents’ privacy needs due to the element of control over the space:

In some schools the students are given their own desks so they can go and do whatever they

want to do at their own desk in that work area … it is really saying to the individual this is

your space, nobody else is going to sit here, you choose to do what you like. It might not be

quiet all the time but it is creating the space for the individual (Andrew, Educational

facilities planner).

I turn to individual workstation as well as the element of control in dealing with space

in further detail in the next section where I examine one of the mechanisms to support

privacy needs, personalisation.

6.1.6.2. Spatial qualities that facilitate adolescents' control of social

interactions

In addition to recommendations with regard to designing spaces to support privacy

needs, a number of interviewees suggested some spatial qualities. This category of


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recommendation mainly revolved around the ways to deal with school spaces to

support privacy needs rather than designing “isolated areas”, as Jeff, an educational

facilities planner, pointed out.

These spatial qualities appear to work primarily through facilitating adolescent

students’ control of social interactions, being alone and socialising with other people.

This is embodied in offering control in dealing with spaces so that students can select

and even manipulate spaces according to their changing privacy needs.

Openness was regarded as a spatial quality that facilitates adolescents' control of

social interactions.

Open spaces with few physical boundaries offer students freedom to move around in

spaces and select the part of a space to be in as long as the commitments of structured

learning time allow them. Students do not have to step out from their classroom if

they need to be a little bit separate from the rest of the class group.

In School A, the openness of spaces in the service of students’ privacy needs is

embodied quite well. The school has an open plan layout with no physical boundary

between circulation routes and general learning spaces. The school’s indoor spaces

are also accessible to students during lunch and recess times. This means that a

significant proportion of school spaces has the potential for meeting privacy needs

both in terms of informal gatherings and social interactions as well as for individual

study or quiet reflection. The school’s counsellor described this quality of school

spaces as follows:

We have fair bit of space here … If students want to work by themselves or need some

space and aloneness … the students would just move a bit away and sit by themselves…

there are no physical boundaries. Students don’t have to step out from a classroom door to

be separate from the class. It is much easier for students who need to be alone to have an

arrangement to just leave the group without it being an obvious thing (Kevin, School

Counsellor, School A)


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6.1.7. Design to Support Spatial Personalisation

In order to allow the interviewees to express their own views, I did not present a

complete definition of the concept of personalisation. This concept was referred to

with a brief allusion to the students’ sense of ownership and belonging to school

spaces in the relevant question. Interestingly, interviewees’ responses provided two

common definitions of personalisation from design points of view.

One architect defined personalisation as students’ ability to change the space. In his

view, this ability is dependent upon the amount of area available to students:

As far as personalising is change of the space, that comes down to how much area people

have got physically available to personalise and change. That is probably the hardest issue

because of the number of kids that are being put in those spaces (David, Architect, School

C).

Another definition of personalisation was presented by an educational planner who

viewed a personalised space as a space where students put their belongings. He

pointed to the ‘learning community’ and individual desk or workstation as two

examples:

That [personalisation] is often defined by where do I put my stuff and belonging … the

concept of the learning community is about that [personalisation] because the students’ stuff

is with them… [Some schools] have those individual desks. That is very much about that

personalised space (Jeff, Educational facilities planner).

A common theme among responses to the question of personalisation was the idea

that personalisation in schools is more about ‘a collective or group ownership of a

space’ than an individual student’s ownership.

… Groups of students tend to have places … and routinely spend time in that particular

area of the school and identify with it as their space … It tends not to be an individual thing

where a student feels that's where he/she belongs (Graeme, School Principal).

It is a bit harder just getting physically enough area or display space for individuals [in

school or workplace environment] to be able to personalise it … we find the same in a lot of


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our workplace design where we don't have individual offices or individual cubicles to be

able to deal with that sort of thing. We have partitioned off spaces. It's more a collective

ownership of space and forming a team environment so your team might own a space …

But it's not so much about each person having his/her own space … here is my 8 square

metre space and no one else comes to it and no one comes out of it. This doesn’t allow for

that number of kids to physically fit enough kids into school (David, Architect, School C).

The three design features to support personalisation common to the majority of

responses were personal workstations or desks, spaces for display of students’

works and assigning a space to a learning group of students.

A personal workstation or desk and even a locker were suggested as means to

facilitate personalisation of school spaces for adolescent students:

… the real opportunities which are probably getting lost in our system is the opportunities

in the loose furniture and the fit out components ... the real personalisation could come in

the form of the workstation type of furniture to fit in the neighbourhood area (David,

Architect, School C).

The idea of providing each student with a personal desk or workstation was

implemented in Schools A and R. However, the outcomes of this design response

were found to be slightly different in the two schools. In School R signs of

personalisation of individual desks were observed in personal photos or items of

interest for students placed on their desks. To the contrary, in School A no sign of this

form of personalisation was observed. This necessitates further investigation to cast

light on various aspects of the idea of providing personal workstations for individual

students.

In School R, every student in year nine or ten has an individual desk with a locker

attached to it. A professional educator describes this design feature as follows:

… in the senior school, they have their personal workstation and that definitely helps in the

individuation of their learning and personalisation because they do decorate it … they’re not

working next to someone, they have quite a bit of space around them (Cindy, Professional

educator, School R).


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Individual desks in School R have different shapes. This feature makes configuring

classroom spaces to allow for cooperative learning and various groupings of students

difficult (see Figure 6.29).

Fig 6.29. A classroom space in the senior building of School R showing the difficulties in reconfiguring classroom spaces and different size grouping of students due to the specific form of individual desks - Author

However, reviewing a plan from the senior building helps in understanding the

reasons for different shapes of individual desks. The arrangement of furniture in this

plan shows that individual desks were envisaged to meet students’ individual and

independent learning needs. The way that they are arranged on the plan provides an

insight into the rationale for their curved forms.


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Fig 6.30. A plan of the year 9&10 principal learning area in School R showing that in the initial design individual desks were meant to meet students’ need for independent learning - Modified by the author on a plan obtained from a school information brochure

In school A, individual desks are designed with moveable lockers that can be placed

under the desks. Each desk has a raised back of about twenty five centimetres that

creates a little space and territory for each individual student.


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Fig 6.31. An individual workstation in school A - Author

The aim of providing students with individual desks with a locker beneath them was

fostering a sense of ownership and belonging. However, any kind of personalisation

was not observed in individual desks. The interviewees’ responses in the school did

not refer to any school rule of not allowing for these kinds of personalisation19. This

lack of personalisation of individual desks by students may suggest that they are not

very much attached to their individual desks and do not feel a strong sense of

ownership over them.

Interviewees in School A, Jayne and Kevin, suggested that the small scale of the

building and openness of spaces may account for students not feeling a need to

become attached to a certain space or where their individual desks are. In addition,

they proposed that the tendency to personalise a space may be transferred to electronic

space or the E-Portfolio that each student makes.

The lockers being on wheels may be another factor that accounts for the lack of

personalisation on individual desks in School A. In the case of School R, the

19 There may be some implicit rules and assumptions that restrict students’ abilities to personalise their desks. Evidence of this was found when an interviewee in School A referred to a case she observed some years ago. She stated that a number of students tended to set their personal desks in a certain way to create a little enclave space. The school’s implicit resistance to this form of personalisation could be found in the attempt to change that student group’s arrangement at the end of each day when they left the school.


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placement of the students’ lockers beneath their individual desks may be a factor that

encourage them to use their individual desks and develop a sense of ownership and

belonging to them. To the contrary, lockers are not fixed to individual desks in School

A. The lockers can be moved to different parts of the school depending on the

grouping of students in ‘tutorial groups’.

A sense of ownership and belonging to a space and perceiving it as a personalised

space was considered to be engendered from staying for a significant period of time in

that space. The ‘learning neighbourhood’ and ‘learning community’ were referred to

by interviewees as examples that manifest this idea:

The whole idea of having a learning neighbourhood is a chance for groups to take over that

zone, living in that space and have ownership for a while … those learning communities

are not sort of anonymous classrooms which you go to from one to another as the bell rings.

The design intent was that each of those communities would be a self-contained

neighbourhood and how they might be able to personalise would be up to the staff team and

the kids (David, Architect, School C).

Within junior school classrooms, our kids would do that [personalisation] within their

classrooms often and they have ownership of classroom space sort of like group (Cindy,

Professional educator, School R).

…that's [the idea of personalisation and establishment of a sense of belonging and

ownership to school] where your learning communities come in … rather than the students

just going through a series of boxes or rooms where nothing belongs to them and they feel

alienated, the learning community is designed so that they feel more at home and relaxed.

They know where they are situated. They have their own space (Keith, Facilities consultant

of Department of Education).

Display of students’ works was recommended as another means that helps adolescent

students to perceive school spaces as personalised. Design responses to the issue of

displaying students’ work can be simple provisions such as tackable walls. In School

R, tackable surfaces are incorporated into the foldable walls between the classrooms

in the middle school principal learning areas.


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Fig 6.32. The tackable surfaces incorporated into the foldable walls between every two classrooms of the middle school principal learning areas in School R - Author

Integrating plasma screens in significant spots of a school and creating spaces to place

volumetric objects are other design strategies that allow students’ works such as

movies and sculptures to be displayed. These design strategies were applied in the

atrium space and the art and sculpture studio of School M:

… our attitude was that all the walls in these main public spaces should be considered as

appropriate to display students’ works … The atrium space was considered to be a form of

exhibition space … and they can put up the students’ works [such as] movies on a plasma

screen in that space … There have definitely been considerations for how you can display

not only the arts [paintings and photographs] but also a variety of students’ works

throughout the school … the idea of a double height void in art studio was that they can put

something big like sculpture that needs more volume in the space (Dick, Architect, School

M).


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In the atrium space of school M various opportunities for displaying students’ works

exist. A plasma screen on the western side of this space is used not only for

distributing information but also for showing students’ work. There are also some

tackable walls and pin boards at the ground level of this space for news of the

students’ achievements and successes.

Fig 6.33. The atrium space of School M that acts as an exhibition space for displaying of students' works and achievements - Author

In design of the atrium space of School M, the attention was also paid to the details of

hanging frames from the walls. As seen in the Figure 6.34, the painting frames are

suspended from a rail that runs along the top of a wall.


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Fig 6.34. The detail of hanging students paintings on a wall of the atrium space of School M - Author

Provision of appropriate surfaces and spaces to display students’ works that

encourages establishment of a sense of ownership and supports personalisation of

school spaces is a subtle yet important consideration in the design of a school. Jayne,

a professional educator in School A, pointed to the difficulty of displaying students’

works throughout the school. She saw this as a result of having a relatively open plan

school building with few walls.

Dick, an architect, pointed out two issues when asked about the design-related

implications of personalisation and encouraging establishment of a sense of

ownership to a school’s spaces within students. Designing a variety of opportunities

and choices in spaces to cater for different needs of different individuals was

suggested as one contribution of design. Dick continues,

What we’ve observed is that each of the student groups kind of form their own territories …

where they hang out and get the ownership of it … the flexibility within all these different

spaces allows each of the students and teachers to create (their own territories or special

places) … they feel as though they own the space and that has been specifically designed

for them (Dick, Architect, School M).


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Users feeling good about a space is another design-related theme associated with

personalisation, Dick suggested. He argues that

… if you make people feel good in an environment, if they feel that they are respected,

looked after and have opportunity to learn, then it almost does not matter what you put in a

school … People want to be there and if they want to be there, then they feel this sense of

ownership (Dick, architect, School M).

This idea brings to the fore the question of ‘what might be the attributes of spaces that

influence individuals’ preferences and their wanting to be in those spaces?’. I turn to

this question later in this section when I examine ‘student social spaces’ as a form of

space that students choose to be in.

Involving students in the design or refurbishment of a school as well as offering them

some possibilities to take care of their school spaces were referred to as strategies to

foster ownership and feeling of being in personalised spaces within students.

The first opportunity there is to actually engage students in the design process … and listen

to the things that they think are important … creation of ad hoc spaces within a school,

small break out spaces and so on is a way of giving students some individuality (John,

architect).

… in some schools a senior common room for students that they take care of it themselves

is one way to allow students personalise the space … also there is a lot of scope for kids to

be involved in creating spaces for themselves in landscaping (Andrew, Educational

facilities planner).

Earlier in this section I referred to a common idea among interviewees’ responses

about personalisation: ‘personalisation in schools tends to be a collective or group

ownership of a space’. This idea led the inquiry to an examination of what the

characteristics of the spaces that student groups take over, frequent and develop a

sense of ownership over them might be. These spaces that I called ‘student social

spaces’ are where mainly students can socialise and mingle with each other. A degree


209

of control over the space is a necessary quality of student social spaces if students are

to perceive them as their own spaces.

The interviewees’ responses could not provide clear explanations of why students take

over certain areas in schools and not other spaces. Nevertheless, architects and

educators interviewed pointed out important factors that were complemented by site

observations and cast light on the nature of ‘student social spaces’ in schools.

One of the common ideas about ‘student social spaces’ was that adolescent students’

age and gender influences their preferences to take over certain spaces of a school:

There is gender difference with regard to preferences for places and use of it. Boys use

spaces very differently to the way that girls use spaces, girls would sit in groups and chat,

boys don’t do that as much (John, Architect).

It’s different for different types of kids … the café strip is really popular with the senior

kids because they like to sit around and talk in small groups … middle school students do

not congregate in sitting position a lot. They tend to move a lot … running around, kicking

football or chasing each other … they are almost striving for social interaction so they won’t

sit in a group and try to have interaction with others all the time ... So you won’t see them in

any particular space. Initially when they come to the school, they may adopt the space that

is safe space until they get used to the school (Ron, School principal, School C).

Despite the differences with regard to preferences for ‘student social spaces’ among

different age and gender groups of adolescents, a number of commonalities were

suggested. Natural light and environmental comfort, doing favourite activities

such as sports and spending time with friends were among these commonalities:

A high degree of natural light, natural ventilation, transparency … a common thing

would be that they are external spaces that are outside with good sun traps and protected

from the wind and things like that where they can gather in groups (John, Architect).

The bandstand area next to the cafeteria, was hoped to be a meaningful place for kids …

I've seen it being used in that way … kids take it over and they like to get up and play some


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music with their friends. That is something that they own it rather than the teachers own

(David, Architect, School C).

… In the warmer month, the courtyard area, an outdoor space … In winter probably is

heat and heated environment … another reason may be that they are safe places, public

places where their teacher is present and for some kids who feel anxious, they feel safe …

for other students it's probably similar to when we go to café or restaurant to sit around the

table while we are eating, chatting with people, is an environment that they like to be

(Cindy, Professional educator, School R).

Outdoor spaces that enjoy good sunshine in the winter, outdoor shaded areas during

the warmer seasons as well as indoor spaces with natural light, transparency and a

warm environment during the winter were some of the examples presented by

interviewees. I examine some of these examples that are well manifested in the case

studies.

In School R, there is a number of outdoor spaces that adolescent students frequent

during break time. The location of these spaces within the school complex may be a

factor that determines the degree that they are being used by students. Having the

feeling of being among a group of students, being involved in some sorts of activities

and keeping an eye on what other students are engaging in may account for the

popularity of these outdoor spaces. In the plan below, three significant outdoor spaces

that are considered as student social spaces are highlighted.

The plan and images in the next page provide a snapshot of the three outdoor spaces

in School R. Image B shows an outdoor space in front of the middle school principal

learning areas. Image C and D show the outdoor spaces in front of the performing

arts building.


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Fig 6.35. Site plan of School R. The highlighted areas are three designed outdoor spaces. The blue arrows show the direction of the camera views – Modified by the author on a plan obtained from a school information brochure

Fig 6.36. Some significant outdoor spaces in School R - Author

A B

C D


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Shot A among the images above is from the outdoor space that can be considered as

the heart of the school grounds. The space is surrounded and easily accessible by

some of the school building blocks including library, year nine and ten principal

learning areas, studio for metal, wood and art works as well as canteen space. This

outdoor space is located in the intersection of main outdoor circulation routes or

covered walkways (orange arrows in the Figure 6.37) that are popular spaces for

students hanging around during the break time.

Fig 6.37. An aerial view of School R complex showing the outdoor space that is considered as a students social space - Modified by the author on a plan obtained from a school information brochure

At the time of the visit from School R, students were engaged in signing in for

participation in a students’ activity in this outdoor students social space.

Fig 6.38. An outdoor students social space in the heart of the school grounds in School R - Author


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Observations of the way that covered walkways in School R were being used by

students during a break time suggested the idea that students social spaces do not

necessarily need to be thought of as clearly defined and static spaces. For example,

small groups of students were observed just walking along the covered walkways.

Fig 6.39. An aerial view of School R complex; the arrows show the location of covered walkways - Modified by the author on a plan obtained from a school information brochure

Students may start from one point and walk around the school in these walkways to

return there again, see their peers and be seen. The simple and easily readable way

that the covered walkways were structured in School R allows this form of interaction

among adolescent students.

Fig 6.40. The covered walkways connecting the building blocks in School R as a form of students social spaces - Author


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The café strip in School C is another example of students social spaces, as suggested

by the school’s architect and principal.

Fig 6.41. A site plan of School C. The red arrow shows the location of café strip - Designshare Website (http://www.designshare.com), Access date: 10/3/2009

The café strip is shaded and has in-built seating and some park benches are scattered

around. The area marked by the orange line is a bandstand area where students may

play music or perform.

Fig 6.42. The café strip in School C as a form of student social spaces - Author


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There are two examples of indoor students social spaces in School A. This school

building is slightly different from the other three case studies in that it has an open

plan layout. During the site visit that covered a part of structured learning time and a

break time, no significant difference was observed. This was in terms of students

concentrating in certain spaces as their own social spaces. In the school’s counsellor’s

words

… the school is very comfortable. There aren’t lots of that spaces that people want to be

because all parts of the school are very similar … we don’t have classrooms in a sense of

classrooms, we have spaces that are able to be used flexibly ... At lunch time kids sit in

whatever spots that they choose to be … it might be where their tutor group is or where

their locker is or where their last class is before lunch … However, there are a few popular

spots (Kevin, School counsellor, School A).

The popular spots in School A that Kevin, the school counsellor, referred to are two

café spaces on the first and ground levels. The café space on the first floor of the

building is easily accessible by three learning commons around it. It is at the

intersection of two main circulation routes in the first floor.

Fig 6.43. First floor plan of School A showing the location of café space in relation to three learning commons and two main circulation routes - Modified by the author on the plan obtained from Fisher (2003)

One side of the café space is a void overlooking the open gathering space on the

ground floor and the eastern external glass wall of the building.


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Fig 6.44. The café space in the first floor looking to the eastern external glass wall of the building - Author

Some features of the two café spaces in School A that turn them into examples of

students social spaces include:

1. Accessibility of food and drink: there is a microwave to warm up food in the café

areas. The café space on the ground level has also a fridge and a sink.

2. Furniture: There are a number of tables and chairs within the two café spaces. In

addition, a number of couches are scattered around these spaces.

3. Natural light and vistas: both café spaces enjoy good natural light. They have

vistas to outside spaces and also to the main gathering areas in the ground level in the

eastern part of the building.

Fig 6.45. The café area in the ground level of School A - Author


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With regard to students social spaces and the characteristics of spaces that influences

students’ preferences for these spaces, an issue pointed out by Cindy, an educator and

assistant principal in School R, is worth examining. She suggested that design features

and characteristics of a space may not always account for the popularity of a space

among students. ‘Relationship building’ is a factor that may explain why certain

spaces are frequented by certain groups of students. In her words:

Relationship building may account for that, that building a group, some of the kids find [it]

quite secure. For example a group of students who are doing a transition programme and

have a day in TAFE, a day in workplace environment and three days here are very attached

to their classroom and would do anything to be there … They've got a really strong sense of

a classroom group and having something in common. So they actually like to stay in their

classroom space (Cindy, Professional educator, School R).

6.1.8. Design to Support Cooperative Learning

Given the significant social consequences of cooperative learning, students working

together and sharing their learning, this type of learning was regarded to support

adolescent students’ needs for social integration.

Interviewees’ responses to the question of ‘how might the design of school spaces

facilitate cooperative learning?’ mainly revolved around two issues:

I. Size of spaces

II. Furniture and their arrangement.

Size of spaces was pointed out as a factor that significantly influences the success of

cooperative learning.

Some interviewees argued that splitting students in groups to learn cooperatively can

not be done easily in a small learning space. A learning space needs to be large

enough to be reconfigured easily and allow for various groupings of students if it is to

support cooperative learning:

A lot of classrooms don’t have the flexibility… they are too small. You can’t reconfigure

the classroom … for students learning in groups, sharing the learning process … Teachers


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need to spend more time walking and moving around classrooms (Graeme, School

principal).

Little chicken cube rooms that are too small [do not allow students] to push the tables

together, have a conversation and collaborate around their work. [This] then means that we

are locked in that old way of teachers' transmission of knowledge to children (Bruce, School

principal).

Other interviewees favouring the idea of larger learning spaces to support cooperative

learning argued that in a large learning space student groups can be distributed with

enough distance from each other. This means that a group of students working

together is unlikely to be distracted by another group working next to it. Moreover,

teachers are able to monitor and support students better by easily moving among

student groups:

[to support students working cooperatively, we need] space size that allows students to

work in small and large groups, to be able to get up and move to an area that is their area …

without disturbing the group that is working next to them…Spaces that allow teachers to

monitor the progress of individuals … by walking from group to group and still be able to

keep an eye on the whole class (Jayne, Professional educator, School A).

One architect interviewed also referred to form and layout of spaces as factors that

can support cooperation of students and teachers. He presented two examples that

were applied in practice. For the influence of form, he referred to the idea of the Fat

L-shaped classroom first introduced by James A. Dyck (1994). He argued that in the

L-shaped learning space a teacher “might be able to instruct everybody from the outer

corner of L but then they get two little pockets” on two sides of L (John, Architect).

The second example in one of the schools that the architect’s firm did demonstrated

the role of organization and layout of spaces in facilitating cooperative learning. This

learning space called Techno Cubby is composed of

… four rooms connected with a central space and each of them has operable walls …

corridor walls could also fold back … you could do cooperative learning across the corridor,

one room as a cell, a pair of classrooms and all four rooms together (John, Architect).


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Fig 6.46. Sketches from the L-shaped classroom and the Techno Cubby described by an architect interviewed - Author

Furniture and the seating arrangement were other factors recommended to be the

contribution of design in facilitating cooperative learning.

Form and size of school furniture need to allow student groups of different size to

sit and work together. A professional educator pointed out that the choice of furniture

in School R was intended to facilitate students being able to work together in

different-sized groups:

In junior school, there are desks bigger than individual desks. It was aimed for kids to be

able to move around and work as a group (Cindy, Professional educator, School R).

In School R, the size of rectangular tables allows for two students to work quite

comfortably. Setting these tables in pairs allows up to six students to work together. In

addition to the size, the simple rectangular form of these tables makes it possible to

arrange them in various configurations depending on different groupings of students

and tasks at hand.


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Fig 6.47. Three ways that tables in the middle school classrooms of School R can be reconfigured to accommodate various groupings of students - Author

In School C, similar attention was paid to the choice of furniture. Square tables

selected serve like a module and facilitate the reconfiguration of classrooms for

various groupings of students. A table can be used for a pair of students to work

together. Putting two tables together allows up to four students to work together. Four

tables set together can be used for a student group of up to eight.

Fig 6.48. The square tables in the classrooms of the senior students building in School C can be arranged for various groupings of students - Author

The school principal also noted that another positive side of square tables is impeding

‘subgroups’ to be formed when a big group of students are collaborating on a task:

…the square tables can be put in so many ways in mosaic shapes. You can have from a

very small group, one or two kids on a table, to quite large groups by putting two rows of

tables together…And you can have quite close groups…the group is not too far from each

other because if the table is quite big, what you get are subgroups at it (Ron, School

principal, School C).


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In School A, special consideration of the design of furniture to support cooperative

learning is manifested in semi-circular tables and computer desks. The semi-circular

tables in School A allow up to four students to work together. Putting two tables

together, up to six students are able to collaborate. A feature of the semi-circular

tables is that they are on wheels and can be shifted quickly to anywhere in the space

that students decide to work.

Fig 6.49. The semi-circular tables on wheels in School A that support students cooperative learning – Author, Fisher (2003)

The design of computer tables in School A is another example that demonstrates the

importance of furniture in supporting students working together. Each computer table

is composed of two parts. One part is a black table on which a computer is adjusted.

Another part is a white rectangular table that is longer and wider than the black table

but stands lower than it. The white table slides beneath the black table. The

combination of these two parts forms a work space that allows more than one student

to work around one computer at any one time. Both parts are on wheels and can be

moved around easily.


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Fig 6.50. Design of computer tables in school A facilitate cooperative learning - Author

Another example of furniture that facilitates cooperation among students was

observed in the resource centre of School M. They are bean-shaped tables that

facilitate maintaining eye contact among group members and lend themselves more to

discussion-type and cooperative activities. Nevertheless, putting a number of these

tables together in order to have larger groups is not easy. This may suggest

inflexibility of arrangements.

Fig 6.51. A schematic figure of a bean-shaped table, an image from the resource centre in School M with bean-shaped tables - Author

With regard to arrangement of furniture to support students’ cooperation,

interviewees recommended that seating arrangements should accommodate students

sitting together, facing each other and being able to converse.

To have the opportunity for cooperative and collaborative learning does mean that students

quite often need to get together … classrooms where the desks are lined up facing the front


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… is not a model for cooperative and collaborative learning. You need to be able to break

those spaces up and part of that is designed by the furniture (Jeff, Educational facilities

planner).

… seating arrangements that allows them to physically sit in a circle, face to each other, to

feel like they are in a group rather than sitting in a row (Jayne, Professional educator,

School A).

Using the computer as an example, when you have a series of them against the wall,

students work with the computers but collaboration is difficult. Whereas if you have a

cluster where the computers are around the table, you can get a group of people

collaborating there. So the linear benches against the wall is not a really conducive to

collaboration or group work … if you want group work, you typically need to be able to

have groups around either round or island tables … the furniture and arranging them is an

important part of the complete package to support the cooperative learning (Keith, Facilities

consultant of department of education).

In addition to size of spaces and furniture, three spatial qualities were suggested that

facilitate students learning cooperatively. They include

I. Openness of spaces or open plan

II. Visual connection

III. Flexibility.

Examples of openness of spaces or open plan which are manifested in Schools A

and C were pointed out by one architect (David, School C) and a school counsellor

(Kevin, School A) as a factor that supports cooperative learning:

Having spaces for students to move around and work in different spots of the room helps

manage the collaboration because students can leave apart. Because we have open spaces,

kids can move (Kevin, School counsellor, School A)

Visual connection or transparency between spaces for example between an

instructional space and a teacher’s office allows teachers to passively monitor and

support students if needed.


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One interviewee pointed to flexibility as an important factor in the current school

buildings policy of a Department of Education in one state of Australia:

One of the things across all of our design at the moment is that there is maximum flexibility

[which can be provided by means] like sliding walls, operable walls, rotating walls and a

whole range of techniques to avoid just simply having a whole series of boxes with single

doors which no one knows what's going on inside. So you can get more collaboration

(Keith, Facilities consultant of department of education).

The term ‘flexibility’ was used by another interviewee in describing a learning space

which does not have any fixture, either furniture or separating walls, so that the space

can easily be reconfigured for various groupings of students.

There is no fixture in neighbourhoods because when you put fixtures into a facility, it stops

you from being able to change the desks and chairs configuration to what you want … the

configuration of the middle school is very much flexible. (Ron, School principal, School C)

Other interviewees implicitly referred to ‘flexibility’ when pointing out spaces that

open up to create a bigger space as well as spaces that can be broken up into smaller

spaces in order to support various groupings of students.

[In the middle school part of the school] there are movable walls between classrooms so the

classrooms can be opened up and the kids can work in large spaces or with other groups

(Cindy, Professional educator, School R).

The role of technologies and some of their design-related considerations in supporting

cooperative learning was pointed out by some interviewees. Facilities such as data

projectors and smart boards as well as provision of spaces for presentation were

recommended to encourage cooperative learning. This is not only about assisting the

common practice of teachers’ giving lectures to students but also about students’

presenting to their peers and sharing their learning.


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Fig 6.52. The use of data projectors in a general learning space of School A - Author

Two meeting rooms observed in School A can be considered as a contribution of

design to support students’ cooperative learning. A group of students can have a quiet

space to work free from noise distraction. The glass sliding doors provide visual

connection to the outside of these spaces that helps students not to feel isolated from

the rest of the school community.

Fig 6.53. The two meeting rooms in School A that can be used by small groups of students who are working together on a task - Author


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6.2. Design to contribute to ‘schools that offer opportunities for developmental exploration’

The experience of ‘psychosocial moratorium’ or a period of exploring various

alternatives before making long-term commitments was identified as a factor common

to a significant number of adolescents’ identity formation theories. Educational

research suggested providing opportunities for adolescents to explore values, roles

and relationships as a way that educational environments and curricula can be

structured to support adolescents’ identity formation. Building on this theoretical

background, I defined availability of opportunities for developmental exploration as a

characteristic of schools that support adolescents’ identity formation.

But what forms might these opportunities for developmental exploration take in

schools? In what ways are they supported and created in schools?

Questions like this led to elaborating the factor ‘opportunities for developmental

exploration’ and placing it in educational contexts of schools in order to examine its

implications for school design.

Two key factors that support and broaden opportunities for adolescents’

developmental exploration were identified:

I. A school curriculum and school-based cocurricular programmes

II. Connections to the world outside a school (both actual and virtual connections).

Firstly, opportunities for exploration take the form of choices available in a school’s

curriculum. Connections with educational contexts outside a school such as other

schools, universities, local communities and industries also create and expand

opportunities for developmental exploration. Finally, Information and

Communication Technologies (ICTs) are means of broadening the scope of

exploring values, roles and relationships for adolescent students.


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In this section, drawing on the interviewees’ responses and school visits I explore the

ways that design of school physical spaces might support the mentioned forms and

manifestations of opportunities for developmental exploration.


programmes

When asked about ways to support adolescents’ identity formation in schools, there

was a dominant idea, either implied from or clearly stated, in interviewees’ responses.

The idea was that schools should provide opportunities such as music, sports and

dance for adolescents so that they develop knowledge about themselves and discover

their interests and abilities by experimenting with and through those opportunities.

… the notion of identity seems to be more contextual. Students learn about themselves and

how to relate to others through the various activities that they are engaging in here … the

students themselves do test that experience. They will try a musical instrument and enjoy it

… They will try dancing and learn about drama and being part of a team ... many times

students will try those things and then decide that's not the direction they want to go in … if

we believe in a holistic development of children, we need to expose them to a whole lot of

opportunities for personal growth and development (Graeme, School principal).

Interviewees suggested that opportunities to explore options and pathways need to be

provided in a school’s curriculum through various level of choices embedded in it.

When asked about the ways that opportunities for exploration might be provided for

adolescents, Jayne responded:

There are lots of pathways within the curriculum and students can pick one that suits their

learning approaches, meets their learning needs and matches some interests and career

pathways (Jayne, Professional educator, School A).

Jayne also elaborated on the various levels of choices that exist within the curriculum

of School A:

Offering students choices with regard to the topic of inquiry within a subject, approach to

learning and demonstrating learning. Providing choices in the approach to learning entails

providing students with a range of resources that they can use to help them understand the


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concepts. So they might be visual, they might be audio, they might be printed, they might be

hands-on practical activities (Jayne, Professional educator, School A).

In response to the question of ‘What might be learning experiences that support

adolescent students to know themselves better (in terms of abilities, skills, interests

and wishes) and explore a wide variety of pathways and opportunities?’, Cindy

pointed to the ‘realising potentials programme’ as part of the curriculum of School R:

It’s sort of relevant across our curriculum really … in ‘realising potentials’ which is where

the students get the opportunity to personalize their learning for themselves and start to

think about what are the things that, for one, they might have an interest in as a hobby, and

for two, it might build skills for them in the future in the pathway that they want to take

beyond their time in the school (Cindy, Professional educator, School R).

Adequate physical spaces were regarded as a requirement to support the curriculum,

opportunities and choices in it.

Provision of programmes like music, drama, sport and etc. is one way adolescents' needs

for developing their own independence and unique persona can be developed further.

Success of schools in doing so is partly dependent upon curriculum, the way that

curriculum is structured. Part of that has also to do with adequate physical spaces (Andrew,

Educational facilities planner).

It [increasing possibilities for developmental exploration] is really around how we

understand the curriculum should be and then [asking ourselves] does the space for

learning support that? So it really has to start with what a good curriculum design is, what

pedagogy should look like, how the assessment should look. That is the heart of it and then

constructed around [that is] how architecture and resources support that learning (Bruce,

School principal).

A basic contribution of design to the success of a school curriculum within which

opportunities and choices for adolescents are embedded was suggested as creating

different types of spaces for different activities and programmes:


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There needs to be places where students can have a small group meeting, where they can

have a lecture, where they can collaborate, where they can have some quiet time (Bruce,

School Principal).

Our realising potential areas are shaped to enable students with different interests and skills

to learn … for example the music room has large space where they can work like a whole

group and then they have sound rooms where students can go in smaller groups, like a band

of two or three kids, to work on a song or putting on a piece together … We have, within

the curriculum areas, different spaces that kids with different interests can work (Cindy,

Professional educator, School R).

The idea of creating different types of spaces for different activities and programmes

brought to the fore the concept of flexibility. It is inevitable that programmes and

activities change after a school is completely ready to operate. Some new programmes

may emerge and some may turn out not to work as it was hoped. This means that the

spaces that serve a school’s educational programmes and activities need to change. In

an architect’s words:

You don't know what the opportunities are going to be so often. This means that it's hard to

specifically design for opportunities you don't know what are going to be or emerge over

the time … it [addressing various opportunities in school design] comes more to the spaces

that could be used in a number of different ways. So in some ways we tend not to design

something very specifically for a set of functions because the design process is long and the

eventual school community is often not known when you are designing a brand new school.

If we design a space too specifically for one function and then that function doesn't occur

because they don't find people interested in and other reasons, you might find it too

constraining for someone to use the space in different ways (David, Architect, School C).

Keith, an educational facilities consultant in a Department of Education, points to

flexibility as one of the biggest drivers in the state school designs. He suggested the

changing needs and interests of cohorts of students as a reason for this policy. He also

referred to some implications of the emphasis on flexibility for design of school

spaces. In his words

you might have one group of kids who are more musically inclined. That might last for

three years and then these kids might go and the next ones want to dance. So you need to be


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able to cater for that without rebuilding … the fact that the programme should be based on

individual students' needs means that you need significant amount of flexibility so that you

can repurpose buildings … we try to put as few constraints as possible. [In a school

building this might mean] not to put load bearing walls in its spaces … [another example

might be] a performing art space with retractable seating … so the flexibility [created by

this means allows] … this space to be used flat for dancing or as a lecture theatre or

auditorium (Keith, Facilities consultant of department of education).

However, there were various views on how to achieve flexibility. One way was

recommended to be through the variety of spaces.

The flexibility of the senior school is about environment. Sometimes you need a straight

tutorial teacher directed type of instruction, you’ve got those spaces. Sometimes you need

quite open learning where kids can come and go, you’ve got those abilities to do that as well

(Ron, School principal, School C).

… Architect Herman Hertzberger [points out that] if you want to make a big long

rectangular room really flexible, put a great big lump 2 or 3 metres long in it. This means

you've got a series of spaces some of which are tighter, some bigger and some smaller. That

means you can inhabit it and use it in different kinds of ways ... if you have a number of

different types of spaces, you have provided for different opportunities ... for example you

say in this space here there is hot water and a sink and so we can get some coffee here …

there are some bean bags and couches out there so we can sit around and talk informally …

you might have another spot where you need to have an actual lecture theatre form of

approach ... So it is more about having varieties of spaces. I think you get flexibility through

variety of opportunities rather than through generic open space (David, Architect, School

C).

The idea of achieving flexibility through a variety of spaces is embodied in the model

of ‘Learning Suite’ that the Department of Education in Western Australia adopted for

senior schooling.

The Learning Suite is composed of a set of different learning spaces that are working

together. In Secondary School Planning Guide: A guide to the planning and design of

facilities for secondary schools in Western Australia, it is defined as follows:


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The Learning Suite is one solution to combining a range of learning and teaching

opportunities within a single, flexible arrangement of teaching spaces. A ‘suite’ is in effect a

group of different sized general spaces, particularly suited to Senior Schooling. Learning

Suites will provide a focal point for Curriculum Learning Areas which do not require

complex services other than information and communication technologies (The Education

Department of Western Australia 2002).

One example of the Learning Suite was observed in School M. The school’s architect

described this Learning suite as follows:

There are two classrooms that can open up so they can get team teaching happening here.

The classrooms can also be divided into single classrooms because if the teachers want to be

more contained, they wouldn’t feel as though they are kind of open. A computer room is

outside the group of classrooms so that students at any time can go and access the

computers … Different spatial components of a learning suite are visually connected but

they are not actually interconnected because … to have this variety of spaces … so that you

can have a variety of student groups, student numbers and different teaching styles (Dick,

Architect, School M).

Fig 6.54. A plan of School M showing the location of a ‘learning suite’ on the first floor - Modified by the author on the plan obtained from the Department of Education in a state in Australia

The part plan below shows the Learning Suite in School M. The Learning Suite

consists of two self-contained classrooms (the area in purple), two classrooms that can

open up and form a bigger space (the area in pink), two computer rooms each of

which accessible to two classrooms (the area in green) and two multi-purpose rooms

that can open up and turn into a bigger space (the area in orange).


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Fig 6.55. A part plan of School M showing the details of a ‘Learning Suite’ - Modified by the author on the plan obtained from the Department of Education in a state in Australia

A slightly different view to the way that flexibility is achieved was creating spaces

that can be used differently. In other words, flexible spaces were considered to be

those spaces that can be turned into various spaces.

The performing arts building in School R is a manifestation of this approach to

flexibility. The building consists of a commercial kitchen, three studio spaces, a

performing arts area and a number of music rooms. This space has the flexibility to be

reconfigured in different ways accommodating various activities. For example, the

foldable walls between three adjacent project studio spaces can slide aside and a hall

space for 600 people can be formed.

Fig 6.56. A plan of the performing arts building in School R - Modified by the author on the plan obtained from a school information brochure


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The image below shows a project studio space in the performing arts building in

School R. The space can be used both as a self-contained space by a class group and

be open up to its adjacent space to serve for larger groups of students or programmes

such as dance and performances.

Fig 6.57. A project studio space in the performing arts building in School R - Author

The plans in the Figure 6.58 show some of the many ways that the performing arts

building can be reconfigured.

Fig 6.58. Some ways that the performing art building in School R can be reconfigured - (Nair 2004)


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Cindy, an educator and assistant principal, implicitly referred to the view of flexibility

as creating spaces that can be used differently when describing the middle school

principal learning areas in School R as follows:

In the junior school, the classes can be opened up and work together. If the class is not next

door, you can open it up and have a larger space so your kids can split up a bit more. There

is a flexibility of either having a single class in a smaller space or open it up to a larger

space … there is also a shared space in the middle of those classes in which smaller group

working can happen or kids from different classes in that building can work together …

Within the senior school they do not have the capacity in all classrooms to open up doors

but what they do have is a hallway space that students and teachers can expand their

classrooms into that space (Cindy, Professional educator, School R).

Describing the flexibility of the middle school principal learning areas in School R,

Cindy also referred to two forms of spaces that contribute to the idea of flexibility by

providing additional potential for classroom spaces. They were shared common

spaces in the middle school and hallway spaces in the senior school.

An example of shared spaces that contribute to flexibility was observed in School C.

The space that is marked by red lines in the image below is a part of the circulation

space of the senior school building. It has significant potential to expand students’

opportunities for various learning experiences. The students can be engaging in team

projects or study individually. Data points provided in the walls of the space as well

as the red linear desk allow computers to be used. A sink, ample working surfaces and

some cupboards are also provided in this space for doing projects and wet activities.

Ron, a school principal, saw the necessity for this type of shared space or what he

called, “mini labs outside the classrooms”, as a result of the emphasis on “flexibility

in students’ mode of learning”. In his words:

So the senior school is built on the basis of having flexibility in students' mode of learning

… in senior years, the school mode of learning is one of the many providers of learning.

Therefore we have to provide mini labs outside the classrooms where kids can come and

go, still be connected to teachers and the classroom but not necessarily in the classroom ...

These mini labs are designed for those who might be doing two or three days work or TAFE

and then come into the school for two days (Ron, School principal, School C).


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Fig 6.59. Above: The first floor plan of the senior building of School C. The area marked by red lines is the shared space created in the circulation space - Modified by the author on the plan obtained from the school’s architect

Two images below: The shared space in the circulation area of the senior school building in School C - Department of Education of a state in Australia, Author


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Ron’s description of “having flexibility in students’ mode of learning” can be

interpreted as a manifestation of the availability of choices for students through

offering them opportunities to receive a part of their learning from other providers. A

design-related implication of this would be providing students with flexible spaces in

a school like the shared space or mini lab outside classrooms in School C.

Openness of a space was also mentioned as a factor contributing to the flexibility of

that space. In School A that has an open plan layout, the school counsellor viewed

openness and having large spaces without boundaries as qualities that make the

school’s spaces flexible for using for various purposes and activities. He describes

School A as follows:

The physical space is quite handy…Two classes can work together with two teachers and it

was quite easy to put 50 students together in a space and work with them as a whole group

because the space allows that…At other times it’s very handy to put kids back in their group

of 20 to 25 students and teach them as an individual class…The design of the building is

very flexible…we can work with groups quite flexibly and have smaller and larger groups

forming and reforming if we wanted. It’s quite easy to do because the space is quite large

and open. So it gives flexibility to use the space in whatever way is appropriate for the

teaching activity (Kevin, School counsellor, School A).

The benefit of flexibility through having an open plan layout that allows classrooms to

be open to each other for broadening adolescent students’ explorational opportunities

was also pointed out by Ron. In his words

… opening a classroom to more than one teacher allows you to have a variety of outcomes

that were not available to each one of those teachers. One outcome that starts to come out of

that is real world [experiences]. [For example if a task for students] is to design an

environmentally friendly house, to do that they need to have access to their science teacher

for the thermal properties, their social studies teacher for the environmental studies, their

design and technology teacher for construction, their maths teachers for building scale

model, calculation and etc … So by having an open learning environment where teachers

are working as teams, then you are opening up kids’ experiences to far more authentic

examples and because they are more authentic, the chances of learning increase. Doing this

authentic learning would require kids to work as individuals but also more as groups (Ron,

School principal, School C).


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The model of the Learning Suite, as referred in the Secondary School Planning Guide

document of the Department of Education of Western Australia, was regarded as

appropriate for those curriculum areas that do not need specific facilities. For

programmes such as music, sports as well as scientific inquiries, specialist facilities

are necessary.

The idea of achieving flexibility through spaces that can be used differently does not

tend to be easily applicable to programmes and activities that need specialist facilities.

A good example clarifying this point is the case of multi-purpose studios in the

middle school learning communities in School C. The multi-purpose studios were

designed hoping to act for some different programmes and subject areas. The concept

did not work as planned. In the school’s assistant principal’s words:

Multi-purpose studios were designed to do anything that is messy and dirty in them and

they ended up being good for nothing eventually because you couldn’t do anything in them

… you couldn’t do anything that required chemicals for science and then another group

coming to do some cooking immediately … so occupational health and safety came after a

while saying: no this isn’t kind of [thing that is] going to work (Colin, Assistant Principal,

School C).

Interviewees referred to the provision of appropriate specialist facilities as another

way to support a school curriculum rich in choices that aims at creating opportunities

for adolescents’ developmental exploration. Cindy while referring to ‘realising

potential programmes’ in School R, referred to specialist facilities that house them:

[Realising potential programmes happen in] music and a dance studio, café area which has a

commercial kitchen for teaching food technology, library space for some ICTs classes and

… main teaching spaces (Cindy, Professional educator, School R).

Cindy also alluded to a level of flexibility that exists in the specialist facilities of

School R. In her words:

Within our 'realising potential' areas, they're different spaces shaped to enable that … for

example the music room has a large space where they can work like a whole group and then


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there are sound rooms where students can work in smaller groups on a band with two or

three kids (Cindy, Professional educator, School R).

Another example demonstrating the idea of flexibility in specialist facilities referred

to by Cindy can be a performing arts space with retractable seating. This type of space

can act both as a theatre with audiences and an open space for dancing, sport

activities, aerobics and so on. The images below show two performing arts spaces

with retractable seating in Schools C and M.

Fig 6.60. The performing arts spaces in School C (above) and School M (below) with retractable seating in order to create a level of flexibility in these specialist facilities - Author

The idea of providing choices for adolescent students is embedded in an educational

strategy applied in School A. In this school two year groups, ten and eleven, are

learning and working together. This, as the school counsellor argued, can be a form of

choice and broaden adolescents’ scope of exploration:

Kids in year 10 and 11 work together here … Students at year 10 are able to tackle their

work at year 11 … So they have the option of experimenting with what year level they’re

working … a number of our year 10 students achieve part of the year 11 course work … So


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it gives them more flexibility at year 11 to become involved in broader projects (Kevin,

School Counsellor, School A).

Finally, an architect referred to getting distance from a faculty-based approach to

design of learning spaces in order to allow for “cross flow between curriculum areas”

as a way to expand learning opportunities and choices for students. He pointed out

that one of their design objectives was

to create a building that we actually push everything together and make it like a holistic

place of learning as opposed to a whole bunch of individual faculties spread apart …

traditionally schools in Western Australia have been designed as a series of individual

buildings where they are linked together with walkways or whatever. We believe that to be

able to create that adult environment why not make the building basically all one building,

one structure and why not try to get all the various curriculum areas [in one building in

order to get] the kind of cross flow between curriculum areas (Dick, Architect, School M).

6.2.2. Connections with educational contexts outside a school

In all the schools visited some form of connection to their communities existed. The

connections took various forms such as students going to workplaces to have work

experiences, using community expertise in a school, the programme to spend a few

hours once a week with elderly people in a residential age care facility and so on.

Among the schools visited, it is worth examining School A that has a slightly

different form of local community compared to the other schools. School A is located

in a university campus and the school does not have the local community in a sense

that other suburban schools might have. Jayne, a professional educator, pointed to

three forms of the school’s connection to the world outside. In her words:

Doing things with various community groups particularly happens through industry groups

… a lot of those are brought through the university partnership that we have … The other

strong connection for us is with other schools because of our professional learning

responsibility, we have an immense network that is across state, country and internationally.

That brings our students into contact with other schools, students and teachers … Every

year we have a science fair that we invite schools from around the world to join us … those


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connections aren’t because of our physical location within a suburb. It’s actually facilitated

because we are on the university campus (Jayne, Professional educator, School A).

For School A, the university plays a key role in broadening adolescents’ opportunities

for exploration. The students can benefit from its facilities and expertises. Jayne and

Kevin referred to this as follows:

Being on the university campus means that kids can link easily with people within the

university community … They can meet with scientists in their research laboratories. They

can access physical resources such as libraries and the gym. So there are some connections

with wider world that are easily made here (Jayne, Professional educator, School A).

We have about 8 to 10 elective programmes called ‘University Studies’ … where students

get to choose a whole range of different things … The university people and [those] who are

doing something for the university work with the students (Kevin, School counsellor,

School A).

Three key issues with regard to a school’s connections with educational contexts

outside it were identified from interviewees’ responses and site visits:

I. Location’ of a school site

II. Gathering spaces

III. Spatial qualities such as openness.

Interviewees’ responses provided evidence for the significant role that location of a

school site can play in expanding opportunities for exploration offering to adolescent

students. A school principal pointed out the way that the location of the school site

and inaccessibility of public transport discourage the school’s connections to the

world outside for example community service learning programmes and taking

students out to have a part of their learning outside the school (Graeme, School

Principal).

Gathering spaces were recommended by interviewees as another design-related

implication of schools’ connections to the world outside. In gathering spaces,

activities such as school assemblies, conferences and exhibition may take place. In


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addition, they allow local or international experts to be invited and give lectures or to

run educational activities.

An example of gathering spaces was observed in School A. The plan below shows the

location of this assembly area on the ground level of the school. Conferences, formal

school assemblies and informal gatherings can happen in this space. Attendants may

be standing around the perimeter of the void in the first floor of School A and

following a presentation or an event that is happening in the gathering area in the

ground level.

Fig 6.61. A plan and two images of School A showing the location of the assembly area - Modified by the author on the plan obtained from Fisher (2003), (Fisher 2003), author

Another example of gathering spaces in the service of a school’s connection to its

community and in general to the world outside in School C was examined earlier in

this chapter as an ‘incidental social gathering space’. This gathering space is created

by the stairs that connect two levels of the senior school building.

A B


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Fig 6.62. The gathering space in School C that functions for informal gathering, formal school assemblies, lectures and presentations - Department of Education and Training of a state in Australia

Spatial qualities such as openness that allow gatherings and exhibitions to happen in

schools are another issue to be considered. This was well embodied in the design of

School A. Kevin, the school’s counsellor, referred to the openness of spaces as a

quality that allows for easy resetting of the learning spaces to an exhibition space. In

his words:

We can run expositions in order to sell products that students designed to investors. Being a

big open space, we can set it up as an exposition by just putting a whole lot of pin boards

and computers through the spaces (Kevin, School counsellor, School A).

In almost all of the schools visited in the fieldwork stage and the initial pilot study of

this research, there were facilities that the schools’ local communities could use. One

could accept that this form of schools’ connections to their communities has

significant benefits for the local communities. However, the benefits are not merely


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limited to schools’ local communities. These connections can have positive impacts

on adolescent students’ learning experiences and broadening opportunities for

exploration.

The examples given by interviewees showed that involvement of a local community

in a school does not need to be for the purpose of educating adolescents to have

benefit for them. Sometimes the community might be doing something for the sake of

themselves that has significant educational and developmental explorational potential

for adolescents. A case in point is the example that Jeff, an educational planner,

referred to as follows:

In our more remote schools, regional schools particularly for indigenous students, for

example, we designed a school that community can come in for their music and arts

festivals. Two wings of the school are designed in a way so that one is for music celebration

and the other for visual arts…it's expected to have artists right in front of the school so

when you come in, it might be a giant painting happening … to try and take on in the school

some of the community interests in particular (Jeff, Educational facilities planner).

It is important to note that the issue of ‘management of community inclusion in

schools’ has significant impacts on the connections to the community and their

design-related provisions. An example to clarify this point is the way that the fitness

centre in School M is managed and run. The fitness centre in School M was let to an

external body that makes it available to the school’s local community and also

provides professional training for students. In the school’s architect’s words

[One part of the facility that] is used by the community is the fitness centre … [it is]

managed by a private enterprise and they run it after hours for the community use. But what

they also do is, as a part of the deal, twenty hours of the week students can book in their

lunch hours or after school to use this gym in a formal way trained by the professionals

(Dick, Architect, School M).

6.2.3. Integrating Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)

Reference to the role of ICTs in adolescent students’ learning and broadening

opportunities for them to explore the world was evident in almost all the interviews.


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Professional educators and school principals interviewed in almost all the schools

visited pointed to ICTs as educational tools that are being emphasised to connect

schools to the world beyond them. Examples of these connections were video

conferencing in order to bring certain expertise and educational programmes to

schools, facilitating collaboration of students with experts and people from other

settings outside a school, providing quick and easy access to information and so on. In

a school principal’s words

The idea of distribution of ICTs within our school is so that students can have access to

technologies at their fingertips to be able to undertake that type of collaboration with people

from other settings from outside the school. Increasingly our programmes reflect that type

of connection … (For example) in Xplore, the technology is there and the whole curriculum

has been designed around community partnerships, linking with the global community.

(One of these programmes is) a series of on-line conferences that year nine students

undertake with students from around the world on key topics (Bruce, School Principal).

When asked about ‘what might be the implications of integrating ICTs for design of

schools?’, a common response was that integration of ICTs into schools is not very

much a design-related issue. Interviewees viewed technological advancements and

ever-growing use of Wireless technologies as an explanation for that. Use of Wireless

networks and laptops in schools literally makes it possible for students to access

information regardless of where they are.

The whole school environment is wireless … So learning happens within any part of the

school environment. They can access information regardless of where they are. It could be

at lunch time sitting in sunlight, in the library or classrooms at any time (Graeme, School

principal).

Technology will develop to come to be more integrated into the learning environment … [in

the past there was a] computer box and hard wire that was a big thing … now what's

happening is that you may get a laptop and with a wireless environment, you can take them

anywhere (Dick, Architect, School M).

Wireless technologies seem to devalue the need for spaces designed for the sole

function of accessing technologies such as computer labs. Nevertheless, as


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interviewees’ responses and site visits showed, provision of appropriate spaces

throughout a school for working with computers and easily accessing information

is still regarded as important.

In relation to designing spaces for working with computers, some interviewees

suggested creative use of circulation spaces. Circulation spaces can serve for

functions other than the basic function of accommodating flows of people’s

movements. For example, computer nodes and alcoves may be integrated along the

corridors or circulation nodes.

In School M, an example of computer alcoves was observed. These computer alcoves

located outside the classrooms in the corridors are used by students for independent

research and provide quick and easy access to information.

Fig 6.63. The computer alcoves in School M - Author

Another translation of the idea of creative use of circulation spaces in the service of

integrating technologies in schools was applied in School C. Two linear desks were

placed in a corridor of the senior school building in order to provide access to

computers for students. However, as the images in Fig 6.66 show, the idea did not

work and there is no computer on the desks now. This was because of worries about

possible damage to computers when they are being used independently by students

and unsupervised by the school staff.


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Fig 6.64. A plan of the first floor of senior school building in School C. Areas bounded with orange lines are the two linear desks for computers within the circulation space outside the classrooms. Below are two images of the linear desks for computers in the corridor - modified by the author on the plan obtained from the school’s architect, author, Department of Education of a state in Australia

A

B


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A comparison between School M and School C (within which the idea about creative

use of circulation spaces was applied) brought to the fore subtleties in this regard.

Management of a school and the ways that its staff may decide to run things along

with the school culture and the degree of trust given to students all are factors to be

considered. Architects may design spaces like those in School M and School C but

they may end up not being used when the school starts operating.

Furniture and its arrangement are another issue with respect to the contribution of

design to integrating ICTs into schools. The special design of computer desks in

School A examined earlier in this chapter is a case point. Computers are on moveable

desks that can be moved around the school learning spaces and can be combined with

other tables. The sketches and an image below show the way that computer desks are

combined with semi-circular tables. Desktop computers can easily be dismissed when

they are no longer needed.

Fig 6.65. Two sketches and an image showing the way that computer desks can be combined with semi-circular tables and also dismissed when they are not necessary - (Fisher 2003)


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An architect interviewed also referred to the issue of furniture arrangement to be

considered:

In [a computer lab] … there is a computer area that is fairly tight and U-shaped environment

… students can do their work individually but then they can turn around and look at to the

[projector] screen (Dick, Architect, School M).

Jayne, a professional educator in School A, saw spreading out computers through a

school building instead of concentrating them in a computer lab as another design-

related implication of integrating technologies into schools. She describes the

implementation of this approach in the design of School A as follows:

[An implication of integrating ICTs for this school design is] a building design where desk

top computers are spread out through the building. They are not in [a] laboratory or special

room that is locked away and needs to be booked by teachers … students can turn around

and there is a computer. They don’t have to ask for the teacher’s permission to go to the

computer lab … That means at any point in time students are able to access the information

(Jayne, Professional educator, School A).

Consideration with regard to electricity points in order to have maximum flexibility in

dealing with ICTs was also pointed out by an architect as an implication of integrating

ICTs for school design. Referring to an earlier project, John pointed to this issue as

follows:

We elevated the floor above the ground so it meant that we could get unlimited access to the

entire campus from underneath the floor. So there was a high degree of flexibility (John,

Architect).

Finally, transparency was mentioned as a spatial quality that may have positive

impacts on the integration of ICTs in schools. In an architect’s words

It provides connectivity to students and teachers but also from the teachers’ point of view

creates some levels of surveillance. If a kid is going here and using the computer and they

aren't in the classroom, teachers can easily see what they are up to (Dick, Architect, School

M).


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The interviewees’ responses provided invaluable insights into the design-related

factors that might influence adolescents’ identity formation. Common themes could

be identified from the interviewees’ answers to the same questions in this regard (see

Appendix 3 for an outline of the key themes referred by interviewees). In addition,

exploration of the case study schools through the site visits and review of their

documentary data provided a clearer understanding of the common themes referred by

the interviewees.

For example, when asking about the ways that schools promote social interaction and

foster a sense of community, reference was made to ‘tutor group program’, ‘learning

community’ and ‘principal teaching model’ in three different case study schools.

Further inquiry revealed that the theme behind these slightly different strategies is

‘creating a situation where a small number of adolescents work with one teacher or a

team of teachers’. This key theme was explored in terms of design-related strategies

and features that might contribute to it (e.g. how might design of the school support

the effectiveness and success of its learning communities or tutor group programs?).

‘A cluster of classroom spaces that can open up to each other’ and ‘an open space

within which a number of class group spaces are loosely defined’ were examples of

the design-related features and strategies that were linked to the identified key theme

(see Appendix 4 for a brief list of design-related contributions to the key themes

found in the four case studies).

This part of the research inquiry suggested that there are certain guiding principles,

whether in relation to educational philosophies or design-related principles, common

to the schools studied that can be responded by different design-related strategies and

features depending on the specific context of every school. In the light of the findings

of this chapter, the literature reviewed in the earlier chapters was revisited and

interpreted. In the next chapter, the findings of the exploration of case studies and

interviews are integrated with the findings of the literature review and the themes

identified in this chapter are further developed and elaborated in a number of key

guiding principles that contribute to adolescents’ identity formation in many different

schools. .

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Chapter Seven

Discussion and Concluding remarks

7.1. Back to the main question, aim and research design

This research began with the question of ‘How might school design contribute to

adolescents’ identity formation?’. The aim was to examine the contributions of school

design to adolescents’ identity formation and suggest a number of design-related

factors and concepts that support this developmental process of adolescence. In doing

so, the research was framed within a qualitative inquiry integrating a review of

existing literature and a multiple case studies approach. Case studies, four secondary

schools in Australia, were examined as a part of a fieldwork process. This fieldwork

involved a review of national, state-level and school-level educational curricula and

policies documents, focused interviews with architects, educational facilities planners

and professional educators as well as site visits of selected schools. The diagram

below provides an outline of the design of this research.

Fig 7. 1. An outline of the research design – Author

Chapter Seven Discussion and Concluding Remarks

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7.2. From Theories of Adolescents’ Identity Formation and their Implications for Education to Two Characteristics of Schools that Support Adolescents’ Identity Formation

7.2.1. Central Theories and Empirical Studies of Adolescents’ Identity

Formation

A number of central theories of adolescents’ identity formation were reviewed. My

aim was to provide an interpretation of adolescents’ identity formation process within

school context that informs theory and practice of school design. Among various

theories and definitions of identity, I focused on ‘identity’ and ‘identity formation’ as

a developmental task of adolescence and in particular Erik Erikson’s (1968) theory.

The literature suggested three key processes and experiences involved in adolescents’

identity formation:

I. Separation or individuation process

II. Relational connectedness

III. Experience of psychosocial moratorium.

Separation or individuation process is considered a process marked by autonomy and

independence (Flum and Levi-Yudelevitch 2008). Conceptualising adolescence as the

second individuation process in an individual’s life, Peter Blos (1967) placed

significant emphasis on the importance of separation from parents in adolescents’ ego

identity development.

The literature reviewed suggested that adolescents’ supportive relationships with

significant adults play role in adolescents’ identity formation process. The importance

of relational context in identity development was borne out by Erikson’s (1968)

theory that recognizes the role of social context in the process of adolescents’ identity

formation and the studies on women’s identities (e.g. Gilligan, Lyons et al. 1990).

Adolescents’ identity formation process was shown to involve a complex interplay of

intrapsychic processes and interpersonal experiences (e.g. Marcia 1993; Guisinger and

Blatt 1994; Josselson 1994; Blatt and Blass 1996).


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‘Psychosocial moratorium’ is period during which adolescents are able to explore

identity-related alternatives before making any commitment and was regarded as a

crucial experience in adolescents’ identity formation (Erikson 1968; Marcia 1994;

Kroger 2007; Erikson 2008). It was also suggested as a starting point for intervention

with regard to adolescents’ identity formation (Marcia 1994).

7.2.2. Implication of Adolescents’ Identity Formation Theories for Education

The review of educational research concerning the ways that educational

environments and curricula can be structured to support identity development

revealed three common interrelated themes:

I. Creating Possibilities for Exploration of Identity-related Alternatives

II. Encouraging Relationship Building

III. Creating a Supportive School Environment.

Building upon Erikson’s (1968) notion of the experience of ‘psychosocial

moratorium’, some educational researchers considered creating possibilities for

exploring diverse values, roles and relationships as one main concern of schooling for

adolescents’ identity formation (e.g. Dreyer 1994; Nakkula 2003).

Offering ‘choices’ to adolescents (Dreyer 1994), paying special attention to

providing them with real-world work experiences in order to make informed

decisions about their future careers (Erikson 1968; Cooper 1998) and school-based

extracurricular programs as “a means to express and explore one’s identity”

(Feldman and Matjasko 2005) were issues considered in relation to this implication of

adolescents’ identity formation for schooling.

Schools that promote positive identity development were also regarded as valuing the

role of relationship building (Dreyer 1994; Nakkula 2003). The significance of

relationship building in adolescents’ identity formation was suggested to be linked

mainly to broadening the scope of ‘support’ for adolescents (Dreyer 1994; Stanton-

Salazar 1997; Phelan, Davidson et al. 1998; Nakkula 2003).


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Cooperative learning (Woolfolk Hoy, Demerath et al. 2001) and community service

learning (Youniss and Yates 1997; 1998; 1999; Woolfolk Hoy, Demerath et al. 2001;

Adams and Palijan 2004; Waterman 2004) were suggested as teaching approaches to

promote adolescents’ identity development the significance of which is linked to the

relational context of identity formation.

A supportive school environment was described as a school with “support systems

that connect students to other students, teachers, and the wider community” (Cotterell

2007, p.199). De-instituionalizing schools, humanizing curriculum, maintaining

connections between the school and its community and ensuring accessibility of staff

for students were referred to as factors that help in creating a supportive school

environment (Cotterell 2007).

7.2.3. Implication of Adolescents’ Identity Formation in the context of Australian

Education

In the context of Australian education, a review of six educational documents from

four Australian states government Department of Education20 demonstrated that issue

of adolescents’ identity formation was addressed in some ways. A number of common

adolescents’ needs addressed in relation to the process of identity formation in these

documents included:

The need for independence

The need for interdependence with peers and the significance of their

influences and supports in adolescents’ lives

The need to receive part of their learning in contexts outside their schools.

20 The documents reviewed included: - Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians - The Tasmanian Curriculum: Health and Wellbeing - South Australian Curriculum, Standards and Accountability Framework-Middle Years Band - South Australian Curriculum, Standards and Accountability Framework-Senior Years Band - Victorian Essential Learning Standards - Curriculum Framework for Kindergarten to Year 12 Education in Western Australia: Overarching Statements


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This suggested an alignment with the findings from central theories of identity

formation. In addition, these national and state-level curricula and educational policies

documents suggested implications of identity formation for education of adolescents

that were similar to the findings from the review of educational research in this

respect.

Creating a supportive school and classroom environment was found to be the first

key implication of the issue of identity formation for education of adolescents.

Descriptions of a supportive environment pointed out its relevance to the

individuation process and relational context of adolescents’ identity formation.

The individuation process and adolescents’ needs for enacting their autonomy and

independence were found in the reference to promoting personalised learning as an

implication of national educational goals. In state-level educational documents, the

idea of personalised learning was found to be implicitly referred to within a number of

educational objectives such as ‘valuing and respecting learners as individuals’,

‘acknowledging students’ needs for learning independently’ and ‘helping students to

develop an understanding of their potentials’. Personalised learning was also observed

to be rigorously practiced in two case studies, School A and School R, with slightly

different approaches.

With regard to the relational context of adolescents’ identity formation, an emphasis

on encouraging social interactions and building caring relationships among

students and their teachers was found in the documents examined. In addition, in

the curriculum documents of the four states examined, there was a focus on

cooperative learning and encouraging students to learn with other people.

The idea of ‘creating possibilities for exploration of identity alternatives’, a key theme

drawn from educational research, was referred to in the national educational goals in

such suggestions as providing opportunities for students to explore and build on

their gifts and talents, developing strong partnerships between schools and the

world outside and offering students a range of pathways (The Ministerial Council


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on Education Employment Training and Youth Affairs 2008). However, these

suggestions were not reflected or further elaborated in state-level curriculum

documents.

The Table 7.1 provides a summary of the outcome of reviewing the literature on

adolescents’ identity formation, educational research examining the implications of

this developmental process for schooling as well as national and state-level curricula

and educational policies documents in Australia.

Common Themes and Findings Key Factors Related Issues

Separation or Individuation

Relational connectedness Support

Adolescents’ identity

formation process

Psychosocial moratorium

Choices in curriculum

Real-world work experiences

Creating possibilities for exploration of identity alternatives

Extracurricular programs

Cooperative learning Encouraging relational connectedness community service learning

Implication of

adolescents’ identity

formation process for

schooling

(Literature)

Creating a supportive school culture

Personalised learning

Building caring relationships

A supportive school and classroom environment

Cooperative learning

Opportunities for students to explore and build on their gifts and talents

Stronger partnerships between schools and the world outside

Implication of

adolescents’ identity

formation process for

schooling

(National educational

goals and Curricula

documents from four

states of Australia) Offering a range of pathways

Table 7. 1. A summary of literature on adolescents’ identity formation and the educational documents from four Australian states government Department of Education - Author


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7.2.4. Two Characteristics of Schools that Support Adolescents’ Identity

Formation

I A supportive environment addressing adolescents’ needs for

individuation and social integration

Description of such a school environment is summarised as follows:

Every adolescent student feels known and valued as an autonomous and

independent individual.

Social interactions and encounters are encouraged.

A sense of community among school members is fostered. This means that

students, teachers and other staff feel that they are part of the school as a

community. In addition, students perceive accessibility of teachers’ and other

school staff’s support.

Cooperation among students and teachers is encouraged.

The school benefits from advantages of ‘smallness’ of the size of school or

classroom.

II Creating and offering adolescents opportunities for developmental

exploration

A number of ways to create opportunities for developmental exploration include:

Providing choices in a school curriculum and the school-based structured

extracurricular activities

Promoting schools’ connections to the world outside both physical

connections as well as virtual connections

♦ Connections to schools’ local communities, others schools and universities, industries and business as well as museums and libraries are forms of physical connections of the school to the world outside.

♦ Virtual connections to the world outside are achieved by means of incorporating Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) into schools.


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7.3. Emergence of Innovations Contributing to Adolescents’ Identity Formation within the Recent History of School Design

I reviewed major changes and innovations in design of schools in the past century in

order to identify those changes and innovations that related to the two characteristics

of schools that support adolescents’ identity formation.

This historical review began from some early forms of schools including one room

schools and schools that were a part of buildings such as churches or factories.

Among the common educational goals were making pupils literate and numerate,

instilling discipline and order. Spaces for learning were ignored as a trivial and

unimportant part of the equation or at best were applied to respond to those goals. The

seating arrangement that enacted a certain order, the sloping floor that could provide

surveillance for the teacher or master and placing windows above children’s sight

lines to reduce outside stimuli and distractions were among the design-related

manifestations of those educational goals.

Among the factors that led to increased interest in the role that school spaces, outdoor

areas and nature could play in children’s development was the emergence of radical

educational ideas. Some key drivers of many of these educational ideas were the new

knowledge about how children and young people learn best as well as the broadening

of educational goals that acknowledged the role of schools in socialisation and the

personal development of children. A common goal of many of these educational ideas

was broadening the traditional learning program (Hertzberger 2008).

Some of the most significant educational ideas were introduced by John Dewey. His

emphasis on a conception of schools as democratic and cooperative communities,

different experiences that students bring to schools with themselves and the necessity

of maintaining a balance between informal or incidental education and formal

education were associated with the introduction of changes in design of school spaces.

Addition of new spaces to school buildings, modifications to traditional classrooms as

well as opening up schools to the world outside were among the new design-related


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transformations (Dudek 2000; Hertzberger 2008). The new spaces added to school

buildings included spaces for hands-on learning such as laboratories, workshops,

gymnasiums and art studios. Attention to individual students’ needs and the diversity

and differences that they brought to school with themselves showed itself in offering

students and their teachers more freedom and options for ways of learning and

teaching in classroom spaces. In addition, the classrooms that were once enclosed and

self-contained began to open up to the outside as seen in examples of open air

schools.

Many of the changes that appeared were still limited to few alternative schools and

had not yet found their place in public schools. Rethinking the basic assumptions

about what education is about was still far from being wholly achieved. Even the

emergence of the Modern movement in architecture could not succeed in significant

rethinking of these assumptions. Generally, in modernist school buildings, no

significant change to the internal arrangement of schools and no attempt at loosening

up the boundaries of self-contained classrooms were observed (Hertzberger 2008).

Nevertheless, an important trend that evolved within the modernist movement was the

decrease in the formality and rigidity of school buildings. This trend was reflected in

more relaxed plans and spaces that were well-lit. Although classrooms as enclosed

self-contained entities isolated from each other were still the primary element of

school design, a move from structuring the classrooms in a single building around a

corridor to more village-like site plans was developed.

It was in open-space schools that the traditional internal arrangement of classrooms

was significantly challenged. Among the educational drivers of this spatial

transformation were heightened awareness about individual students’ differences, the

importance of freedom and independence in learning process and the emphasis on

students as active participants. One way to respond to the challenge of new

educational demands was regarded to be through school spaces that were flexible and

offered many opportunities. Openness and lack of physical barriers in a space were

considered to contribute to the purpose of flexibility and offering many opportunities.


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Some outcomes of open-space schools were suggested as encouraging interactions

among teachers and pupils, offering more freedom to teachers and pupils, supporting

flexible programming, team teaching, variably-sized and rapidly changing learner

grouping patterns and individualised learning (Educational Facilities Laboratories

1965; George 1975). In addition, open-space schools could foster a greater sense of

community thanks to “a view of each other and each other’s work” (Hertzberger

2008).

The noise issue and some teachers’ inability to adapt to changes were stated among

the reasons that explained why walls were erected in what were once completely open

spaces of these schools. Nevertheless, it can be argued that the complete openness and

lack of physical barriers could impose some forms of inflexibility. There were

probably times when a group of students and their teachers needed an enclosed space

for certain quiet or even noisy and messy activities that could not be accommodated in

an open space. A solution to the inflexibility of openness could be observed in

refinements on the basic theme of open-space schools such as using interior partitions

and clustering open spaces with separate special-purpose areas of various types and

sizes (Educational Facilities Laboratories 1965).

The educational drivers of the spatial innovations in open-space schools including

offering freedom to students and teachers, attending to individual student needs and

facilitating flexibility in terms of student groupings and activities they are engaged in

continued to influence school and classroom design in years to come. This influence

was observed in classroom spaces that became more articulated in the school

buildings of coming years. Examples could be seen in schools designed by Hans

Sharoun where classrooms moved away from the rigid and formal nature of

rectangular, unarticulated conventional classrooms and took the form of a little flat

with various spaces to accommodate certain functions. A similar approach was

adopted in the L-shaped classrooms of Herman Hertzberger’s schools.

Alongside the increasing interest in modifying classroom spaces and introducing new

spaces other than classrooms in order to offer students and teachers more


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opportunities and freedom, a social approach to design of schools emerged. In this

social approach to school design, the role of schools in the socialisation of children

and young people received significant attention. An important concept in this regard

with significant implications for design of school spaces was the concept of schools

with “a mediating function between individual and society as well as between family

and city” (Syring and Kirschenmann 2004, p.57). This social approach to school

design was reflected in incorporating social spaces for students to mingle with each

other into schools and paying attention to defining a hierarchy of spaces in a school

from private to public spaces.

Social spaces were incorporated into schools in two main ways. An assembly hall or a

theatre as a social centre of a school as well as a communal hall shared by a number

of classrooms were examples of one way of dealing with social spaces in schools.

Another way that social spaces were introduced into schools was through circulation

spaces. This meant viewing circulation spaces more than merely serving as passages

or corridors linking spaces. Instead, circulation spaces were designed in the service of

social interactions among school members.

The social approach to school design culminated in Herman Hertzberger’s designs.

He acknowledged the potential of the organisation and details suggested by the built

form of schools in enhancing social interactions. In addition to paying attention to

creating a central hall as a school social hub and benefiting from the potential of

circulation spaces, Hertzberger acknowledged the role of maintaining visual

connections in fostering a sense of school community and enhancing a school’s social

life. A design-related implication of maintaining visual connections was the ‘split-

level’ design in order to maximise views and providing “a point of attachment”



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7.4. A Study of Current Research and Practice of School Design in Search for Contributions to Adolescents’ Identity Formation

Alongside the brief historical review of school design, I examined research and

studies in environmental psychology and architecture, educational research that

addressed design-related issues as well as exemplary practices of school design. The

focus of this exploration was the ways that the two characteristics of schools that

support adolescents’ identity formation, ‘a supportive environment addressing

individuation and social integration’ and ‘offering opportunities for developmental

exploration’, were translated into the language of design.

With regard to the characteristic of ‘a supportive environment addressing

individuation and social integration’, a number of key topics were examined

including:

Privacy and personalisation

Social interactions among students and teachers

The idea of smallness

Accessibility of teachers and other staff

Cooperative learning.

The significance of privacy for identity formation was found to be in relation to

adolescents’ needs for individuation and social integration. A function of privacy

conceptualised as “selective control of access to the self or to one’s group” (Altman

1975 , p.18) was suggested to be the development and maintenance of self-identity

and personal autonomy (e.g. Westin 1970; Simmel 1971; Altman 1975; Wolfe and

Laufer 1975).

Designing “responsive environments” that allow for “easy alteration between a state

of separateness and a state of togetherness” was suggested as one way that design can

respond to individuals’ privacy needs (Altman 1975, pp.207-208). Maintaining ‘visual

connection’ in ‘solitude spaces’ such as privacy booths (Weinstein 1982), openness


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of spaces and lack of significant physical boundaries as seen in open-space schools

(Brunetti 1972) were also referred as two spatial qualities that support students’

privacy needs.

Personalisation as a form of territorial behaviour by which individuals make use of

their personal belongings in order to demarcate and defend their territories, regulate

their privacy needs and achieve their desired level of social interactions (Altman

1975) was also examined.

Studies of personalisation suggested a number of design-related factors that support

students in personalising their schools’ spaces. Two basic implications of

personalisation for school design were referred to as ‘personal workstations’ for

students (Fiske 1995; Brubaker, Bordwell et al. 1998; FieldingNair International

2006) and ‘home-bases’ for student groups (Hertzberger 2008). Social spaces in

schools where adolescents are able to gather and engage in stimulating activities,

conversation and exploration of ideas support fostering perception of being in a

personalised school environment (Sanoff 1993). ‘Display surfaces/ spaces’ for works

and items that are meaningful for students (Sanoff 1993) also allow them to

personalise their school’s spaces. Finally, the principle of ‘flexibility’, instead of

designing rigid spaces that leave little room for users to personalise their

surroundings, was regarded as an overarching implication of personalisation for

design. Bookshelves and tackable surfaces on which users’ personal items can be

placed are elements to achieve a basic level of flexibility in this sense (Wells 2000).

A number of design-related factors were identified to play a role in encouraging

social interactions among students and teachers. One of these design-related

factors was creative design of circulation spaces to turn them into social spaces

besides their basic function of accommodating flows of people’s movement

(Department for Education and Skills 2002; Tanner and Lackney 2006; Hertzberger

2008). Spatial layout of a school building was another factor that has impacts on

contacts, encounters and interactions among students and teachers. In this regard,

“layouts, with higher accessibility, shorter and direct walking distances, and highly


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visible public spaces” were found to encourage “higher rates of incidental interactions

among students” (Pasalar 2003). The two main relational spaces of ‘street’ and

‘square’ in a city were also proposed as models for thinking about social spaces in

schools (Hertzberger 2008). A suggestion in this regard was designing big, open and

accessible gathering spaces in schools that act as a form of ‘square’ type spaces in

drawing people together (Moore and Lackney 1994; OCED 2006; Tanner and

Lackney 2006). Finally, maintaining people’s views of each other or ‘visual relations’

was suggested as a design-related issue that supports social interactions in schools

(Hertzberger 2008).

Drawing on the research on school size, smallness of school or classroom size was

argued to contribute to the emergence of a supportive school environment. Three key

design responses to the idea of smallness were found to be clustering classroom

spaces into small suites (Moore and Lackney 1995; Butin 2000), creating small

learning communities and neighbourhoods (Bickford and Wright 2006) and schools-

within-a-school (Brubaker, Bordwell et al. 1998; Davies 2005; Beard, Davies et al.

2006; Davies 2008).

With regard to the topic of accessibility of teachers and other supportive school

staff, the existing literature and practice of school design pointed out a number of

design-related factors. They included the location of teachers’ offices in relation to

learning spaces and main public spaces of a school, places for social mingling of

students and teachers (Cotterell 2007) as well as spatial qualities such as openness and

transparency of these offices (Hertzberger 2008).

Existing research and studies suggested a number of design-related factors that

support cooperative learning. They included moveable furniture (Bruffee 1999;

Graetz and Goliber 2002 ) and arrangements that allow individuals to face each other

and sit close to each other with ample space among them for free movement (Bickford

and Wright 2006) as well as ‘spatial density’ or the number of people occupying a

space (Graetz and Goliber 2002 ). The Table AP2.1 in Appendix 2 provides a

summary of the design-related factors suggested in the current research and practice


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of school design that contribute to creating a supportive school environment

addressing adolescents’ needs for individuation and social integration.

Key topics examined in relation to the second characteristic of schools that support

adolescents’ identity formation, offering opportunities for developmental

exploration, included:

A school curriculum and school-based cocurricular programmes

Developing schools connections with their local community and other

educational providers

Integration of ICTs into schools.

Three design-related issues and concepts were found to contribute to a school formal

curriculum and cocurricular programmes in three main ways. They include design of

specialist facilities (Department for Education and Skills 2002; Commission for

Architecture and the Built Environment 2007), flexibility (Department for Education

and Skills 2002; Department of Education and Early Childhood Development Victoria

2009) and considerations with regard to outdoor spaces and school grounds

(Department for Education and Skills 2006; Commission for Architecture and the

Built Environment 2007; Department of Education and Early Childhood Development

Victoria 2009).

Two main design-related factors were proposed to influence connections of schools

with their local communities and other educational providers. They included open and

accessible spaces for public gatherings (Graves 1993; Brubaker, Bordwell et al. 1998;

Bingler, Quinn et al. 2003) and location of a school within a network of key

neighbouring educational contexts and with regard to access to public transportation.

Integration of ICTs into schools as a means of virtually connecting schools to the

world outside was the last topic examined in relation to offering opportunities for

developmental exploration. A design-related factor influencing the integration of ICTs

into schools was suggested to be additional areas to classrooms, ample wiring for


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voice, video and data capabilities (e.g. Butin 2000; North Carolina Department of

Public Instruction 2002). Furniture (Dolan 2003 cited in Rogers 2005) was also

referred as another design-related factor. Finally, flexibility was suggested as a key

implication of integrating technologies into schools for design in a broader sense

(Ehrenkrantz 2000; Rogers 2005). The Table AP2.2 in Appendix 2 provides a

summary of the design-related factors examined in relation to offering opportunities

for developmental exploration.

7.5. A Snapshot of Exemplary Practice of School Design in Australia in Search for Contributions to Adolescents’ Identity Formation

Fieldwork complemented the two categories of literature review in this research. The

aim of the fieldwork composed of interviews, site visits and review of a number of

curriculum and policy documents of departments of education was placing the inquiry

in the context of Australian education and school design practices. The structure of

inquiry in the fieldwork process was similar to that of the literature review. It started

from the two qualities of ‘a supportive school environment addressing individuation

and social integration’ and ‘offering opportunities for developmental exploration’

with their associated topics.

A summary of the common themes and design-related factors suggested in interviews

and their applications observed in case studies is outlined in the Tables AP4.1 and

AP4.2 in Appendix 4.

7.6. From Integrating and Synthesis of the Findings to Defining Five Design Principles that Contribute to Adolescents’ Identity Formation

Five design principles were derived from integrating and synthesis of the findings of

the literature review and the fieldwork of this research that contribute to adolescents’

identity formation. The complexity of adolescents’ identity formation that involves

the confluence of a variety of intrapersonal and interpersonal factors as well as social


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and cultural contexts does not allow to draw specific and detailed suggestions about

design-related responses. Given this, the suggestions here are general design

principles that can be applied and interpreted with different approaches in different

contexts.

The five design principles that I further elaborate and argue for in the following pages

include

1. Downsizing schools / Design to support the idea of smallness

2. Designing social spaces

3. School furniture and its arrangement

4. Maximising flexibility

5. Promoting transparency.

7.6.1. Downsizing Schools / Design to Support the Idea of Smallness

The idea of smallness of schools was found to be a contributing factor to a supportive

school environment. When a small group of students and teachers interact and spend a

significant amount of time together, students find a greater chance of being known as

individuals. Downsizing schools also contributes to social relationships among

students and between students and their teachers. In addition, smallness can positively

influences the amount and availability of teachers’ supports for students.

There is not a general agreement about how many students and teachers would make a

small group. However, this does not affect the design principle of downsizing schools.

The point here is considering the ways through which design supports the idea of

smallness of school size.

The research and practice of school design suggested a number of design-related

strategies that contribute to downsizing schools. They included ‘clusters of

classrooms’(Moore and Lackney 1995; Butin 2000), learning community (Bickford

and Wright 2006) and schools-within-a-school (Brubaker, Bordwell et al. 1998;

Davies 2005; Beard, Davies et al. 2006; Davies 2008).


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Similar strategies were referred to by interviewees and observed in case studies. One

of the common themes of interviewees’ responses about the ways that school design

can contribute to the idea of smallness was ‘fostering ownership and belongingness to

a particular space’. Two design responses to this theme were suggested by

interviewees:

I. Designing a cluster of classroom spaces that can open up to each other

II. Designing an open space within which a number of class group spaces are loosely

defined.

The two design responses were practiced in two case studies, Schools R and C.

Slightly different design-related strategies to support the idea of smallness were

observed in Schools R and C. In School R, subdividing the middle school into three

‘principal learning areas’ each of which is composed of four interconnected

classrooms, an office space for teachers and two resource spaces was the way that

design contributed to the idea of smallness. In School C, this was achieved through

subdividing the middle school into four ‘learning neighbourhoods’. Each learning

neighbourhood has spaces such as teachers’ offices, resource spaces and a quiet

corner for students’ retreat. Nevertheless, an open space shared by four groups of

students substituted for the four defined classrooms that can open up to each other in

School R.

Observation of the case studies also suggested that the idea of smallness appears to be

more of a focus of attention for younger adolescents or students in middle years of

schooling than for senior years students.

7.6.2. Designing Social Spaces

What is called ‘social space’ is a space within which interpersonal interactions are

happening. A group of students who are hanging out in a space during a break time,

some students who are having an informal discussion with their teacher or tutor on a

course-related issue, two or three students who are chatting in a quiet corner of a

school and a group of students, parents, teachers and other school staff who are


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mingling after or before a school event such as a parents night, a lecture and a

presentation all are snapviews of what may be happening in a social space.

Social spaces were found to play a significant role in some of the processes involved

in adolescents’ identity formation. The importance of social spaces in schools was

regarded to be linked to the adolescents’ needs for individuation and social integration

as well as encouraging adolescents’ developmental exploration in the realm of roles,

values and relationships.

The brief history of school design showed the emergence of attention to the social role

of schools. Incorporation of social spaces into schools was found to be an important

manifestation of this social approach to school design.

A great number of suggestions about creating social spaces for students and teachers

to gather in order to encourage social interactions among them was also found within

the research and practice of school design (e.g. Moore and Lackney 1994; DfES 2002;

OCED 2006; Tanner and Lackney 2006; Hertzberger 2008) as well as the findings of

this research fieldwork.

The role of social spaces within which adolescent students are able to mingle and

hang out was referred to in fostering perception of a personalised school environment

(Sanoff 1993). Educators and architects interviewed shared the common belief that

the mere presence of a café type space where a group of students and teachers are

mingling in a comfortable and relaxed environment can help to reduce the

institutional feel to a school.

In addition to supporting social interactions in schools and contributing to the

relational context of adolescents’ identity formation, social spaces contribute to ‘a

school as a context offering opportunities for developmental exploration’. The

contributions of social spaces in this respect were regarded to be through supporting

connections of schools to the world outside in particular their local communities,


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businesses and industries (Graves 1993; Brubaker, Bordwell et al. 1998; Bingler,

Quinn et al. 2003).

An example of social spaces that support a school’s connections to the world outside

and in turn broaden opportunities for adolescents’ developmental exploration was

observed in the entrance atrium space of School M. This public gathering open space

acted as a point of reference for school members and the local community. Another

example was the assembly area of School A where students’ presentations, guest

lectures, parent nights and other forms of social and educational events connecting

students to the world outside school and encouraging their exploration in the realm of

roles, values and relationships could occur.

What was discussed suggests that social spaces can be thought of in terms of different

scales from a small corner of a common space shared by some classrooms to a large

atrium space in the heart of a school building. Social spaces also cover various forms

of spaces in schools for informal and formal gatherings of individuals. Creating such

social spaces in schools may not need complicated design. A social space may simply

be defined in a corner of an open learning space by placement of some comfortable

couches.

An important issue with regard to the design of a school’s social spaces that needs to

be considered by architects and others involved in the design of and decision-making

about school buildings is developing a clear understanding and knowledge of the

school’s everyday life, its students’ certain needs, social and cultural backgrounds as

well as attributes and needs of its local community.

One aspect of attending to adolescent students’ needs deals with the subtle yet

important issue of gender. The issue of gender and particular needs of boys and girls

for social interaction particularly come to the fore when designing for ‘student social

spaces’21. This requires further studies to investigate adolescent girls’ and boys’

21 ‘Student social space’ was defined as a subcategory of social spaces where students can take it over, “hang out” and mingle with each other.


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particular needs and characteristics as well as their specific preferences for spaces to

‘hang out’ and factors that influence these preferences. Age is another aspect of

attending to adolescent students’ specific needs that influences their preferences for

social spaces and the ways that they use those spaces.

Drawing on a number of responses from educators interviewed and observations of

case studies in the course of this research, some ideas may be developed with regard

to the influence of adolescents’ gender and age on their preferences for social spaces

in schools and the use of those spaces. One idea is that adolescent girls may prefer

quiet corners of schools away from the coming and going of people to sit and chat

with close friends. Another idea with regard to the influence of age is that younger

adolescents or middle year students may be more active and tend to be walking in

groups during the break time whereas older adolescents or senior year students may

prefer to sit, chat and ‘hang out’.

Further investigations are necessary to closely examine the impacts of adolescent

students’ gender and age along with their implications for planning and designing

social spaces in schools. A deep investigation as such not only relies on evidence from

plans, photographs and observations but also includes adolescent students’ voices and

takes their lived experiences and perceptions of school spaces into account.

The current research found that circulation spaces in schools can act as a significant

form of social spaces. With regard to the potential of circulation spaces to act as social

spaces, ‘views’ to outside, natural surrounding and even inside a school building as

well as built-in ‘furniture’ are two important factors.

Finally, the schools’ management systems and organisational rules are issues that

need to be considered in relation to design of social spaces. The case of School C

showed that certain school rules that require students to leave the buildings during the

break time leave much of the potential of indoor social spaces unused.


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7.6.3. Maximising Flexibility

Flexibility was found to be another design-related theme that supports the process of

adolescents’ identity formation in schools.

A single definition of flexibility does not cover all dimensions of this complicated

concept. In order to elaborate the concept of flexibility and its manifestations in

design of school spaces, I present some of the common outcomes of flexibility,

approaches to it and suggested ways of achieving it in this section.

Achieving flexibility was identified to be a key driver of changes in and

transformations of school buildings throughout the recent history of school design.

The attempts to achieve flexibility were observed in radical changes of open-space

schools as well as in self-contained and isolated classrooms that began to turn into

more articulated spaces.

In the current research and practice of school design, within responses of educators

and architects interviewed and in a number of educational facilities documents of the

Departments of Education in Australian states, the term ‘flexibility’ also appeared

recurrently. Reviewing these references to the term ‘flexibility’, two common

outcomes of incorporating flexibility into school design were identified.

The first outcome of incorporating flexibility into school design has to do with the

ease and quickness of alterations to school spaces. In other words, flexibility allows

various activities and programs to be taking place in a space with comparatively easy

and subtle alterations to the space. For example, reconfiguring a classroom space from

an arrangement of parallel rows of tables and chairs into an arrangement that allows

groups of students working together around a number of tables is a snapshot of what

may be happening in a flexible space. Offering users choices to be selected from and

control in dealing with spaces were found to be the second common outcome of

incorporating flexibility into school spaces.


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In relation to the characteristic of ‘a supportive school environment addressing

individuation and social integration’, incorporating flexibility into design of spaces

was proposed as a main implication of supporting individuals’ privacy needs as well

as allowing them to personalise the spaces where they work and learn (e.g. Altman

1975; Wells 2000). By allowing users of a space to have a degree of control over the

space, flexibility supports their personalisation needs. Flexibility in this sense is

associated with a fewer fixed and limiting elements as possible if users are to be able

to modify the space and personalise it. In other words, in such a flexible space one

would expect moveable furniture and modifiable elements such as tackable surfaces.

With regard to the quality of ‘school as a context offering opportunities for

developmental exploration’, flexibility was mentioned as a design-related factor

supporting a school curriculum and school-based cocurricular programmes. With this

regard, the size and shape of a school space as well as access to necessary resources

including ICTs were referred to as factors that influence the degree of flexibility of

the school space. Flexibility was also suggested as a contribution of design to virtual

connections of schools to the world outside through ICTs.

Adopting different approaches to flexibility, educators and designers interviewed

revealed various dimensions of this complicated concept. Two main approaches to

flexibility and ways of achieving it were identified:

1. Achieving flexibility through a variety of spaces

2. Achieving flexibility through a space capable of turning into different spaces.

Some viewed flexibility in terms of designing a variety of spaces for different

activities. The model of ‘Learning Suite’ proposed by the department of education in

one state of Australia quite well embodied this reading of flexibility. The model is a

unit composed of a number of spaces of different sizes designed to be used for various

activities and programs.

Another approach to flexibility is designing spaces that can be altered into different

spaces. This reading of flexibility is associated with moveable partitions and operable


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walls. In relation to this approach to flexibility, a general rule is thinking about ways

of increasing mobility. This rule can have implications for the structural and service

systems of a school building. For example, electricity points may need to be set in

floor or ceiling to maximise the mobility of computers. A structural system that needs

fewer vertical elements such as columns and load-bearing walls may be more

favourable as well.

Two design attributes of ‘openness of spaces’ and ‘fewer number of fixed

architectural elements’ are relevant to the mentioned ways of achieving flexibility. In

open-space schools of the 1960s and 1970s, openness was regarded as a design

feature that contributes to more freedom and choices for students and teachers that

suggested to be two outcomes of flexibility (Kliment and Perkins 2000). In one of the

case studies of this research, School A, the openness of spaces and the open plan

layout of the school building were referred to by the two interviewees as a design

feature conducive to flexibility.

The number of fixed architectural elements in a space is another factor that influences

flexibility of the space. The fewer fixed elements such as walls and columns are

placed in a space, the more flexible the space can be. Examples demonstrating the

application and outcomes of this idea were observed in the case studies. The

performance arts space in School R was a good example of a space that turns into

spaces of different sizes by folding in or out of operable walls. The use of retractable

seating in performance arts spaces of School M and School C also reflected this idea.

The spaces acted as theatre-like spaces accommodating audiences and serving for

students’ performances. Pushing retractable seating aside, open spaces for programs

such as aerobics and dancing could be created.

Mobile furniture also makes significant contributions to flexible qualities of a space.

One step in creating a flexible space may be avoiding fixed furniture. An example in

the historical review of school design that showed the difficulties with regard to fixed

furniture was Amsterdam Orphanage designed by Aldo Van Eyck. One of the factors

that accounted for dissatisfaction of educators with the spaces was suggested to be


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fixed equipment. The educators found the fixed equipment limiting for their

pedagogical creativity. Another example of the problem associated with fixed

furniture was observed in School C. A number of linear desks for computers designed

in the corridor of the senior building were envisaged to serve for students’

independent learning outside the classrooms. However, from the viewpoint of the

school management this was regarded to be problematic in terms of damage to

computers and the issue of duty of care or surveillance of students. Given this, the

school decided not to place computers on the desks and they are currently unused.

While it is important to reduce fixed elements in a space and not to overdesign the

space, an empty generic space will not also act as a flexible space. It is necessary to

provide some ‘spatial clues’ for users about how to use a space if the space is to be

flexible and allow them to modify it based on their changing needs. Moreover, it is

also important that students and particularly teachers have a degree of knowledge and

awareness of how a space works and what may be its potential. Without this ‘spatial

knowledge and awareness’ students and teachers are fixed into a few basic and taken-

for-granted configurations of a space and unable to make minor changes to the space

to appropriate it for their task at hand.

7.6.4. School Furniture and its Arrangement

School furniture and how it is arranged were found to be another design-related

contribution to adolescents’ identity formation.

The significance of school furniture for adolescents’ identity formation was found to

be particularly relevant to the characteristic of ‘a supportive school environment

addressing individuation and social integration’. Furniture was mentioned as a factor

that impacts on students’ privacy needs and personalisation, social interactions and

cooperative learning in schools.

The role of furniture in supporting adolescent students’ privacy needs and

personalisation could clearly be observed in the idea of giving every student a


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personal workstation (Fiske 1995; Brubaker, Bordwell et al. 1998; FieldingNair

International 2006; Hertzberger 2008). For example, in the idea of the ‘iPad’ that

gives a group of students and their teachers a home base, the key innovation was

reflected in the design of an individual desk (FieldingNair International 2006).

While the idea of an individual desk or a personal workstation for every student was

advocated in the existing literature and applied in some schools, my fieldwork

suggested the need for further research on this idea. This suggestion is drawn from the

different ways that individual desks were accepted and used by students in two case

studies of Schools R and A. While in School R signs of personalisation of individual

desks by students were observed, in School A individual desks were left without any

sign of personalisation by students.

Further research into the role of individual desks or personal workstations in

supporting privacy needs and personalisation needs to take adolescent students’ views

into account. Some questions that would be useful to investigate include: What do

adolescents think about having a personal desk in their schools?, How do adolescents

use their personal desks in schools where the idea is practiced?, How does the idea of

a personal workstation work effectively?, and What may be the constraints on the way

of personalising individual workstations?

In addition, a further investigation is required to examine certain rules and

management issues of schools that might influence the ways that students use and

perceive their personal desks. For example, in School R where students had

personalised their desks and appeared to feel a degree of ownership of them, there was

a policy on personalisation of individual desks. The policy stated that “students have

ownership of the desk and with the teacher’s approval are able to personalise the

area”22. With regard to the case of School A where no sign of personalisation of

individual desks by students was observed an explanation that I supposed was the

existence of a certain school rule. However, the two interviewees did not refer to any

explicit school rule preventing students from personalising their desks. 22 The official website of School R


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In relation to adolescents’ needs for social integration and the relational dimension of

identity formation, comfortable and lounge type furniture was pointed out as a factor

in encouraging social interactions among students and teachers. The case of School A

demonstrated how by simply introducing some café type tables and chairs and

comfortable couches a part of circulation space or a corner of a learning common

could turn into a space for students to hang out and socialise.

Moveable furniture was referred to as having impacts on cooperative learning

(Bruffee 1999; Graetz and Goliber 2002 ; Bickford and Wright 2006). Some of the

impacts of furniture on cooperative learning were observed during the site visits and

explicitly referred to in interviews as well. Interviewees suggested the significance of

two variables of ‘form’ and ‘size’ of tables in facilitating cooperative learning. In

addition, a seating arrangement that allows individuals to face and see each other was

repeatedly suggested within interview responses.

With regard to the characteristic of ‘offering opportunities for adolescents’

developmental exploration’, furniture was found to contribute to the integration of

computers into schools and in turn facilitating virtual connection of schools to the

world outside (Dolan 2003 cited in Rogers 2005). A good example that demonstrated

the role of school furniture in integrating computers into schools was observed in the

design of computer tables in School A.

Three main qualities for school furniture to support adolescents’ identity formation

can be drawn from these findings. They include ‘mobility’, ‘having appropriate size

and being modular’ and ‘simplicity of form’.


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7.6.5. Promoting Transparency

Transparency is another design-related factor found to contribute to adolescents’

identity formation in schools.

Transparency facilitates giving adolescent students opportunities to enact their

independence and autonomy. Throughout the interviews when such issues as offering

students opportunities to study independently, spend some time away from other

student groups and retire for a while as one dimension of privacy needs were brought

to the fore, educators and school principals repeatedly point out the issue of schools’

duty of care for students. The issue of duty of care and supervision was the main

explanation for compromising adolescent students’ privacy needs of spending time

alone or with their groups of peers. A design-related response to the need of

supervision of students in schools was to provide transparency between spaces.

Transparency between spaces allows for passive surveillance to be happening.

Students can be given opportunities and freedom to be on their own while staff and

teachers are able to keep an eye on them all the time. Students may be mingling with

their peers or be doing some independent study without perceiving that they are under

teachers’ and school staff’s constant gaze.

This design idea was practiced in all case studies. In Schools C, M and R, the walls

between classrooms and corridors were glazed. In the case of School A that had an

open plan layout, the idea of transparency between spaces was reflected in glazed

walls between learning studios and learning commons and narrow linear glass

windows between teachers’ offices and learning commons.

Transparency between spaces also supports adolescent students’ social integration

needs. The significance of transparency for social integration has to do with the notion

of maintaining visual relations. Maintaining visual relations was suggested as a

principle contributing to the quality of schools as social environments. As a form of

connection among individuals, maintaining visual relations was regarded as fostering

a sense of community among school members. Transparency between spaces was


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pointed out as a design response to the idea of maintaining visual relations

(Hertzberger 2008).

With regard to fostering perception of accessibility of teachers’ and school staff

support for students as a dimension of ‘a supportive school environment addressing

individuation and social integration’, transparency was also found to be a contributing

factor (Cotterell 2007; Hertzberger 2008).

Interviews and site visits also suggested transparency as a design-related factor that

facilitates integration of ICTs into schools.

One issue in relation to the idea of transparency between spaces is the degree of

transparency that should be provided between different spaces. An argument is that

from the perception of people who are working inside a learning space transparency

reflected in the use of glass walls may appear to lead to distraction. It is necessary to

further examine students’ and teachers’ perceptions who are working in a learning

space with glazed walls resembling a fishbowl. The issue also applies to teachers’ and

staff offices with glazed walls open to learning spaces in order to communicate

accessibility of their support. Transparency of this form may lead to compromising

teachers’ and staff’s needs.

Examples of people’s negative reactions to the idea of transparency and glazed walls

were observed during site visits. Placing posters, announcement and relevant

information and in many cases students’ work on the glass walls to cover them were

among these observations. Further investigation is necessary to study occupants’

views and their reasons for such reactions. While teachers’ or staff’s need to have

some private spaces for activities such as planning and marking students’ work may

be an explanation for such reactions, it is also possible that the lack of appropriate

display surfaces simply accounts for it.


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7.7. Further Considerations and Limitations of the Current Research

During the course of this research inquiry some important issues and considerations

with regard to adolescents’ identity formation were found.

The first consideration has to do with the interrelationship between different processes

and experiences involved in identity formation including separation, relatedness and

exploration. For example, various opportunities for exploration may be provided in a

school curriculum and co-curricular programmes or the school may place significant

emphasis on adolescents’ independence and facilitate the separation process.

Nevertheless, the school may lack provision of enough support for adolescents. The

outcome of a combination like this would be different from a situation where there is

a strong support structure, various opportunities for exploration are available and

adolescents’ independence is encouraged.

Another consideration with regard to adolescents’ identity formation is the

interrelationship between contexts within which this developmental task of

adolescence unfolds. These contexts may include school, community and family. A

school may encourage adolescents’ independence, offer opportunities for exploration

and create a support structure for them. Nevertheless, adolescents’ family

environments may be too authoritative and do not allow a great deal of free choice for

adolescents. The result of this combination of contexts would be different compared

to a situation where schools and adolescents’ family environments are aligned. This

brings to the fore the issue of how schools can be connected to and informed by

adolescents’ community and family environments to better support adolescents’

identity formation processes.

Finally, when we talk about a school we need to consider not only its building,

curriculum, pedagogical practices and organisational factors but also ‘who the people

learning there were’ and ‘what social, cultural and educational backgrounds they

brought into schools with themselves’. Dudek (2000) refers to the worries of one of

the leading figures of ‘Malting House School’ about the influence of significant


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freedom given to children. Dudek (2000) pointed out that most alumni of the school

were found to possess easy manners and a deep social conscience. However, he

argues that the children of the school were from high socioeconomic backgrounds,

had educated parents and enjoyed significant parental support. This may suggest that

same educational philosophies or school buildings may lead to different results within

two different socioeconomic, cultural contexts and families.

The current research was faced with certain limitations. The first limitation had to do

with understanding adolescents’ identity formation and providing an interpretation of

the process for the field of school design. I was not an expert in the fields dealing with

theories and studies of adolescents’ identity formation such as developmental

psychology, social psychology and personality development. I stepped into these

fields and began exploration through the eyes of an architect. In the early stages of my

exploration of the literature on adolescents’ identity formation I found that theorists

and researchers in this field showed very little interest in examining the role of

physical spaces in this developmental task of adolescence.

The need was felt for further research in the fields of psychology and education that

addresses the relationship between physical spaces and adolescents’ identity

formation in order to inform fields of built-environment design. Within the field of

education, the issue of adolescents’ identity formation has received attention. This

was reflected in suggestions such as creating a supportive school culture and

promoting learning strategies such as cooperative learning and community based

learning in order to contribute to adolescents’ identity formation. Nevertheless, there

was no significant reference to the implications of these suggestions for the design of

schools’ physical spaces.

A dialogue between architects, educational facilities planners, educators and all those

others involved in the decision-making related to education of children and young

people appears necessary.


281

7.8. Conclusions

The aim of this research was to explore the contributions of planning and design of

school spaces to the developmental task of adolescents’ identity formation. My

exploration showed that there are many ways through which spaces for learning can

contribute to adolescents’ identity formation. In each of the four schools studied,

interviews, observation and the review of available document pointed to subtleties and

particularities of these ways thanks to school differences. For example, a similar

educational or design-related idea applied in two different schools was found to be

embodied in different practical responses and design features within the schools.

Identity formation is a complicated process and schools are complex systems.

Adolescents’ identity formation in schools is shaped through the confluence of a

variety of factors and experiences. In addition, the role of schools on adolescents’

identity formation is influenced by contexts of families, community, social norms and

cultural values. Who teachers and school staff are and how they behave and treat

students, who students are and from what kind of families they come, what cultural

and social values students’ families have and if there is any clash between these

values with the dominant norms and values of the society and what demands and

expectations the society have from adolescent students are among the many issues

that need to be addressed when considering the influence of schools in identity

formation.

Among all the different contexts such as families, community and culture,

interpersonal interactions, formal and informal learning experiences, rules, values and

social norms, spaces are only part of this complex system. While it is beyond dissent

that spaces are powerful agents that in many ways influence individuals’ various life

experiences, social and personal development, we can not expect design of school

spaces to solve all the problems or lead to radical changes. There are a number of

steps to be taken if spaces are to act as potential agents in enhancing individuals’

experiences, supporting their emerging identities and contributing to better social and

personal lives.


282

The lessons learnt from this study were reflected in the five key design principles

identified: downsizing schools or design strategies to support the idea of smallness,

designing social spaces, careful considerations of school furniture, maximising

flexibility and promoting transparency. Considering the five overarching design

principles identified in the course of this research is the very first step in an attempt to

support adolescents’ identity formation in schools through design of physical spaces.

Depending on schools, the context they are situated, their people and the processes

involved, there might be numerous ways to respond to these design principles.

A comprehensive understanding of the ‘place’, ‘people’ and ‘processes’ should

accompany the five design principles identified. ‘Place’ stands for a school and the

social, economic, cultural and geographical contexts within which it exists. ‘People’

includes students, teachers and school staff, students’ families and the local

community. These people’s needs, interests, wishes, capabilities, values and

aspirations should be understood and taken into account in the process of translating

design principles into practical design responses. ‘Processes’ that need to be

considered include all forms of formal and informal learning, students’ identity

formation, personal development, socialisation and integration into the social world.

Acquiring such a comprehensive understanding of ‘place’, ‘people’ and ‘processes’

brings to the fore the importance of interdisciplinary research and encouraging an

ongoing dialogue among a variety of professionals, experts and stakeholders. They

include school principals, teachers, school staff, educational policy makers and others

involved in the planning and delivery of education, developmental and social

psychologist, educational planners, architects and others involved in the planning and

design of spaces for learning. In particular, there needs to be a two-way and cross-

disciplinary understanding between educators and architects, so that they both

understand each others discipline specific language, pedagogy and design.

The current research found that there is much research and many studies in disciplines

of education, psychology, environmental psychology and built-environment design

about different dimensions, factors and experiences involved in adolescents’ identity

formation as well as the impacts of schools’ physical spaces on students and teachers.


283

What is needed is interdisciplinary investigation such as what undertaken in this

research to bridge across disciplines and provide a better and richer understanding of

the issue of adolescents’ identity formation in schools and the role that design can

play to support it.

Finally, an important step to be taken in making the most of potential of school spaces

in the service of students’ learning, social and personal development is increasing

teachers’, school staff’s, students’ and educational policy makers’ understanding of

spaces and their potential. Considering and responding to the design principles

identified in this research do not always lead to the fulfilment of predicted and desired

objectives. Individuals’ personal presumptions and perceptions as well as

organisational rules may inhibit the use of spaces in a way that designers intended and

leave the ultimate potential of spaces untouched. Architects may design a great social

central hub in a school building with the intention of encouraging students and

teachers to socially interact and fostering a sense of community. Nevertheless, the

school’s rules may keep students outside of the building during the breaks and

lunchtimes. A school’s spaces and furniture may be designed with flexibility and

applying the cooperative learning approach in mind. Nevertheless, teachers, school

staff and students may not know how to use and modify the spaces. Encouraging the

development of spatial knowledge for schools’ members and others involved in the

delivery of education is one solution to the situations where potential of school spaces

are not fully applied.

The current research was an important step in that it provided a big picture of what is

going on in the relevant disciplines. Further research is necessary to delve into each of

the two characteristics of schools that support adolescents’ identity formation

identified in this research as well as their associated factors. The important issue is

focusing on discussions about adolescents’ developmental needs and the significant

and overarching task of identity formation in the visioning process and early stages of

any school design. This is the very first and foremost step to be taken if we believe

that education is a means to guide individuals to better social and personal lives and

see learning spaces as pathways to that overarching educational goal.

284

Appendix 1

A Detailed account of the policy and curriculum documents

reviewed

1. Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young

Australians (The Ministerial Council on Education Employment Training and Youth Affairs 2008)

Acknowledging major changes in the society that place new demands on Australian

schooling, the document outlines the national goals for education and sets the

direction for Australian schooling for the next 10 years.

In addition to literacy and numeracy and knowledge of key disciplines, the document

recognizes the role of schooling in supporting the development of skills in areas such

as social interaction, cross disciplinary thinking and the use of digital media. It also

urges to the inclusion of national values of democracy, equity and justice as well as

personal values and attributes such as honesty, resilience and respect for others in

schooling along with supporting students’ acquisition of knowledge and skills.

Two educational goals for young Australians stated include:

1. Promoting equity and excellence

2. Helping young Australians to become successful learners, confident and creative

individuals, active and informed citizens.

With regard to the educational goal of ‘promoting equity and excellence’, the

emphasis is placed on two educational strategies. Firstly, a culture of excellence

should be promoted in all schools. In doing so, schools need to be supported to

provide challenging and stimulating learning experiences as well as opportunities that

enable all students to explore and build on their gifts and talents. Secondly,

personalised learning should be promoted in schools in order to fulfil the diverse

capabilities of each young Australian.

Appendix 1 A Detailed Account of Policy and Curriculum Document Reviewed

285

Supporting students in forming a sense of self-worth, self-awareness and personal

identity, developing personal values and attributes and relating well to others, forming

and maintaining healthy relationships are pointed out in relation to the educational

goal of ‘helping young Australians to become successful learners, confident and

creative individuals, active and informed citizens’.

Among the eight interrelated areas that are identified to support achievement of

identified educational goals, three areas of ‘developing stronger partnerships’,

‘enhancing middle years development’ and ‘supporting senior years of schooling and

youth transitions’ are in relation to adolescents’ identity formation.

Partnerships between students, parents, carers and families, the broader community,

business, schools and other education and training providers are considered as an

important factor supporting students’ learning, their personal development and

opportunities for connection with local communities.

A key issue of the middle years students is considered to be the risk of

disengagement. Given this, challenging, engaging and rewarding programs that are

responsive to students’ developmental and learning needs in the middle years are

suggested.

Offering a range of pathways to meet the diverse needs and aspirations of students is

regarded as the focus of senior years of schooling. With this regard, providing

information, advice and options for students to make informed choices about their

future as well as effective partnerships with other education and training providers,

employers and communities are suggested.

2. The Tasmanian Curriculum: Health and Wellbeing (Tasmania Department of Education 2008)

In the state of Tasmania, the issue of ‘identity’ is addressed in the curriculum area of

‘Health and Well-being’ in the strand of ‘skills for personal and social development’.


286

The Table 8.1 provides a summary of the three key focus areas in the curriculum

strand of ‘skills for personal and social development’ and their suggested content

focus.

Strand Key focus area Some suggested content focus

Identity Defining identity

Aspects of identity, self esteem, gender and sexuality

Personal qualities and values such as trust, respect, responsibility, fairness, caring, citizenship

Impact of life stages, life experience and changing relationships on identity

Relationships Roles, rights and responsibilities in relationships

Managing and nurturing relationships, benefits of relationships

Factors influencing relationships and membership of groups

Connections with others including school and community

S

kills

for p

erso

nal a

nd so

cial

dev

elop

men

t

Self-management

skills

Defining self-management

Developing self-management skills such as assertiveness, choice, critical reflection, help-seeking, stress management and time management

Using self management skills to implement personal and group action plans

Table 8. 1. Three key focus areas of the curriculum strand of ‘skills for personal and social development’ and their suggested content - Adopted from Tasmania Department of Education (2008)

“Establishing a positive and supportive learning environment” is mentioned as the

teaching focus in the learning strand of ‘skills for personal and social development’

(Tasmania Department of Education 2008, p.65).

A number of approaches suggested in order to establish a positive and supportive

learning environment includes:

Building caring relationships, achievable expectations and opportunities for participation and success of all students

Activities that help students develop a positive self concept and build self esteem

Enhancing students’ resilience and fostering a sense of belonging

Enabling students to meet new challenges at school


287

Using cooperative learning strategies

Focusing on personal and social responsibility through making meaningful choices and decisions

Opportunities for students to participate in diverse groups to build respect, empathy, inclusion and equity

3. South Australian Curriculum, Standards and Accountability

Framework-Middle and Senior Years Band (Department for Education and Children's Service South Australia 2009a; 2009b)

The documents describe the Curriculum Scope and Standards for learning in Middle

Years (Years 6 to 9) and Senior Years (Years 10 to 12).

In relation to Middle Years students, review of students’ attributes that were referred

in the document revealed the implicit addressing of the identity formation process.

These attributes are as follows:

The increasing need for independence

Experiencing the process of separation from parents and “developing their own voice”

Revising interpersonal relationships with parents and developing “greater interdependence with peers”

“Reflecting on who they are, where they belong, what they value and where they’re going” are among (Department for Education and Children's Service South Australia 2009a, p.5)

In relation to Senior Years students, some students’ attributes considered that are of

relevance to the identity formation process include:

Dealing with issues related to lifestyles such as youth subcultures, sexuality and relationships with peer and family

Shaping and reshaping their lives and forming and reviewing their personal values

Complexity of their lives that requires them to deal with learning and living responsibilities in an ever-changing world and uncertain future


288

Given the Middle and Senior Years students’ attributes, the learning process is

suggested to be “complex, dynamic, interactive and cyclical, not linear”. Students are

regarded as “active learners” who “need to be supported in developing responsibility

for their own learning, and enthusiasm for continuous learning” (Department for

Education and Children's Service South Australia 2009a; 2009b).

The two kinds of learning that are in close relevance to the issue of adolescents’

identity formation process are ‘identity’ and ‘interdependence’. The learning area of

‘identity’ is about developing awareness and understanding of personal and group

identities, critically reflecting upon the ways that they are formed, evaluating choices

about identity and their consequences in a person’s life. The learning area of

‘interdependence’ deals with creating and maintaining relationships with other people,

demonstrating respect for individuals’ differences, developing a sense of

connectedness with other people and systems as well as reflecting on and taking

action to shape local and global communities.

Drawing on the Middle Years students’ attributes and the Victorian Essential

Learning Standards, some of the characteristics of appropriate learning environments

in the Middle Years are defined. Firstly, they should be social and interactive learning

environments that build on the interests and energy of learners and acknowledge the

growing importance of relationships and identity for them. In addition, they should

foster connections between practical experiences and abstract knowledge. The

learning environments also need to be collaborative and have a focus on problem-

solving. Finally, they should be based on flexible structures and processes in order to

support learners to be actively involved, negotiate and make decisions in all aspects of

their learning.

Similarly, some of the characteristics of the learning environments in the Senior Years

are defined. They should be supportive learning environments that recognise and

value learners as young adults who are actively involved in training, work and

community responsibilities. In addition, students’ needs for learning independently


289

and directing their own learning need to be acknowledged in the learning

environment.

4. Victorian Essential Learning Standards (The Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority 2007; 2008a; 2008b)

The document ‘Victorian Essential Learning Standards’ identifies what students

should achieve at different stages of schooling. Three core interrelated strands of

Essential Learning Standards are ‘physical, personal and social learning’, ‘discipline-

based learning’ and ‘interdisciplinary learning’.

The strand of ‘physical, personal and social learning’ is relevant to adolescents’

identity formation in schools. The domains of this strand and their dimensions are

summarised in the Table 8.2.

Strand Domain Dimension

Health and Physical

Education

Movement and physical activity

Health knowledge and promotion

Interpersonal Development Building social relationships

Working in teams

Personal Learning The individual learner

Managing personal learning

physical, personal and

social learning

Civics and Citizenship Civic knowledge and understanding

Community engagement

Table 8. 2. An overview of the strand of ‘physical, personal and social learning’, its domains and their dimensions - (The Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority 2007, p.7)

In the level 5 of the ‘Victorian Essential Standards’ that targets students in years 7 and

8 of schooling or early adolescence, developing an individual sense of identity is

acknowledged as one of the key characteristics of students.

In the level 6 of the ‘Victorian Essential Standards’ that targets students in years 9 and

10 of schooling, some characteristics and specific needs of students are elaborated.


290

They include developing greater independence, orientation to peers as an increasing

source of support and influence, exploring the connections between their learning and

the world around them, the need to experience learning in work and community

settings alongside the classroom and the growing interest in the future pathways and

choices to be made.

For both student groups in level 5 (Years 7 and 8 students) and 6 (Years 9 and 10),

‘understanding identity and roles in their community’ is stated within the ‘civic and

citizenship learning’ domain. Nevertheless, domains of ‘interpersonal development’

and ‘personal learning’ are also in close relation to adolescent students’ identity

development.

6. Principles of Learning and Teaching P-12 (State of Victoria Department of Education and Early Childhood Development 2004a)

The document ‘Principles of Learning and Teaching P-12’ outlines six statements

about the quality learning and teaching practices that is necessary if schools are to

build effective learning communities. Some of these characteristics that are in close

relation to supporting stated learning areas in the ‘Victoria Essential Learning

Standards’ relevant to adolescents’ identity formation in schools are as follows:

Supportive and productive learning environment that concerns teachers building positive relationships with students, promoting a culture of value and respect for every individual student, promoting students’ self-confidence and risk-taking abilities and ensuring each individual is able to experience success

Promoting independence, interdependence and self-motivation that concerns encouraging students to work independently and take responsibility for their learning as well as to collaborate with their fellow students

Reflecting students’ diverse needs, backgrounds, perspectives and interests

Developing connections with local and broader communities and community practices


291

7. Curriculum Framework for Kindergarten to Year 12 Education in

Western Australia: Overarching Statements (Curriculum Council Western Australia 1998)

The document ‘Curriculum Framework for Kindergarten to Year 12 Education in

Western Australia: Overarching Statements’ outlines what all students should know,

understand, value and be able to do by undertaking the programs in schools in

Western Australia.

Among thirteen overarching learning outcomes defined in the document, the learning

outcome of “Students value and implement practices that promote personal growth

and well being” (Curriculum Council Western Australia 1998, p.18) is relevant to the

issue of adolescents’ identity formation. This learning outcome deals with students’

knowledge and ability to make informed decisions about various life issues, exploring

and internalising value and belief systems as a means for their personal growth.

The document suggests a number of typical curriculum requirements for students in

the middle years (year 7 to 10) or early adolescence. They include supporting students

in enacting their growing independence and peer group orientation, providing

opportunities for students to actively participate in decision making within their

classroom, school, society and the world and facilitating students’ exploration of

physical, social and technological world, ways of thinking and world views.

In the senior years (year 10 to 12) or late adolescence, developing a sense of self as an

active player who has some responsibility for the direction of community life,

obtaining parts of learning outcomes in the contexts other than schools and studying

particular fields in a greater depth than others in order to meet every student’s

personal aspirations are among the typical curriculum experiences that students are

seen to need.

To attend adolescent students’ different needs and interests, a school and classroom

environment needs to be intellectually, socially and physically supportive of learning.


292

Two principles of teaching and learning that support achievement of the learning

outcomes relevant to adolescents’ identity formation are ‘encouraging students’

independence and collaboration among them’ and ‘creating a supportive school

environment’.

The principle of independence and collaboration concerns providing opportunities

for learning individually and learning with other people. The idea of collaboration

goes far beyond students’ immediate peers and teachers and extends to learning “from

family and community members and people from other parts of the world”. This

enables students to view things from different perspectives and value and respect

diversity (Curriculum Council Western Australia 1998, p.36).

Some of the attributes of a supportive school environment is outlined in the

document. Firstly, it has the intellectual, social and physical conditions for effective

learning to occur. In addition, a cooperative atmosphere prevails in it. In a supportive

school environment, there is also respect for difference and diversity with regard to

gender, culture, social class, physical ability, family circumstance and individual

difference. Finally, access to a suitable and varied range of resources, including space,

equipment, materials and technologies is provided.

293

Appendix 2


individuation and social integration - findings from literature

Priv

acy

& P

erso

nalis

atio

n 1. “Responsive environments” (Altman 1975, pp.207-208).

2. Maintaining ‘visual connection’ (Weinstein 1982)

3. Open spaces and no significant physical boundaries (Brunetti 1972)

4. Display surfaces/ spaces (Sanoff 1993)

5. Personal workstations for students and a ‘home-base’ for a group of students (Fiske 1995; Brubaker, Bordwell et al. 1998; FieldingNair International 2006; Hertzberger 2008)

6. Social spaces (Sanoff 1993)

7. Flexibility (Wells 2000)

Soci

al in

tera

ctio

n am

ong

stud

ents

and

teac

hers

1. Creative design of circulation spaces (e.g. DfES 2002; Tanner and Lackney 2006; Hertzberger 2008)

2. Considerations with regard to spatial layout (Pasalar 2003)

3. Considering a school building as a micro-city with two main forms of relational spaces, ‘street’ and ‘square’ (Hertzberger 2008)

4. Big, open and accessible gathering spaces (Moore and Lackney 1994; OCED 2006; Tanner and Lackney 2006)

4. Maintaining ‘visual relations’ (Hertzberger 2008)

The

idea

of

‘sm

alln

ess’

1. ‘Clusters of classrooms’(Moore and Lackney 1995; Butin 2000)

2. Learning community (Bickford and Wright 2006)

3. Schools-within-a-school (Brubaker, Bordwell et al. 1998; Davies 2005; Beard, Davies et al. 2006; Davies 2008)

Acc

essi

bilit

y

of te

ache

rs

1. Location of teachers’ offices (Cotterell 2007)

2. Spatial qualities such as openness and transparency (Hertzberger 2008)

Coo

pera

tive

lear

ning

1. Moveable furniture and seating arrangements (Bruffee 1999; Graetz and Goliber 2002 ; Bickford and Wright 2006)

2. Spatial density or the number of people occupying a space (Graetz and Goliber 2002 )

AP2. 1. Design-related contributions to a supportive school environment addressing individuation and social integration: a summary of findings from research and practice of school design - Author

Appendix 2

294


developmental exploration - findings from literature

Des

ign

to su

ppor

t a sc

hool

cur

ricu

lum

and

scho

ol-b

ased

coc

urri

cula

r pr

ogra

ms

1. Provision of specialist facilities (Department for Education and Skills 2002; Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment 2007)

2. Flexibility (Department for Education and Skills 2002; Department of Education and Early Childhood Development Victoria 2009)

3. Considerations with regard to outdoor spaces and school grounds (Department for Education and Skills 2006; Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment 2007; Department of Education and Early Childhood Development Victoria 2009)

Dev

elop

ing

scho

ol c

onne

ctio

ns w

ith lo

cal

com

mun

ity a

nd o

ther

edu

catio

nal p

rovi

ders

1. Open and accessible spaces for public gatherings (Graves 1993; Brubaker, Bordwell et al. 1998; Bingler, Quinn et al. 2003)

2. Location of a school within a network of key neighbouring educational contexts and with regard to access to public transportation (Merritt, Beaudin et al. 2005)

Inte

grat

ion

of

ICT

s int

o sc

hool

s

1. Additional areas to classrooms, ample wiring for voice, video and data capabilities (e.g. Butin 2000; North Carolina Department of Public Instruction 2002)

2. Furniture (Dolan 2003 cited in Rogers 2005)

3. Flexibility (Ehrenkrantz 2000; Rogers 2005; OCED 2006)

AP2. 2. Design-related contributions to a school that offers adolescents opportunities for developmental exploration: a summary of findings from literature - Author

295

Appendix 3

Key themes of interviews with architects, educational

planners, school principals and professional educators

Andrew, Educational planner 1. Adolescence is a transitional period between being a kid and becoming an

adult. Given this, schooling for adolescents should focus not only on basic purpose of fostering academic competences but also helping them 'learn to be'(Knowing themselves as individuals) and 'learn to live with other people'(Socialise with other people).

2. There needs to be different emphasis in education of younger and older adolescents. For example in year 8 or 9, there is much more flexibility to offer younger adolescents opportunities for exploring alternatives comparing to year 11 and 12 that there are limitations such as national exams.

3. Schools should provide opportunities for adolescents to discover their interests and talents, flourish them and develop their individuality and unique persona. These opportunities such as music, dance, sports or other programmes are supported by both curriculum and school facilities.

4. Library, outside spaces and spaces that are assigned to individuals such as workstations can support adolescents' privacy needs in schools.

5. A way to encourage social interaction among adolescents and teachers is trying to create more informal spaces where a school community can hang out. These sorts of space are not owned by any particular groups for example teachers or staff, they are more public spaces that belong to all.

6. In order to foster sense of community within a school, school members need to be involved in doing something together. Sense of community is a by product.

7. Encouraging cooperative learning means encouraging students to learn in teams. Providing the right type of space and seating arrangement that allows for individuals getting together, use of technology and visual connection (transparency) between spaces are factors that support adolescents learn cooperatively.

8. Giving adolescents their own place in schools such as individual workstations, allowing them to take care or improve parts of their schools and displaying of their works or achievements are means that encourage personalisation.

9. A basic way that school design can support a variety of learning experience for students is creating the right types of spaces for different learning experiences to happen.

10. Integrating Information and Communication Technology in schools is not so much about building design.

Appendix 3 Key Themes of Interviews

296

John, Architect 1. In one school, a factor that bring about change of culture in the school and

supports students and teachers social interaction is reducing from formality and institutional feeling of the ambience.

2. Two characteristics of school spaces can encourage adolescents independence and autonomy. One is 'flexibility' or providing for a variety of activities and behaviours which in turn can satisfy individuals' different needs. Another one is 'transparency' so that adolescents can be left on their own to learn independently from their teachers who are able to easily monitor them from distance.

3. When designing landscape of schools, there are significant potentialities that can be applied to support students' needs for privacy. Important note is that any landscape design should be age appropriate.

4. One way to encourage personalisation of school spaces for students is involving them in the design process and paying attention to things that are important for them. Creating ad hoc spaces such as small break out spaces throughout the school is another way. School spaces also need to be designed age appropriate and responsive to students' needs so that any zoning in schools (e.g. middle school or senior school) has its own identity.

5. In some projects when asking students to determine their favourite places, outside spaces where are sun trap and protected from wind and they can gather are usually among the selections.

6. A number of factors that can facilitate social interaction among students and teachers in schools include creating cafeteria and other sorts of public spaces in schools (e.g. open learning spaces with lounge type furniture that are shared by a number of classrooms), organization of school spaces and the way that transitional spaces such as corridors (their size and furniture being used in them) are designed and used.

7. Public spaces in a school (spaces that can be shared by all school members or a number of groups at any time) play role in fostering sense of community.

Graeme, School principal 1. An important factor that support fostering sense of community and belonging

to a particular place within school members is helping them to come together and know each other well. Organizing of weekly assemblies which bring the school members and students' parents together as well as pastoral care programmes ( infrastructure that supports students' learning and interaction) which is managed by one coordinator for a particular cohort of students ( each year level) are two strategies of doing that.

2. Identifying with particular spaces in a school and perceiving them as personalised places tends to be a collective perception and shared among groups of students.


297

3. Students use library and outside spaces that might be quiet and free from disturbance to satisfy their privacy needs. Walking in the school ground is also another means that some students might use for this purpose.

4. A way to foster for students sense of community and encourage social interaction among school members is through increasing accessibility of supportive adults for students. One implication of this for design of school spaces is visibility and adjacency of teachers' or level coordinators' offices to students' learning spaces or transitional spaces shared by them (e.g. corridors that might be where the lockers are placed and are used by everyone in a school on a daily basis).

5. A key design theme in two new buildings of the school has been specific attention to social spaces, big open spaces full of natural light where people can come together.

6. Being a wireless setting, students have easy access to information at any time regardless of where they are. This type of technology makes the need for dedicated spaces to access information (e.g. computer labs) less important.

7. Successful development of students' identities in schools is contextual. Adolescents learn about themselves, their abilities and interests by experimenting various activities in schools. Responsibility of schools with this regard is to provide opportunities for students to try out different things and find out about themselves and their future pathways.

8. The location of school site and access to public transport has impacts on possibilities of exploration for adolescent students. These impacts are in terms of taking students outside schools into the community or bringing the community's expertise and skills into schools.

9. Size and arrangement of a space and furniture used are design-related factors that can support 'cooperative learning' or adolescent students working together and sharing their learning. A learning space needs to be large enough to allow for reconfiguring it so that students can work in groups. Seating arrangement also needs to facilitate people sitting together, looking and talking to one another.

10. Being a quiet place where students might not be disturbed as well as presence of peers and close friends are two features that might determine students' choice of favourite places in schools.

Jayne, Professional educator 1. Learning in group help students develop strong social skills in terms of getting

to know other people and achieving skills to work with other people. 2. With regard to design of physical spaces of a school, proper 'size of spaces' (to

allow for enough distance among groups so that each group of students works together without being disturbed and to allow teachers easily move among groups), 'arrangement of furniture' (students sitting in circles facing each other) and 'visual connection' (teachers keeping eye on students even if are not


298

in the same space with students) are factors that support students learning in groups.

3. 'Easy access to information' everywhere and anytime for students is an underpinning factor that has been considered in order to encourage 'personalised learning'. (In addition to use of wireless network, spreading out computers through the building and other types of technology) A design-related implication of this emphasis on easy access to information is visibility and accessibility of teachers offices in relation to instructional spaces.

4. A strategy to foster strong relationship with students in the school is 'tutor group programme' (a group of 15 students led by a tutor meeting 40 minutes daily over three years). The programme contributes to adolescents identity formation process by helping students to create, revisit and modify their personal learning goals and plans as well as helping them to make decisions about the different levels of choice offered in the school (e.g. subjects or topics of inquiry, approach to learning, ways of demonstrating understanding)

5. 'Personal learning plan' is a key factor in supporting students to develop independence and autonomy. A number of its design implications are spaces for students to work individually and independently…Transparency so that teachers need not to be physically in the same space with students but can keep an eye on them from adjoining spaces.

6. Being an open big space (e.g. instructional spaces, teachers' preparation spaces and circulation spaces all are open to each other) with significant degree of transparency is important factor in establishing sense of community in the school.

7. 'Being with mates' is a main factor that determines adolescents' taking over certain areas in the school. Other reasons that adolescents frequent a place include having food, sitting by a sunny window or where one can see people are coming or going and relaxing in a corner where tends not to be easily disturbed.

8. Open and informal types of space such as lounges are important in encouraging social interaction in the school.

9. Small meeting rooms can give students some space and time for their own particularly in an open plan school.

10. Providing for groups of three or four students to be able to work around a computer or on a bench in a studio or science laboratory is a design-related factor that can support them in working together and sharing the learning.

11. The idea of giving each student a home base (a desk and a locker) to feel ownership of it has not worked well in the school (the idea came from High Tech High School in USA and it works there). With regard to design, it may be due to the small scale of the school building and its open plan that engender ownership to the whole school rather than a particular spot. Students' personalisation needs might have been transferred to electronic space (their E-portfolio)

12. Factors that support students to explore options and pathways are 'choices embedded in curriculum', 'being located in a university campus' (the school


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can take advantage of its facilities and develop connection to industry, other schools and university) and 'ICT-rich environment'.

Kevin, School counsellor 1. Sense of community in the school is supported by the physical design of the

school that is an open plan; teaching and learning become public activities because everyone sees what others are doing.

2. Teachers' preparation spaces being open to instructional spaces and their easy accessibility to students strengthen students' perception of being in a supportive community.

3. A main function of 'tutor group programme' is to help students develop personalised learning plans and goals.

4. Each student makes an E-portfolio which is used as a means to help the student know him/herself better in terms of their learning style and multiple intelligences or where their strengths are.

5. 'Tutor group programme' is a strategy to encourage students' connectedness to the school which is considered as an important factor in students' health and well-being. It can be considered as an 'emotional and social central point' for students.

6. Given the small scale of the school building and its open plan, students tend to feel belongingness to the whole school instead of belongingness to a certain spot such as their home base or where their tutor group gathers every day.

7. The school building being a big open space with few physical boundaries is a design-related factor that facilitates students' satisfying their privacy needs. There is always enough space for students to move away to work individually or with their group-mate. This can not be noticed as there is no physical boundary as when you are in a classroom type of space.

8. Food (Things related to that such as fridge and microwave), comfortable furniture like couches, things such as tennis and pool table are factors that makes some spots in the school popular among students.

9. The design of teachers' preparation spaces as part of the instructional space communicates the message that students and teachers all are equal members of the school community.

10. Activities and programmes such as sports that students and teachers are engaged in have positive impacts in fostering sense of community and encouraging connectedness.

11. Size of a space (large enough to be reconfigured easily to allow for various grouping of students) and furniture (e.g. desks that allow more than one student work on a computers and movable furniture to maximise flexibility in use) are two factors that can facilitate students working in groups.

12. Opportunities for adolescent students to explore options and pathways are embedded in the curriculum through various levels of choice (e.g. topics of inquiry, approach to learning and ways of demonstrating their understanding).


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13. Being located in a university campus, the school take advantage of a number of opportunities for exploration such as elective programmes that are run in conjunction with the university people, partnerships with industries and connection with national and international organizations developed through the university.

14. Big and open spaces in the school give flexibility in use. Each open space can turn into various spaces that allow for a variety of learning activities and programmes to occur (e.g. team teaching, conferences, and exposition) and can be reconfigured easily for various grouping of students.

David, Architect 1. Circulation areas (e.g. widened staircase in the senior school that serve for

informal gathering and formal lecture and talk) and external spaces (e.g. raised lump of concrete next to café where is not a formal curriculum type space and not owned by the staff, so students can take over it) are opportunities where architects can apply their creativity and provide for some of the activities and users' needs that might not be prescribed type spaces and considered in the brief of departments of education.

2. Two issues of budget and supervision are obstacles in designing too many individual retreat types of space in schools.

3. There are some zones throughout inside areas for example in the library where provide for students' privacy needs. Two little ear-shaped spaces in corners of the middle school neighbourhoods were designed to serve as a retreat space. If designed too big, these sorts of space might be turned into formal instructional space.

4. Personalisation comes down to individuals' ability to change the space and depends on how much space is available for each of them. In buildings like schools and office spaces, a collective ownership of spaces is more common than personalisation being an individual ownership of a space.

5. An objective in creating 'learning communities' (self-contained general purpose learning spaces and a sort of lower scale specialised facilities) in the middle school was to foster sense of belonging and ownership to the community within students.

6. Students' perception that a space is owned by them and they can take over and have control of it is a reason that makes the space favourite or popular among them.

7. Cafeteria was aimed to be a dedicated socialising space. 8. Transparency between spaces in the school is a characteristic that in some way

resolves the problem of supervision so that students can be offered a degree of autonomy to work as independently individuals or groups (support them in satisfying their privacy needs).

9. A school building having a distinct identity and provision of gathering places in it depending on the size of the school are two characteristics that support developing a sense of community within school members.


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10. Blurring the borders between specialised curriculum areas and having them side by side and allows for the emergence of new opportunities created through combination of the curriculum areas (combined projects such as artistical presentation of food).

11. Designing spaces that can be used in many different ways is a strategy to support learning activities and opportunities many of which emerge after constructing a school and architects might not be aware of them at the design stage.

12. Different types of spaces need to be designed in order to support various activities and learning experiences for students. A big empty space or a generic space can not be considered flexible. 'Flexibility [is achieved] through variety of opportunities rather than through generic open spaces'.

13. How much a school spaces support learning opportunities and are used in creative ways depends on the management of the school and teachers who are working within them.

Ron, School Principal 1. Given that basic needs of middle school students are social needs, schooling

needs to focus on social and emotional well-being of young adolescents as much as academic and intellectual development.

2. Flexibility in mode of learning is a key concern of schooling for senior school students. An implication of it for school spaces is designing mini labs adjacent to classrooms where students who might take a few days work experience or TAFE and come to school only two days work flexibly.

3. Flexibility within the spaces of the middle school (created by means of not having fixtures as well as pivoting walls and will be enhanced by operable walls to be added) is a factor that supports group working.

4. Providing opportunities for sitting and chatting with friends particularly for senior school students (Middle school students are more active and tend to walk, run or play more) is a factor that makes a space favourite or popular among students (e.g. Café strip with park benches and raised concrete lumps).

5. The idea of 'learning neighbourhood' is a strategy to foster sense of belonging and ownership within students.

6. Providing an open learning space where a number of teachers are able to collaborate broadens students' learning experiences and increase opportunities of more authentic learning.

7. Furniture is an element that plays role in facilitating group work (e.g. when a table that a group of students work around it is too big, subgroups might be developed)

8. How much effectively a school space is used depends on teachers' skill and knowledge to use and manipulate it.


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Dick, Architect 1. Being a senior secondary school for year 11 and 12 students, the main

intention was to treat adolescent students as young adult and foster this perception within them. In doing so, the school was designed to be a special place to neither necessary look like an institution nor resemble a domestic building (in addition to the school rules and policies to promote perception of being respected and trusted among adolescents) . A number of strategies that has been used are changing terms of spaces in order to change people's attitude about them (Café instead of canteen and fitness centre instead of gym), a two storey building with scale to it and prominent entrance space that serve as the school social hub.

2. A variety of spaces in the school to support various opportunities for teaching and learning inside and outside the building… spaces that can be used in different ways (e.g. performance art space with foldable walls and retractable seating)

3. Instead of adopting a faculty based approach of individual buildings surrounded by verandas, the whole school was designed as one two storey building

4. Transparency throughout the building …creates connectivity and provide for supervision needs

5. Creating a variety of spaces that cater for different individuals' needs and spaces that provide for individuals working independently (e.g. computer alcoves in corridors) support students in satisfying their privacy needs.

6. Designing circulation spaces for more than the purpose of walking along… 7. Opportunities for display of various types of students work (e.g. painting,

sculpture and movie) throughout the school foster feeling of being in a personalised environment with students. Considering entrance atrium space as a potential exhibition space (e.g. walls on which painting can be hung and plasma screen for showing movies made by students) and creating spatial volume (e.g. in art studio for display of sculpture) are contribution that design makes to that end.

8. Easy accessibility from entrance and key functional spaces, enjoying vista and being adjacent to outside spaces, providing flexibility in being used by students particularly independently from school staff (e.g. formal gathering, informal congregating, exhibition and show), spatial quality (e.g. being inspiring, spaciousness, proper natural light) and presence of mates are factors that influence adolescent students' selection of favourite or popular spaces.

9. Given the tendency of senior school students to hang out more than middle school students who are more active, attention needs to be paid on opportunities for hanging out with mates in the design of a school spaces.

10. A sense of ownership to a space is present when people feel good of being in that space, want and choose to be in it. The question is: how might design of make people feel good in a space?...comfort, view, visual connection, spaciousness, natural light


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11. The emphasis on self-directed learning and the role of teachers as facilitators in senior schooling years…

12. A great deal of responsibility in integrating Information and Communication Technology into schools is with service and technology design and related companies. Nevertheless, creating dedicated spaces (e.g. adjoining computer labs to classrooms) and incidental spaces (e.g. computer nodes and alcoves in circulation spaces) are implications of integrating Information and communication Technologies into schools for space design.

Jeff, Educational facilities planner 1. Being with mates, feeling safe and well-protected and being engaged in

activities of interest (e.g. sports and reading) are among reasons that adolescent students frequent some spaces and take over them as their favourite place.

2. In dealing with the concept of privacy we need to consider the distinction between 'isolation' and 'separation'. In schools, 'isolation' from the rest of students clashes with the issue of duty of care and it is unlikely that a student is able to choose to be completely isolated. Whereas, an adolescent students might choose a space to be separated from and not to be disturbed but to stay visually connected to his/her peers.

3. The underpinning objectives of creating 'learning community' for middle school students is to strengthen their relationship with a group of teachers working with them as well as to provide academic, behavioural and developmental support for them. In doing so, the whole idea of design is about fostering ownership of and belonging to certain spaces within the students.

4. Personalisation in a school is about where a student puts his/her belonging. Provision of individual desks or workstation type spaces is a way to support that perception within students.

5. One facet of the idea of 'community connection' is about bringing some of the expertise and interests of the community outside schools into schools and hence exposing students to more developmental exploration opportunities.

6. The underpinning aim in the model of 'learning suite' for senior school students is providing 'flexibility'. The idea of flexibility means various types of spaces and spaces that can be used in different ways should be provided for them particularly to accommodate independent learning in order to pursue their certain interests and goals.

7. A space needs to be broken into smaller areas and arrangement of furniture needs to allow for people getting together if design is not to get in the way of cooperative learning.


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Cindy, Professional Educator 1. Considering a significant number of students from low socioeconomic

background who may not receive much support from adults in their family or outside the school, an educational goal of the school is 'building relationships'. Some strategies in place with regard to this goal are urging teachers to build strong relationships with students and know them in a holistic way as well as encouraging students to work together in groups. Students and the teachers spending time in a certain space (each classroom in principal learning area of the middle school) and take ownership of it was considered to support this end. The emphasis in collaboration and cooperation also takes the form of two classroom groups working together and a team of teachers working with students.

2. A main educational concern for adolescent students is making what they learn in the school more 'relevant and authentic' for them as well as helping them connect to the community outside the school. The reason being is that they will be able to continue work or learning in the community when they finish the school.

3. Opportunities for students to know themselves in terms of abilities, interests and goals as well as exploring pathways are integrated within the curriculum in programmes such as 'realising potentials'

4. Two strategies to support students developing independence and autonomy has to do with strong 'student voice' and availability of 'supportive adults' for them in the school. Given that students have strong "voices" in the school (The students have the opportunities to make input and contribute to the school decision), they feel as though they are members of the school community and develop strong belonging to that community.

5. Teachers have great deal of role in facilitating the issue of privacy for students (the interpretation is to work independently without being interrupted). This is in terms of being sensitive to signs that show the need for privacy in students. This sensitivity entails knowing students very well, an issue that is supported by 'building relationships' strategies.

6. A space that is shared by a group of classrooms but it is not necessarily a sort of formal learning space can allow students to move there and work independently without being interrupted (an aspect of privacy). Individual workstation spaces for each student can also contribute to fulfilling their privacy needs.

7. Adolescent students may frequent a space for reasons related to physical attributes of the space for example a library that is warm or a courtyard that is sunny in winter, a café that had tables and chairs to sit and converse. In addition there are other reasons other than the space-related factors such as hanging out with a group of close friends and presence a teachers so that students feel safe or protected from being bullied that determine their choice of space in schools.


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8. Furniture (For example tables bigger than individual desks to allow group work) and flexibility of a space (for example provision of foldable or moveable walls to allow two spaces open up and make a bigger space) are two factors that support students working in groups.

9. Opportunities for exploration are incorporated within curriculum(Different opportunities for students with different interests to work on)

10. In terms of space design 'flexibility' is a key strategy to accommodate different learning experiences. This factor in middle school principal learning areas takes the form of foldable walls allowing two adjacent spaces to open up in order to provide more possibilities. In senior school part, flexibility has to do with the use of hallways as expansions of classrooms if needed. With regard to specialised facilities, flexibility is embedded in provision of different spaces to accommodate different activities (e.g. food technology, music and drama facilities).

Bruce, School principal 1. 'Tutorial group programme'…the aim is to increase each group of students contact with a teacher (tutor) so that the teacher get to know the students quite well…from year 7 to 10…in each year the programme is focused on an issue that is prominent in the developmental stage that adolescents are at…in year 7 around 'building relationships' and 'fostering connectedness to the school'…in year 8 around 'awareness of others' and 'social services'…in year 9 around 'exploration' of pathways and alternatives…in year 10 around making 'choices' about career and future pathways. With regard to the contribution of school spaces to this end, assigning a certain space to a group of students in order to foster ownership is in place for year 7 and 8 students. 2. Two key factors related to design that can support 'exploration' are 'flexibility' and 'access to information and technologies'. One aspect of flexibility has to do with possibilities to reconfigure a space to allow for different grouping of students as well as different teaching modes. 3. Visibility/visual connection is a factor that support integration aspect of identity formation because it facilitates fostering of sense of being part of a community within students and teachers…everyone is observing everyone else is doing… 4. Different spaces to allow for different things to happen for example space for quiet reflection, spaces for small group meeting, spaces for lecture type of instruction and etc….'the right mix of spaces' in Bruce term 5. Design of school spaces should be aligned with educational thinking of our time. In the past the goal of mass education was to prepare individuals for industry, to be literate, numerate and social responsible, and its associated educational strategy was transmission of knowledge from teachers to students or a teacher centred approach. Hence, school buildings that resembled factories embodied this educational thinking…a corridor and classrooms of the sides…a child was put into first grade, a teacher transmitted certain knowledge and after a


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certain period the child was moved to the next room in the corridor to get more knowledge from another teacher. If today the emphasis of educational thinking is on individual students and personalisation of learning for them/student-centred approach, school building should manifest that thinking. 6. Connecting schools to community outside is a strategy in supporting students' exploration.

John, School principal 1. An objective for education of adolescence in the school is to make them connected to the school, to foster within them the perception that they are being looked after and supported. The 'home group' idea is a way to create that connectedness and perception of availability of support. With regard to design, 'home rooms' is a factor that foster collective ownership of a certain space and strengthen the idea of 'home group'. 2. Connecting students to community outside the school is an important factor that support them in understanding and developing their sense of self…strong students' voice to encourage the students to be independent and autonomous…design to support it by creating spaces that students can disappear to whether in landscaping or inside spaces 3. use of circulation routes as means to increase opportunities for incidental social interaction…they link spaces to each other and school members have to pass them which increase the chances of meeting others 4. Privacy needs from his point of view is facilitated by providing spaces where students can retire to and be alone or with their small group of close friends…library is suggested as an example of these spaces 5. Two ways to encourage personalisation of the school spaces for students is display of their work for example artwork throughout the school and involving them in improving or creating their school spaces for example designing and constructing a mini golf in the school grounds. 6. Purpose-built buildings in the school such as career centre, food technology facility and art building can support students exploration of options and pathways 7. Developing connections to other schools and organization outside the school has role in broadening opportunities of exploration for students because it expose students to people with different expertise and experiences. 8. Offering students opportunities to have 'voice' in the school plays a significant role in increasing their involvement and participation in the school. Students' leaderships and committees are two manifestations of this idea.

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Appendix 4


individuation and social integration - findings from interviews and case studies

Priv

acy

and

per

sona

lisat

ion

need

s

1. Spaces that support privacy needs such as quiet places (e.g. library, outdoor spaces, indoor nooks and niches)

2. Spatial qualities that facilitate adolescents' control of social interactions such as ‘Openness of spaces’ and ‘Individual workstation/pod arrangement’

3. Individual workstation/desk

4. Learning community/neighbourhood

5. Display surfaces/spaces

6. A variety of opportunities and choices in spaces to cater for different individuals’ needs

7. Users feeling good in a space and choosing to be in it

8. Involving students in school design

9. Student social spaces

Social central hub

Open and easily accessible spaces with lounge type furniture, public spaces and shared by school members

Soci

al

inte

ract

ions

Incidental social space

Cre

atin

g a

smal

l

com

mun

ity o

f

lear

ners

and

teac

hers

Principal teaching model

Tutor group program

Learning community

1. Fostering ownership and belongingness to a particular space

*A cluster of classroom spaces that can open up to each other

*An open space within which a number of class group spaces are loosely defined

2. Offering freedom to move around and control over spaces

Coo

pera

tive

lear

ning

1. Size of spaces

2. Furniture and their arrangement

3. Openness of spaces

4. Visual connection

5. Flexibility

6. Technologies and their design-related consideration

6. Meeting rooms

AP4. 1. Design-related contributions to a supportive school environment addressing individuation and social

integration needs of adolescents – A summary of findings from interviews and case studies

Appendix 4

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developmental exploration – findings from interviews and case studies

Creating different types of spaces for different activities and programs

1. Flexibility

*Two ways of achieving flexibility

1.1. Flexibility through a variety of spaces (e.g. Learning Suite model)

1.2. Flexibility through spaces that can be used differently

*openness of spaces/lack of boundaries

2. Specialist facilities

Two student year groups (e.g. 10 and 11) working together

Des

ign

to su

ppor

t a sc

hool

cur

ricu

lum

and

scho

ol-b

ased

coc

urri

cula

r pr

ogra

ms

Allowing for cross flow between curriculum areas

Getting distance from the faculty based approach to design of learning spaces

Con

nect

ions

with

edu

catio

nal

cont

exts

out

side

a sc

hool

1. Location of a school site (In terms of accessibility to public transport and in relation to other educational providers)

2. Gathering spaces

3. Spatial qualities to support those connections (e.g. openness of spaces)

Inte

grat

ion

of IC

Ts i

nto

scho

ols

1. Appropriate spaces throughout a school for working with computers (e.g. computer nodes and alcoves)

2. Furniture and its arrangement

3. Spreading out computers through a school building instead of concentrating them in a computer lab

4. Consideration with regard to electricity points in order to have maximum flexibility

5. Transparency

AP4. 2. Design-related contributions to a school that offers adolescents opportunities for developmental exploration – A summary of findings from interviews and case studies

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Appendix 5

Samples of interview questions with an educator and an

architect

Sample of Interview Questions with an educator in School A

Questions related to the context of School A

There are a couple of concepts and features related to educational philosophy of the school that I want you to explain more about them. The first one is 'collaborative learning'. How does collaborative learning work in the school? What are the factors and conditions that might determine success of 'collaborative learning'? The second concept that I want to know more about it is 'Personalised learning'. What does 'personalised learning' mean? How does it work in the school? What might be its consequences and advantages for students in a holistic perspective both in terms of academic aspects and otherwise? You already referred to a number of factors influencing personalised learning, I think. Can you think of other factors that have impacts on the success of personalised learning and leading to expected outcomes? For example in a literature review that I had about 'Personalised learning' it is referred to the element of choice. I noticed that provding choices for students, was also pointed out in the school educational philosophy. Would you please explain about this as well? The third thing that I would like you to elaborate more is 'Creating connectivity' or 'Connecting students to the world'. What is the relevance of this educational goal to students' learning and personal development? What has been doing in the school in order to achieve this goal? The fulfilment of this educational goal depends on what factors the most?

Questions related to

1. ‘Providing for both individuation and social integration’

In ideal situation, group activities are facilitated and collective values are promoted. A strong sense of community among students and teachers can be observed.

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Simultaneously, individuals’ differences are appreciated and a situation is created which provides for each person’s distinct nature, specific needs and personal rights. Simply put, individuals feel that 'they are independent and autonomous but support is there for them whenever they need it'. How are adolescent students supported to develop independence? To what extent those provisions are supported by physical spaces of school? (In terms of ability to study individually or work on their own or even simply quiet reflection) Are they places in the school that students frequent it (e.g. Favourite, meaningful or popular places. They can be places that students gather with friends, exchanging and exploring ideas, or just reflect and read individually )? What are the reasons for that from your point of view? Are there any specific physical attribute of spaces among these reasons? How social interaction among students and teachers are supported in your school? In terms of physical spaces, in your point of view, are there any specific attributes that might encourage social interactions among the school members? How may ‘cooperative learning’ be encouraged in the school especially general instructional areas? We talked about it already. But can you think of any physical attribute of spaces that might encourage ‘cooperative learning’? Is there any opportunity for ‘Personalisation’ of school environment by adolescent students?


2. ‘Increasing possibilities for developmental explorations’

Various options and pathways are provided which can be experimented with and selected from. There are a variety of learning experiences and opportunities to develop interpersonal relationships with different people even from around the world through the use of ICTs. How are adolescent students supported to explore options and pathways? To what extent those provisions are supported by physical spaces of school? Can you explain if there is any opportunity of ‘Community connection’?(like use of some school facilities by community or getting students out to the community to receive parts of their learning there) Is there any place in the school for assemblies like central hub of the school?

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Samples of Interview Questions with the Architect of School C

Identity formation is the key developmental task of adolescence. It involves an individual’s achieving of a comprehensive understanding of his/her own abilities, skills and interests. This understanding then should be followed by commitments made to different domains of life which gives meanings and objectives to a person’s life. Adolescents’ identity formation is directly influenced by the social and cultural context and the possibilities which they offer. Studies on this developmental task of adolescence identify factors which determine optimal identity achievement by passage through adolescence. The current research is concerned with the role that school design might play in adolescents’ identity formation through supporting and encouraging mentioned objectives.


1. ‘Providing for both individuation and social integration’

In ideal situation, group activities are facilitated and collective values are promoted. A strong sense of community among students and teachers can be observed. Simultaneously, individuals’ differences are appreciated and a situation is created which provides for each person’s distinct nature, specific needs and personal rights. There are a couple of concepts with regard to this objective. They are physical related concepts that literature suggests might influence 'providing for both individuation and social integration'. The firs concept is the concept of privacy. I want you to explain about the provisions in this specific case study that might have impacts on this conception of privacy? Bearing this in mind that this is not only about break time activities, it can be in terms of formal learning activities, individuals' having the opportunity to do independent study and reconfigure the classroom to do group work or that sort of things. This question is about 'personalisation'. I want to know hat are the contributions that school design makes to providing opportunities for ‘personalisation’ of environment by adolescent students? It is about feeling belonging and ownership to a part of space and it can be achieved by a variety of means such as display of students’ works and using home-like features. I want to know what kind of provisions have been considered in this specific case study to achieve personalisation needs? I see that in the architectural philosophy there is pointed out 'architecture to allow the end user a degree of customisation' what are the specific design responses to this design principle or architectural philosophy? This question is about meaningful or favourite places for students. What are the attributes of spaces, if any in the school, designed in order to be a meaningful or favourite places for students?

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What are the provisions in school design that support social interaction among students and teachers? (e.g. dedicated social spaces and potentialities of circulation spaces) What are the potentialities of school design that strengthen social ties and foster sense of community within the school members? For example like assembly areas, central hub, having a place that all the school members know for large gathering, that sort of stuff. What are specific features in the school design that encourage ‘cooperative learning’?


2. ‘Creating possibilities for developmental explorations’

Various options and pathways are provided which can be experimented with and selected from. There are a variety of learning experiences and opportunities to develop interpersonal relationships with different people from around the world. It's not only about activities and programmes but also about offering opportunities for developing a variety of interpersonal relationships for example by bringing scholars from the university or somewhere else to give lecture for students or the sort of bringing people from the local community and using their expertise. How is the issue of diversity or ‘variety of learning experiences and opportunities' addressed in the school design? I noticed that here one of the design responses is having flexible spaces to enable a variety of learning activities and that sort of thing. Would you please explain more about what it is meant by flexible spaces? What kind of attributes do these spaces have? What are the specific features of school design that can support students’ participation and involvement in the school activities? (Formal learning as well as social and extracurricular programmes) How might school design develop ties to the community it serves and broaden opportunities for adolescent students?

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Minerva Access is the Institutional Repository of The University of Melbourne

Author/s:ABBASI, NEDA

Title:Pathways to a better personal and social life through learning spaces: the role of schooldesign in adolescents' identity formation

Date:2009

Citation:Abbasi, N. (2009). Pathways to a better personal and social life through learning spaces:the role of school design in adolescents' identity formation. PhD thesis, Faculty ofArchitecture, Building and Planning, The University of Melbourne.

Publication Status:Unpublished

Persistent Link:http://hdl.handle.net/11343/37586

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