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University of the Pacific Theses and Dissertations Graduate School

1957

The rabbit : an illustrated anatomical guide The rabbit : an illustrated anatomical guide

Edwin Chin Jr. University of the Pacific

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t I I'

·I I\ '''

THE RABBIT

AN ILLUS'I'RA'l1EO ANATOMICAL GUIDE

A Thesis

.Pr•esE!mted to

the Faculty of the Department of Zoology

College of the Pacific

In Partial F'ulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

',Master of Arts

by

Edwin Chin, Jr. .. , June 1957

---- -----

CHAPTE:R PAGE

1 I. IN'11RODUCTI ON • • . •. . . . • • • • • • • • • • • !J

Preparation of Materials • • • • • • • • • • • • J

Killixlg the specimen • • • • • • • • • • • • • 3

Embali'\ling the specimen • • • • • • • • • • • • 3

Injection of, the circulatory system • • • • • 6

Skeletal preparation • • • • • • • • • • • • • 7

!I, EX'I1ERNAI.~ FEA~'URES • • • , • • • • • • • • • • , • 8

III. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

IV. rJIUSCULAR SYS'I'EM • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Superficial f1uscles • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ' . Subcutaneous Muscles • • • • • • • • • • • . . ~

Muscles of the Neck and Back • • • • • • • • • •

f1us<~les of the 'rhroat and Chest • • • • • 0 • •

Muscles of the Arm and Shoulder • • • • • • • •

Muscles of the I~'o:t'~arm • • • • • • • • • • • • •

£1uscles of the 'rh1gh and Leg • • • .. • • • • • .. r1uscles of the Lo't';er Leg • • • • • • • • • 0 • •

v. !N'l'ERNAL ORGANS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

VI. RESPIRATOHY SYS'l'Er1 • • • • • • • • • • • . .. . • •

VII. HEART AND MAJOR VESSELS . . . . . . . . •. . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • It

The Major Vessels • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

10

45

4.?

45

.?1

52

57 60

66

68

70

73

?3

75

CHAPTER

VIII. AR.TERIAIJ CIRCULATION • • • • • • • • • • • " . .

IX.

x. XI.

Anterior Arteries

'l'hora.cio Arteries

. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Abdominal Arteries • • • • • • •

Mtv.jor ~ymphatic Ves~-;els • • • •

\f""ENOUS CIRCULATION • • • .. • • • •

An.terlor Veins • • • • • • • • •

Posterior Veins • • • • • • • •

• • •

• • • • • 0

• • • • • • •

. . " • • • •

• • 0 • • • •

• • • • • • •

• • • • • • •

• • • 8 • • •

• • • • * 16 •

XII. UROGENITAL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .

XIII~

XIV.

U:rinary Organs • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Male Reproductive Organs • • • • • • • • • • •

Female Reproduot:l.ve Organs

CENTHAL NE:HVOUS SYSTEN • • •

• • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • • • •

Meninges • • • • • • • • • •

Late:t•al Aspect of the Brain

• •

• •

. . • • • • •

• • • • • • •

Medlan Sag it tal Section of the Br·ain. • • • • •

Po:t1sal Aspect of the B:r·a.5.n • • • • • • • • • •

Ventral Aspe<:~t of the Drain • • • • • • ,. • •

Spinal COl"d. ... . . . . .. . . .. . • • • . •. . . BIBI..IOOHAPHY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

iii

PAGE

80

80

82

82

8.5

87

87

88

91

93

100

100

101

103

105

105

105

107

J.lO

112

lll~

116

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE

1. Lateral View of a Mounted Skeleton • • • • • • • • 2. Lateral View of' the Skull • .. • • • • • • • • • •

3. Medial View of a Sagitt-9.1 Section of the Skull il • 4 .. Dorsal View of the Skull • • • • • • • • • • • • •

5· Ventral View of the Skull • • • • • • • • • • • •

6. Lateral View of the Mandible • • • • • • • • • • •

7. r"iedtal View of t;he Mandible! • • • • • • .. • • • • a. Anterior View of the Sternal Apparatus • • • • • • 9. .Medial View of the Scapula • • • • • e • • • • • •

10. Lateral View of the Scapula • • • • • • • • • • •

11.

12.

1:}.

14.

1.5.

16.

17.

18.

19.

;w.

Anterior and. Posterl.or Views of the Humerus

Antero ... lateral View of the Hadius and Ulna •

• • •

• • • Dors£tl View of the Bones of the Hand • • • • • .. . Inferior View of the Atlas (1st Cervical) • • • • Lateral Viow of the Axis (2nd Cervical) • • • • •

Superior View of a Typical Cervical Vertebra • • •

Lateral V1e"~<1' of' a Typical 1l'horacio Vertebra • • •

Later•al View of a Typical Lumbar Vertebra • • • •

Superior View of _a Typical Lumbar Vertebra • • • •

Ventre.l V:i,ew of the Sacrum • • • • • • • • • • • • 21. Dorsal View of the Sa.orum . . . . . . . . . . •. '

Lateral Sux•face of the Innom:l.nate • • • • •

Medial Surface of the Innominate • • • • • • . . '

PAQS

11

13

14

15

16

19

20

22

23

24

26

27

29

Jl

31

33

33

34

34

36

)6

38

39

FIGURE

24.

26.

27.

28.

Anterior and. Pos teri o:t' View of the Femur • • • • •

• • • • • • • • Dor•sal View of the Bones o1' t.he li'oot • • • • • • • Latere.l Vie~'! of the Sup(~rficial f•iuseles • •• • • •

Muscles of the Neck and Baok • • • • • • • • • • • 29. Muscles of the Throat and Chest • • • • • • • • • 30. Late:r8.1 V18w of tbe tvtusc,les of the Arm a.:r1d

Shoulder • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • :n. t1edial View of the Muscles of the iu.,.m and

Shoulder •• • • • • • e· • • • • I • .t • . .. . . 32. Cross Sect ton Through the r116.1Jl.le of the Humerus

v

PAGE

41

43

44

46

47

50

33. Dorsal View of the Tend.o~(ls of the Forearm • • • • 59

34. Lateral Vie'tl>.r of· the Supsrficial P1uscles of the

Thigh and Lag • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 62

35. Lateral Vtr~t'i of the Deep ~1uscles of the Thigh

and Leg • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •. • 63

Me.dlal ViE~W of the Muscles of the Thigh • • • • •

Cross Section Through the Middle of the Femur .. . J8. Cross Section Through the l\liddle of the

39.

40.

41.

42.

43 ..

Ti.bic-Jil1 bula • • • • • • • • • • •

Anterior Vie-;.J of the Internal Organs

Anterior View of the Thoracic .Organs

Anterlor View of the He :art • • • • •

Dorsal Vi~w of the Heart • If • • • •

Vessels of the Neck and Thorax • • •

.. . • • • • •

• • • • • • • • • • 0 • • •

• • • • • • •

• • • • • • •

• • • • • • •

64

65

67

69

72

77

78

79

i - --- --

FIGURE

vi

PAGE

Branches of the Aorta • • • • • • • • • . . . ' . ... Tribut:a.r1es of the Venae Cavae •••••••••.•

86

90

46. Semi-Diagramatie View of the Hepatio-l?ortal

System • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •. • • • • • 92

47. Anterior View of the Liver • • • • • • • • • • • • 98

48. Sem1~D1agramat1c Vielti of the lleoceoal Junction • • 99

49.

50.

51.

The Male Urogenital. System •

~he :tt,ema.H~ urogeiti tal System

Lateral View of the Brain • •

• •

• •

• •

• • • • • • • • • 102

• • • • • • • • • 104

• • • • • • • • • 106

SZ. Medial View of a Sagittal Section of the Brain •• 109

Dorsal View of the Brain . . . . . . . . . ... . . • 111

Ventra.l View of the Brain • • • • • • • • • .• • • · .• 115

I. INTRODUCTION

While asslst;ing in a la bora. tory cou:r•se in mammalian

anatomy at the College of the Pacific in the fall of 19.55,

1 t became necessary to utilize domestic rabbits, I.t!pus

caniculus:~ as a replacement for cats as dissecting material.

As a result of this, it was noted that anatomically the

rabbit was in many ways more desirable as a dissect1..ng

mammal than the cat. Some notable advantages over the oat

were (1) a more typical hyoid apparatus; (2} possession of

twelve pairs of r1.bs; (3) persistent right azygos vein;

(4) three main branches from the aortic arch; and external

and internal iliac arteries arising from the common iliac

artery. rrhese adve,nced mammalis,n oharaoteristj_cs, as

observed in the preU.minary dissections, resembled so much

the human anatomical condition that an investigation of the

possible use of the rabbit for dissection in an introductory

anatomy or mammalian anatomy course was initiated. An added

advantage in the use of the rabbit for dls :>ection would be

the lack of personal attachment for 1st bora tory ar11rnals such

as the rabbitt whereas certain societies and groups of

individuals often react negatively to the dissection of

oats in the laboratory. The low cost and. earf:!ot' embalming

and injecting is an added inducement for the use of :t•abbi ts

as dissecting material.

2

This study on the anatomy of the rabbit was based on

d.isseoted mt.tterial from the biological laboratories of the

College of the Pacific. Beo~use of existing errors in many

of the present. references to rabbit anatomy, the gutde was

prepared to meet the expressed need for a concise, illus­

trated outline of basic anatomy of the rabi;Jit which might be

used by students in an introductory course in mammalian or

human anatomy. Since it is assumed that the guide would be

supplemented by a dlsseotion manual, syllabus, or textbook,

textural material of such an outllne is he:r•e presented in

outline form.

I wish to express my deep gratitude to Dr. Alden E•

Noble, chairman of the Department of Zoology, College of the

Pacific, whose 1nspir8.tion and guldanoe has made this study

possible. I would also like to thank Dr. Donald L. Lehmann

of the College of the Pacific and Miss Ecli th Grider, refer­

ence librarian of the College of the Pacific, for their

generous donation of time and advice ln helping to make

this study possible.

PREPARATION OF MATEIHALS

. Most of the larger biological supply houses supply

embalmed. rabbits; singly • doubly$ or triply injected. The

cost of these preserved rabbits is about the same as for

the cat,. .':'£!he following procedures were used tn'the prepara'!"'

tion of' mc1.terials for this study; and they are recommended

for those who 'fl~ish to use the more readily obtainable live

rabbits.

KILLING THE SPECIMEN

The animal should be starved a day or two prior to

embalming. This allows for evacuation of the digestive

tract. Also, the dissection T1vill progress taore easj.ly. with

a minimum of visceral and subcutaneous fat deposits. A

large crock or garbage pail lATi th a tightly fi tti:ng cover is

ideal as a killing chamber. A cotton wad soaked with ether

or chloroform is dropped into the cha.mber and allowed to

remain for at least 20 minutes. The animal should be dead

and ready for emba.lrni:ng.

\IJhile. smaller mammals can be preserved. by simply open ...

ing tne body cavity and immersing them in a solution of

formalin or alcohol• larger animals should be embalmed

intravenously to insure adequate brain and visceral

prese~vation. The embalming solution should be prepared ahead

of' time and stored in a large 8-10 liter bottle w:ith a two­

hole rubber stopper.· ~f.lhe following solution, which is a

modification of Keller's embalming fluid for the preparation

of human cadavers in ana.tomi.ca.l study, was found to'be

satisfactory for the rabbit.

' Commercial Formalin • • • • • • • 5 Parts Melted Carbolic f1,c1d Crystals • • 5 Parts Glycerin • • • • • • • . • • • • 5 Parts Distilled Water • • • • • • . .. • 8.5 Parts

The formalin acts as preservative and also gives firm~

hess to the muscles. rrhe glycerin prevents desiccation and

hardening of the organs. The carbolic ac1d helps to I"etain

color of the tissue and to improve the oc,ior of the specimen.

The animal should be placed on an embalming boa:rd and

tied into the des1r~.1d position prior to hardening. The

sites of injection for the embalming fluid are the common

carotid and femoral arteries. The common carotid artery is

located by a small incision in the neck region lateral to

the trachea and anterior to the anterior border of the

sternomastoid muscle. This artery lies in close :relation­

ship with the vagus nerve and internal jugular vein. The

femoral artery is exposed by an incision on the medial sur­

face of the thigh in the region of the femoral triangle.

Palpation of this area will reveal the course of the femoral

artery. Expose the arteries from the surroundlr.ig connective

5

'~;;issue and slip ,a length of thread around them with a loose

knot at th~ end. Cover the incisions with a. cotton wad

d.ampened. w:tth distilled water to prevent the area from dry ...

ing out. 'I'he gravity bottle should be placed about three

feet .above ·the specimen containing the embalming fluid. The

opening from the bottle should be equ',.pped with a rubber tube

ancl a glass T. 11he terminal ends of the rubber tubing from

the .. · glass T should be equipped with a glass c.ammla. approxi­

mately the same diameter or slightly larger than the diameter

of the arteries to be cannulated. The arteries are incised..

half-way through with a V-sl1aped cut pointing towards the

heart. •rhe glass cannula is carefully inserted into the

artery and the cannula tied securely into place with Number

8 nylon thread.. Tying the loose ends of the thread a few

times around the leg or neck region wlll prevent accidental

removal of the cannula during the embalming process. TP.e

flow of the fluid into the cannula can be controlled by two

screw-type clamps on the rubber tubing. The embalming pro ...

cess shou.ld be· c<;>m1)leted in about two hours. An average­

sized rabbit requires about 1~· to 2 liters of fluid. The

embalming process is complete when the animal appears com ...

pletely bloated. rhe limbs and nead should be immovable

with the eyes bulging. If fluid is visible flowing from the

nasal or oral passages, a cotton plug.should be forced into

the aperture to prevent loss of fluid.

6

A v1etting sol uti em should be prepared and l{ept on hand

for use as the d:lssect1on progresses.

is recommended,

The following formula

Melted Carbolic Acid Crystals... • • )0 grams. Glycerin •••• ~ • • • • • • • • • 250 oo. Distilled \vater • • • • • • • • • • • 1000 co.

INJECT! ON OF TIE C IBCDLATORY SYSTEM

The identification and dissection of blood vessels can

be made easier with the aid of colored injection mass •. The

following starch m<J.Ss formula is an adequate preparation ·

Whlch :l.s 1r1expensi ve. L_atex injection rna. teri~:tls, however,

are preferable because they impart elasticity to the vessels.

Corn Starch • • • • • • • • • • • . 1 lb. Formalin • e • • • • • •••••• 100 co. Glycerin ••••••••••••• 100 co. Distilled water •••••••••• 500 co. Colored Dye

Ca:rmine • • • • • • • • • • • • • Red Berlin Blue • • • • • • • • • • • Blu$ Lead Chromate ••• , •• o ••• Yellow

'!'he injection of the circulatory system should not b~

started 1mmed1a tely after embalming. Tt<Jo days should be

allowed for sat~ura tion by the embalming fluid in the bod.y.

The injection should be ca:rried out with a large-sized

injection syringe. 'rhe arterial injection (red) is r.na.de

through the carotid and femoral arteries. Injection

should be directed toward the heart with considerable

pressure. Venous injection (blue) is made through the

1

f-----

L - ----

,___ ----- -

external jugular veln :tn the neok and the femoral vein in

the thigh. The h~patio-portal system (yellow) is injected

i;hrot1gh a:n ·1ntenst1na.1 branch of the hepatlc-portal vein,

An incision into the abdominal cavity will locate the

intestinal veins within the abdominal mesentery.

SKELETAL PREPARNriON

Freshly killed specimen are better suited for the

prepar•t:l.tion of skeletal structures tht:m are embalmed ones.

After removing as much of the soft flesh as possible; the

ske.letal elements can be boiled in the follo~.;ing sol uti on,

Hard Soap .• , • • • • • • • • • • • • 25 grams Potassium.Nitrate • • • • ... • • • 12 gx•ams Strong Ammonia • • • • • • • • • • 150 co • Distil.led Water • • ~ • • • • • • • 2000 co •

'1

On$ part of the above stock soap solution should be diluted

with J-4 parts water. Boiling should proceed, with freque:rl't

examination. until the remaining flesh falls off or becomes

soft enough ·to scrape off easily. For a disarticulated.

skull, a young specimen is preferable because of the incom­

plete ossification of the sutures. Continual boiling in the

solution will loosen the sutures suffloiently so that the

bones may be easily separated.

ll • EX'l'ERNAL li'EATtmES

(No Figures)

GENERAL BODY SHAPE

SKIN

Head., neck• thCJra.x, abdomen, recurved tail.

anterior limbs • pos1;erior limbs.

Hair - Making up the furry coat.

Vibrissae ~ Enlarged tactile hair in the head region.

l'<lamrnary Nipples ... 8-10 in number on the ventral surface

of the animal in two rows.

APPENDAGES

Anterior Extremity -

Arm, forearm, hand (vd th 5 digits), claws.

?osterior Extremity "

Thigh, lower leg, :toot (with!~ digits), claws.

SE.NSOHY ORGANS

External Nares - Paired openings anteriorly located

and. close together on the nose.

Eyes - Prominent and antero ... laterally located. Movable

upper and lower eyelids and third nicitating

membrane at medial corner of. the eye.

Ears • Large external ears (pinna) at the base of which

is the external auditory meatus which leads to

the tympanic membrane.

OTHER APERTURES

Mouth - Anterior, bounded by fleshy lips. Upper li'p

divided and undivided. lower lip.

Anus - External opening of digestive tract.

Urogenital openings -

9

Male - Urogenital opening at the tip of the penis.

Female ~ Urogenital qpen1ng into the vulva.

EX'J.11U1NAL GENITAI~:tA

Male ...

Penis ~- Hi th .urogenital opening at the tip of the

glans penis.

Scrotum -Ventral and anterior to the anus.

Prepuce - Skin fold surrounding the glans penis.

Female ""'

Vulva -External urogenital sinus.

Clitoris • Female homologue of the male penis.

SI~ELETAL sr.rRUCTURES

Head Heglon ...

ltngle of mandible t zygoma..tio arch, e:xter·nal occipital

protuberance, hyoid bone.

Trunk Region -

Sternum with manubrium and xiphoid process.

Iliac crest.

Appendages ...

Anterior extremity - Olecranon process.

Posterior extremity .... Patella ana. oaloaneus•

! )

III~ SKELETAl. SYS'XIEM

ENTIRE SKELETON - (Fig. 1) The labels o~ figure one are

repeated on the appropriate portions of

figures of the disarticulated skeleton.

SKULL .~ (Figs. 2, :3 1 4, 5)

Occipital .Bone - Surrounding fo:r•amen magnume opening

through t-thioh the spinal cord passes.

Basioccipital ... Basi-ventral portion of this bone.

Exooolpi tal ""' Paired lateral regions bearing the

occipital condyles • elevations for

the articulation t<Ti th the first

cervical vertebra (atlas).

Supraoccipital ,.,. Extends clo:rsallf from foramen

magnum. Note external occipital

protuberance (pos ter1 or promier10e") •

Interparietal Bone .... Un.paired. Median tr>iangular-shaped

bone anterior to supraoccipital.

Parietal ... Large paired bone~s forming posterior portion

of the cranial vault.

Frontal - Paired larger tht2l.n parietals and anterior to

them. Each extending ventrally into the orbit.

Na.se,l - Patred. 1 broad and. flat·t~emed bones. Anterior to

the fronta.ls.

Vomer - Single bone forming a portion of the nasal cavity

and contributing to the nasal septum formation.

-\

CdLLda.l Sacral lu.mba~

i !

!

lsch\u.W\ T ibioti bll\;~ ,y,r=

Calcanel.l~-~-~~~~~~

-._.....__,_,

Thc\l'aC.ic. Cervical

.ManaA..bri~tm.

Me+act"'mion Process.

Ulnd ·' He'\-aca~?a L ~

Phalanqes Ca~Pal~ 3~~~

~~' F1s.l . SKEL~TON

12

Sphenoid. Bo:n.e .. Ventrally located.

BasiSphenoid - Anterior and mediad to basioccipital.

Containing sella turcica. on dorsal

surface.

Presphenoi~ - Slender and anterior to basisphenoid.

Orbitosphenoid - Ventral portion of orbit, poster5,or

to optic foramen.

Alisphenoid ... Extends dorsally from basisphenoid.

Temporal Bone - Lateral large flattened bones.

Squamosal ""' Rectangular plate-l:pce paired bones

forming the lateral wall of the cranium.

Be€:\:dng the posterior root of the

sygomatic aroh.

Petromastoid ... Oblox:tg • p-aired bones with ven"i..ro­

later-al swellings (tympanic bulla) •.

Also containing the external andit;ory

meatus and mastoid process.

Auditory Ossioles ....

lVIalleus - Hammer.

Incus - Anvtl.

Stapes ..,. Stirrup.

Mala.r Bone - Forming the mid portion of the zygomatic arch.

Major Foramina of the Skull -

Optic Foramen • Oval-shaped within the orbit.

Transmits the optic nerve {II).

I

I ,.

I l_ __ _

~ "Klerna l 't\,: \: ·· ·. :. r o.,

AudiforY Me.atu.s

) ~a ramen .Maqnu.m

O~iPifa\. Condvle.

SuPra.or-b-.1-al Pv-ocesc.:t

tronfal lae~imal

'Sfvloid ~oeess

t"S.r Mola~s

Pa\ahne.

Nasat Proeess 0~

H··emaxi llar'i

frenuz~i llarv

Infra orbital fora MeV\

' Mcalal" Alvealal'" Proces~

Fts. 2

SKULL Latev-a.L V1ew

E.'iternal Nasal-­APe.rtllre

OPiit Fotan\en Pari~tat ResPhenaid I Orbi{o_

fthrnoid 1 SPhenoid Triqemina\. ~?J Petro\lS TemPoral Et h.O\o_ T urbi r\al

Maxi lfarv _Turbinal I

Nasal

lneisive Forame.n

F1e.3

SKULL Saqittdl ~ect\on

Para flocc\llar toss a. Exoc~i {)tat

E.xi:e.rna l Oc.c.iPital Prot11berance

Fo\"ameru - Md <t t\IA.m.

TYmPaV\\c.l -Btllla J:rt+erna.l ALlditnrY

Meatus 5as\occi Pi tat

E.'JCternal--,_ No res

Maxi l\arv

':·+---- Prema"illa~Y

\\46---- Nds<ll 'Proce~s of Pt-ema'lC.i llclt'Y

~~~~J.~--lY~oma{i c. 'Process

~~~~+----Su.btllfaneous f..oce$S ~n-T--- ~roV\-\-al

;..._~'irl---A~te"'ot- SIAf'raorbital frocess

lYGo~atiC Arc.h. -+---......,..-- Po:>fet-1ot- 9uPtdGt-bital

Process ~~.,__ __ lYe:,ornatic. H·oces.~

·H-t-~~~~~--~H---3a 9i-\-t a L <3 uttA \"e

.~rJ'Irfl'~~~~~..::_--- Coronal ~Llhu·e. -~~--- SG.u.amou..s. TernPordl

..,.._ __ t'tterndl AwhtorY Medtu.s \\\~---

1Vl1erParie1a L

~:de~nal OcciPi1al f'ro~"'betance.

s~\Aamosal i'roeess cf SGuomou.3 TemPoraL

Parie+al

FIG. 4 SKUlL

Dorsdl Vtew

~---- Inc.iso\1'

Pre vtta xi\ lar'/---j.i..J.

Exlerna[ Audi+ottY Melttuc;

~o~amevt Maqn l.tVY\

~---- PalcJine Pv-oeess o-f' PremaxillarY

.,.......,.__ ___ Incisive. -Foramen

lvrfracrbital -tDramen

~~~~- Pa\a{iV\e ?roce~s of Wlaxi llarY

1'''WIIi'=~~~-~~- Po~+er\o\" fa\ahne -f-oraMeVL

.j,j......_ZYC:.oMa+i c. A ~!!.h..

·~----1---.lll---- SuPra orb i +a L Process

~,..-4-----J.-11.-- P a\ati n e.

Ante.~,·or SPhenoidal f~rameY\.

-w--r..~~WI-~---I)ac;,\ ~ Phe noi d ~~~-4---- Bd~·, occ·, Pi tal

___ ..,___ TYWtPClhiC. Bu..\\a.

....u•i\i~- M as.1oi d Proc.e ~£.> ''li-•··.--

£:)(terl'\a l OcciPital Pro11A heraVlce..

ExterV\al Carof·a! fovahten

StYIDid Proc.e~~

Fte. 5 SKULL

Vevrtva L \/ie.w

Infraorbital Fo~amen - Within maxillary bone at

zygomatio prooess.

Orbital Fissure ... Vertical sllt-llke aperture

within the o:rbi t.

Foramen Rotund.um - l?osterlor portion of orbital

fissure. Permits passage of

nerves III. IV, VI, and the

1st and 2nd divisions of V.

ll'oramen Ova.le ... Pos tertor to foramen rotundum.

17

F~or the passage of the mandibular

bran.oh of trigeminal nerve (V).

Internal Carotid Foramen - For internal carotid

artery.

Posterior Palatl.ne F'oramcn - Anterior opening

piercing hard palate.

Anterior Sphenoidal Ii'oramen ... For passage of

internal maxJ.llary

~:ll,rtery.

Stylomastoid. Foramen - },<'~or passage of facial nerve

(VII}.

Jugular Foramen - At the median posterior en<J. of

bulla. For the internal jugular

vein-

f1AND!BLE - (Ftgs. 6; 7) Consisting of t~ro rami. Bears the

lot1er teeth.

F1ental Symphysis - Anterior union of right and lef·t rami.

18

Condyle .... Articular portiotl which articula:tes wl th the

mandibular fossa of tbe temporal bone.

Coronoid Process - Anterior projection of the ascending

ramus.

Angle of the Mandible - PoBterior margin of ramus. Ven­

tral to the sup:ra.-angular notch.

f1andibular Foramen - On mecUa.l surface of r'E.~.mus immed.i ...

ately posterior to last molar tooth.

Transmits nerves and vessels to the

mandible.

Mental Poramina - One 'or more on lateral surface of each

ramus at anterior end.

Alveolar .Process - Bearing the two premolar and three

mole.r teeth-

Diastema - Space between lst premolar and the two large .

incisor teeth.

HYOID BONE - Stout wedge ... shaped bone.

Body of Hyoid. - Central broad portion from Which the

. greater e.nd lesser cornu project.

Gree1.ter Cornu - Large element extending dorsally from

the body of the hyoid .•

Lesser Cornu - Small element partly cartilag:i.nous.

Connected a.ntero-dorsally to the body of

the hyoit.'l.

STE:RNUI-1 ... {Fig. 8) Linear arra.ngement of six segments

{sternebrae) •

\

Ascet\di"q RanuA.~

jlAPta-anqtA..ldr ~ · N ofe. h:. ""'

Anqle.-·-_,_ of

Mat1 dihle.

1nset-ti on. of' Masseie.. Musele

F1G.6

Condyle:. J' fhe t1\ar\d i ble.

·" . ··.\. \':-"\., .

'. ' '\\. . ._,

Body af Mar\dible

MANDIBLE Late~al VLew

I"c.i !Otr

MeW~+al -Foramen

1nc.i.~olt"

Me"fal SYMPhvs\~

F1G.7

MANDIBL[ Media.l Vie.UJ

ConJv\e ot ManJi b \e

MaVldi bt.dcn• No.\.ch.

Bod'/ ci Ma~\b\e..

I ,-

''"'· .... ''"'''"_,.,.-,....~.,...,_

Ase.e\'\tlil-tq Ramu~

--- Su.Pra_ Avtqu.la.t?

Notc..h_

Mand.\ b\l.\a..­-fora\1\'\en

21

f1anubrium ... 1st sternebra. f/!ost a.nterio~ of' segmen.ts.

Body of Sternum - The middle four sternebrae.

Xiphoid Process - The elo:ngat~d sixth sternebra.

Xiphoid Cartile.ge - Broad flat cartilage attached to the

sixth sternebra or xiphoid process.

Costal Cartilages - Latere.lly placed to ster•num. F'or

the attachrnent of the r:Lbs,.

CLAVICLE - Imperfectly developed.. Slender ro.d-like partially .

of cartilage. Medially attached by sternoclavicular

lige,ment e.nd laterally by clej_dodumeral ligament.

SCAPULA - (Pigs. 9, 10) Dorsally located. ~t?riangular ... shaped

bone. Artl.culat1ng ,,ri th the humerus and forming a

portion of the pectoral girdle.

Spine of Scapula ... Prominent ridge on la:tera.l surface.

Acromion Process ~ Antero•ventral porjectlon of spine.

Metacromion Process - Second projection pes tero..,ventre.lly

from the spine near the acromion

process.

Glenoid Fossa - Cavity for articulation with the humerus.

Coracoid Process - Anterj.or projection medial to glenoid

fossa.

Supraspinous :B'ossa - La:t;eral surface of scapula. Antero­

dorsal to spine,

Infraspinous Fossa - Lateral surface of scapula. Postero­

ventral to spina.

Subscapular Fossa. - Ce.v i ty on medial surface of scapula.

He a.~-..-,; +--__;,__1 u.be. rc l e

Cost a l----1!:;.~ Ca.rblaqe.

1I

m 1-,

m:

111---- '/.. i Phoid Proc.ess

...,___Xi Pho\d

FIG. 8 Co~iila~e

SITRNAL APPARATUS

5u.bscaPl.lldt- foss a Coracoid ~~ S11Perior

Ned{ of ScaPu.\a. Bo..-der Su~erior Anqle

-"-- '~=}\-=.:-Su.Pra_G l.enoiJ ~

TLLber-a I.e

~lenoid tos~a. ------~<

Intra_Glenoi d Tu.berele.

Acromion· Pro~ess

""''. "'-- ~--- --- """'' .... ~-=- :::::: u "\. ·-- -~---,. ~~. ,~~--: . -Vr'--+ ,. . .· . . -"""= .. ' ~n ~~'f:.I--M 1 ~ . ·-~·· .... ,,.,. . 6> eTd~r ''' · ~··, · 'd)! P. emtmn.

1

. > ---" ,~0:_;-~~ <::==Y

..-oc.es.s A ,~c~X)··>:~~~~· .. ,f Xi\\ d ~, ,. ..:;;; ·; '-'<' -:_. • ·, ·::-- ' Bani~~ "· • ... ·~' . ·-'-

fls.9 ·scAPULA Interior Anq le

Media.L View

.5~~r;0,. S11Pr a sri no us fo~o;a . g ILfr a q le noid Col'ac.oid P ... oe es s qle ~ J. S\APeri or Rot-ode.~ Tu.berc.le

r.=--~~J ---· --·~4!11.

,,,;;;g:;~:r= =­v~!;~~~·--f~ . {1!~~:-::J/~-~,

-- -----\!\;. -

!.: \I . t . ·, ~.\\' \!:. i'

~~-;;_<~;:-~·.> - _., __

Infe--ior. AV\<ile.. Infra 5PiholLS +osc;a

SPine o\l S CdPll\d.

~--Glenoid .fossa.

' Infra- Glenoid Tllberl!.Le

/n/~ Ac.roWJion Process ·

.u., Metac.romion. Process

flG.lO SCAPULA Lateral View

25

Borders of· the See, pula ...

Vertebral (Suprascapular) - Curved. ctorsal margin.

Coracoid (Supar~.(;r) - Anterl or margtn.

Ax.illary {Glenoid) - Posterior mf:trgin.

Angles of the Scapula -

Superior (Medh1.l) - dorsally located.

Inferior (Posterior) - Posteropventrally located.

Glenoid (Lateral) - Anteriorly located.

HUr1ERUS - (Fig. 11) The single bone. of ths upper arm. Articu­

lates Nith the scapula of' the pectoral girdle.

Head - l'ostero-medJ.ally dirE}cted. Articulates with the

glenoid fossa of the scapula.

Greater r.ruberosity .- Antero·~lateral prominence near• the

head of the numerus.

Lesser Tuberosity - f•1ed:tal promtnence near the head.

Intertubercular Groove ... Deep furrow separating the

grea.ter e.nd lesser tuberosities.

Diaphysis - Central, elongated shaft of humerus.

Epi~hysis - The extremities (proximal and distal) of

the humerus.

Trochlea ~ Medial ~~rt of distal articulating surface.

Capitulum - Lateral part of cUstal arth1ule.ting surfaoe

for the articulation of the radius.

Medial Ep1_condyle - Small projection proximal to trochlea.

La.teral Epicondyle ... Lateral projection prox.ima.l to

capitulum.

Pol)le.rior View

~__,;..;.jf.--De ltc\cl

~---~haft-~ of

\-lumet-l.lS

NuJrient-_....,~ ..... Foramen

late~aL E Picondyla r

R:d<\Q

F,e.ll Trochlea

HUMERUS

Rid9e

An~erior View

,.,.,.,.~~- £Pi?h'lsedl l ihe

~-- (!)Leera~oV\ 'Proce~~

Shaft-----+ of

Ulna

StYloid ~ocess----~ of' ULK.a.

'~--Coronoid Proe.ec:,~ af Rad' \A.~

-~t---- Sha-f+ of Rad\u..~

',l:.ll---~ \vl oi d ?"" o eess of 'Rdd. ~ u. Ci

Fte.l2 RAD\US AND ULNA

AVl.tero_late.ral View

28

Radial Fossa - Anterior surface. For the articulation

of the radius.•

Olecranon Fossa - Posterior surface. For the articula•

tion of the olecranon process of the

ulna.

ULNA -, (lilig. 12) Larger of the two forearm bones. Vertically

flattened..

Olecranon Process -Dorsally projecting elbow process.

Semilunar Notch .... Distal to olecranon process. Articu ...

lates with the trochlea of the humerus.

fiadial Notch ... For the apticulatio:n of the radius.

Styloid Process - Projection at distal end of ulna.

RADIUS - (Irig. 12) Shorter and. smaller of the two forearm bones.

Coronoid Process ... Proxlmal projection near hee.d.

Head of Badius ..;, Proximal extremity for articulation with·

ulna. and capitulum of humerus.

Styloid Process - Projection at distal erld of radius.

CARPALS - (F,ig. 13) Nine '1wr1s t bonestt arranged in ttio rows.

:Proximf:tl Row ... Navicular, lunate, triquetrum; and pisiform.

Distal Row - Greater multan.gular, lessrJ.lr multangular;

oentral, capitate, and hamate.

METACARPALS .... Pive elements eaoh with base, body and head.

PHALANGES ... Three elements on each of the d.igi ts except the

first which has only two. Terminating in claws.

VERTEBRAL COLUMN ... (Fig. 1) Dors&.l segments divided into: Cer•

vioal, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral, and Caudal

elements.

\

~-S,Ylcid Proc.e«i~ Of LUnO.. <Jh \o i a Proce.c.c..--~

o~ r?ad\ u.c:,

~~ ---Ar1ic~t.\a~ ~u.rface ofliLnd{e -..w&---Triau.etnun r Navicular--~.~ + P.·.s.\Torm

Gred-\:er----11/to ... fl. ~r---Hama e · MLll i:a Vl.9 Lllar ~~:JL...Crw-~

Lessek" . Hu.Li:anqu.la.t

. Cen+ral CaPi+ate

-&----BodY at Fifth. Metatars.a l

''..:.1---~~++---~f..l+.+-- Proximal Third Phalan<J e

'""\---Middle Fi{th Pha\anqe

~-D&s+al fhalan~e ,,:·~-+--I law of F,r\k Diqi+

fiG.l3

HAND BONES Dorsa.l View

JO Cervical Vertebrae ""' 7 in numbeJ?. Supports head.

Atlas ... (F'ig. 14) The first c.ervieal vertebra articu­

lating with the occipital condyles of the

ooeipital bone. No centrum present.

Foramen Transversarium ... One pair on eaoh

cervical vertebra •

. Lateral to centrum,

Atlanta! Por.amen - One on each side. Dorsal

to anterior articular sur ...

face. For passage of

vert$bral artery and vein.

Axis - (Fig. 15) The second cervical vertebra.

Odontoid Prooe.ss - Anterior projection whtch

represents the centrum of

the atlas.

Other Cervloal Vertebra ... (Fig. 16)

Centrum- Heavy bod.yof the vertebrae.

Neural Arch - Arch dorsal to centrum.

Neu~r>al Canal ... (vertebral foramen) opening

formed by arch for passage of

spinal cord caudad.

Neural Spine - (spinous process) Single dorsal

median projection.

Transverse Process ~ Usually paired lateral

projections for attachment

of muscles.

Ne.u.raL ':>Pine Anterior .Articular ~u.rtace.

AtlaV\~d l ~otaMen

.~-4--- Transver~e Ptoces~

Fle.l4. ATLAS

lVlferiar VieW

··~....,f!IIT' '~H'--- Pode~ior TtAberc.\e Ot A 'ii9

Neural--~;;... ·At'ch

Neu.ral Canal---

Odon+aid Proc.e.ss

;-.;;~~~-Pos~er\or A~1ic.u.\ar 5Urfac.e.

~~..----:

Anter\or . Artic.u.la\" SL.trface. ForaW\e\\ Tr!lnsve\"sarilAM

FIG.l5 AXIS

ld-\-eral Vi e.w

32

Articular Surfaces "" Ante:rior and po~terior

pairs.,

Thoracic Vertebrae ... (Fig. 17) Typically twelve in num­

ber. Characterized by late~al

attachment of the rlbs.

Costal Facets - Articular surface for ribs, One

pair o:n en.o.s of transverse process.

Other pa,ir on Centrum, ~ith part of

each facet on centra and part on a:n

adjoining one, !tach 11 half fe,cet'•

is called a demifaoet,

Mam1llary Process - Small lateral projections on

the most caudal of the thoracic

vertebrae •.

Lumba;r Vertebrae .... (Figs. 18, 19) Seven 1n number and are

typically more massive and prominent.

Absence of costal and tubercular

facets for ribs.

'!transverse Process - Long and. extending cranio­

laterally.

Centrum - Heavy in size relative to that of' other

vertebrae.

Mamillary Process - Small lateral projections near

anterior articular facets. For

attaohrnent ot the longitudinal

muscles of the back.

Neu.rat Arch

An4erlor -~~~ rubet-c.le

--~· ..,.--Po~terior .Adic.u.\dr ~tArface

lVe.llra l C anal-----~,fi-- ~--Anie.r\ar Al-1icu..lat­

Po'5+eriol"-~ r u.be rc. \.e.

'3~tfac.e.

~~tP--- Fordmen Tt-am.verc;ar'nA.~

r~~r---Tt-ar\S\lerc;,e Process ./

CE?nlru.m Fte.l6 CERVICAL

N&urdl--~· SPine

Su.Pe.rior VieUJ

r~ansver~e Process

FIG.l7 THORACIC later-at Vie.w

MaMilldrY Proc.QSS _ __,,._

Pos\et-ior Atficu tar Su~face----1

Neural Ca~al ---~---~

Accessot'Y Process Transverse Procec:.~ -~r:;.... ~-Cen{ru.m

F1s.l8 . LUMBAR

Late.ral View

Posterior Articu.lar StArtare:-~

N~u.ra.l Arch.---lllfl AccessorY Pracess----..f'.'-JIMII'

§Af/).1)~._:~

Fla.l9 LUMBAR

Su.Pe.v-iar View

Accessory Process - Posteriorly directed. One

below each of the posterior

articular facets.

Sacral Vertebrae ~ (Figs. 20, 21) Four in number, With

partial or complete fusion into a

single element, the sacrum, This

provides a firm structure for the

articulation of the pelvic girdle, .

Int~rvertebra.l li'oramen - lHVifled into an.ter.tor

sacral and posterior

sacral foramina through

which the d.orsal and ven­

tral nerve roots pass.

Auricular Process - For the artioulatlon of the

innominate bones. Formed by

the lateral elements of' the

first two sacral vertebrae.

Neural Spines ... Highly reduced on the dorsal surfaoe.

Cal~d.al Vertebrae - (Fig. 1) Usually 16 in number. All

are small and lack1ng prominent pro­

cesses for musole attachment.

RIBS ... (J?1gs. 1 1 8) Normally 12 pairs in number. Cux>ved,.flat­

tened. bones which artlculate with the tho!"aoio vertebrae

dorsally and the first seven with the sternebrae ven­

trally by means \crt the cos ta.l cartilages.

S_'2.

SuPerior At-+itl!.lafinq 5Lt.r.face

Anteriot- ~acral foramen

SuPerior Att,~c.u.\a{ir\c.t 'Su.rf' d ce

.- · ;' Au.ril!u.la Sw-face

s_-s 1\1 l r~'"" ~ l~e.\A.Ydu~ s: 5rine

•M f'CY.:. teri at-Sac.ral

Fora met\

5_4

FIG. 20 Ventral ViQW SACRUM

•H1: Media~ Sac"al ForaM\1\a

FIG. 2l Dorsal View

-- ---

)7

Capitulum (Head) ..... Vii th which the rib articulates w1 th

the costal demifacets of two con­

tiguous thoracic vertebrae.

Tubercle - vH th t'lhich the rib articulates with the

transverse process of a thoracic vertebrae.

Neck of the Rib - Constricted are&l betVJeen head and

tubercle.

Angle of the Bib - $harpest bend in the shaft of the rib.

Body of the Rib .... Shaft or flattened surface.

·True Ribs ... f'lrst seven ribs l....rhose cos to-sternal ends

articulate with the sternebrae directly.

False Hibs - The remalni:n:g five ribs (8-12) :not artiou""

lating with the sternum. Becoming pro­

gressively a typical caudad.

Floating Ribs - Those of the false ribs whose

oosto-sternal attachments are

incomplete •

.LNNOtUNA'J:I:: BONE - {Ji'.igs. 22; 2)) F'ormed by the fusion of

three major bones on each side of. the body.

1'he right and left elements making up the

pelvic girdle. The innomin~te is formed bY.

the f'uiSion of' the ilium. ischiumJ and pubis.

Ilium ... Antero-dorsal projection.. Articulates· '!.'11th the

suriouJ.ar process of the sacrum.

1\il.lm--~~~

Nllh\ert~-___.~11114.--1 ForaV\\evt

IlioPe~tineal----luiii' Line..

IlioPecJi neal t~i nence----,.

Pu.bi s -~_,__ Pubic--F Tl.lberde ---'-'"''"'

Obhn·atar -----l~t"--f"cramen

Inferio\" -· ----~~t"iiv Rarnu.s- ot Isc.hit.U'\'t ·

ihfi----Inferior Po~terio~ S?ine

•1\'dM~r~----A~r~eti O\" Inferior SPine ~~IIH+I--- Bod'# ot I\iLl'M

···!llua---- Grea-\e~ Scidtic. N otc.h.

.,._____A ce.t a bu.\ u.m

--Ac.etabu.\dt- Notch

·;\~---lesser g~ia+ic. N~tc.h..

~-la\eral Ischial Fte. 22. ·.

INNOMINATE Tu..berosifV

-.:...,_~~~---lsc.h i \1.\'\'\

La+e.ra.L Su.~face

Anterio"--'-;~\\\~. SIA.Perior 'SPine ·

Anterior --.fill lhferior SPine

Acetabu.lar -~~ Rim

I l i oPect i neat EM i ne n c.e _ ____,.,,4:

Pu.bis-­Pubi c-~~r::-tt T!Ab€rcle

P&.lbic.--~~' SYmPhYsis

~~~~~-MQdial Su.rface af 1\ i \0'\\

(Iliac Fossa)

:-l----l?o~ teri o~ lnte.rinr ~Pine

~--Au.~ic.ll.\al" Slltf'ace

~--ls~hial '3Pine

\--- Les~e~ Sciatic. Note. h.

"~~,....._-lc:,c.hi al T u.bero~itY ~-I~ch\u.m Fte. 23

INNOMINATE Med\a.l Surtdc.e

40

Isohium·,... Ventro ... postertor ,portion. Note the ischial

tuberosity and ischial spine. 'l'his bone forms

pax·t of the 1sch1o-pub1o symphysis by which the

right and left 1nnomimtes are joined ventrally9

Pubis - Ventro-anterior portion. Right and left halv~s

meet in the midline to form the pubic symphysis,.

Acetabulum - A socket lnto ~-.rhich the head of the femur

a:t>tioulates.

Acetabular Bone - Sma~.11. Forming a portion of ·the rim

of the acetabulum.

Obturator F1oramen - Large oval opening between the

ischium and pubis.

FEr-1UR - (Fig. 24) The single bone of the thigh region. ·

A~tioulates with the innominate ·bone.

Head. - Ball-shaped articulating directly vJ"ith the

'acetabulum of the innominate.

Neck - Constriction dis·ta.l to tb.e head of the femtw.

Greater· 'i1roohe.nter, ... Heavy beak-like projeot1on anterior

to the head. Forms the la t~ral and

proxlmal end of the bone.

Lesser Trochanter - Postero-medial projection distal to

·the head.

Lateral Trooh<:1.nter - On the lateral surft1.ce of trv3 femur

opposite the lesser trocha:l).ter.

Troohanterio Fossa ~ A deep depression medial to the

greater trochanter.

~ .. ....,_ __ Grea~et- t rochan-\ Head of Femu.r

u.~rient Foramen

Avr\erior View

Trochanteric. Fossa

lateral £PiCondvle

Lateral CondYle

In~ercondvlar ~~~~~Notc.h.

Poc:,terior View

42

Lateral Condyle .... Lateral distal articulatil\;~ surface.

fJJedial Condyle - Medial dis tal articulating surface ..

!ntercondyloid Fossa - Depression between the two condyles.

Patellar Groove - On anterior surfe.ce. Distal end of femur.

PATELLA ... (Fig. l) A sesamoid ... type bone 11 formed by an ossifi.,.

cation ~·11 thin the quadrlceps tendon,

TIBIO-I•'!BULA - {Fig. 25) Separate tibia and fi'bla bones at

the proximal ha.lves arJd fused throughout the

dist~ll half' of the bone.

Lateral Condyle .... ProxiiiJEl,l lateral artioulatine; surface.

Medial Condyle - Proxlm~:1.l medial articulating surface.

Crest of Tibia ... An:teT'ior ridge on til;:>ia bone.

Medial Malleolus - Medial projection at distal end.

LateN1,l Malleolus ... Later~11 projection at distal end. The

distal end of the ttbio ... fibula bone

artic.ula tes with the calcaneus and

$stragalus tarsal bones.

TAF.t:;AL BONf~S - (Fig. 26) ''Ankle bones 11 &!"ranged in two rows.

Proximal Row - Astr(;l.galu~:; and caJ,caneus.

Intermediate Bone - Navicul(.".t.r.

Distal Row - 2nd ancl Jrd cunej.form and the cuboid bone;

The 1st cu:n.eiform is partially fused with

the proximal portion of the 2nd metatarsal.

METATARSALS -. (Fig. 26) Four in number, the lst being a.bsent,

each with .F.l bf.tse, body t and head..

PHALANGBS - (Fig. 26) 3 elements on each of the digits.

f-~~-

~~~~~~~--I l'ltercondvl a r tV'~\ i nen ce ~g~~~~e-~h\ol!i\ ~r----La\era \ Cond'lle

tPiPh"fse.al. Lihe..

Mecl&a.L --+· Malleolu.g

---I-Mirl~- ~re~t at ·hbia

:~-Fibl.l\a.

EPiPh'1seal line

·1\1111~-- Ld\era\ Malleolus FtG. 25

Posterior A ieu.\al\nq SIAtfdc.e. TIBIO-FIBULA

AV\{e\"i OV' VIew

Troehlea. ----t~ of Tal\1<3

TaltLc;--

Nd\JiCLLidr--...... ~

~ econd Cu.r\ei ~orm----1ee~~, ThirJ CLAneiform

._,h!IV\ . ..111~

Third Mi£i<lle Pha\anqe

claw o~ ~eCO\'ld D~qit

i...JL.a--Ti bi~-~i bu.\ or Artic.v..lar Sv..~~ace

U----~aleaneus

~~--Cubo',d

''ftii•V.:J--1 V\sertion of Peroneu..cs Brevis

...~~.-.._ Bo~y ~f ~i~th. Meta tar-sal

FooT'6BONts Dorsal Vie.w

' !

I: i i

I I' ]I'

SUPEfiFICIAL MUSCLES - (Fig. 27)

SUBCUTANEOUS MUSCLES

Cutaneous Maximus ... A broad. thin muscle co:nnect1ng the

slrin to t~ body wall. From ·che

proximal humerus to the skin. Moves

the skin.

Platysma ~ A thin muscle arising from the manubrium to

insert at the base of the ear. Covers most

of the head and neck. Moves the facial skin.

NUSCJ ... ES OF' THE I\LECK AND BACK - (F'ig. 28)

8plenius - Nid.-d.orsal fascia to the crest of the supra­

occipital bone.. Aids in turn1r:~g and raising

head.

Ocoipi toscapularis ... From the crt::~st of' the supraoccipital

bone to the inferior angle or the

scapula. Draws scapula do:rso-cra:nia.d •.

Anterior Trapezius ... (Superlor) Crest of occipital bone

to the spine and rneta.oromion process

of scapula. Draws scapula dorso­

ora:n1a~.

Post:erto:r Trapezius (Inferior) Splnes of thoracic ver-

tebrae and lumbodorsal fascia to

the spine of the scapula. Draws

the soapula dorso-eaud.ad.

lahs~imu.~ Tensor Dors.i

Fa~c.id latae . BicePs Femoris

~mimernbr.anosi s lluY\bodarsa\ Fasc.id.

olec.ra non Pr~c.e.s

b~e.nso~ l:)iQiWru.m Co E"l<te.t\Sor C:ar\>i l aT~raks

S I.Af'e ri or T ra Pez.i ll':»

Parotid Glat\d Tem't>ora\is

FlG. 27 SUPERFICIAL MUSClL-~

lateral View

leva~o~ SeaPuh.e---­\/eYttralis

AY\\er\ or T\--al'eli \L ':l

lric.ef>s &rac.hi. Me.+acmmi

Prcc..e.~s Pos\erior lra~e2iu.~--

Rhombo·, I:U•I"--

latis.-s\rn~.ts Dorsi--

E-x\e.rnn\. O'k,tiG~u.e-­

Lu.rnbodorsat-­Fasc·,o..

S11Pertic:u1l Muscles

FIG. 28

stoic! \c\a\J\cu.\aris

Tere~ Minoa­

~~AcrClMiOV\ Proces~

H---·IP~~)' Ma-r~v­l'd sri na"t\A.t;,

SPteni u.s ·, PitascaP~.t\ari g

~h~n\boideu.<.; CaPiTiS

Infra SPi na11A.~ ~-Serra1lA. ~

YY\aqnl.\s.

Lor\qic:,~i rY\IA.'3 Do\'"~i

~~....-['AterV\al Ob\iaiAe.

DeeP M u.scles,

NECK AND BACK MUSCLE.S

I

~--

'

48

Latissimus Dorsi - Lurnbo-dorsal fascia to the proximal

medial surface of the humerus, DraliS

the humerus dorso-oa.udad~

Levator Scapulae Ventralis - Basioccipital bone to the

metaoromion process of the

scapula. Draws the shoulder

and arm dorso-oraniad~

Rhomboideus - Spines of' cervical and thoracic vertebrae

to the vertebral border of the scapula~

Draws the scapula oranio-mediad.

Serratus Ventralls - {Magnus) Sternal ends of the 2nd ... 8th

ribs to the infer lor c"'tngle of the

scapula. Draws the scapula ventrally.

gxternal Oblique - Lumbodorsal fascia. and posterior ribs

t.;o the linea alba and pubis. Con­

stricts abdomen and viscera.

Longissimus Dorsi ... Epaxial muscle tn the area of the

vertebral column. Follows the

vertebral column throughout its

entire length, Alds in moving the

vertebral colunm.

LUMBODORSAL FASCIA - (Fig. 28) A t-Jide sheet of tough, white

fascia covering the lumbar region. For

origin and insertion of several impor­

tant muscles of the baok reglort~ 'lriidi·'\\(;

49

MUSCLES OF THE THROAT Atl'D CHEST ... (Fig. 29)

Sternomastoid - From the manubrium to the ~nastoid process.

Ro-tates and drerws the head ventrad.

Cleldomastoid ... Nastoid process to th0 clavicle. Draws

the clavicle cra.niad.

Basioclaviculen:•is - Basiocoipi tal bone to the clavicle.

Draws clavicle and shoulder craniad.

Masseter - ZygomG,tic arch to the lat;eri£tl surface ~and.

ramus of tho mandible. Elevates the rnand1ble.

Digastric ... t1asto1d and jugular process to the mandible

ne&\r the mental symphys,is. Depresses mandible.

!4ylohyoid - t"'ylohyoid llne of mandl ble to the median raphe.

naise:;; the floor of the mouth.

Sternohyoid. - r1stnubrium and lt~t costal cartilage to the

greater cornu of the hyoid bone. Draws

the hyoid appare.tus caudad.

~>ternothyroid - Sternum and 1st costal cartilage to the

greater co:rnu of the hyoid bono. DrtaNS

the hyoid apparatus oaude.d.

Sternothyroid - Sternum and lst costal cartilage to the

lateral surface of t;hyrold cartilage of

the larynx. nraws larynx caudad.

Cricothyroid - li'rom the cricoid cart j.lage to the thyro :ld.

cartilage of the larynx. S\J.l): :orts larynx,

50

Pectoralis MaJor - A large sheet of muscle covering most

of the chest. region. F'rom the manu­

brium and sternebrae II and III·to the

proximal medial surface of the humerus.

Draws the humerus mediad.

Pectoralis Primus ... Manubrium to the mediGll surface of

the humerus. Dravn;; humerus mediad. ·

Pectoralis Minor - Manubrium to the clavicle and spine

of the scapula. Draws arm and. shoulder

towards the chest.

Scalenus - Lateral rib surface to t.he cervical vertebrae.

f>'Ioves the r1 bs craniad as in respiration.

•r:ra:nsve:rse Costarum - From the second sternebrae to the

1st rib. P:r•aws the ster:nur..1 anterior.

External Intercostal - Pibers between the true ribs. Draws

the ribs forvJa.rd as in l"'espiration.

Internal Intercostal - Fibers at rlght angle to the

external intercostal. Draws the

ribs backwards. Aids in :respiration.

JExternal Oblique - Last ribs and lumbo<lorsal fascia to the

lin~a alba an.d pubis. Constricts abdomen

Internal Oblique - Beneath external o'bllque. Lumbodorsal

fascia to linea alba.. Fibers run a:c

an arl.gle to the external oblique •

Constricts abdomen.

S\-vl oqlos~u..'l-----t,-....,. HYoid Bone __

1h'frcJ4YGid liq .. -­lh'frcid Car1ila"'~-~~

IY\t. Col\ '3Plel')iU.1-~--~ :....,~­Oeti t>ito ~---...-=:-____,~­~caPtA.Ia ri Cora~obrach;alis-~ Sl.lb5CclPu..l

-.........~.....,.,.

Sc.a

TraV\'lver~u.s Rec..tu..~

~-Mvl~hvoiJ ~-D,'qa~h-ic.u.s

r--- Ma.~~e.ter

~-SternohYoid sterh~masro\d

~~s::::-. ~i'et-nothYtaia ~~~~-~-na~I.·, c.\au\cu.ldri~ nt==-~--:::::.._~~t: le idamd ~ toid

~--c\a "ad e.ltoid Pedov-alis Minor

Pectora \is Pri MIA.C:.

&ce.P5 Brac.hi i Br4~hia.\is

llm e t'\A. c;

Pedora\\s Ma.}or

Cu..+aheou.c::. MdXiYYJU5

Latissi~\A..s Dor~·,

9erratu.s Maqn\AS

E x1e~na\ Ob\\aWL

;.l:!'l"'r.~~fi---Linea. Alba

Abdomini'3 --- ~~ ..,liirlk~~:.&,;,JY,

De.e.P Muscle5 ~u.Pertiti a.\. Mv.sc.\ es

F,e. '2.9 TI-\ROAT ~NO CHEST MUSCLES

.52

Transversus Abd.ominis - Beneath lnternal obl:lque. Lumbo·~

fascla and pos te:rior ribs to . ,

linea alba. Constricts abdomen.

Rectus Abdominis .., Ventral surface of sternum and costal

ear·tilages to the pubic symphysis.

Runs lateral to llnea alba. Constricts

abdomen and retracts ribs.

MUSCI .. ES OF Tlm Af:H1 AND SHOULD!~R - {Figs. JO 1 31)

Clavodel told - (Clavobrachialis) Clavicle to the n1~Lddla

of the humerus. Extena.s the arm.

Acromiodeltoid - Acromion and metacromion process to the

deltoid ridge of the humerus. Flexes

li'.nd abd.ucts the arm.

Spinodal toid ... Spine· of the scapula. to the deltoid ridge.

Hotates and flexes arm.

Supraspinatus - Supraspinous fossa of' the scapula to the

greater tmberosity of the humerus.

Rotates, abducts and extends the arm.

Infraspinatus ... Infraspinous fossa to the greater

tuberosity. Rotates arm laterad..

Teres MfljOr - Axillary border of the sciipula to --the

greater tuberoslty of the humerus. Flexes

and rotates the arm mediad.

Teres Minor - Axillary border of ·bhe scapula and sub­

scapularis muscle to the insertion of the

teres major. Ji'lexes and rotates arm mediad,

Subseapular1s - Medial surface of the scapula to the

lesser tuberosity of the humerus.

Ad.ducts ana. rotates arm mediad.

Coracobrachialis - Co1 .. aoold process of scapula to the

prox:um=Jl surface of the humerus.

Exten.d.s and rota.tes arm med.iad.

Triceps Brc·t¢h11 - Consist-s of three heads.

53

Lateral Head. "'"' (Caput L$tterale) From the proximal

shaft of the humerus to the olecranon

process of the ulna. Extends forearm.

Medial Head - (Caput Media.le) From the middle of the

shaft or the humerus to the olecranon

process of the ulna.. Extends the

forearm.

Lo:t1g Head, - {Caput Longum) :V"rom the axillary border

of the scapula to the olecranon proces-s •

.Extends the forearm and, flexes the arm.

11:p1 trocl'llear ... Ventrml border of the latissimus dorsi

near its :t:nsertton lnto the humerus to

the olecranon p:r.ooess of the ulna,

Extends the forearm and rotates the ul:na.

Brachial is ... From the m~.ddle of the humerus to the radius.

Flexes the forearm.

Biceps Braoh:U ..... From the- r...;upraglenold ttuberosi ty of the

scapula to the proximedial surface of'

the rad.ius. Flexes for•earm.

Pectoralis Mino Anterior TraPe'Z.iU..'=>

leva1or Scaru.la.e Ve~t Bdsicla\li c ari s

Clavicle c.ldvcdel toi d Acrcmiodet toid

Brac.hlalis-­Bicepg Brachii --~:

Extensor Cd.rPi Radialis lt>n9us

~ I ,

Pos\erioy- 1rdPeZilAS

Rhomoohje l..l<5

~~In-fras~ina.t\ls

~-5Pinode.L-tDid Serratus Md~r'llA~

.;,~~rJ/fl/J:.m--,~r--Teres MaJor

~"fjf-\.a1i ssi m~A.s Dar£.'!

~--~'1-Tric.ePs Rrac.hi i (Lonq Head) .

w1.w~- C~.t-taneallc; Maxim LA.~

.~-~~-Tt-iCePs Brachi\ (Latex·u.\ Head)

Hlitf!:!r-t--f:xtensov- Diqitcru.m C.nmYntn.nis

JPHf"r+Hf-- txt e.n saY' Di q i -bru.m Late.ra lis

t:)(tensD-r Cnrvi \1\Y\aris F\.exar CarPi IA.\nai"\S

J+9-l-lf!ltT.f-- Utn Cl.

rH3.3o ARM AND SHOULDER MUSCLES

LaterciL View

Rhornbo:deus

. 1e.res Ma:rcr

Tric.ep~ ---­Btac.hi i

( Lcnq Head)

Pronato'r Te.rc:'!..;..___,~

Pa.lYYiaris lonq\LS -­

i=lexor Cdt-P; Ulna\"\S --

Gr-eatev- T lA. be rc c;;r\'/ -.-'"+--Lesse\" T IA.DeY'as\-\v

r:--+-::-r--L'oracobrach\a\\ s

TendoY\ ot &ic.e?s Brac.h\i

~lfrll--&ellY nt BicePs Brac'nii

TtiQePS Brae.hi\ (Me.dial Head)

t'd·. CarPi Radio\i~ lanqtA.s Ext. CarP\ Radial! s Brevis

Fltx~r Car~i 'Padia\;s

~-~:~r-- t?adi\lS

F1e. 31 ARM AND SHOULDER MUSCLES

Medi a.L Vie.w

·~~-- Clduodeltcid

l~-CePhalic Vein

Brac.hi al,·~ -_,.,..~~~~ E>ra~hial A. -_,.,_~1 Brac.hial V.

Media"- N. Ulna~ N.

~~~~iri*J-- shaft af' HtA.meru.s

'~-S\lPeY"f\e.\ a.L l?.ad\aL N.

l<adio.l t\\. ~~~-Latera.L Head o.P

Tri ee.Ps. Brac.h i i ·r-N--E:~+~nal

Per\ m" s \ \A.m

~~~"~--Lon~ ~ead of T r•' ce.Ps S r a c.\, \i

FIG. 32. CROSS SECTION THROUGH

MIDDLE OF HUMERUS

I"'USCLES OF rr.HE FOREARM ... (Figs • JO, Jl; 3))

F.;xtensor Digitorum Communis ... Lateral eplcondyle,of' the

huraerUI3 ·to the proximal end

of the dls ta.l phalanges.

Extends digits !I ... v. Extensor D:1.g1.torum Lc'lteralis - Lateral epicondyle of the

humerus to the proximal

end of the middle phalanges.

Exte:nd.s digits :tV an.d V.

Extensor Carpi Ulnar·is ... Olecranon process of the ulna

to the fifth met.aoarpa1. Abducts

and extends the carpals,

Extensor carpi RacUali s Longus ""' Sup:r.a. ... oondyloid ridge

of the hum~n·us to the

proximal metacarpals Il

and III. Extends the

carpals ana_ metacarpals

!I-I!t.

Extensor Pollicis Brevis - Lateral sh~"l.ft of: radius to the

first metacarpal. Extel)ds and

abducts the first digit.

Flexor Car.pi Ulnaris .... Olecranon process of the ulna to

the pisiform bone. Flexes oarpals.

Palmaris Longus ... Medial epicondyle of the humerus to the

palmar fasoia. Tensor· of palmar fascia.

Flexor Dig;1tO:I."Um Sublimis ... Medial· epicondyle of the

humerus to the proxir~.l end

of the middle phalanges.

Flexes the carpals and

phalanges II-V.

Flexor Dig~.torum Profundus .... f•!edial epicondyle of the

humerus to the proximal end.

of the dlstal phale.nges.

Flexes the carpals and

phalanges I-V.

Flexor Carpi Hadlalis - r1ed.ial epioon(lyle of the humerus

to the proximal third of the

metace.rpals. Flexes the carpals

and pulls the third metacarpal

tow.ar>ds the thumb.

Pro.nato:r Teres - t•1edJ.al epicondyle of the humerus to the

middle third of the medial surface of

the r>adius. Pronator of the hand,

MUSCLES OF ~PHf~ THIGH 1\ND LgG •• '(Figs. )4_. 3,5~ 36)

Biceps Femoris .... Arises by tttJO head.o.

Long Head ..... (Caput IJongum) Ischial tuberosity· of the

tnnom1nate to the crural fascia..

Extends thf~ thigh and flexes the leg.

Also may abduct the llmb.;

E ~len ":lor ----tl!ll'l!r Irtdi eic;, Po\licis

Ex+en~or bi9i-\-on.Lm Later-a lis ~~\-e.nSO""-~ - C.arf>i

11 Lna ri s ~texov-­

CarP\ Ulnari 5

Extenso"'-~ Ind i c..i s. Pol U c..i s

LaPitat e. ------#;~'Tf.­Ca.rPat Bone

MQtacarPaL_ Pha \(lnq_ e a.l T o.'t ~\.:\:

Praxima.t--.,.1

?ha\a~qe.

Micld.l&. --b

Phala\'\Cle

Dista·-~ P~ale:mqe

C.la.UJ

1M--- ExtenS(}'f . Di'littwu.m ComMLAV\IS

~~~~--- h\en~a'f CarP\ Rddia\is lon'1JA.S

~..;.,....iJ+..- bJen<:.or ?()1\ic.is Lonq\As

~~---~Pif'hY~enl li~e ~--~tY\oid ?~ocess

of" R a d. I u. ~ .J.....;~Id--- borso.\ C a rPa\

Liqame.V\t

·+---- ~irs t Me\aearPd L Bene.

fl6. 33

FOREARNMS TENDO D()rsa\. View

60

Short· Head - (Caput ·Brevis) r..Jast sacral and first

th.ree caudal vertebroc;l sp:tn.es to the

crural fa. soia.. Exten(ls the th lgh and

flexes the leg.

Tensor Fe.scla Latae - Ventral border of the 1-lium to the

fascia lata. Makes tense the

fascia lata.

Gluteus Haximus ... Sph':tes of tne sacrum to the lateral

trochanter of the femur. Abducts the::

tt.:i.gh.

GluteuH f~(;H11us ... Crest of the ilium and 1st sacr$!.1 ver­

tebrae to the grr;;ater trocha.x1.ter of' the

femt.n" • Abclucts the thlgh.

Sartorius - Inguinal ligame~nt to the medial cond.yle of

the t:t bia.. Aclducts ancl rotates the thigh.

Gro.0t:U.s - Ve.ntral Isch.1o-pub1.c symphysis to the cru:r>al

fascia. Flexes the leg B.nd adducts the .thigh.

Tenuissimus ... Slender. From the transverse processes of

th<~ second caudal vertebra to the crural

fascia. Tenses the Jateral crural fascia.

SemimembrHnosus - Ischial tuberosity to the crural

fascHt. Extends the thigh and abd.uots

the leg.

Semi tendinoeus - IschJ.al tv .. berosity to the medial condyle

of th~? femur. Extends thigh ~lnd flexes

the leg.

61

Adductor f"!a.gnus ... Lateral ,ventral pubis and ischium to

the medlal epicondyle of' the femur and

proximal .end of tibia. E:<ta:nds the

leg and aids 1n propulsion.

Adductor Longus ... Pubic symphys:ls and ischium ot the

di?.;t~al half of the shaft of the femur •.

Adducts the leg,and atds in propulsion •

.Rectus Femoris - Inferior spine of the ilium to the shaf·t

of the femur. Abducts the thigh and

extends the leg.

Vaetus Lateral is - Greatt~r troohant·:)r of. the femur to the

insertion of the reotus femorh.~ muscle.

Abd.uets th:l.gh and exten.cls the leg.

Vastus Intermedius - Grea,ter trochanter of the femur to

the patellar tendon and ortu:".al. fascia.

Abducts the thigh and flel!:ea crural

fascia.

Vastus Medialis - l?roxims.l shaft of the femur to the

patellar t.endo:n and. crural fasoia,.

Abducts thigh. and .. flexes crural :fascia..

MUSCI .. gS OF THE LOl4EB. LEG - (Figs. 34, 35, 36)

Gastrocnemius ... Lateral epj.condyle of the femur to the

tendon of Achilles. Extends the foot

and aida in propulsion.

Soleus ... VJ,teral epicondyle of the f'emur to the tend.on

of Achilles. Extends foot and aids in propulsion.

loYJqissimiA.s GLu.tetLs GltJ..te.us Dor~i Me.~i\l~ Maximu.~ LlunbDclOrsat

Fd~ti a.e

Cru.ral· Fascia. C:,ole

Perone.Lls lonq

Ti b\ a! is Anteri

Cau.d a\

~icePs Femari s {Short Head)

.~i'/1--- gemi rnembt-a.nos lA.~

~-+!~---Bl CePs Fe.mor is ( Lon9 Head)

~-vdstu.s Lafet--a t.·s

Ga~d roe.nem i lA. ~

FIG.~4

THIGH AND LEG MUSCLES Lateral View_ su.Pe.rtiQ\a.l Ml!':lc.les

I 1-i--

Ten~or Fasc.lae. Latae

C. rLu·e u:s

Patellar L:Cf aMe.\1\t

Perol'\eU..~ lo"1 Tibial\ s Anter\ o~

F\6.35

Ischial ~__...*""..--T I! berc si 1\1 ~H---ObtiAratt~v- t'l<te.rnLt~

\e.Y\v..\ ss i YY\ IA.S

~IJH.ilf--La.terc.l Troc.hahter

111/;M-- Se.Vl\t m e.mbraV\CS.\A.S :~'IIHI--9em~ Ten eli 1'\0SLLS

~"'TTH--Addu..dav- M a~mts 'tifHfii--Va':l tu.s !vr\erm ed \\A. s.

Gastroc.r\emht.s

TeVldoV\ o~ Achille~

THIGH AND LEG MUSCLES Lateral Vie.w _ DeeP Mu. ~c les

i

Pec...t\ neu..'3 -----=-~~ Ad~\.ldor lonqLL~ -----::~

~ra.c.i~is (_ C.u.t ")

Semi membran

~ertute¥1rli nos U.'-'--

Ga!lirocnemi So\eu.s

Tibialis Po~terio\"

Tend.a~ Ac.hil s

~I 1/

l 1 \

3drtO"I\t~ ( Cu..t)

Te.rtcsa r FdsC.ide la.tde.

Fdscia Lata

~~- Rec.tu. s

Jn';)e rti nq Te.ndon of Sartoriu.s

Fle.'l<Ot' biqi +n\"U • .VY\ lonqlls

Tibiall:, Antet-iar

Femoris

\<I

I FIG. 36 11-\IGH AND LEG MUSCLES

Medial View

Vas tu..s ---+~~-~ Media.Li '3

.Sartori LL s --li'H~' Femo~al A.,-~oj{.b Femo Ya L Y.--+.w:~J

ObtlLra1nr ~t--t.H~~ Femoral N.

Femu.r ~haf+ ~ed-/'if-Jhort Head ot'

Pe.c.hhetL '3

Ad~llC?.tov Lon q. Seia"t\C!.. Merve. ~emi ten dinos ttS,---;.w~~

BicePs Femori~ CJoll,!t~~F"!""'Ft:t'lfl<f---Ten u.i ssi M\AS

~-~~'-+-- lon9 Head o~ Add Ill! tor Ma~n\A.~ -~~

GraCilis-~~"

Bic.ees Femo¥-i s -~'+1---~n-ta\l SaPhen~~ V.

:~'H--~em.\ membrana su.~ -:::.~-Skin.

Fte. 37 ,

CROSS SECTION 1HROUGH Ml DDLE OF FEMUR

66

Tibialis Anterior - Latex·al cond.yle and tuheroE~i ty of

the tibia to th€! second m.etatarsal.

Flexes the foot mt1d.iad.

F'lexor D:tgl torum Longus - Proximo.l end of the tibio-fibula

to the proximal end of the distal

phalanges. Flexes distal phal-

ages and extends. foot.

'l11bi.alis Posterior ... fJfe(Ual. surface of the tibia to the

prox:tmal and mldd.J.e phalanges of

the second dlgi t. Ii:xtends the foot

and. the seo(md diglt.

Extensor Dlgitorum Longus ... Lateral ep3.oond.yle of the

femur to the proximal end.of

the d.1stal phalang~s 11-V.

Flexes foot and. extends the

toea ..

Plantaris - Lateral epicondyle of the femur to the tendon

of Achilles. .ffixtends the foot and aids in

propulsion.

Peroneus Longus - Lateral condyle of 'the tibia to the

prox.:tmE.il end of the second metat.atsa.l.

Everts and. extends the foot"-

Anteri6V' Crtu'al l=a~C.i<l

PeronetLS lon1 Lt ~ --t.:~-~.-""" Ant libi al A~ter'/ Pe\""oneus Brevis -+~--~

F i b u..l a. ---M--f:!:ii:.~&~ Perone.~.t~ Brevis H~or Di'}ifuru""'---W~~'T!

Lon~u.3

S cl e. U. ~ -----44--1+:+-!~

Lateral He.ad cf~~ Gsdstrocne.m\IA~

~~-Tibia\i'3 A"r\-er\nr

·~~~~- t )(\ensnr biqi tor\Am Lonq \AS

~~~~1t---Tibi a... ~~Wo+--E'ltt. \\a\\tAc\~ lon~\t~

.~~~~-\ibi alios 'Po~1e.~ict-

~~JH--- Sa Phe.h~\.l s A.V. N.

~~-+~---Plantar\~

~~--Medial He.ad aF G a ~1-~cc. ne."" i "'-~

SKiV\.

. FIG.3B

CROSS SECTION THQOUG\-1 MIDDLE OF TIBIO-FIBULI\

V. INTfl:RNAL OI1GANS

Figure 39

:~;I:·~=.!~~--~-1hvm\A.s Gland 1 ~t. Rt 6 -r----dM)jl~~(4~/i.~W~~~::~~

f?,·qkt Ah·

Perieard'tiA.nt-~~~¥M~

Are.Y. Crt Hedr'"7t___,~H;tti:~~~~

Fa\titorm --t:--=t~~~~ Li9ame'r'\t

Rt. Metlian. --Hr--~~ lobe

Rt Lateral-~ LobQ.

Du.oden u.m----~~­Panereag ----n~

Greater Omentu.m --~ftt'-"1,.,...,.~~~--......:....

Sn1a ll----4:-+...-Inte.stine

C.o\on-~~~~~~

Vermitorm APPend i ')( ----.,~~ PlA.b\c..

SYmP\lYsis

~~----"r---....J!Hi:/-lhfe rio~ Lobe

~~~~J!!tW~-Hl~~-DiaPhYa~ M

~~~-rrte.dia "'­LDbe.

i--':>"~r~--Lateral lobe ~,..,.-( au.da1e

~off#- BodY o~ '­c.:::itcma \J\....

-=...;;~. ·~~~~'--SPleen

-~-Pari{>tat Peritoneu..m

~~-+--Caec..um

' ~-,· .·: I 1 ,' ,' I

I • I I ' I F16 39

~:J~I~1~W'~ AY\terior View

. ----------

VI~ RESPIHATOBY SYSTEM

PHARYNX ... Upper end of the digestive and respiratory tube.

Oropharynx - Posterior portion of oral oavity.

Nasopharynx - Region a·bove the soft palate. Internal

nasal aperture.

Laryngopharynx ... Ventral posterior portion. Area leading

to the larynx (voice box).

Dpenings into the pharynx are:

Oral Opening - From the mQuth and oral cavity.

Nasal Opening ~ ~rom the nasal cavity dorsal to

the soft palate.

Glottis Opening - From the larynx and trachea.

Guarded by the cartilaginous

ep:lglottis.

Esophageal Opening "" From the esophagus and

digestive tract proper.

Eustachian Tube Opening - Paired. On the lateral

walls. From the middl$

ear cavity.

LARYNX .... nvoice boxn• formed by several cartilaginous segments.

Thyroid Cartilage· - Large. Forrnlng most of the ventral

wall of the laryn~.

Criooid Cartilage - Smaller than the thyroid. oart1lage.

Forms a complete ring extending around

larynx posterlor to thyroid cartilage.

71

Arytenoid Cartilages ~Small; obliquely situated oarti•

lages on the dorsal surface of

the larynx, ln the space anterior

to the ariooid and dorsal to the

thyroid cartilage_

Vocal Cords - Rudimentary vertical folds on the

internal surface of the larynx.

THYHOID GLAND - Bilobed. endoeri.ne gland located on the ventral

junction of' the larynx and trachea. Connected

ventrally b;t a narrow isthmus.

TRACHEA ... {Fig. 40) nwindpipert. Held open by a series of

incomplete cartilaginous rings. tH thin the tho:raoio

cavity, the distal portion of the trachea divid~a

into right and left bron.chi whlch penetrate the right

and left lung lobes.

LUNGS ~ (Figs, 39 1 40) Paired expansible structures, t~e sur•

faces of' which are coated. with a visceral peritoneal

membrane., The lungs lie 111ithin the right and left

pleural aavit;ies.

Superior Lobe "" Paired, Imperfectly developed on the lett.

tUd.dle Lobe - P&il'ed. Intermediate lobes on both sides •

Inferior Lobes ... Paired.. On the right sld.e, the inferior

lo'be is further subdi v1ded into the

medial and lateral lobules.

MEDIASTINUM ""' Potential space between the medta.l sur:f'aoes of'

the two pleural cavities. Contains primarily

the perieardial cavity and heart.

Internal-~.---, MammarY A R;qht -~~~-­

Pre C.ava.

~u.PteMe___,~~~,;....J.,

t"'terco~ta\ Vein.

~r\_--+~.....;.....:.;j~ l24 r d~ LLV\'\

Ri q \·r\:-~~~~~.L..I--il~ Ah·i\lm

~~t.l-~-leH Common Carotid ~~t--t:f----Ttachea. .

__ ..,. LeH ~ubd-avian.A g~~h~r:----EsoYhaql.\~

· c.a\ Av.ic:. ~~-Aortic. Arc.h ~~~ PLtlmonar'l

Atter'f

;:~~~~r-lett Atriu.m

~;......f-.,.::iHil-- C.oron ar'i Vein

~~~,_Lett Vev\hitle

~~~ ~t.....med.;al Lob \Ale

~~------ f!astric.. A'rter:-/ "-.Jii-- HePatir. Aiter'Y s--- '3P\en\t A't\erY

~oel\at A"\s L\"'n''""''·Y\al 1\orta.

FIG.40 THOR/\ClC ORG/\NS

Anter'tor View

. 1 i

VII:; HEART AND MAJOR VESSELS

THYr.ms GLAND .... (Fig. 39) Antero-vent:ral portion of the thoraeio

oa v 1 ty • Irregular s ha.ped glStnd. Larger in

young specimen, Enctoortne in function.

HEART • (Figs. 39; 40, 41* 42• 43) Lies within the mediastinal

cavity. Four chambered tapering posteriorly to the

apex.

l?et>1card1um ... Loose membranous sao surrounding the hea:rt.

Filled with parioa:rdial fluid. Note its

attachment-;s to the great vessels aitcl t-o

the diaphragm.

External Features ~

AtrU.t ,.. Flight and left thin walled. structures. Note

the lateral extensions; auricles.

V<!mtrieles - Right and left thicker walled structures.

Posterior to the atria. The left ver.l. ...

t:ricle being more massive and thicker

walled than the ~ight. Right and left

sides dJ.vided by a superficially

indistinct interventricular groove •

. Coronary Arteries - Small arteries supplying the

mus9ula ture of the he art.

Arises from the base of the

aorta.

Coronary Veins ... Drains the musculc1ture of the h~a:rt.

Empties into the coronary sinus.

Thebesian Veins - Draining the same area, but

empties directly into the heart

chambers,

Internal Features ...

Interatrial Septum • Dividing the anterior atrial

chambers into right and left

atria •.

Interventricular Septum·- Dividing the heavier

walle<.\ ventricles into

a right ventr1.cle and a

much heavier walled left

ventricle. ·

Atrioventricular valves - 2 sets of double ousped

valves closing the atrio­

ventricular openings,

Chordae Tendineae ... Slender cord-like stru.c ...

tures attaching to the

cusps of the a.tri.o ...

ventrtcular valves.

Papillary muscles ... '!'hick muscular projections

from the ventricular walls

for the att<twhment of the

ohord.ae tendineae.

Tra'beeulae Oa:rnea~ .... Musculs.r ridges within

the walls of the ventricles.

.Semilunar Valves .... 2 sets of three-cusped. valves

guarding the ventricular open•

ings into the pulmonary trunk

and asoe:nd.i:ng aorta.

Fossa Ovalis ... Denoting the position of the olosu:re

of the embryonic foramen ovale, an

open.tng between the atria.

MAJOH vgssELS .... (:£1, igs. 40, 41 jl 42, 4))

Aortic Arol:l ... F9rmed by a looping of the aorta as it

leaves the left ventricle.

Braohiooephalio Artery - (Innominate artery) First

major branch'from the

arch. Gives rise to the

right subclavian and right

common carotid arteries.

The left oo~mon carotid

occasionally arises from

this vessel.

Left Common Carotid Artery ... Second branch arising

very near the innominate.

Left Subclavian Artery ... Third bt>anoh from the arch

of the. aorta. 'l1he aorta

loops posteriorly and

becomes the descending

aorta.

Ligamentum Artertosum •·(Arterial ligament) Remi:nent of

the foetal connection between

the dorsal aorta and the pulmonary

trunkt ·the ductus arteriosus.

Superior Venae Cavae ... Paired. Right and left vessels

formed by a juncture of the ~xter­

nal jugular, internal jugular, and

subclavian veins. They empty into

the right atrium anteriorly,

Drains the head, neck and upper

extremities.

Inferior Vena Cava - Unpaired. Lying to the x•ight of the

dorsal aorta to pass into the right

atrium. Prain.s the abdominal oavi ty

and lower extremities.

Pulmonary Trunk - (Pulmonary Aorta) Slngle vessel running

from the right ventricle antt:~riorly to

branch into the· right and left pulmonary

arteries.

Pulmonary Artery ... Paired. F'ormed by the bifuroatio.n

of the pulmonary trunk at the

region of the ligamentum arterio­

sum. 'ro the right and left lungs.

Pulmonary Veins ... Tt'lfO veins from each lung entering the

left atrium ea.udo ... doraally.

Ricaht r~---Le~+ CommoV\ Carotid ArterY Su.be.l a ui a n-o~~~•

Arie'r'/ ~~h. ~--lett ~u.belauidV\ A.

Acv\ic. Arch ----;l!iib-~ ..r~-Ldl Pre C d u a.

~,£__~:...__-li q. Arter I Mu.m ~-~Pu.1 monar'(

Riqht---..!WWIJ Pre CO\Ja

Kl AvJi

AZ'/(JOS ve.tn

RiGht---'Se.mi\.\A\'\ar V Focs~a.-~ Ova.Lis

Cv;~ra~~ lerminalis

Riqht A hi n_Ve.ntri c.u.(ar

Vc1lve.

Trabecw de C.a~neae

!V\ler\JeV\~rl C.\A.l a r Grc~ve

Ve.ins

left Atriuvn 14-.1---lef t

'Sen-lilu.nar Valve 'l!~~~Lt:ft AtriLL

\leV\ \I" i C.lk lav ua Lu e. ~-' hordae

Tend ltlede.

faPi 1\arv MlA~ele

~-Moderc:r\-cr BaV\d ·

Co.,.cnavv Ar 1erv &ranch.

MvDCardiu.l'h. of Left Vevthle.Le.

........__~ -.:;.___A feY. rJ \'\tar't

FIG.4l l-ttART

AnieriDr View

Left Sllbc.Lo\J ion

AY'te.V''/

Let't

Left ComMon c.a.rotid .· A.-~~~

Pree.a.v d -~ ... <~ 3\lPre.me ---.:~ w.1~~ lntercostc\l A. Li~amentu.m--~~ Arte.riosu.m

Uesce\'\dinq Aorta.. lett ----{,w,,, A\lr\c.Le

Left · Pu.lmondt"Y A.

LeH Mdrqi Ml-·-·"""' A'rte'<''/

Pu.lmo narY Ve.\n

Poste..ricr Desc.endi Artery

Riqht tommon Ca~ot\6 Arter'/

-+--Ri'\h+ S,tA.'ocla\1\an A.

~-Innomir\a.te A.

~-:s.~-Ri~ht ?rec.aua

ll\OV\0 V' '( \<

~-Ri~ht A'rh.tV\'\

Fl6.42 HEART Dorsal V\ew

' j __

In~ernal Carofid ----..a Tr-a..n'S\Jers.e }u.~u.\a~ VeiV\.

?o)t Fdtiitl V--~.,_) &ll---An1erior Faeiat V

,.........,J.:I-4.-H--,~iJ.-..-- eat-t~ticl Bwb ~~==:I:=:~~~M/tttJI-Interna \. ,., !w~u.\av- Vein

Qo~rnon Carot:d --~~li1AI­Vev1e brai:-:::====:::7-\\"T1'\ Artet''l

Su.bc.ld\Jiah. Du.c.t----fiY:~~

~u.ereMe--~..-lntercostal V. Riqht Pre Cava:

CororaaV"V---1/-J~--r-~·Y.::: ArterY

Riqht---~---~-~­At\"itAm

Az.Y~o<'3 ---+-VeiYl

Ivtterio r ----~tr-""'~ Vena.. Cdva.

Tho rac.i c. Du.e.t-~~1-Mll

m---A~eendil\q Ceruicat A. .......-::~--Trat\';)lJer).e

StdPu.ld r V. ·~~~ ':lu.bc\a\Jian.

A.;,.V

Ver-\ebrat Vein

VESSE~S.4bF THE NECK AND 1HORAX

-, '

VIII. AR'l~EElAI, CIRCULATION

ANTERIOR ARTERIES • (Figs. 43; 44)

Bra.chiooephalio .. From the first part of the aortic aroh.

Gives off' the right subclavi.an and right

common carotid arteries.

Subclavian - Arising independently from the aortic arch

on the left side. From the Innominate on

the right.

Internal Mammary - To the ventral chest wall.

Terminates as the superior

epigastric artery.

Vertebral • Enters the foramen transversarium of the

cervical vertebrae to supply the brain.

Supreme Intercostals - To the anterior intercostal

spaces of the ribs.

Transverse Artery of Neck - r.ro serratus ventralis

muscle.

Ascending Cervical - Ascending the side of the neek.

Axillary ~ Passing ln front of the first rib becomes

the axill~ry artery.

Ventral s;rhorac1c .... To the median pectoral muscles.

Long Thoracic ~ Supplies the latissimus dors1

muscle and. the deep pee toral

muscles•

Subscapular ... To tere~ muscle and. other shoulder

muscles.

81

Brachial - Continuation of the axillary into the

arm :region. Terminates as the radial

and ulnar arteries.

Common Carotid • Passes along ·~he lateral margins of the

trachea in close association with the

int$rnal jugular vein and vagus nerve.

Superior Thyroid - To the anterior portion of the

thyroid gland.

Muscular - Supplying the muscles of the neck.

Occipital ~ Passes deeply to the dorsal neck muscles.

Internal Carotid "" Slender passes deep to the ·

tympanic bulla and enters the

cranial cavity to supply the

brain.

External Carotid - Continuation of' common carotid.

anteriorly to the head.

Lingual .,.. Supplying the region of the tongue.

External ~1axillary - Along the masseter to · .

supply the lips and jaws.

Auricular • To the external ears or pinna.

Temporal - To the temporal region.

Internal Maxillary - D1s$ppears internal to

the masseter.

THORACIC ARTERIES ~ (Fig. 44)

Descending Aorta .... (Tho:r.acie Aorta) Dorsally looated in

the midline of the thoeac1o cavity.

82

Visceral Branches - Perioard.lal, bronchial, esophag­

eal~ and mediastinal arteries.

Parietal Branches -·Intercostal arteries arising

from the aorta. segmentally to

the :tnteroos tal spaces fi

ABDOlUNAL ARTERIES ... (Fig. 44) Continuation of the dorsal

aorta into the abdominal cavity passing

dorsally to the diaphragm anterior to

the vertebral column.

Visceral Branches • Major branches from the aorta sup·

plying the abdomlnal viscera. ,,

Coeliac Axis - First major branch ·off of the aorta

after e:nterlng the abdominal oavtty.

Hepatic .... To the liver, pancreas, stomach, and

duodenum.

Left Gastric ... To the. lesser curvature of the

stomach.. Small branches to th.e

esophagus.

Splenic ... By large branches to the spleen,

pancreas, and greater curvature. of

the stomach.

Supex•ior Mes~nter:lc ... Second r.nztjor branch off of the

abdominal dorsal. aorta.

Middle Colic ... To the transverse and descending

colon.

,---

83

· ·. Pos.terior Pa.ncrea.tiao ... ouode:nal - To th~ poste ...

rio!' pancrea.s

and. the 1st

.segment of

the duodenum.

lleoeolio - To the ileum• caeoum, and . .ascending

¢clon.

Intestina.l - Numerous small branches to the.

small intestine.

Inferior Mesenteric ... Near the posterior part of

the abdominal cavity.

Left Colic - 'Po ·the ascending colon.

Superior Hemorrho1.da.l - 'J.lo the descendLng

colon and rectum.

Adrenal - From the aorta or renal art;er ies to the

right and left suprarenal glands.

Genital ~ To the ovaries in the female (ovarian) •

or to the testes in the male (spermatic).

Renal ... To the· l<idneys. Entering near the hllus of

the kidneys. The r:l.ght :renal commonly arises

oraniad to the left on 'the aorta.

Parietal Br~~nches .... ThOf:ze bre.nehas from the abc1orn1nal

aorta to the dorsal body wall.

l?hrenio .... To the diaphragm. May arise from the

coeliac axis near its origin.

I !

84

I.Atrtlbar ... Segmental branches from the aorta to the

muscles of the anteriol"' ·lumbar region.

Median Sacral ... (Caudal) Posterior continua.ti on of

the dorsal aort~ into the tail

region~ Arises from the dorsal

postv::n:;ior surface of the aorta.

Terminal Bratlches ... At the posterior boundaries of the

abdominal cavity the aot•ta bifurcates

to send branches irrto the lmver

extremities, passing under the

inguinal ligE.unent.

common Iliac - Two arteries branching from the

termlne,l portion of the abdominal

aorta to the .extremities.

Iliolumbar ... F'rom the common iliac to the

abdominal wall and. cutaneouf:l

maximus muscle ..

External Iliac - Continuation of the common iliac

into the femoral region passin.g

under the· inguinal ligament.

I<'emoral ... To the p<')Steri.or limbs.

Superficial Epigastric - Along the body wall

to anastomose l'>~i th a

br<anch of the long

thoracic.

8,$

In.ferior Er-ligastric - Passes oraniad from

the external iliac

to anastomose vii th

branches of the' ·

internal mammary

artery.

Internal Iliac - (Hypogastric) Arises from the

common 11U'l.O lying against the

dorsal wall. To pelvis and

thigh.

Umbilical - To tht~ l..l!'inf,\.ry blad.der.

Middle Hemorrhoidal ... To the rectum.

MAJOB: LYMPHNriC VESSELS .... (Fig. 4))

.Thoracic Duct ... Lies just dorsal to the dorsal aorta.

Dr·ains all the lymph from the abdorn1r1al

region• abdominal viscera, and posterior

extremi tt~as. The thoracic duct empties

into the left subclavif.m vein at its

junction with the left external jugular.

Right Lymphatic Duct - collects lymph from the right

a.nteri or quarter of · the body • ·

8mpties into the right extt?rnal

jugular vein.

Common. C.aroiid --+f----f'iir'

Ri1ht Vertebral

S!Ab'SCaP\A\a~ loM l'horAC.i c... l<'i-.hf C.oronarY--.t+-____,~;tv

lniernt\\ Mamma~Y

L!tf Co ro nl!rY --+'6-1<.-"f-Lf.f--:h.\

L ~t.\- -~~,...-V--J-INr­VeV\tric.\e.

Brachia\

~v.PreMe ln-\ercosh

01kc.h.l <":l 1\\"teri o~v..~ ~--B~o"~\al

IY1ter.co":~ta\s

-1----Thoratic. Dorsa\ Ao~+a.

?h"ef\iC.-+1--:.o<.!;.c.-....,~..,..;.:.;~ \): aPhvaqM

Coeliac ""'"4QlillJJul:Duq~~~~~ A Y. i C:. ----+Pt\---------1-~ .M~;;;;;!!,_- LeH G as-h-\c Abdt>rh\na\ -...~=~t--- He~atic.

Aorta. J+----~~\en\c ~IA.I?~r\ D 'f·-'T7ti--n~-~\--,:-....,.A-......:::Jo, ... " Me~evfte'riC. ::-.c:::---~~~~-lntesHna\

S\.1..\)~fieial !nfe.~l or EPi'la~hic

Camm6~ t\iac.-~,....--~-+

'-""r::---1\eo_caeeo. c c,\; c

~~--;!~..._Ad reno l\\.mba r v~---leH Rena\

.~::::::::~~--in\erio~ Mesenie.ric ~~--Qend·al

XX. VENOUS CIRCULATION

AN1l'EB!OR VEINS - (Figs .. 40, 43 1 4,5)

Superior Venae Cavae • {Pre Cavae) Paired. Enters right

atrium. Drains the anterior lirnbs

and head and neek region,

Azygos - Empties into the right precava only,

Unpaired. Formed in the mld-dorsal line

by the intercostal veins. Drains the

parietal region of the thoracic oavi·ty.

Internal fflammary - From the thoracic and abdominal

wall. Lateral to the mid ... ventra.l

line.. t.l'ermlnates as the superior

epigastric vein.

Supreme Intercostal - Empties into the precava near

the heart. ~ehe right bxoanoh

emptying crcmiad to, .or with,

the azygos.vein.

Vertebral ... Empties into the precava anteriorly f'rom

tl:le fora.men transversarium of the oervioal

ve!'tebrae. Drains the cranial cavity.

Subclavian- Unites with the.exter:nal jugular to

enter the precava. Drains the shoulder

and upper extremities. Formed by the

braohlal and axillary veins.

External Jugular - From the anterior head region.

88

Internal Jugular - Drains the brain and cranHtl

os.vi ty ~ Buns along side of

the trachea in close rela­

tionship to the common

carotid ctt'tery and vagus

nerve.

Transverse Jugular - Transverse vein connect­

ing the right and left

ex.terna 1 jugular veins.

Anterior lll<!:.lcial ... From the jat.'ls ancl face.

Posterior Fao.lal - Frorn. the external ear, pinna~

POSTEB.IOH VfnNs .... (F'ig. 14·5)

Inferior Vena Cava - (Post Cava) Unpaired. Enters the

right atrium post~~rlorly after

penetrating the diaphragm into the

thoracic cavity. Lies to the right

of the dorsal aor·ta.

Phrenic .... Drains the diaphragm~ Enters the post

cava as it pasBes lnto the thorax.

Hepatic .... ~::Hngle vein fro.m the 11 ver to the post cava.

Adrenolumbar - Paired. Drains the suprarenal glands.

Renal - Paired. The right renal entering the post

oa'J»a more oraniad to tb.e left.

Genital - Ovarian or spermatic from the gonads.

Lumbar .... From the muscles anterior to the ilio ....

lumbar veins~

89

External Iliaa - Paired.. Two large tributaries f.rom

the lower extremities t>~hich empty into

the post cava.

Vesical - From the urinary bladder.

l'nferior Epigastr:tc -,From the ventral body wall.

Anteriorly it terminates as

an anastomoses with the

internal mammary vein.

1~'emoral ~· Matn vein of the thigh. Drains the exter•

nal genitalia and muscles of' the thigh.

Deep Femoral •w D:ra1.ns the deeper muscles of the

thigh.

Intern~.l Ilie.c ... (Hypoga.tStrio) From the pelvic region.

Median Sa.c:ral - {Caude.l) Drains the sacrum and tail.

Middle Hemorrhoidal ... Fx:om the region of the anus. ' I

~--!

lYlterna\ 1~9u.lar __ ........,.__. A-£i\la~v

Trib\t\ta~•es, ~crminq

1-\e(7ati c.. V.

Renal--~

G.eni+al--....-

t'lCttrl\a\ I \.1 a c.. -----~!:;~""" Smatl

'SaPhenoiA:

118----h\ernal 1\A'liA.\av ~-A~centiin~ CervicaL

~e(Jha\,·c.

Brach,'al \w--SI.lhsraPu.la\"

~uPreme

lnte~co s tal t-----lon'\ 1horaci c.

r---Interna\ Mammat'Y

+-----Postex-icv- Vena Cdua

c+-----Abdominal Po~Jcava.

Jr.:---Adrenal ~~r---Adrenc_Lu.Yhbar

~----lu.mbdr

;:::::::::~s---1\io lu.m bar ~~---ComMon Iliac

'v'S~---I~fe.rtnr tP'•1as\ric .... ~-~~-Ttlte..rnal t\\at

re.vnoral Fle.45

VENAE CAVA£ TRIBUTARIES

X. HEPA'.i~lC-PORTAL C!RCULP.TION

HEPATIC-PORTAL VEIN .... (It'ig. 46) Empties i11to the liver.

Gastroduodenal ~ Formed by the right gastroepiploic and

the anterior pancreat1ooduod.ena.l veins.

Dt·a.:t:ns the panereas, duodenum, and

portions of the pyloric stomach.

Gastrosplenic - Formed by the following veins.

Splenic ... From the spleen ;:m.d left gastroepiploie

veins of the stomach and omentum.

Coron?try - From the lesser curvature of the stomach.

Posterior Pancrec).ticoduoclenal - Collects from the

pancreas and duodenum,

Inferior l•1esenterio .... From the transverse; descending

colon and rectum.

Superior Mesenteric ... 11'rom all other intestinal regions.

Intestinal -Collects all areas of small intestine.

Ileooeooool:to - Il'rom the ileum, appendix, caecum,

and ascending colon.

Appendicular - From the vermiform appendix.

Anterior Ileocecal - ll'rom the sacculus rotundus.

Posterior Ileocecal - From the distal caecum,

1leum, and ascending colon.

~~-lef~ li lie\' I obe

D~And.enu.m

An~erio\" In~e~Jina\ f,o. '!6

Gac:.h-o. ~PiPir.i c

Ant DIA.aAena\

HEPAT\C-PORTAL SYSTEM 5emi _ Dia.(\ramo. tiC..

SALIVARY GLANDS - The oral cUgestive glan.ds. Paired.

Parotid Gland ... L~rge diffusely s 1 tuated fsland ventral

to the pinna. Drained by the parotid

du()t ( s tens on • s) • passing over the lateral

surface of the wasseter to the oral oav1 ty.

Submaxillary Gland ... Ventral to the parotid gland and.

somewhat smaller in slze. Drained

by the submaxillary duct (Wharton's).

Sublingual Gland - .1\pproxim~:t-tely the same size as the

submaxillary gland. Lies aranial to

it. The sublingual duct joins the.

submaxill<SI.ry duct to enter the oral

cavity as a single aperture.

Tl~gTH .... 'rotal number of 28 in the adult. Conipos0~d of three

typesJ 1no1sors~ premolars, and molars. Dental

formula ... i Q. • .l..J.. 1 0 2 )

TONGUE - A large mutH.rular organ a ttaohed. by muscles to the

hyC>id. apparatus and bears numerous taste buds. The

tongue covers t~he floor of the oral cavity. Attt.?.ohed

anterj_orly to the floor of the oral oewi ty by a

med.1an fold, the frenulum.

PHAHYNX - Posterior oral cavity leading to the esophagus,

Note the paired. palatine tonslls in this region.,

ESOPHAGUS - Muscular tube connec.t.:tng the poster·ior pharynx

with the stomach. Ll,.es d.orsal and to the left

of the trachea ..

STOHACH - (Pig. 39) Muscular sac trJhich lies ~Jithin the abdom­

inal eavi ty at an obliquely transv~~rse angle.. Slt ...

uated towards the left of the midline. Anterior

part p$.rtia.lly covered by left lobf~s of the liver.

Greater Curvature - Lon.g posterior curved surface.

Lesser Curve.ture .... Shorter anter•ior curved surface.

Cardis.o Stomach - Proximal portion of the stomach into I

whi.ch the .esophagus empttes. Note the

cardiac sphincter valve in this region.

Functus of the Stomach - Large bulge a.t the antero-

lateral region of the stomach

near the o~~.rd.iac stomach.

Body of the Stomach - Central portion of the stomach

between the pyloric and fundic areas.

Pylbrio Stomach - Distal most portion of the stomach which

($ltnptif3S into the first portion of the

duodenum. Note the pyloric sphincter

valv~.

GREATER OM11:Nr:eut1 ... A thln. sheet of peritoneum extending from

the greater curvature of the stomach to

cover the coils of' the intestine. Usua.tlly

containing deposits of fat.

9.5

LESSSE ONE~'TUI'1 ~ Port ion. of ventral rtlf.H"iente:r.y between the

stomach~ cluodenum, and. 11ve:r•. Composed of

a gastrohepatic and. B. du.od.enohepatic omentum.

SMALL INTESTINE ... (Fig. 39)

Duodenum - First portion of the smP.Jll intestine following

the pyloric valve. Enterlng the wall of the

duodenum is the comrnon btle duct from the 11 ver,

and more posteriorly the pancreatic duct.

Jejunum - About one-half of. the :remaini-ng length of the

small intesttne beyond ·the duodenum.

Ileum - '.rhe remaining length of the small lntestine to

the ileocecal junction. Not sharply differenti­

ated. from the jejunum.

COMMON BIJ.,~B DUCT ... Small duct formea. by the union of tlw b.apa.­

tio ducts from the J..iver and the oysti.Q

duct f'rom the gall blaCl.(le.:r. E~ntera the

first portion of the duodenum on ·the dorsal

surface.

ILEOCECAL JUNCTION ... (Fig. L~8)

Ileum - Terminates as the U.eooecal valve. Note the dila•

t:io:n in this region, the sacculus rot.undum,

Caecum - Thin walled, very large a:nd dilated diverticulum

containing a spiral valve. 'l'he oaecutn terminates.

in an elongated slender vermiform appendix,

LARGE: !.NTEsrri.NE - (P:lgs. 39, 48) Oftem referred to as the oolon.

A co:ntlnuation from the region of the sacculus

rotund urn.

96

Ascending Colon - The first part of the large intestine.

Haustra ... Small sacouh~t1ons on the surface of the

first part of the colon.

Taenia ... Longitudinal bands of muscle separating the

haustra in the 1st part of ·the colon.

Transverse Colon .,. Short segment running from the

ascending colon to the left.

Descending Colon ... Continuation of the colon posteriorly

term1n~ttt1:ng in the mid.~inE) as the t-ectum.

Rectum ... Terminal portion of the large intestine.

Anus - External posterior opening of the digestive tract.

DIGESTIVE GLANDS ... (Figs. )9; .!4-7) All are wj.thln the a1,dominal

cavity.

Liver ... Anterior most position within the abdominal cavity.

Anterior Lobes ... Paired. Right and left r.ddes sepa.­

t'ated by the falciform ligament.

Posterior Lobes - Paired. Caudad to the anterior lobes.

caudate Lobe .- Unpaired. Independent lobe cc.1.udad to

the base of ·the pos ·tertor left lobe.

Gall Bladder• ... Spherical structure imbedded in the pos­

terior surface of the right a,rrt;erior liver

lobe. Thin walled.

Pancreas .,. Diffw;;e mass of glandul~n" tissue throughout the

mesentery in the region of the duodenum. The

panor~atio duct is small and enters the duod.e ....

hum at a distance posterior to the entrance

of the oommon_bile duct.

97

SPLEEN ... (Figs. 39; 46) Browntsh eloru$a,ted gland lying pos­

terior and dorsal to the greater curvature of the

stomach. An organ belonging to the circulatory system.

LYMPHATIC TISSUES ... (Fig. 48)

Pancreas A sell i ... f"lesentertc lymph nod.es along the course

of the superior mesenteric artery.

Payer's Patches - Lymphatic nodules a,long the dorsal

walls of the intestine.

Sacculus Rotundus.- )4ymph.oid patch at the terminal and

of the ileum near the ileoaeoal valve.

Tonsilla Ileoceca11s Major - A large intestinal lymphoid

patch within. , the wall of the

caecum. Dorsooaudad to the

ileocecal valve.

~~onsilla Ileoceoalis Minor - Intestinal lymphoid patch

within the wall of the caecu~

Dorsocraniad to the ileocecal

valve.

Vermiform Appendix - Terminal end. of the caecum. An

elongated diverticulum which is

lymphoid in function.

Dik\PHRAGM - (Fig. 39) Forming the division betv;een the thoracic

and abdominal cavities. A, muscular partition with

a central tendon. Perforated by the inferior vena

cava and the esophagus. aespiratory in function.

I

1-

DiaPhrdqM -­

t?iqk\­AV\\er\cr l o'oe

~-Dorsal Aor-ta..

l Tendon ~- Faltitorm littament

Riq\\t ?os,e.'fi or

LC)be G,all B~adder

\wr-~&--.v--"ePa:\i~-?artal V.

l.ert Posterior

Lt~be

CYstle. D~~1 -·~· In{er\ or

\lena C.av£1 Cau.date Lobe.

Cae~\A.m

Colon

Ve.rMi~rM APP~ndix

Fle.48 ILEOCAECAL JUNCTION

I -

.XII. UROQENI~AL SYSTEM

URINARY ORGANS - (Figs. 49, 50)

Kidneys - Paired. Located dorsally, the right kidney being

more anterior than the left. Imbedded in fat.

Capsule - Fibrous coat immed.iately surrounding the

external surrac~ of the kidney •

. B.ena.l Hilus ... t4edian concavity. Note the ureter,

renal arteryJ and renal vein entering

or leavj.ng this area of the kidney.

Cortex ""' Narrow peripheral substance of the kidney

as seen in a longitudinal section.

fqedulla ..., Medial central portion of the kidney •

including the renal papilla. Characterized

by.the radial strlations.

Renal Pelvis • Enlarged funnel-like prox1~1l end of

the ureter within the.kidney mass

near the hilus region.

Bena.l :Papilla ... Projection of the medullary substance

into the renal pelvis.

Ureter - The major duct from the kidney passing

posteriorly to the base of the bladder.

Urinary Bladder ~ Ventro-posterior portion of the

abdominal cavity. t-1uscula.r sac.

Urethra - l\la~roow tube from bladder to external opening.

SUPRARENAL GLAND (Adrenal) • Paired anterior to the kidneys.

An endocrine gland.

101

f1ALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS "!" (Fig. 49)

Testes ... The male reproductive gland. Within the scrotal

sacs, on the outside of the body wall, ventral

and anterior to the anus.

Epid.idyml.s .... lt"'irst portion of the male reproductive duct.

Vas

Caput Ep:l.dJ.dymis - The enlarged anterior region.

The vas efferens empties into this

duct from the testis.

Cauda Epididymis ... The posterior constricted a:rea

Deferens -

along the medial side to the pos-

terior region of the testis.

The major genital d.uct of the male. Passes

from the poste:rtor end of the testls into

the abdominal cavity through the inguinal

canal terminating in the urethra.

Prostate Gland ... At the pc,int of juncture of the vas

d.efe:rens with the urethra» a white

massive gland.

Seminal Vesicle - Located on the dorsal surface of the

base of the bladder. Vas deferens

en·ters ventrally,

Bulbourethral Gland - Dorsal wall of urethra behind the

prostate gland.

Penis ... Anterior and ventral to the scrotal saQa. Pos; ...

terlorly directed. Attached to the ischium by

the cr•us penis.

-~

.,._ ___ Jnfe~\ot-Ventl Cnva. ---+,r--+---- Dar!.~t Aorc\d..

SllPr~ ren~\ aland

,llp........,_~~Renal Vein.

...111911--leH \<idne'/

-4---\\----Sem,nal Ves\c.L.e.

r:~-----\+---H·o~+ate. Gland

--11'---t+- ColoV\. ~-~--~_..-~f+--£.rdC\.L\atov-v

DlLd-

~+--Bu.lbo.Urdht-al Gland

~,:.:4-~~---fiii'-~~Perineal Gl4r\d

·~-ll--Lett Te"S.tes

Ft6.49

UROG~N\T~LS male.. Sv<; teYY\

103

FEMALE EJ£PRODUCTIVE ORGAN$ ... (Fig. 50)

Ovaries -. Small paired bodies along the dorsal body wall;

posterior to the kidne;ys. The reproductive

gland of the female. Supported along the dorsal

wall by the mesovarium; a peritoneal fold,

Ostium Tubae Abdominale - Broe.d funnel-like expansion of

the proximal uterine tube.

Uterine Tube ... 'rhe first portion of the oviduct distal

to the ostium tubae.

Body of the Uterus - A typical duplex-type uterus con­

neotirlg independently to tb,e ve.gina

from the right and left sides. A

highly muscular structure. The

distal eeoond portion of the oviduct.

Vagina - '!'ubular posterior continuation of the genital

traot. It receives anteriorly the right and

left apertures of the ueteri. At lts exit into

the vulva,, it unites with the urethra to form

the urogenital sinus.

eulbourethral Gland - Located along the dorsal wall.

Uri narv~~....l,-.4-BI.ddd~~

Ute~ine. ---If-~~ Orific..e. u~eth~a-~-

SUPra_rena l Gland

-----~:...~-.'6f&-.~-Re"al A\"1-er'/

..........._--:....._,_,.~.,.....-..;v.-- Ova Y' ian A.~te.rv

Vaqina----h---11~~~-

Xl!I. CEN'J:-RAL NERVOUS SYS1l'EM

MENINGES (!1eninx) - Th.e membranes surrourtding the brain and

spinal cord. Contains the cerebrospinal

fluid.

Dura Mater "' ~rough outer sheath.

Pia Mater - More delloate, vascular sheath in direct

contact with the brain and cord surface.

Arachnoid - Loose somewh.e:l:. web-like membrane which

connects the pia and dura mater. N()t readily

recognized in a gross dissection.

t.A11EHAL ASPECT - (Fig. 51)

Cerebral Hemisphere - Paired. Smooth cortex due to

absence of promh1em.t gyri and

sulci. Note the sylvian (lateral)

fissure on the lateral surface.

Olfactory Bulb - Anterior projections from the region

under the oerebr•al hemisphere. Paired.

Olfe,otory TrEtC'ts - co:nneoti:ng band from olfactory bulb

to the pyriform lobe of the cerebx-um.

Optic Nerve (!l) ... The second. cranial nerve passes under

the cerebrum to the optic chiasma..

Cerebellum ... Posterior to the CE!l"'ebral hemisphere. Note

the flocculus and. vermis.

Medulla Oblongata - From which the major cranial nerves

emerge. Ventral to the cerebellum.

CeY~bra.l ~em\sPh&e Pine.al Gland 3Ylvlatt Fiss\lre., I 1 Cerebellu.m

Ot ta~tot-'1 T\-ad-

Ol fadorY 811\b 1 ~

OPtic. Nerve. 1I OP'fia.

C."iaCj.m.a

Ft6. 51

BRA\N Lateral Vie.W

Oc.u.\om~tor I . . . l I 11ITr

1 . lm Tr,qemu\a. JWL

emPora -sr lcbe. Troc.h\ear ~oC:Hl L

fotm. Lobe.. N W

Floce!A \lAS I

FO\u-th Ventricle.

· 5Pinat Cord

lhPoqlossal :xi[

A~cessorY "I[

GlossaPha"rnqeal K

filEDIAN SAGlT'rAL SECTION .... (Fig. 52)

Cerebral Hemispheres - Viewed on the medial service.

Not sectioned dor>sal to the

corpus callosum.

107

Corpus Callosum -Longitudinal broad white band passing

transversely from one hemisphere to

the other. l"orms the most dorsal

structure in the midline.·

Fornix - White narrow bt3.nd extending ventrally and

anteriorly from the hippocampus.

Foramen of' r1onro .... Small opening posterior to the column

of the fornix. Leads from the third

ventricle to the lateral right and left

ventricles or the cerebral hemisphere.

Septum Pellucidum - A thin septum between the body of the

fornix and the anterior portion or the corpus callosum.

Anter'ior Commissur'e - Ante:r•ior to the ventral end of the

fornix. A small white bund.le of

fibers.

Lamina Terminalis - Thin membrane extend.lng from the

anterior comm1sstn:•e ventrally to the

region of the optic chlasma. Marks

the anterior most boundaries of the

th1t>d ventricle.

Spinal Cord - Posteriox> (caudal) continuation of the

medulla oblongata,

108

Thalamus -. Thickened. lateral walls of the third ventricle.

Massa I:ntermedia. - Hounded. intermediate mass connecting

the right and left thb1lami.

Pineal Gland (Body) ~ Conical structure projecting from

the dorsal posterior portion of

the third ventricle.

Corpora Q.uad.r.igem1:t"lll - Four eleva, tions (quadrigeminal

bodies). in the dorsal region just

posterior to the chorioid plexus

of the third ventricle.

Superior Coll i.culus Anterlor pa1r.

Inferior Collieulus - Smaller. Poste~ior pa-ir.

Aqueduct of Sylvlus - Slender- channel ventral to the

corpora quadrigemina. connecting

the cavi t ios of the third and

fourth.ventricles.

Ante:r>lo:r> Medullary Velum - Thin memb:retne anterior to the

c~rebellum form.irlg the an-ce:rior

roof of the fourth ven.triole.

Posterior Medullary Velum - Thin membrane posterior to the

cerebellum and forms the pos~

terior roof of the fourth

ventricle and chorioid plexus.

A:r>bor Vitae ... White bra.nching structures seen o:n cross

section of the.eerebellum.

-~l

Olfad·arv Bt.t\ b

FIG. 52

BR~\N

J.liPPo~amPtA.S f>o~terior eommisure.

For nit

Of'tic. I . I Chiasma 1 t-d.

Vent. OP"fi~ LaMilna.. ][ Te.rmi nalis

I Pineal '3~alK Anteriot- Me~ll.\ larv o j Vetu.m

MaBmillarv od.v

Ma.3Sa. lntermedia of ThalamiA.s

;thai a mt.ts

rineal " b " ~..e~e e.u\Am

P~ter\or Medtlllarv Veli.U\\

Fou..\"th Venh·ic.le Jll'

u.adri qemi na l l4\Ynina.

Cen{rdl Cdndl

Saqi tta.l Sec.tion lntlll'ldi b"'-llA.M

---·---,---- - ---~--- -··-------

DORSAL ASPECT • (Fig. 53)

Cerebral Hemispheres ... Paired. B.ight and left hemi"':'

spheres separated by a median

longitudinal fissure (.sagittal

fissure).

Olfactory Bulbs ... Anterior swellings ben$S .. th 'the anterior

portions of the oerebral hemisphel"'es.

Continues posteriorly as the olfactory

tracts to_the pyriform lobe,.

Cerebellum - Pos·terior to the cerebral hemispheres.

Vermis - Median lobe.

Lateral Hemispheres - Paired lateral lobes.

Flocculus - From each hemtsphere a narrow stalked

lateral lobe.

Corpora. Quadrigemina .... Seen between the cerebrum and the

c~rebellum.

Medulla Oblongata - Part1all~ overlapped by the vermis.

Note the thin wall of the triangular ...

shaped fourth ventricle.

Spinal Cord - Cylindrical extension from the posterior

portion of the medulla caudad.. Enters the

:neural ¢anal within the vertebral column

to continue posteriorly.

VENTRAL ASPE~CT - (Fig. 54)

Olfactory Bulbs ... Anterior swellings contlnuing posteri·

orly ~a the olfactory tracts to the pyri­

form lobe of the aerebrr:J.l hemispheres.

Sal! iH-al--~----'i!lll i!iS.li.U..Y'Q

(Meclidn. Lon~rh1d \ nal

fissllre)

lett Ce~ebral

He.mis ?here

StA.Pe.rior C otl i c.u.ti -~~iBJ!~ lnte ri.or ----,.:f'i~o§E­Cc.\Utu.li

~t .. ~~--~7!'Jt-rit'\eal Gtand ~~~~ .,...;pL---riri ~orrn Lobe

~~ Ri+--FtOCCIAllAS

~~~~~~---- Cerebe. \\IA.m

SlossoPhar-vnq c1L--~~ .... l~~~~Fi!Art"""---Vermi s n: Fou.rth. VeVJt\"i Vd~tl'3 Y

..... '~----MeaiA.\la. Oblon9ala.

-f----Hvraqlo~~al 1[

FlG.53

BRf\\N Dorsal View

112

Pyriform Lobes ~ Large vent~al•posterior portion of the

cer~bral hemispheres.

Rhinal Fissure - Separates the py:rifor:m lobe from the

rest of the oe.rebrum.

Sylvian Fissure (Lateral· Fissure) ... Extends·. dorsally

from the rhinal fis•

sure alor¥r the lat~

eral surface of the

cerebrum,,

Circle of v1illis ... Bing of blood vessels supplying the

ventral surface of the brain.

Optio Chiasma - Crossing of the right and left optio

nerves to continue posteriorly as the

opt:to tracts.

Anterior Perforated Substance - Hegion between optic

chiasma and olfactory

tracts.

Tuber Cinereum ... Rounded elevation posterior to the optic

chiasma. For the attachment of the

infundibulum of the. pituitary gland.

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis) - In an intact specimen,

attached to the infundi­

bulum. . Endocrine in

function.

Mamillary Bodies ... Rounded elevations posterior to the ·

tuber cinereum.

113

Cerebral Peduncles .... Bundles passing obliquely forward

from the region of the pons,

Pons .... On the ventral surfaqe abroad. mass of fibers·

forming a commissural band extending t!'ansversely

across the brain and. dorsally towards the cerebellum.

Oculomotor (III) ... Artses from the medial ventral region

of the cerebral pecluncles to pass

anteriorly.

'rrochlear {IV) ... Arises from the region of the anterior

medullary velum to pass tilong the lat­

eral surface of the cerebral peduncles.

Trigeminal (V) ~ Large. Located posterior to the lateral

po!~tions of the pons. Arises by tvw

roots, a larger sensory. and a smaller

motor root.

Abducens {VI) - Small. Passes forward from the ventral

surface of the medulla posterior to the

pons.

Facia.l (VII) - Laterally placed. Arising f'rom the medulla

in close relation with the auditory {VIII).

Auditory (VIII) :.. Aris i:ng from the medulla pos t;erior to

the faa 1al and t:rigemino.l nerves.

Glossopharyngeal (IX) ~ Arises by several linear roots

along the lateral margins of the

medulla oblongata.

114

Vagus (X) - Arises from the late:re,l margins of the medulla

in direct line with the glossopharyngeal and

posterior to it.

Spinal Accessory (Xl) ... Arises by numerous roots along the

lateral margin of the medulla.

Hypoglossal (XII) ... Most; posterior of the twelve cranial

nerves. Arises by several roots from

the ventral surface of the medulla.

Medulla Oblongata - Anterior swelling of the spinal cord.

Ventral Long1 tudinal Fissure - f;1edian ventral groove

exte:ndi ng from the medulla

to the spinal cox·d,

S}'?INAL CORD .. A thick eylj.ndrical cord tra.versi:ng the verte­

bra,l (neural) canal throughout its length. The

cord terminates in the saor•a.l region as the

filum terminale.

Spinal Nerves - Formed by the union of two rootsoi

Dors~:.tl Root - P:r•om the d.orso-la:teral region of the

spimil cord.

Ventral E.oot - From the ventro-lateral region of

the splna.l cord.

Dorsal Root Ganglion - ~nla:rged. S\'l'elltng in dorsal root.

Dorsal Fissure • Narrow median groove.

· Ventr•Etl Fissure .... ltJide ventral median g:t•oove.

Central Canal .,.. Small oa.vlty through the center of the

cord.

oL fac. tor-t ---.A'--J:.._,_l Trac.t-

S'ilvian ---1--iF

F\ssure. -p,·r:form--+-~-4---

Lo'tle... R\ q ht _..,.___

Cere.bral Hevni9Phere.

Cerebral ---l~~-__.;.;~ Pecluhc.le.

Por1s --1

~~,...-\~-OP\\c ][

Qptjc. ~---+T+-- Chias.ma

t.::;i:~rt~--r,~cr-HvPoPhvseal ~~alK

~~---if---+--Mami l\Cll·'l Bodv

:-~.)3~~--f------:h.,__Ocu..la~tott

·TII :-.::JH~ ...... ~--Troc.hlear , ... ,~-~. .:nr

Cerebe.lllA.m Ci~·:~If.~;~~(Ji§~~~rTtiqe.mi na l

""Sf: ·~""''.lltrt~~ _. . ...,....,,,___Ab~ueen'5 "SIT:

AtAditorv un~z._-Fa~i·d.l W

1ZIII ~---mo~~oPhatYilqeaL JY Va¥s .:.:.H-~t----SPin~Acce-:.c;orY

SPina.\ Cord -----+--lk-~............_r&.+--HYPC~G\loc;~a.l li.

FIG. 54

BRA\N Ventral View

BIBLIOGRAPHY

i I

XIV, BIBI.IOGBAPHY

The following references are a selection of, and intended. only as a oo:n<lense<l guide to, publications that are likely to be useful to students interested in descriptive and. experi­mental morphology of rabbits.

Adame • Leverett A. and Ham~~l Eddy. ,9oml?§:rat1 ve A_nf!:_tOL\lY,;, .An Introduction to the Vertebrates. New York! John Wil$y a.nd Sons, Ir1e7'; '19lj:9,. ·

Atwood, William H. Comparat:tve Anaton!,l. Second edition. St, Louis: r.rhe c.. V. f'!losby Company, 1955.

Baldwin, Fran<Hs M. "Variations in the Carotid Arteries of' the Rabbit. 11 Ana.t. if2£!~ 15:49 .... 51, 1919 •

.._..._........,"'!". 11 Notes on the BrE~-ncheG of the Aorte, (arcus a.ort~e) and the Subclavian Artery of the I1abbit.•t Anat, 1\~.9· 19:173-183, 1920.

Bensley, B. A •. Pt::actica.l i},p.atorJ11L .2f. .t.~ £1Jll2.bit. Seventh edition. Revised by Craigie, E. H. Philadelphia: The B1al<~r3ton Compa,ny1 19!~6.

Bern:, Howard and Boris Kriohesky. ttAnatomio and Histologic Studies of the Sex Aceessories of the Male Rabbit • 11

Un~v. Q!. C.g].ifot~-~& 1?,u!?J.· .t.u '~· 47:175 ... 196t 1943,

Brodal, Alf. nThe Cer~bellum of' the Habbit. 11 Jour. Go11m,. Heu:rol .. 72;6)-70, 1940~

Brown. Wade H., LouiBe Pearce, and Chester Van Allen, "Organ Weights of Normal Rabbits." JOla£• !!1.zR· Med. ltJ: 733-741; 1926.

l3uoy • Paul Clancy. "The Nici tatlng Membr,;.xl~ ...;.nd the Superior Cervical Ganglion, in the Babbit." Jour. g9m;a. Ji~urol. 43:221-230. 1922.

Crabb• Edward Duane. ~r1no1Ql<a§. Qt Functional Anatomx. of .!mft Rabb*t. St. Louis: JohnS .. Swift Comp!Si.YlYt Inc., 19;1,

____ and Mc-l.rgaret A. Kelsall. 11 0rg~~,ntzation of the Mucosa and Lymphatic Structures in the Rabbit Appendix." Jour. Morr>.h· 67: 3.51 ... 367, 1940.

----' 11 An Anomalous Everted Piece of Ileum in an Adult

Cottontail Rabbit.u University of Colorado Studies Se:r. D-1;221~22); 1941.

r

117

C ra 1g1. e. , E • Horne. . A flfbora tor u ~~kie ,1:.2. the Ana. };om~ of tll,! Jlapb}i(. Philade'!p 1a: '1't1e B < ston Company, l 5T:

Drapeau. Elizabeth E. nAn A:natonU.ce.l Study of the Furless Cond1 tion 1n Habbl ts 1 ,. Jour. Mornh• 54 (2) :.365-388, 1933.

Dunn; Thelma B. and Albert M~ Kessel. nlnjeotion and Clearing I1ethod for the Rabbit •s Ear," Jour. Nat!Q.n .• canpeu;: l.n!1l· 4;3.59 ... 360, 1944,

Eales- Nellie B. nNote on the Abnormality in. the Blood vascular System of the R~.bbit, 11 Jov..£.• A;ga.Jt.• 65:1.52-153. 19)0.

Edgeworth, It,, H. ~~Jt·Crani$1J. . .t:tuscles 9!. Y.trtebJ:1lt~s. New York: The l\lacmillan Company 1 1935.

Enuttens, C • W. u The Gt•otvth of Heproduc t i ve and Endocrine Organs of the Female Habblt,n·,roty;. Endocrinol, 1;409-416• 1939.

:t~'orster, Andre. "Le.:Masseter et.le Pterygoiden Externe Chez . Ce:t:"tains Hongeurs (cobaye, r•at, lapin). E·lmde d 1 Anatomia Comparee et d 'aptation, 11 Arch. Anat. flist.o .. l.• ~ F;mhr¥Pl.• 9:193-226, 1929. . '

Ga1sstone, s. 11 A Comparative Study in Vivo and Vitro of Hat ~nd Rabbit Molars," !T..99.• Jigz. §..QQ.. ()t.ongopJ Se:r. ft, 126: 315-330, 1938. .

Girgis~ A. 11 'l'he Development of the Heart in the Rabbit,'* Pro.9.• Zoql.. Soc. <L&n..4on) 3:755·782, 19}0.

--~-· "A Further Contribl.ltion on the Development of the Heart in the Ha.b'i-;1t, 11 Proc •. &2£1• Soc. (London) 2:421·450, 1932.

Goodrioh 1 Edwin s. .§,:tudles .. Qll tq~ Structure .1m~ DevelQ,:gme~ .2t Vipr~ebratef[. London: The I1acm1llan Com:par~y, 19}0.

Qrauer, Theophil P. . 11 Be generation in the Pancreas of Habbi t, '* /J.lme;r. ;.,ou~. Anat. }8:233•2.53, 1926.

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