THE ROLE OF GREENLAND IN THE ARCTIC

New perspectives in polar research

35th

Polar Symposium

Diversity and state of polar ecosystems

4th

Editors: , Piotr Owczarek,

Marek Kasprzak, Mateusz C. Strzelecki

Technical editors:

Magdalena Korzystka- ,

Reviewers:

Josef Elster

Andrzej Kubka

Wojciech Majewski

Andrzej Makowski

Adam Nawrot

Piotr Owczarek

Jerzy Pereyma

Grzegorz Rachlewicz

Izabel

Andrzej Witkowski

Cover image:

Ice cliff of the Hansbreen, Hornsund (photo M. Kasprzak, 2011)

4 by Ins

ISBN

Institute of Geography and Regional Development,

Pl. Uniwersytecki 1, 50

Printed by I-BiS s.c., ul. Sztabowa 32, 53-321


Contents

PREFACE (Editors) ................................................................................................................................... 7

ARCTIC COUNCIL AND THE ECOSYSTEM-BASED MANAGEMENT APPROACH (M. Madej) ............... 9

OFFSHORE HYDROCARBON DEVELOPMENTS IN THE ARCTIC: MAIN DETERMINANTS AND

uszczuk) ......................................................................................................................... 19

THE ROLE OF GREENLAND IN THE ARCTIC (M. A. Tomala)............................................................... 27

Y (J. Grzela) .................................................................................................... 37

RUSSIAN ICEBREAKER. THE CURRENT DAY AND THE FUTURE (K. Kubiak) ................................... 51

RIA. THE MODELS OF ECO-CULTURAL ADAPTATION IN THE CONTEXT

OF RECLAMATION OF SPACES (M. P. Chernaya) ............................................................................... 61

NTENSIFICATION WITH REFERENCE TO ARCTIC ECOSYSTEMS

(K. Kozak, M. S , A. Pacyna, K. K , S. Lehmann olkowska) ........................................... 69

THE OCCURRENCE OF POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (PAHS) AND

POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCBS) IN THE CHOSEN AREA OF SVALBARD (A. Pacyna,

K. K , M. Ruman olkowska) ....................................................................................................... 85

MORPHOMETRIC PARAMETERS OF THE RENARDBREEN AS AN IMPORTANT FACTORS

DETERMINING THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS ON THE GLACIER

SURFACE (BELLSUND, SVALBARD) (K. Kosek, S. Lehmann, G. Gajek, W. Kociuba Franczak,

Polkowska) ......................................................................................................................................... 97

DYNAMICS OF CHANGES IN THE CONCENTRATION LEVELS OF ORGANIC POLLUTANTS IN THE

PROGLACIAL WATERS OF THE SCOTT RIVER (SPITSBERGEN, SW SVALBARD) (S. Lehmann,

W. Kociuba, G. Gajek ranczak olkowska) ............................................................................... 111

PROPERTIES OF DRIFTWOOD FROM BELLSUND COAST (SVALBARD): PRELIMINARY RESULTS

(M. Komorowicz, H. W , A. Fojutowski, A. Kropacz , A. Noskowiak, G. Gajek ranczak,

L. ) ......................................................................................................................................... 123

THE DIVERSITY OF CYANOBACTERIA AND GREEN ALGAE ON ECOLOGICAL DIFFERENT TYPES

OF VEGETATION IN HORNSUND AREA (WEST SPITSBERGEN, SVALBARD) (D. Richter, M. Pietryka,

J. M ) .............................................................................................................................................. 139

POSSIBILITIES OF DETECTING NON-BITING MIDGES (CHIRONOMIDAE) IN ANTARCTICA

(E. S ) .................................................................................................................................... 165

CURRENT AND HISTORICAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES CONSTRAINED BY CLIMATE.

ADMIRALTY BAY, KING GEORGE ISLAND, ANTARCTICA (POLISH OCEANOGRAPHIC PROJECTS

INITIATED DURING INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR) (A. W , A. Tatur, M. Rzepecki,

A. Borkowski) ........................................................................................................................................ 173

FACTORS CONTROLLING BEACH DEVELOPMENT IN VAIGAT STRAIT, WEST GREENLAND

INSIGHTS FROM AUTOMATED GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS (M. Drewniak, M. C. Strzelecki,

W. S ) ..................................................................................................................................... 189


PROCESSES CONTROLLING THE PAST AND RECENT EVOLUTION OF COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS

IN THE SOUTHERN BELLSUND, SVALBARD (P. Z , M. C. Strzelecki, J. Rodzik) ..................... 205

BEDLOAD TRANSPORT IN A HIGH ARCTIC GRAVEL-BED RIVER (SCOTT RIVER, SVALBARD SW)

(W. Kociuba) ......................................................................................................................................... 231

FROST WAVES IN NORTH-WESTERN SPITSBERGEN (A. M. Tomczyk) ........................................... 247

CLIMATIC SIGNALS IN GROWTH RINGS OF THE HIGH ARCTIC DWARF SHRUB SALIX POLARIS

(WAHLENB.): A CASE STUDY FROM SW SPITSBERGEN, SVALBARD (P. Owczarek, M. O ,

K. M ) .............................................................................................................................................. 257

TREE RINGS OF DOWNY BIRCH (BETULA PUBESCENS) FROM ISLAND OF TROMS

(NORWAY) AS PROXIES FOR PAST TEMPERATURE CHANGES IN THE LOW ARCTIC (M. O ,

K. M , P. Owczarek) ........................................................................................................................ 269


Magdalena Tomala

Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce

The Faculty of Management and Administration

21B -369 Kielce, Poland

[email protected]

The Role of Greenland in the Arctic

Abstract: Along with the progressive warming of Arctic climate the importance of

Greenland as a relevant element in geopolitical system of Arctic region will grow.

The increasing availability of local energy resources and rare earth metals will result

in increased interest of the island by the outside parties: China, EU, Denmark and

other. Active political and economic factors aimed at Nuuk will thus be gaining

momentum. This occurrence will be accompanied by the increasing desire of Green-

land to a full of a political sovereignty. This article discusses the interests and rela-

tionship of Greenland in three areas: with Denmark, EU and China. The analysis

answers the following questions: Can Denmark follow the rapidly increasing inter-

national interest in Greenland? What are the challenges facing the Danish-

Greenlandic relationship? Is Greenland with limited capabilities able to handle fur-

ther interest from major global powers? While the Arctic is a laboratory of the chal-

lenges at stake in 21st century, Greenland appears as a laboratory of the challenges

that the Arctic is facing: climate change, natural resources, competition between

global powers, shipping routes, security issues.

Keywords: Arctic, Greenland, international relation, foreign affairs

Introduction

The recent effects of global warming in the Arctic (Maxwell 1992) have

many countries and international organizations interested in the situation (Neumann

2012, Wright 2013). The source of attention of entities in international relations are

economic benefits arising from the exploitation of natural resources, especially

crude oil and rare earth metals, that have not been mined due to the harsh climatic

conditions (Hansen et al. 2013). It can be hypothesized that the area of the Arctic

concerns one of the sensitive areas of the globe where indicated conditions may

apply to the unique combination of opportunities and contemporary threats to securi-


ty in the region. Interesting in this perspective is the geopolitical position of Green-

land, that previously remaining on the sidelines of international relations nowadays

is becoming a key player in the global system. Here collide interests of any relevant

world powers such as China, Denmark, and the European Union. The objective of

this contest on one hand are deposits of raw materials of Green Island and on the

other hand environmental issues of the case sovereignty of the indigenous popula-

tion issues and also economic development.

Ongoing diplomatic and political game on the division of influence in the far

Northern is so important in some respects from the point of view of the same Green-

land. It is the result from fact that the international community increasingly demon-

strates a willingness to accept a situation in which entities other than the state can

receive legal capacity to enter into this agreement, signing treaties, or even taking

voice in the international arena. The purpose of this article is an analysis of the in-

ternational situation in the region, after the Act of 12 June 2009 authorizes the Gov-

ernment of Greenland to negotiate and conclude international agreements with third

countries and international organizations. What role does Greenland play in geo-

political system, where the clashing interests of China, Denmark and the European

Union? This article will discuss the joint interests of these three entities, which

seems to be very interesting from the point of view of international relations. Each

of them has their goals in Greenland and seemingly seems to be contradictory with

each other. It can therefore be predicted that Greenland based on the opportunities

and threats, will achieve sovereignty had to be on side of someone. But does it have

to do that? These questions remain unanswered for the time being but in this work

will be presented arguments of the parties to the conflict. It is important for under-

standing the relationship between Greenland, Denmark, European Union and China.

The concept of international roles and status of Greenland

ng and im-

plementation of national interests of state in relation to other countries and partici-

pants in the international system (Kostecki 1988). This definition indicates that if

Greenland does not have sovereign state status cannot arise in the international rela-

tion as an entity pursuing its own interests or play international roles? As indicated

r-

national rules what in perspective allows to define the relationship between his polit-

can be understood (...) organized and purposeful system the State interactions on the

other participants of international relations as a function of the subjective assessment

impact of the external environment (Bielecka 2004). Although the author indicates


here that the definition refers to the international roles of the State and not the na-

tion, or other entity. Elsewhere she emphasizes The concept of the role of the inter-

national (...) is not usually identified with the behavior of individual units, but rather

with the external policies of the state. Operation within the greater, the international

polyarchy system makes the roles are formulated for the purposes of the specific

nature resulting from the specificity of the system. This applies especially to its par-

ticipants. In this case, there are mainly the states. Of course there are also the other

participants of international relations, such as international organizations, transna-

tional corporations, or interest groups who play a number of international roles

(Bielecka 2004).

According to J. Zajac (2013) and P. Bartosiewicz (2007) for non-state enti-

ties, playing role in international relations draws attention. P. Bartosiewicz believes

i-

tute the global geopolitical space, play in the three-dimensional extent of certain

When bring up the issue of the international roles, most political scientists

have in mind the roles of international countries, and not the other participants

who are treated as secondary manner. However P. Bartosiewicz (2007) indicates

that, paradoxically, the role of secondary participants (analyzed in this nation of

Greenland) may in fact be far greater than the average observers of international life

we used to think. The author refers to the theory of declining created in the 70s ac-

cording to which the state as the primary participant in the international relations, it

ceases to play a dominant role in the modern world. Its place is taken by internation-

al organizations, which link state networks of various connections .

Indicated above definitions allowed Greenland to accept the nation can play

the role of international, despite the lack of full statehood and sovereignty. In this

paper attempts to answer the question of what roles in international relations fully

Greenland and what is the effectiveness of its impact on other countries.

Role of Greenland in international relations

There are many ways of classification of international roles. One of the most

powerful classification presented K. Holsti (1987), extracting as many as 17 major

types of international roles. Taking into account the aspirations of Greenland to

achieve independence and sovereignty we can assign its own potential roles builder.

Such an approach hides declared by the Government of Greenland towards its policy

and widening sovereign rights.

Undoubtedly speaks for independence of Greenland that society inhabits

these areas Inuit have a distinct identity, its own language and culture. The same,

position of the island shows more on the direction towards North America than to


Europe. While analyzing economic issues, we should indicate pointing to the argu-

ments of supporters of sovereignty, who believe that the subsidies Danish only lead

to passivity and subordination to the metropolis. Depending on separation from

Denmark, Greenland would gain the expected profits associated with the extraction

of mineral resources (Rasmussen 2013).

In Greenland there are ongoing debates around the issues of how to build

their own potential based on its raw material resources. In 2009, performed a further

step on the road to achieve sovereignty, frozen the cost of subsidies from Denmark,

which every year lose their value. Since that time, Greenland is looking for their

chance to be self-sufficient.

It is known from the nearest future Greenland will no announce independ-

ence, since the same transition to full autonomy, took 30 years. Before the referen-

dum held in 2009, the then Prime Minister of Greenland Hans Enoksen while he

spoke, that the aim of his government was the introduction of full independence

until 2021, although the Foreign Minister of the government Kuupik Kleist Per

erm at

least 20 30 years (Szwed 2013).

Also, Greenland deputy Palle Christensen of Democrats (groups sceptical

towards the idea of the independence of the island) claimed that We cannot do it

without Danish grants, so we cannot give up now. Only after spatial deposits we

should think about loosening the bonds of Copenhagen

While in the perspective of decades, this vision seems feasible. Crucial in

the construction of their own potential will have raw materials policy, which was the

subject of debate during the last election. During the elections the two political par-

-wing party leader Kuupik Kleist Inuit

Ataqatigiit was a supporter of foreign investments, while his policy was considered

a controversial. He introduced the system of preferences for investments of large

scale, which in the opinion of society and opposition gave too many privileges to

companies which have invested in Greenland over 670 million in mining projects.

We cannot rely solely on fishing. We need to develop the mining and industry sec-

tors . While his counter can-

didate Aleqa Hammond retorted that Greenland cannot uncritically allow for the

exploitation of their natural resources, but should provide the greatest benefit to the

local government and residents. The leader of the party Siumut claim to take the

introduction of mining fees and more lucrative licensing rules. In rematch, Kleist

accused the opposition of stoking nationalist sentiments and separatist aspirations.

On how to build their own potential prejudge the results of the election, after

which the party of Aleqi Hammond announced changes in the policy of the current

prime minister resource. New Prime Minister selected in 2013, announced that she

wants to grant the exploitation of uranium and other ores, if they contain no more

than 0.1 percent uranium oxide. Instead, Simut party requires that mining companies


pay immediately for the right to exploitation of deposits, while former Prime Minis-

ter Kleist's party planned to collect taxes only when the mining companies will be

profitable. Inuit Ataqatigiit Party lost because at the end of 2012, passed a law which

allowed foreign investors to pay their workers in accordance with the rules in force

in their homeland. This meant much smaller profits to the budget of Greenland than

the minimum wage in Greenland. It was a nod to China, which has announced that it

will invest 2.3 billion dollars in the mine, which will be sent to China 15 million

tons of iron ore per year. For the construction of the mine was intended to bring

about 2 3 thousand Chinese people. The vision of a mass influx of foreigners did

not like many Inuit, who feared that foreign companies will have too much to say

(Czarnecki, Kublik 2013).

Another method of research on the roles of international applied S. Walker,

who starting from the theoretical classification of roles, applied it to reinterpret

made earlier empirical studies (Walker 1987). He distinguished six international

roles: consumer, producer, warrior, conciliator, provocateur, the hegemon. Referring

to the classification proposed by Walker we should look at Greenland term and tak-

ing account of climate change that are taking place in the World. Today Greenland

is not a power of raw materials but global warming may lead to fundamental chang-

es in the region. What is most valuable in Greenland is hidden under a layer of ice

covering more than 80% surface of the country. We are talking about resources such

as petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, aluminum, nickel and copper, precious metals

such as gold, platinum and also rare metals like titanium, tungsten, tantalum, niobi-

um, and even uranium. As the media indicated it is a real array of Mendeleev

table . Craving such a treasure is caving the world, including not only countries like

China, EU Member States, Denmark, USA, Canada or even Australia, but also large

worldwide corporations. As the Foreign Minister of Greenland said for the China

Daily

(Ningzhu 2014).

Besides, not only the rare metals stir up the interest of entities in the interna-

tional relations. London Mining, a company affiliated with the Chinese steel plants

to open iron ore mines here, which was mentioned earlier. The value of the project is

estimated to be approximately 2.35 billion dollars. American concern Alcoa in the

area of Greenland contemplates the construction of the aluminum smelter, where the

raw materials were transported from Brazil and Australia. In turn, British Cairn En-

ergy spend in 2010 2011, $ 1.2 billion on oil exploration nears the island (Nyvold

2012). We should emphasize that so far the suffered the cost has not brought the

expected results. Despite this, competitive company Seadrill (the largest company in

the fields of oil exploration offshore), do not be discouraged by the results of the

competition, recently signed a contract for 1.18 billion dollars. Powerful and risky

investments of multinational corporations in Greenland stem form the potential of

the island. The experts from Wood Mackenzie estimate deposits in Greenland and


around 20 billion barrels of oil, which would constitute largest unexploited deposits

of oil decks today in the world. Their value would be 2 trillion dollars. The fact that

in the future Greenland may become a resource base for the world's economies testi-

fies also number of operating licenses in Greenland, which increased from 33 in

2005 to 75 in 2011. The total estimated that geological and mining companies issued

in 2010,100 billion dollars on minerals exploration and oil even more on oil explora-

tion.

The direction of research, initiated by the earlier mention K. Holsti later

continued the research team under the direction of M. and Ch. Herman. On the basis

of these analyzes, distinguished six orientation roles in foreign policy such as: ex-

pansionist, active independent, focused on the impact, mediation, opportunistic and

development. Greenland can be attributed to opportunistic orientation, which is

characterized by a willingness to take action favorable and use of existing circum-

stances. The entity is not interested in playing here active role in the international

community, it is leading politics of flexible moves collaborated to make best use of

the situation. The leaders representing the orientation are by characterized by the

complexity of the decision-making process, a slight lack of confidence in other

countries, too much faith in the ability to control events, not a great need for domi-

nance and strengthening friendly relations with others as well as low levels of na-

tionalism. The leaders of these countries may be discriminated against by other

entities.

Greenland balances between the different countries involved in Greenlandic

raw materials: like China, Denmark, USA, Canada, Australia, Great Britain and the

European Union. The biggest challenge for the Nation of Greenland is as told by

Degeorges (Degeorges

2013b). As he indicated, in order to have all the prerogative, you cannot have a weak

state, because the consequences of poor policy of Greenland in the Arctic will be

a threat to its energy security. To achieve independence Greenlanders need to build

a strong state structures and a strong economy, independent of the power of influ-

ence of world powers and international corporations (Degeorges 2013a). What is

important it is the proper selection of the principles governing cooperation partners?

Interest in Greenland is high, as evidenced by numerous diplomatic meetings con-

ducted by the Greenland authorities.

Already in November 2011, Li Keqiang Deputy Prime Minister of China

met with Over Karl Berthelsen, who included the post of Minister of industry and

natural resources. This meeting showed that China is interested in Greenland. So did

South Korea in April 2012, when Xu Shaoshi the minister for lands and resources

lead delegation to Greenland. In June 2013, to Denmark with a three-day visit came

President Hu Jintao, though apparently not talked about rare earth metals. During

Hillary Clintons visit to Greenland one of her first question was about rare earth

metals. Greenland is visited by the most important politicians of the world, for ex-


ample, in September 2013 the island has visited South Korean President Lee

Myung-bak, a corporation Kores (Korean Resources Corporation) entered into an

agreement with a local mining company Nuna Minerals on the joint exploitation of

rare earth metals (Degeorges 2013c). On the market of these metals necessary in the

electronics industry monopoly is China while Korean Samsung, LG and Hyundai are

global leaders in computers, smartphones, tablets and other electronic devices. Due

to the situation in which the Korea is looking for a way to break out of depending on

the Chinese monopoly.

It is not surprising that the former Prime Minister of Greenland K. Kleist

many years was under pressure from foreign investors and politicians of the Europe-

an Union, the United States and China. During the rule of the policy was issued

more than 100 mining concessions. The flagship project, which previously was men-

tioned, supposed to be launching production of iron or by the British company Lon-

don Mining at the cost of 2.3 billion dollars and exports of raw materials to China.

In the work of the fjord near Nuuk was supposed to take part 2 thousand workers

from inside the state. The local community has expressed its opposition on this pro-

ject in the elections of 2013, because such a large migration represents about 4 per-

cent increase in the population of Greenland. Aluminum factory with thousands of

new jobs is also plans to open a giant Aluminum Company of America Alcoa Inc.

then the Americans arouse less concern of cultural invested them with aggressive

investments and the Chinese economic expansion.

It is interesting conflict of interest between China and the European Union

about the influence in Greenland. K. Kleist had difficulty to communicate with the

European Commission. Organization from Greenland in common so-called memo-

randum of understanding to ensuring European countries to access to resources in

Greenland. However Greenlanders, were not satisfied with the protracted negotia-

tions and just before elections Kleist threatened with the countries of the old conti-

nent soon will lose the possibility of exploitation of natural resources of the island.

As a result of bureaucratic delays at EU levels, Greenland quickly and entered into

a similar agreement with China. To such paces Greenland, the only thing European

Commission could claim is a limitation of Chinese activity on the island (Degeorges

2012).

The European Union itself is planning to strengthen mutually beneficial co-

operation with Greenland, which allows combining infrastructure and investment

capacity or building potential in the exploration and mining of raw materials. On

behalf of the European Commission in June 2012 in Nuuk signed a letter of intent

on cooperation in the field. However, it is at the same slow, bureaucratic and from

the very beginning is not competitive with the Chinese regime, which makes deci-

issues. EU Commis-

sioner for Industry, Antonio Tajani, in June 2013, visited Greenland and sought the

opportunity to use valuable elements by EU companies. However China does not


miss a step and it is also engaged in intensive negotiations. Greenlandic society de-

spite fears about the presence of China in Greenland does not close itself relation

with this great power (EurActiv, 2013). It can also be noted that Denmark also un-

derstands the policy of Greenland. As evidenced by the joint meeting the Minister of

Greenland and the Danish ambassador in China. On February17, 2014 the Danish

Ambassador Erik Vilstrup Lorenzen and Greenland Foreign Minister Kai Holst An-

dersen in an interview with China Daily indicated that they started conversation

with two Chinese concerns about mining cooperation in Greenland (copper company

Jiangxi Province). Kai Holst Andersen emphasized that if this cooperation will end

successfully, it will be a good start to expand cooperation with other Chinese com-

panies in Greenland. China in return promises access to its market for Denmark and

Greenland, and collaboration on scientific research involving the Kingdom of Den-

mark and Greenland (Ningzhu 2014).

At present, about 58 percent Companies engaged in mineral exploration in

Greenland come from Canada and Australia. Companies from European Union rep-

resent only 15% (including Denmark, Germany, the Czech Republic and the United

Kingdom). Although European companies have three-quarters permits for exploita-

tion in Greenland they have just a few concessions for the exploration and engage in

a small way in this type of activity (most of the concessions is in the hands of Great

Britain, Germany and Denmark).

To this must be added the reports of the release of the Arctic under the ice,

which is in the future to facilitate maritime transport. Ice-free part of Greenland

would increase over the next 30 years from 380 to 410 thousand sq. km.

In conclusion it should be noted that at present it is difficult to speak of the

profits from the exploitation of deposits in Greenland but if in the end, a number of

attempts will be successful, Greenland will change beyond recognition both in terms

of economic, political, but mainly change its role in the international arena.

Summary

The occurrence of different types of international roles Greenland depends

on the conditions of foreign policy. The effectiveness of these roles, however, de-

pends on many different kinds of dependencies occurring between them. The above

analysis can extend the thesis, and in this case the role of Greenland in 2009, began

to change from participant who has its role imposed by the international community

to the entity, which in the future may be a decision maker in its case. Not unreason-

able can also be a statement due to possibility of extraction raw materials from

Greenland it could become a future entity which will impose to other international

roles. To cope with the increasing of international interest, one of the most important


challenges is the development and uses their potential. For this it can indicate the

potential, opportunities and threats Greenland, due to its international roles:

1. In assessing the energy potential, geologists recommend that on Greenland are

located some of the world's largest resources of various raw materials. Due to global

warming, access to anything becomes cheaper and easier this will consequently

take advantage of the opportunity for economic development in Greenland, so that

in the future may become a sovereign state and independent of Denmark subsidies.

2. One of the major threats facing Greenland is actually using itself as raw materials

giant. Island is managed by only 44 people (9-bedded government, 31-bedded par-

liament and 4 mayors, Greenland Department of Foreign Affairs has 15 people),

which threatens possibility of government corruption.

3. Pointing to the opportunistic orientation of Greenland we must indicate on the

need to diversify the countries of origin of foreign investment. It can be assumed

that the major projects in Greenland will be largely financed by Asian countries

(threat of monopolization rare resources management). Hence the danger flowing

cultural civilization. There is therefore a need to strengthen political relations in

Greenland with its closest neighbors the Nordic countries, the European Union,

Canada and the United States.

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