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12-1981

The Public Financing of Higher Education in Nigeria The Public Financing of Higher Education in Nigeria

Gabriel O. Taylor Western Michigan University

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THE PU BLIC F IN A N C IN G OF HIGHEREDUCATION IN N I G E R I A

by

Gab r ie l 0. T a y lo r

A D i s s e r t a t i o n Submitted to the

Facu l ty o f The Graduate C o l lege in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f the

requirements f o r the Degree o f Doctor o f Educat ion

Department o f Educat ional Leadership

Western Michigan U n i v e r s i t y Kalamazoo, Michigan

December, 1981

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

THE P U B L IC F IN A NC IN G OF HIGHEREDUCATION IN N I G E R I A

G abr ie l 0. T a y lo r , Ed.D.

Western Michigan U n i v e r s i t y , 1981

This was a h i s t o r i c a l study o f the s ta tus o f p u b l ic f in a n c in g o f

higher educat ion in N i g e r i a . Pr imary data sources included publ ished

documents such as the N ig e r ia n C o n s t i t u t i o n , Budget Est imates o f the

Federal Government o f N i g e r i a , Reports o f the Nat ional U n i v e r s i t i e s

Commissions, Federal Government S t a t i s t i c a l Reports, Reports o f the

Central Bank o f N i g e r i a , Un ited Nat ions' S t a t i s t i c a l Yearbook, the

Commonwealth Year Book, re p o r ts o f some o ther government agenc ies , and

educat io na l and f i n a n c i a l j o u r n a l s . Three key in d i v id u a ls who have had

wide experiences in m at ters r e la t e d to higher educat ion f inances were

i n terviewed .

The c o l l e c t e d data were ca teg o r ized according to the research

quest ions to which they r e l a t e d . N a r r a t i v e e x p o s i t io n o f the data was

presented.

The more s i g n i f i c a n t f in d in g s o f the study were:

1. The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r higher educat ion is ves ted , by the con

s t i t u t i o n , in the Federal and S ta te Governments. However, a l l the

e x i s t i n g t h i r t e e n u n i v e r s i t i e s are c o n t r o l l e d and coord inated d i r e c t l y or

i n d i r e c t l y by the Federal Government.

2. The C o n s t i t u t io n provides f o r f r e e higher educat ion f o r a l l the

c i t i z e n s as and when the count ry can a f f o r d i t .

3. There is no L e g i s l a t i v e f i n a n c i a l p r o v is io n f o r the support o f


higher ed u cat io n . F i n a n c ia l support is provided in the form o f y e a r l y

ap p ro p r ia t io n s f o r which u n i v e r s i t i e s compete w i th o th er soc ia l serv ices

4. N i g e r i a ' s t o t a l ex pend i tu re f o r educat ion in r e l a t i o n to the

w ealt h o f the n a t io n ranked low when compared to the expen ditures of

many co u n t r ies having developed or c e n t r a l l y planned economies. i t

a lso f e l l below those o f many contemporary developing c o u n t r ie s .

The s i g n i f i c a n t recommendations were:

1. The l e g i s l a t u r e should e s t a b l i s h a committee to monitor the

performances o f the u n i v e r s i t i e s .

2. The c o n s t i t u t i o n should be amended to a l lo w a p r i v a t e o rg a n iz a

t io n which des i re s to e s t a b l i s h a u n i v e r s i t y to do so. Investment in

higher educat ion should be the business o f a l l N iger ians

3. Higher ed u c a t io n , l i k e the o th er le v e ls o f educat ion , should

be the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f the s t a t e s .

4. The present p a t t e r n o f funding the u n i v e r s i t i e s should be main

te i ned.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The process o f w r i t i n g t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n has been a le a rn ing exper

ience f o r me in endurance. I have b e n e f i t t e d from the c r i t i c a l , ye t

p o s i t i v e adv ice o f my committee members: Professors Harold Boles,

James Sanders and V i c e - P r e s i d e n t Robert Wetn ight . I am p a r t i c u l a r l y

g r a t e f u l to Dr. Harold Boles ( th e committee's chairman, and my academic

advisor ) f o r his encouragement and c o n s t r u c t i v e t im e ly feedback.

My a p p r e c ia t io n is a ls o extended to Jean Wing f o r her typ in g a b i l i t y

and a s s is tan c e . In a d d i t i o n , I am g r a t e f u l to some c lo se f r i e n d s f o r

t h e i r understanding and support ; to my f a t h e r and s i s t e r s f o r t h e i r

encouragement.

And f i n a l l y , to my devoted w i f e L i l l i a n and c h i l d r e n , I am fo r e v e r

indebted f o r t h e i r p a t ie n c e , understanding and he lp .

Gab riel 0 . T a y lo r

i i


IN F O R M A T IO N TO USERS

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Taylor, Gabriel Olukayode

THE PUBLIC FINANCING OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

Western Michigan University Ed.D, 1981

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................. î I

LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................. v

LIST OF F I G U R E S ............................................................................................................. vi

Chapter

I . THE PROBLEM AND THE BACKGROUND......................................................... 1

Background o f the Problem ....................................................................... 1

Importance o f the S t u d y ............................................................................ 3

D e l i m i t a t i o n ................................................................................................... 6

D e f i n i t i o n s and A bb re v ia t io n s .............................................................. 7

O rg a n iz a t io n o f the Study ....................................................................... 8

I I . REVIEW OF RELEVANT INFORMATION ......................................................... 9

H i s t o r y and Geography o f N i g e r ia .................................................... 9

H i s t o r i c a l and L e g i s l a t i v e Background o f FinancingHigher Educat ion in N ig e r i a .................................................................. 24

S i g n i f i c a n t Federal and S t a t e Governments ActsA f f e c t i n g Higher Educat ion in N ig e r ia ........................................... 29

Educat ion in Three Developing Countr ies ...................................... 35

Financ ing Higher Educat ion in the United S ta teso f A m e r i c a ........................................................................................................ 40

S t a t e Support f o r Higher Educat ion ............................................... 4?

Summary................................................................................................................. 52

I I I . DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY............................................... 54

Design o f the S t u d y ..................................................................................... 55

The H i s t o r i c a l Method ................................................................................ 55

P r o c e d u r e s ........................................................................................................ 55

i i i


ChapterSummary ........................................................................................................... 62

IV. REPORT OF THE F I N D I N G S ....................................................................... 63

I n t r o d u c t io n ................................................................................................... 63

C o n s t i t u t i o n a l and L e g i s l a t i v e Pro v is ions f o rHigher Educat ion .......................................................................................... 64

The Sources and Amounts o f Revenue f o r Higher Educat ion . 65

P o r t io n o f the Federal Government's Budget f o rEducat ion A l lo c a t e d to Higher Educat ion ...................................... 71

Federal Government 's Ap p ro p r ia t io n s f o r Educat ionCompared to Those f o r Other Major Social Services . . . . 77

The Gross Nat iona l Product o f N ig e r i a and the Amount o f F in a n c ia l Support f o r Higher Educat ion ................................. 80

I n t e r n a t i o n a l Comparision o f Pu b l ic Expenditures o f Some Selected Countr ies f o r Educat ion and Higher Educat ion . . 83

Summary........................................................................................................... 98

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................... 100

Summary o f the S t u d y ............................................................................. 100

C o n c l u s i o n s ..................................................................................................... 101

Recommendations ............................................................................................... 102

Summary .............................................................................................................. 106

APPENDICES................................................................................................................................. 107

A. The Area and P opu la t io n o f Each o f the Nineteen Sta teso f N i g e r i a .....................................................................................................108

B. Map o f N i g e r i a Showing S t a t e s ' C a p i t a l s , and Locat ionso f A g r i c u l t u r a l and Other Products ............................................... 110

C. L e t t e r s o f A p p re c ia t io n to I n t e r v ie w Respondents . . . . 112

D. 1978-1979 Opera t ing Budget Request Form and Data SheetFormat Adopted by th e N at io na l U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission . 116

BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................................ 130

I V


L I S T OF TABLES

TABLE1 N ig er ia n U n i v e r s i t i e s — Sources and Amounts o f Funds f o r

Recurrent Expend iture— 1976-1977 ............................................................. 66

2 N ig er ian U n i v e r s i t i e s — Sources and Amounts o f Funds f o rRecurrent E xpend i tu re— I 98O - I 9 8 I .............................................................. 68

3 N ig er ian U n i v e r s i t i e s : Analys is o f Local Income I 98O - I 9 8 I . 70

4 Federal Government Budget f o r Recurrent Expenditures f o rEducat ion, Showing P o r t io n A l lo c a te d to the U n i v e r s i t i e s . . 72

5 Rat ios Appl ied by the Na t iona l U n i v e r s i t i e s Commissionf o r A l l o c a t i o n o f Recurrent G r a n t s ........................................................ 76

6 Actual P u b l ic C a p i ta l Expenditure f o r A l l Sectors1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 4 ....................................................................................................................... 78

7 Summary o f Pu b l ic Sector C ap i ta l Programs 1975-1980 . . . . 79

8 Gross Domestic Product , Expenditures f o r Educat ionand Funds A l lo ca ted to U n i v e r s i t i e s .................................................... 82

9 Pub l ic Expenditures on Education o f Some SelectedDeveloped and Developing Countr ies ......................................................... 86

10 P op u la t io n , Gross N a t io n a l Product , Gross Nat io na l ProductPer C ap i ta , and P u b l ic Expenditure f o r Education ........................... 88

11 Estimates o f Gross Nat iona l Products o f IndependentCommonwealth Countr ies and Expenditures f o r Educat ion 1976 . 92

12 In t e r n a t i o n a l Comparison on Pu b l ic Expenditures o fSe lected Countr ies f o r Higher Educat ion ........................................... 95


L I S T OF FIGURES

FIGURE1 U.S. Gross N at io na l Product ........................................................................ 42

2 Important Funct ion o f Each Part o f the Funding Model . . . 50

3 Components o f the Funding Model.................................................................. 51

V I


CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND THE BACKGROUND

Background of the Problem

In s o fa r as the present w r i t e r knows, there has not been any inde

pendent or system atic study done to determine the s ta tus o f f in an c in g

of higher educat ion in N i g e r i a . There has not been any at tempt to re

l a t e i t in an o b j e c t i v e manner to the f in an c in g of o ther soc ia l services

rendered. One study which addressed i t s e l f to a p a r t o f the problem

was conducted by Callaway and Mosone (1 96 8 ) , but th a t is now outdated

by events . For example, a t the time o f th a t study, N ig e r ia had only

three geographical regions ( s t a t e s ) as compared to the nineteen s ta tes

i t now has. There have a ls o been vast changes in the economic base of

the count ry.

The idea o f a study o f the f in a n c in g o f higher educat ion in N i

g e r ia was conceived out o f the r e a l i z a t i o n o f the tremendous impact

tha t educat ion has on a developing country. Educat ion is perhaps the

most important s in g le f a c t o r in ach ieving rapid economic development

and tec hno lo g ic a l progress. Whi le th ere may be some argument over the

degree to which educat ion c o n t r ib u t e s to the t o t a l economy, th ere is

no argument as to i t s s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n . The Phi D e lta Kappa

Commission ( 1 9 7 3 ) , in i t s r e p o r t , advised t h a t p u b l i c educat ion should

be supported f o r the important reason th a t educat ion removes the i n d i

v id ua l from the " ty ranny o f ignorance ." The commission remarked t h a t :

1


The v i r t u e s of educat ion are so overwhelming to both n at io n and in d iv id u a l th a t the wisdom o f government's f i s c a l investment in the e n t e r p r i s e is beyond quest io n .(p. 7)

The importance o f educat ion was f u r t h e r under l ined by the In d ia

M i n i s t e r o f Educat ion, who according to H is r a (1967) s ta ted :

Education should have the h ig es t p r i o r i t y in our n a t io n a l budget and should take i t s p lace immediately a f t e r food and c l o t h i n g , (p. 217)

There is a g rea t concern over the e f f e c t s o f events o f the past several

years on the condit ions o f p u b l ic educat io n . I t is the co nten t io n of

many educators th a t the var ious governments have not been s u f f i c i e n t l y

support ive .

Chie f Obafemi Awolowo (1970) summarized these f e e l i n g s when he

remarked t h a t :

Even a t our present slow r a t e of economic growth, year in year out , we t r a i l very f a r behind our high leve l manpower needs, both of the sen ior and in te rm ed ia te c a t e g o r ie s .We are very short of every th in g : docto rs , en g in eers , ac countants, economists, managerial and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t a f f , e tc . (p. 5)

In almost a l l economies, a l l o c a t i o n o f resources has always posed

a ser ious problem. The manner in which a count ry a l l o c a t e s resources

among the var ious areas o f soc ie ty tend to show where i t s p r i o r i t i e s

l i e . I t is the co ntent ion o f many educators th a t a responsive govern

ment must be dynamic. i t s p o l i c i e s should r e f l e c t both the moods and

a s p i r a t io n s o f i t s people. I t s p r i o r i t i e s should, t h e r e f o r e , be d i

rected toward the b u i ld in g of an economica l ly v i a b l e and s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g

s o c ie ty .

This study w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , at tempt to seek answers to the f o l

lowing research quest ions:


3

1. What a re the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and l e g i s l a t i v e pro v is io n s f o r

support o f h igher educat ion in Niger ia?

2. What are the sources and amounts o f revenue f o r h igher edu

cat ion?

3. What por t io ns o f the Federal Government's budget f o r educa

t io n are a l l o c a t e d to h ig her educat ion? What is the funding mechanism?

4. How do the Federal Government's budgeted ed u cat io n a l appro

p r i a t i o n s compare w i th the a p p ro p r ia t io n s f o r o t h e r s e le c ted major

soc ia l serv ices w i th respect to amount?

5. is th ere a c o n s is te n t p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n between the Gross

Nat iona l Product o f N ig e r i a and the type o f support provided f o r

hig her educat ion in the country?

6. How does N ig e r ia compare w i th se lected deve loping and developed

co u n t r ie s w i th respect to the amount o f her e xp end i tu res f o r higher

educat ion?

Importance o f the Study

Five n a t io n a l o b j e c t i v e s o f N i g e r i a , i d e n t i f i e d in the Federal

Government's (1974) T h i rd Nat ional Development Plan 1975 -1 9 80 , were

intended to e s t a b l i s h N i g e r ia as a u n i t e d , strong and s e l f - r e l i a n t na

t i o n ; land o f b r ig h t and f u l l o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r a l l c i t i z e n s in a f r e e

and democrat ic s o c ie t y . The f i v e o b j e c t i v e s were intended to:

1. increase per c a p i t a income.

2. More evenly d i s t r i b u t e income.

3. Reduce the leve l o f unemployment.

4. Increase the supply o f high leve l manpower.


5. D i v e r s i f y the economy.

The o b je c t iv e s o f the Federal Government w i th regard to educa

t i o n a l programs were s t a t e d , in the same p lan , as:

1. To expand f a c i l i t i e s f o r educat ion aimed a t equal i z i n g in d iv id u a l access to educat ion throughout the country.

2. To reform the content o f general educat ion to makei t more responsive to the socio-economic needs o f the country.

3. To c o n s o l id a te and develop the n a t i o n ' s system of higher educat ion in response to the economy's manpower needs.

4. To s t re a m l in e and strengthen the machinery f o r educ a t io n a l development in the country.

5. To r a t i o n a l i z e the f in a nc in g of educat ion w i th a viewto making the educat ional system more adequate and e f f i c i e n t .

6. To make an impact in the area o f tech no lo g ica l educ a t io n so as to meet the growing needs o f the economy. (p. 245)

There are disagreements among the educat ional and p o l i t i c a l leaders

as to the c o u n t ry 's f i n a n c i a l a b i l i t y to pursue and sus ta in a mass o r i

ented ed ucat ional program. A un iv ersa l f r e e pr imary educat ion scheme

was introduced in the country in September, 1976 ( N ig e r ia Yearbook,

1980) . From t h a t da te , pr imary educat ion has been f r e e and o b ta in a b le

throughout the country. I t was a n t i c i p a t e d th a t by I 98O at tendance

would become compulsory. Under the scheme, pr imary educat ion la s ts s ix

years , and the pr imary schools admit c h i ld re n who are or w i l l be s ix

years o ld be fore the end o f the calendar year . The d ec is io n to i n t r o

duce f r e e pr imary educat ion throughout the country has r e s u l t e d in the

expansion o f o th e r ed ucat iona l i n s t i t u t i o n s in the country , such as se

condary schools, t ech n ica l c o l le g e s , teacher t r a i n i n g c o l le g e s , and

u n i v e r s i t i e s . There are concerns, however, among many educators and

p o l i t i c a l leaders th a t the government is not doing enough w i th the


5

resources a t her d is p o s a l , p a r t i c u l a r l y in the area o f h igher educa

t i o n . Many b e l ie v e th a t lack o f f in an c in g f o r higher educat ion has led

to ser ious shortages o f h igh leve l manpower which the country is fac ing

today. The consequence is th a t twenty years a f t e r independence, the

country is s t i l l r e l y in g h e a v i l y on o u ts id e exper ts f o r the management

of her economy.

During the l a s t campaign, in the p r e s i d e n t i a l and n a t io n a l e l e c

t ions held throughout the country in 1979, the issue o f f in a n c in g o f

higher educat ion was w id e ly debated. Some p o l i t i c i a n s c a l l e d f o r f re e

educat ion a t a l l l e v e l s , to be comple te ly f inanced by the tax payers.

Some o th ers , who were termed unprogress ive by r i v a l p o l i t i c i a n s ,

were o f the view th a t the country could not a f f o r d to sus ta in the cost

of f r e e educat ion a t a l l l e v e ls now. One o f the major p o l i t i c a l par

t i e s , the United P ar ty o f N i g e r i a , in i t s e l e c t i o n p la t f o r m , promised

immediate in t r o d u c t io n o f f r e e educat ion a t a l l l e v e ls i f i t won the

p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n . Fawehinmi (1974) may have been speaking f o r the

s i l e n t m a j o r i t y when he remarked:

I t is the b e l i e f o f the people o f t h i s country th a t our leaders owe i t a duty to emphasise the primacy o f educat i o n — Free Educat ion must be given the top most p r i o r i t y because tech n ica l progress , economic growth, soc ia l s e c u r i t y , and p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y depend on the genuine d em ocra t iza t ion o f our ed ucat ional system. I t is i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e to a very large e x te n t t h a t a democrat ic educat ion develop in d iv id u a l values t h a t are a p r e - c o n d i t i o n f o r e s s e n t ia l humanizat ion o f a tech n o lo g ic a l c i v i l i z a t i o n and f o r the very s u r v iv a l of the s ine qua non o f sound socio-economic development of any Nat ion . N ig e r i a cannot c o n s t i t u t e a p e r i lo u s except ion .(p. 35)

Fawehinmi reported th a t John W. Hanson, a v i s i t i n g pro fessor a t Univei

s i t y o f N ig e r i a , Nsukka, suggested as f a r back as 19&3 t h a t the economic

growth o f N i g e r i a can be promoted by " a c c e l e r a t i n g the product ion


6

o f high level manpower, in f i e l d s such as i n d u s t r i a l management,. s c i

ence, engineer ing and a g r i c u l t u r e e s p e c i a l l y through the rap id expansion

of re le v a n t higher ed ucat ion" (p. 3 4 ) .

The i n t e n s i t y of the pressures on the government to p lay an

in c re as in g ly important r o l e in the p r o v is io n o f higher educat ion and

the a t te ndant huge f i n a n c i a l commitment that t h i s a c t i v i t y would e n t a i l

is o f g re a t importance. I t is on ly proper t h a t a thorough study be

made to h ig h l ig h t the f i n a n c i a l p o l i c i e s a p p r o p r ia te to s a t i s f y the

need f o r more high level manpower.

This study was deemed important a ls o because a sound program f o r

f inanc in g higher educat ion in N i g e r i a requ ires c u r re n t knowledge o f the

weal th and economic p o t e n t i a l o f the country. The study was designed

to provide a frame o f re fe re n c e f o r the Federal Government, the s t a t e s '

governments, the U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission, U n i v e r s i t y Council members,

and o ther persons and i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t e r e s t e d in the f in a n c in g of

N i g e r i a ' s higher educat ion.

Dei imi t a t i o n

This study was designed to a s c e r t a in the c u r re n t s ta tu s o f pu b l ic

f in an c in g o f higher educat ion in N ig e r i a . I t was l i m i t e d g e o g rap h ic a l ly

to N i g e r ia . i t was f u r t h e r l i m i t e d to the school year 1978-1979, as

t h is was the l a t e s t p e r io d f o r which s u b s t a n t ia l and r e l i a b l e data

could be obtained. The s t a t i s t i c a l da ta on the N ig er ia n Government's

operat ions are usual ly a v a i l a b l e to the p u b l ic a f t e r two to th ree

years . However, o ther years were used f o r comparison as much as

p r a c t i c a b l e . The study was a ls o l i m i t e d to the f o l lo w i n g s p e c i f i c


7

f a c e t s , r e le v a n t to h ig her educat ion f inance in N ig e r ia : (a) h i s t o r i c a l

and legal background o f f in a n c e , (b) weal th o f the country, (c) bud

geted revenues, and (d) expenditures fo r higher educat ion . I t was

l im i t e d to consider ing the f in an c in g o f the u n i v e r s i t i e s .

D e f i n i t i o n s and A bbrev ia t ions

The terminology o f the study fo l lo w s; in g e n e ra l , the terms shown

are accepted meanings as found in standard re fe rence works in the f i e l d

o f educat ional f in a n ce . However, some o ther terminology used is here

def ined .

Higher Educat ion is recognized formal educat ion , beyond the secon

dary schools l e v e l , provided by u n i v e r s i t i e s or s i m i l a r degree g rant ing

i n s t i t u t i o n s . E x is t in g N ig e r ia n U n i v e r s i t i e s and the year o f in corpora

t io n are l i s t e d in M argo l is (1977, p. 65) as fo l lo w s:

Ahmadu Bellow U n i v e r s i t y , Z a r i a , 1962 Univers i

Un i vers Univers Univers Uni vers Univers Univers Univers Univers Uni vers Univers Univers

Developed Countr ies a re a l l c ount r ies in Europe, the USSR, the

United States o f America, Canada, Japan, I s r a e l , A u s t r a l i a , and New

Zealand, and the developing countr ies c o n s t i t u t e the re s t o f the world .

Gross Nat ional Product (GNP) is the t o t a l o f the money va lu e of

a l l goods and serv ices produced by an economy during the year.

ty Col lege, M o r i n , 1975ty Col lege, Kano, 1975ty Col lege, P o r tH a rc o u r t , 1ty o f Benin, 1973ty o f Ca labar , 1975ty of Ibadan, 1948ty of I f e , 1961ty of Jos, 1961ty of Lagos, 1962ty of Maidugur i , 1975ty of N i g e r i a , Nsukka, I960ty of Sokoto, 1975


8

Wealth is de f in ed as anything th a t is economical ly u s e f u l , p a r t i

c u l a r l y m a t e r ia l o b jec ts o r possessions.

O r g a n iz a t io n o f the Study

The f i r s t chapte r has included a statement o f the problem, des

c r i p t i o n o f the problem background, d e s c r ip t io n o f importance o f the

study, d e l i m i t a t i o n s o f the study, and d e f i n i t i o n s and ab b rev ia t io n s

o f c e r t a i n terms used.

Chapter I I is devoted to the review of re le v a n t in fo rm at ion on

soc ia l h i s t o r y and p o l i t i c a l development of N ig e r ia and describes the

legal and h i s t o r i c a l background f o r the development and f in an c ing o f

higher educat ion . I t a ls o includes b r i e f review o f in formation on

th ree s e lec ted develop ing c o u n t r ie s - -G h a n a , Kenya, and I n d ia — and the

United States o f America, on t h e i r educat ional systems, on government,

economic development, and p a t te rn s o f f in a nc in g o f higher educat ion.

Chapter I I I d iscusses the design o f the study, s t a t i n g the assump

t i o n s , the research quest ions and the procedure adopted. Chapter IV

is devoted to s t a t i n g the f in d in g s r e s u l t i n g from the research quest io ns .

The f i n a l chapter includes a summary, a review of the major f in d in g s ,

and conclusions based on the f in d i n g s . Im p l ica t io n s and recommendations

f o r f u t u r e f in a n c in g o f h ig h er educat ion in the country are included.


Chapter I I

REVIEW OF RELEVANT INFORMATION

H is t o ry and Geography o f N ig e r ia

This p o r t io n of the in form at io n review provides a b r i e f d iscus

sion o f N ig e r ia and i t s people. The intended purpose is to provide

background to he lp someone not f a m i l i a r w i th the country in under

standing the ed ucat iona l a s p i r a t i o n s o f the people. I t should help

the reader to b e t t e r a p p r e c i a t e the var io us s o c io - e c o n o m ic - p o l i t i c a l

changes which the country has gone through which have important i m p l i

ca t io n s f o r higher educat io n .

Physical D e s c r ip t io n

The Federal Republ ic o f N ig e r ia l i e s w i t h i n the t r o p i c s between

l a t i t u d e s 4 ° and 14° n or th o f the Equator. I t is bounded on the west

by the Republ ic o f Benin, on the nor th by Niger Republ ic , on the east

by the Republ ic o f Cameroun and washed on the south by the A t l a n t i c

Ocean (N ig e r i a D i a r y , I 98O).

The country is we l i watered by the r i v e r s Niger and Benue and

t h e i r t r i b u t a r i e s . N i g e r i a ' s c l im a t e v a r ie s from t r o p i c a l at the

coast to s u b - t r o p i c a l f u r t h e r in lan d . There are two we l l marked

seasons— the dry season l a s t i n g from November to March and the rainy

season from A p r i l to October. Temperatures at the coast seldom r i s e

above 32°C . , but humid ity can be as high as 95%. The c l im a te is


10

d r i e r f u r t h e r n o r th , where extremes of temperatures are common, some

times ranging from 36°C. to 72°C.

N i g e r ia is the l a r g e s t and most populous o f the commonwealth

co u n tr ie s in A f r i c a , i t s area is approximately 357,000 square mi les 2

( 925 ,000 km ) , which makes the country comparable in s i z e to the

s ta te s o f Texas and Arizona together (Burns, 1972) . I t is about s ix

t imes the area o f New England, four times the area o f the United King

dom and roughly equal to Pakis tan.

Populat ion and Social H is to r y

The popula t ion o f N i g e r i a was, as o f the UNESCO (1979) e s t im a te

in 1977, about 6l m i l l i o n people. The l a s t accepted o f f i c i a l census,

conducted in 19&3, put the popula t ion over 50 m i l l i o n . The l a t e s t

popula t ion census, which was conducted in 1973, generated so much

controversy t h a t the r e s u l t s were not publ ished. I t was est imated

a t th a t t ime th a t the popula t ion o f N ig e r ia would grow to about 80

m i l l i o n in I 98O.

The popula t ion o f N i g e r ia is m u l t i - e t h n i c . Among the p r in c ip a l

e t h n ic groups a re the Hausa, F u la n i , I bo, Yoruba, Edo, E f i k , I jaw,

T iV and K a n u r i .

In the Federal R ep u b l ic 's N ig e r ia D ia r y , I 98O, i t was reported

th a t the i n t e r i o r o f N ig e r ia f i r s t became known to the Europeans in

the f i r s t h a l f o f the n in e tee n th centu ry . At th a t t ime the p ar t o f

'he Sudanic B e l t which the country now occupies had a h i s t o r y th a t

was e s s e n t i a l l y the s to ry o f the m ig ra t io n and fus ion o f people: the

r i s e and f a l l o f empires; the s lave t rade and i t s replacement by the


11

l e g i t i m a t e t ra d e In t r o p i c a l produce; the establ ishment and expansion o f

B r i t i s h In f lu e nc e In both the northern and southern par ts o f the country.

The Imposit io n o f B r i t i s h r u le on the people In those regions res u l ted

In the b i r t h o f N ig e r ia as a n a t io n .

The fo l lo w in g In fo rm at io n Is a ls o from the N ig e r ia D ia ry , I 98O.

N ig e r ia came in to being as a s in g le p o l i t i c a l u n i t on Jamuary 1, 1914,

when the P r o t e c t o r a t e o f Southern N ig e r ia (which Included Lagos) was

amalgamated w i th the P r o t e c t o r a t e o f Northern N ig e r ia to form the Colony

and P r o t e c t o r a t e o f N i g e r i a . N ig e r ia Is the most populous country o f

the A f r ic a n cont inent and has the la rg e s t po pula t ion o f A f r ic a n o r i g i n

o f any country in the wor ld . I t has about one q u a r t e r o f a l l the A f r i

can people o f the wor ld ; In o ther words, one out o f every four A f r icans

Is a N ig e r ia n , but the country represents less than 4% o f A f r i c a ' s

land mass. Land area occupied by N ig e r ia ranked fo u r teen th In s i z e

among A f r ic a n c ount r ie s (A f r i c a South o f the Sahara, I 98O-8 I ) .

A f t e r the country was amalgamated. I t was organized in to the

Northern Province and Southern Province, w it h the Colony o f Lagos

serv ing as the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e headquarters . In 1939, the Southern

Province was d iv id e d In to the Eastern and Western Prov inces.

The main e th n ic group In the popula t ion o f the Northern Province

was the Hausa-FuIan I ; o f the Western Province , the Yoruba; and o f the

Eastern Province, the Ibo. The Hausa-FulanI group was predominant ly

Muhammadan, and the o th ers mainly C h r i s t i a n and Animls t . Burns (1972)

provided a d e t a i l e d account o f each o f the th ree groups.

N ig e r ia became an Independent na t ion on October 1, I960 , as a

F edera t io n co n s is t in g o f th ree R e g Io n s - - th e Nor thern, the Eastern and


12

Western— w i th Lagos as the c a p i t a l (Burns, 1972) . The Federat ion

became a Republ ic on October 1, 1963* N i g e r i a is c u r r e n t l y a member

o f the Commonwealth o f Nat ions and o f the United Nat ions.

In circumstances described l a t e r under p o l i t i c a l development, the

Eastern Region of N ig e r i a seceded from the Federa t io n in May 1967 and

declared i t s e l f an independent Republ ic o f B i a f r a . F ig h t in g then broke

out and cont inued u n t i l January 15, 1970, when the bid f o r secession

was c a l l e d o f f w i t h the c o l la p s e o f the B ia f ran fo rces .

Meanwhile, the Federal M i l i t a r y Government decreed the d i v is io n

of the country in t o tw e lve s t a t e s . ^ In February, 1976, the M i l i t a r y

Government increased the number o f s ta te s from twelve to nineteen by

breaking some o f the s t a t e s in to two or th ree c o n s t i t u e n t s ta tes and

r e a d ju s t in g the boundaries o f o th ers . That p a r t i t i o n i n g was a momen

tous dec is io n o f g re a t s i g n i f i c a n c e . I t not only a l t e r e d the p o l i t i

cal s t r u c t u r e o f the c o u nt ry , but brought about new dimensions of

soc ia l development.

Afunku, Oloko and O la n iy i ( 198O) provided a breakdown o f the

e x i s t i n g s t a t e s in terms o f est imated popula t ion and area o f each

(see Appendix A) . Based on the 1963 popula t ion census, the t o t a l

popula t ion was over 57 m i l l i o n .

The n ineteen s ta te s a re comprised o f ten from the former Northern

Region, four from the former Eastern Region, and th re e from the Western

Region, in a d d i t io n to Lagos and the Mid-Western Region. The new

The M i l i t a r y Regime suspended some p ar ts o f the c o u n t ry 's cons t i t u t i o n on t h e i r assumption o f power. Decrees and e d ic ts promulgated by the Regime became laws.


13

s t r u c t u r e w i l l more l i k e l y ensure the even d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s oc ia l amen

i t i e s throughout the country . This may reduce the apparent h o s t i l i t y

among the e th n ic groups.

W r i t in g about the N ig e r ia n s , Lugard was repor ted (Burns, 1972,

p. 26) to have c l a s s i f i e d the people o f t r o p ic a l A f r i c a In to th ree

groups; v i z . , the p r i m i t i v e t r i b e s , the advanced communities, and the

Europeanized A f r ic a n s . Such a d i v i s i o n , according to him, connoted more

real and profound d i f f e r e n c e s than did r a c ia l a f f i n i t i e s . He b e l ie v e d

th a t In te rm a rr ia g e and concubinage w i th a l i e n cap t ive s and slaves had

tended to o b l i t e r a t e t r i b a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

I t may be I n s t r u c t i v e to discuss b r i e f l y the "advanced communities"

represented In N ig e r i a , as described by Lugard. These communities were

the Yorubas and B ln ls (or Edos) In the south, and the Hausa, F u la n l ,

Kanurl , and Arab t r i b e s In the north.

One o f the most prominent t r i b e s Is the Yoruba, which, w i th I t s

various o f fs h o o ts , p r e s e n t ly numbers over ten m i l l i o n persons. I t Is

composed o f several c la n s , o f which the most v i s i b l e are the Oyos, the

Egbas, the I f e s , and the I je b u s . Some of the less v i s i b l e , but s t i l l

Important , are the Owus, the I jesh as , the E k l t l s , and the Ondos (Burns,

1972) . Most o f the s t a t e s In the western p ar t o f N i g e r i a are populated

by the Yorubas.

Burns (1972 ) , In discussing the Yorubas, mentioned t h a t another

notable o f fsh o o t o f the Yoruba t r i b e Is the Edo (or B ln l ) people who

I n h a b i t the country to the east o f Yoruba- land proper. The Edos were

said a t one t ime to be under the r u le o f the A l a f l n o f Oyo (King of

the Oyos). Toward the end o f the f i f t e e n t h c en tu ry , however, Benin


14

had a l re a d y become a powerful and independent Kingdom.

The o th e r "advanced community" mentioned by Burns was the Hausa-

speaking t r i b e s . They spread over a la rg e area o f Northern N i g e r i a ,

e s p e c i a l l y around Sokoto, Kano, Z a r i a , and Bauchi . These people a re

a i l more or less o f Negroid o r i g i n . For many years the Hausa were

considered to be a d i s t i n c t race, and the name was lo ose ly a p p l ie d to

a i l the t r i b e s t h a t spoke the language. Hausa is a com para t ive ly easy

language to acq u i re and has become the l ingua franca o f a la rge p a r t

o f West A f r i c a . According to Burns (1 97 2 ) , there is hard ly a p lace in

the nor thern h a l f o f A f r i c a where there is no one who can speak or

understand the Hausa language.

N ig er ia ns have come a long way in becoming one o f the most v i s i b l e

peoples and leaders o f op in io n in A f r i c a . This has been a t a tremendous

co s t . The a s s o c ia t io n , in 1914, o f Northern and Southern N ig e r i a

brought together d ive rse t e r r i t o r i e s and people. This was r e f l e c t e d in

the c o n t r a s t between the predominant ly Moslem Hausa and Fulani o f the

Northern region w i th the predominant ly C h r i s t i a n peoples o f the Southern

reg ion . W r i t i n g about the n or th -south and e th n ic c o n f l i c t s o f Oyediran

( 1980) c r e d i t e d P. C. Lloyd w i th the statement t h a t " N i g e r i a ' s problem

. . . der iv es . . . in la rg e measure from the tensions which have r isen

between the la r g e r e th n ic groups" and th a t " the h o s t i l i t y der ives . . .

not from the e t h n ic d i f f e r e n c e s , but from compet i t ion between peoples

f o r w ea l th and power." The basis f o r t h i s a s s e r t i o n , Oyediran concluded,

"can be seen in the development o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between var ious e t h

n ic groups as c o lo n ia l i s m g ra d u a l ly ground to a h a l t in N ig e r i a " (p. 6 ) .

Even w i t h i n the South, t h e r e are strong c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s between


15

the Yoruba people and the mobi le , commercial ly o r i e n t e d I bos. The

d i s t r u s t bred by some o f these d i f f e r e n c e s led to the t r a g i c at tempt

by the I bos a t secession. The r e s u l t a n t c i v i l war, though t r a g i c ,

tended to mark the beginning o f the c r e a t io n o f a u n i f i e d and coherent

N ig er ian s o c ie ty .

One o f the coup leaders was quoted b y O j ia k o ( i 960) as saying,

a t the f i r s t m i l i t a r y t a k e - o v e r o f the N ig e r ian Government in 1966,

"we seized power to stamp out t r i b a l i s m , nepotism and regiona l ism"

(p. 2 ) . I t appears these o b j e c t i v e s were achieved to a s i g n i f i c a n t

e x t e n t . The country has emerged from m i l i t a r y r u le w i th a more un ited

and s o c i a l l y - c o n s c i o u s people.

P o l i t i c a l Development

Toward the end o f B r i t i s h r u le in N i g e r i a , the Queen o f Great

B r i t a i n and Pr in ce P h i l l i p , the Queen's husband, v i s i t e d N i g e r i a . That

was near the end o f 1956. During a recept ion in London, to mark t h e i r

re tu rn from N i g e r i a , Burns (1972) reported t h a t the Queen remarked;

We have seen a g reat deal and we have seen enough to take away a c o n v ic t io n t h a t i t s f u t u r e is f u l l o f promise and t h a t i t s people— the memory o f whose, warm, b e a u t i f u l w e l come w i l l always be w i t h us— are s t e a d i l y working t h e i r way forward along the hard but rewarding path o f progress.. . . but perhaps even more s t r i k i n g was the sense o f purpose and d e t e r m in a t io n , p a r t i c u l a r l y in the i n t e l l e c t u a lf i e l d , which is e v id en t among the people o f N i g e r i a . Theyknow what they want; they are pushing forward w i t h educat i o n , and schools a r e m u l t i p l y i n g , (p. 255)

That v i s i t o f the Queen o f England to N ig e r i a in 1956 was the f i r s t

v i s i t o f a B r i t i s h monarch to a co lonized N i g e r i a . I t was a ls o the

l a s t . N i g e r ia was, f o r about a h a l f c e n tu ry , a colony o f the B r i t i s h

government. England's f i r s t contact w i th N i g e r ia was made during the


16

second h a l f o f the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y - a contact which has remained

u n t i l today. From th a t i n i t i a l contact to about the middle o f the

n in e teenth century , the B r i t i s h c i t i z e n s engaged in var ious forms o f

trade by b a r t e r w i th N ig e r ia n s . They brought arms, s p i r i t s , and o th er

merchandise to N ig e r ia in exchange f o r s la v e s , i v o ry , pepper, and palm

o i l . Awolowo ( 1968) lamented about t h i s per iod in N i g e r i a ' s p o l i t i c a l

h i s t o r y , when he remarked:

W hils t the Remaissance, the Reformat ion, and the discovery o f the New World were l i b e r a t i n g the people o f Europe from the s p i r i t u a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l bondage o f the Middle Ages-- and en r ich ing the c o f f e r s o f European n a t io n s , the n o b i l i t y , and the middle c l a s s — these h i s t o r i c events were lay in g fo r us the foundat ion o f 300 years o f s p i r i t u a l and mental da rk ness, o f physical b a r b a r i t y , and o f human degradat ion, much d arker , more barbarous, and worse degraded than anything p rev io u s ly known in our p ar t o f the dark c o n t in e n t . In thewords o f Dr. Normal Leys in h is book Kenya, the s l a v e - t r a d egenerated an ever -w id en ing c i r c l e o f c r u e l t y and d e s t r u c t io n th a t a t length wrecked A f r ic a n c i v i l i z a t i o n everywhere.(pp. 6, 7)

However, the c o lo n i z a t io n o f N ig e r i a did not begin u n t i l I 8 6 I , and was

undertaken then p a r t l y in order to check s la ve t r a d i n g .

The B r i t i s h Act o f Par l iam ent supposedly had abol ished s la very in

B r i t a i n in I 8OI , but i t s t i l l f l o u r is h e d between o th e r European t raders

and N i g e r i a . The B r i t i s h government took the view th a t the permanent

occupat ion o f Lagos was necessary in o rder to e f f e c t i v e l y suppress the

e v i l business. The B r i t i s h , t h e r e f o r e , took over the domain o f Lagos

and made i t a B r i t i s h colony. Thus, Lagos became the f i r s t p ar t o f

N ig e r ia to come under the r u le o f the B r i t i s h government. From then

on, a gradual process o f expansion o f B r i t i s h r u l e fo l lo w ed throughout

the century . By the year 1900, the c o l o n i z a t i o n o f N i g e r ia was almost

complete. A l l o f N i g e r i a was at th a t t ime admin is tered by B r i t a i n


17

e i t h e r d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y .

Obasanjo (1980) reported t h a t a former Governor o f N i g e r i a , S i r

Hugh C i i f f o r d , described N ig e r ia as "a c o l i e c t i o n o f independent

N at ive S t a t e s , separated from one another . . . by g re a t d is ta n c e s ,

by d i f f e r e n c e s o f h i s t o r y and t r a d i t i o n s and by e t h n o l o g i c a l , f a c i a l ,

t r i b a l , p o l i t i c a l , social and r e l i g i o u s b a r r i e r s . " Obasanjo main

ta in ed t h a t the c re a t io n o f the p r o te c to ra te s o f Northern and Southern

N ig e r i a in 1900, along w i t h the colony o f Lagos, began the b u i ld in g o f

N ig e r ia as a m u l t i - n a t i o n a l s t a t e . He claimed "even then the Northern

A d m in is t ra t io n and the Southern A dm in is t ra t io n were separate and d i s

t i n c t . Both were independent o f one another and each was d i r e c t l y

responsib le to the Co lo n ia l O f f i c e " (p. 1) .

T h e r e fo r e , f o r s ix ty -o d d years , N ig e r ia was under the r u le o f the

B r i t i s h . Awolowo (1968) reported t h a t the B r i t i s h Government maintained

a c losed-door p o l ic y ag a in s t C h r is t i a n m iss io nar ie s in the Nor th . In

pursuance o f t h is p o l ic y ( n o n - i n t e r f e r e n c e in r e l i g i o n ) , C h r is t i a n

m iss io n ar ies c o n s i s t e n t l y were prevented from propagat ing the gospel

in any p ar t o f the reg ion , even in the pagan dominated areas . However,

Moslem teachers were f r e e to spread t h e i r r e l i g i o n to a l l parts o f the

North. Th is p o l ic y was c r i t i c i z e d by some people, both in B r i t i a n and

Southern N i g e r i a , as d i s c r i m i n a t o r y . Because w h i l e a c losed-door p o l ic y

was adopted in the North, an open-door p o l ic y was o p e r a t in g in the

South, In the South, m iss io n ar ies o f a l l b e l i e f s - - C h r i s t i a n , Moslem

and o t h e r s - - w e re al lowed to propagate t h e i r r e l i g i o n s .

The im p l ic a t io n o f the in cons is te n t B r i t i s h p o l i c y became apparent

in post independence N i g e r i a . The advent o f m is s io n ar ies o f var ious


18

denominat ions in the South led to f a s t e r modern development; schools

were opened, h o s p i t a ls and d is pensar ie s were b u i l t . W ith in a few

ye ars , cons id erab le numbers o f educated N ig e r ia n s , in c lu d ing some

devout Moslems, were produced.

As repor ted e a r l i e r , by 1900 the country was d iv id ed in to two Re

gions by the B r i t i s h . By 1914 the South was amalgamated w i th the North

and f o r the f i r s t t ime the country was admin is tered as a u n i t under one

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e head. On amalgamation. Northern and Southern Provinces

o f N ig e r ia were formed w i t h headquarters a t Kaduna and Enugu respec

t i v e l y . Lagos was made the o v e r a l l c a p i t a l f o r a l l in te n ts and purposes.

But even a f t e r the amalgamation, f o r the economic i n t e r e s t o f

the B r i t i s h , separate development p o l i c i e s were maintained in the two

sect ions o f the country . According to Obasanjo, " t h i s in e f f e c t pro

duced two N i g e r i a s , each w i t h a d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , economic

and c u l t u r a l background and development w i t h i n the country" (p. 2 ) .

C o n s t i t u t io n a l Prov is io ns

The f i r s t w r i t t e n c o n s t i t u t i o n f o r N i g e r ia was introduced in 1922.

I t was an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e procedure handed down by the B r i t i s h Govern

ment f o r the a d m in i s t r a t io n o f N i g e r i a . However, w i t h i n a span o f ten

years a f t e r the second World War no fewer than fo u r new c o n s t i t u t i o n s

were int roduced. The f i r s t momentous change was made in 1947 by a new

c o n s t i t u t i o n , about which Awolowo (1 968 ) , in apparent d is g u s t , remarked:

The au th o r , in every sense o f the word, o f the 1946 C o n st i t u t i o n was S i r A r t h u r Richards (now Lord M i l v e r t o n ) , then Governor o f N i g e r i a . He handed the c o n s t i t u t i o n down to the prop le o f N i g e r ia w i th o u t any c o n s u l ta t io n whatsoever, and he got away w i th i t , the scath ing c r i t i c i s m o f the " a g i t a t o r s " n o tw i th s tan d in g . For s h o r t , t h i s c o n s t i t u t i o n is p o p u la r ly known as R ichards' C o n s t i t u t i o n . (p. 36)


19

Although i t had been intended t h a t the 19^7 C o n s t i t u t io n should

be o p e ra t iv e only f o r s i x y e a rs , i t was c r i t i c i z e d f o r the a r b i t r a r y

manner in which i t was in t roduced . By 1951 i t was replaced by a new

c o n s t i t u t i o n which was more democrat ic in c h a r a c te r . The new c o n s t i

t u t i o n es ta b l ish ed a House o f R epresenta t ives as the Cen tra l L e g is la

t u r e , w it h members represent in g the re s p e c t iv e Regions. A council o f

M i n is t e r s was e s t a b l i s h e d , as the cab in e t branch, f o r dec is io n making

on p o l i c i e s in the count ry . The Council o f M in is t e r s was made up of

the Governor, s ix o f f i c i a l members, and twelve M i n i s t e r s appointed by

the Governor. A Pu b l ic S e rv ice Commission was a lso e s t a b l is h e d to

advise the Governor on mat te rs a f f e c t i n g the p u b l ic s e r v ic e .

W ith in th ree years , however, i t was decided to amend the 1951 Con

s t i t u t i o n so as to prov id e f o r g r e a t e r Regional a u t h o r i t y . On October 1,

1954, a new c o n s t i t u t i o n was adopted which in e f f e c t e s t a b l is h e d the

present fed e ra l c h a rac te r o f N i g e r i a . Under the new c o n s t i t u t i o n , the

Federat ion o f N ig e r ia cons is ted o f the Northern Region o f N ig e r i a , the

Western Region o f N i g e r i a , the Eastern Region o f N i g e r i a , the Southern

Cameroon, and the Federal T e r r i t o r y o f Lagos. The o f f i c e o f Governor

General o f the Federa t ion was e s t a b l is h e d w i th Regional Governors and

a Commissioner in charge o f the Cameroons. Burns (1972, p. 258) men

t ioned th a t the Southern Cameroons, in a referendum held in 1961, voted

to j o i n the Republ ic o f Cameroon and thereby ceased o f f i c i a l connect ion

w ith N ig e r ia on October 1, 1961.

• From 1954, moves toward the g r a n t in g o f independence to the country

became more rap id . By 1958 the Federal Government o f N ig e r ia took over

the complete cont ro l o f the m i l i t a r y forces and the N ig er ia n Navy was


20

crea ted . By 1959, a Cent ral Bank o f N ig e r ia was f o r m a l ly opened and

a N igerian currency was issued. In 1959, in t e r n a l s e l f governing was

granted to the Northern Region o f N i g e r i a . The Western and Eastern

Regions o f N i g e r ia had obta ined in t e rn a l s e l f governing s ta tu s in 1957.

The country was granted f u l l independence on October 1, I960 .

Three years l a t e r , the country adopted a Republ ican c o n s t i t u t i o n . Under

the 1963 C o n s t i t u t i o n , the f i r s t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l change by an independent

N ig e r i a , the Federal Republ ic o f N ig e r ia was made up o f the Federal

Cap ita l T e r r i t o r y o f Lagos and fo u r Regions (Eas te rn , Nor thern, Western,

and Mid-Western Regions) (Burns, 1972) . At both the Federal and Regional

l e v e ls , the l e g i s l a t u r e s were b icameral . The Par l iam ent o f the Federa

t io n cons is ted o f a ceremonial (n on-execut ive ) P r e s id e n t , a Senate and

a House o f Representa t ives . S i m i l a r l y , a Regional l e g i s l a t u r e consisted

of the Governor (n o n -e x e c u t iv e ) , a House o f Chiefs and House o f Assembly.

The House of Representat ives and the House of Assembly were the bodies

t h a t made laws on the Federal and Regional l e v e l s , r e s p e c t i v e ly .

In 1967, N ig e r ia adopted a 1 2 - s t a t e s t r u c t u r e by break ing the four

Regions in to S ta tes . In 1976, seven more s ta te s were c re a te d , br ing in g

the t o t a l s ta tes in the Federa t io n to n in eteen .

For over ten years (1966-1979) the country was under the d i c t a t o r

ship o f m i l i t a r y a d m i n is t r a t i o n . S p e c i f i c a l l y , in I 966 the m i l i t a r y

forces took over from the c i v i l i a n government a f t e r a bloody coup. For

th ree years (1967-1970) the country fought a c i v i l war to prevent a

secession attempt by the Eastern Region (which c a l l e d i t s e l f B i a f r a ) .

At the end of the c i v i l war , the m i l i t a r y regime remained a t the helm

of the country f o r ten years . Toward the end of i t s m i l i t a r y regime


21

in 1976, the country adopted a new P r e s id e n t ia l ( e xec u t iv e ) form o f

government, s t y le d a f t e r the American system. This new c o n s t i t u t io n a l

system, a rad ic a l d ep a r tu re from the B r i t i s h P ar l iam enta ry system, be

came e f f e c t i v e on October 1, 1979. On th a t date a new c i v i l i a n govern

ment was e le c t e d in a general e l e c t i o n held throughout the country.

Economic Development

N ig e r i a is e s s e n t i a l l y an a g r i c u l t u r a l country. Over t w o - th i rd s

o f i t s t o t a l working p o pu la t io n is engaged in such endeavor. The

main products c u l t i v a t e d a re yams, cassava, p l a n t a i n s , r i c e , beans,

sugar cane, and c i t r u s f r u i t s f o r food; and cocoa, o i l palm produce,

peanuts, rubber, c o t to n , and t imber f o r the export market . See

Appendix B.

I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n . During the past decade, N ig e r ia took a g reat

step forward in i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n . The in d u s t r i a l sector developed very

f a s t . There are w e l l over 2 ,0 00 in d u s t r ie s in the country now, accor

ding to a rep o r t in the Federal Government's N i g e r i a D ia ry , I 98O. The

nat ion is on the th re sh o ld o f an i n d u s t r i a l r e v o lu t io n which w i l l be

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the product ion o f consumer durab le goods, such as auto

mobi les , e l e c t r i c a l a p p l ia n ce s , e t c . , and w i th such c a p i t a l goods as

i ron and s t e e l , p e t ro -c h e m ic a ls , pulp and paper. As a means o f ensuring

even economic development throughout the count ry , the Federal Government

has been encouraging the lo c a t io n o f new in d u s t r ie s in some of the

newly formed s ta te s and prov inces .

M i n e r a l s . M inera ls a re another sector th a t has been playing an

i n c re a s in g ly important r o l e in the economy. Among the minerals mined


22

are t i n , co lumbite, l im estone , coal and o i l . N ig e r i a a l read y is a

su b s ta n t ia l o i l e x p o r t e r , and has r e f i n e r i e s f o r the product ion o f fuel

o i l s , gaso l in e and kerosene.

T rade. In the area o f t r a d e , N ig e r i a has developed a vigorous

in t e r n a l t rade in both a g r i c u l t u r a l products and l o c a l l y manufactured

goods w i th a popula t ion o f over 80 m i l l i o n businesses. N ig e r ia has

continued to maintain an open door fo re ig n t rad e p o l i c y .

Banking and F inance . To f a c i l i t a t e monetary t r a n s a c t i o n s , N ig e r ia

changed from the s h i l l i n g s and pounds system to a decimal currency on

January 1, 1973. The u n i t s o f currency are n a i r a and kobo. One hundred

kobo make one n a i r a . There are over twenty commercial banks opera t ing

in N ig e r i a , w i th branches in many towns and c i t i e s o f the country.

The fed era l government has become very involved in commercial

banks owned by fo r e ig n n a t i o n a l s through ac q u i r in g some o f t h e i r

e q u i t i e s . The government's p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the fo re ig n owned banks

has made poss ib le the l i b e r a l i z a t i o n o f c r e d i t f a c i l i t i e s to N ig er ian

businessmen as wel l as the involvement o f N iger ia n n a t io n a ls in the

management o f the banks.

Ind igeni za t io n . In 1972, the fe de ra l government promulgated an

in d ig e n iz a t io n decree. Th is decree was a major landmark in N i g e r i a ' s

economic h i s t o r y . The t h r e e main o b j e c t i v e s o f the decree, as contained

in the Federal Government o f N i g e r ia D ia ry , 1980, were:

1. To c r e a t e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r N ig er ian indigenous bus i nessmen.

2. To maximize local r e t e n t i o n o f p r o f i t s .

3. To r a i s e th e leve l o f in te rm ed ia te and c a p i t a l goods product ion. (p. 20)


23

The in d ig e n i z a t i o n decree was a major step taken by the Govern

ment to enable N iger ians to p a r t i c i p a t e more f u l l y and to be more

involved in the management and cont ro l o f a l l aspects of the economic

development o f the country . The decree grouped a l l types o f businesses

in the country in to th ree ca te g o r ie s . One group o f businesses (d e s ig

nated I ) included those considered to be w i t h i n the competence o f local

e x p e r t i s e , which were reserved e x c l u s iv e l y f o r N ig er ian s . The o ther

two groups ( I ! and I I I ) were businesses which requ ired at le as t 60% and

40%, r e s p e c t i v e l y , o f N ig er ian eq u i ty p a r t i c i p a t i o n . There was no

business in which fo re ig n sole ownership was p ermi t ted as from December

31, 1978.

This s in g le ac t o f the government, which has r e s u l t e d in the s i g n i

f i c a n t t r a n s f e r r a l o f e q u i t y ownership o f businesses to N iger ians from

almost two thousand f o r e ig n companies, has been described by some

Nigerian economists as the "economic Magna Carta o f N i g e r i a . " The past

decade marked the beginning o f the end o f economic dependence on o u t

s id e rs . The tremendous e f f e c t s o f in d ig e n i z a t i o n are j u s t beginning to

be f e l t by N iger ians and a re l i k e l y to be f e l t by many gen era t ions ye t

to come.

The success o f the i n d i g e n i z a t io n ex erc is e w i l l very l i k e l y r e s u l t

in su b s ta n t ia l savings in fo re ig n exchange. The Gross Nat ional Product

w i l l a ls o increase as a r e s u l t o f the ban placed by the government on

importa t io n o f some luxury goods and o th er goods f o r which th e r e are

acceptable local s u b s t i t u t e s . The combinat ion o f these measures should

make the country w e a l t h i e r and should provide more funds f o r increasing

the level o f needed s oc ia l s e rv ic e s .


24

H i s t o r i c a l and L e g i s l a t i v e Background o f Financing Higher Education in N ig e r ia

The purpose f o r d iscuss ing the above t o p ic is to present a general

h i s t o r i c a l d e s c r i p t io n o f the manner in which h igher educat ion has been

f inanced in N i g e r i a . To ach ieve t h i s , the w r i t e r has traced the c o n s t i

t u t i o n a l p ro v is io n s th a t r e l a t e to higher educat ion. E f f o r t s have a lso

been made to examine the fe d e r a l government 's ac t io ns toward and pronounce

ments about the f i n a n c i a l support o f higher educat ion in the country.

C o n s t i t u t i o n a l Pro visions

N i g e r ia has had s i x d i f f e r e n t c o n s t i t u t io n s since the amalgamation

of Northern and Southern Provinces o f N ig e r i a in 1914. None o f the

c o n s t i t u t i o n s , however, s p e c i f i c a l l y made prov is io ns fo r the f inanc in g

of h igher educat ion or f o r any educat ion f o r that m a t te r . The lack o f

enthusiasm shown by the c o l o n ia l regime in N ig e r ia in the educat ional

development of the n a t iv e s was very ev id ent in pronouncements c r e d i t e d

to many o f her M a je s t y 's r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . According to Adewoye (1973,

p. 10) , Luggard, a former Governor General o f N i g e r i a , spoke the o f f i

c i a l mind when he d ec la red in 1915 t h a t l i t e r a r y educat ion could be a

social nuisance as w e l l as "a danger to the c o u n t ry . " L i t e r a r y educa

t i o n , Luggard argued, tended to produce c le rk s lacking in respect fo r

c o n s t i t u t e d a u t h o r i t i e s and t r a d i t i o n s , and to th a t ex te n t was a d i r e c t

t h r e a t to p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y . Moreover, l i t e r a r y educat ion had a

tendency to sharpen the c r i t i c a l f a c u l t i e s , and tended to produce, he

impl ied, "an a t t i t u d e o f b i t t e r h o s t i l i t y on the p a r t o f the governed

towards the government." The mental re serv a t io ns o f the co lo n ia l


25

a u t h o r i t i e s in N ig e r ia about the h ig h ly educated n a t iv e s were matched

by the f e e l i n g s p r e v a i l i n g in the C o lon ia l O f f i c e i t s e l f . Adewoye

( 1973, p. 10) a lso reported th a t the O f f i c e ' s Advisory Committee on

N at ive Educat ion recommended in March 1925 t h a t , in the educat ion o f

c o lo n ia l peoples, th ere should be emphasis on a g r i c u l t u r e and techn ica l

subjects and the c u l t i v a t i o n o f the love f o r manual la bor . I t appears

th a t the so le o b j e c t i v e o f B r i t a i n a t t h i s t ime was to t r a i n N iger ians

f o r roles in the lower echelons o f the c o lo n ia l s e r v ic e . Adewoye (1973,

p. 11) f u r t h e r c r e d i t e d Lord H a i le y w i th an o bserva t io n made in I 938

th a t B r i t i s h c o lo n ia l p o l i c y e x h i b i t e d no c l e a r v iew o f the f u t u r e fo r

the educated A f r ic a n and th a t th e re a re few instances in B r i t i s h c o lo

n ia l h i s t o r y when the f u t u r e o f the educated n a t i v e has been consciously

determined, or the educat io na l system d e l i b e r a t e l y ad justed to f i t him

f o r i t . I t was suggested t h a t B r i t a i n did have an educat ion p o l ic y in

N ig e r i a . The o b j e c t i v e u n t i l the 1 9 3 0 ' s, however, was a d e l i b e r a t e

attempt to produce men and women who would p lay o n ly support ing ro les

to the "c o lo n ia l m as te rs ."

The N ig e r i a ( C o n s t i t u t io n ) Order in C o u nc i l , 1954. The C o n s t i t u t io n

o f the Fed erat ion o f N i g e r ia (1954) e s ta b l is h e d the F ed era t io n , and

was the f i r s t c o n s t i t u t i o n to make mention o f h igher educat ion . A l

though the C o n s t i t u t io n o f 1954, l i k e the c o n s t i t u t i o n s th a t fo l lowed

i t , d id not s p e c i f i c a l l y make f i n a n c i a l p ro v is io n s f o r higher educat ion ,

the im p l ic a t io n s were t h e r e . I t charged the Federal L e g i s l a t u r e w i th

the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h igher ed u ca t io n , and the h ig her educat iona l

i n s t i t u t i o n s l i s t e d under the e x c lu s iv e item 19 in the Annua 1 Volume

o f the Laws o f N ig e r ia o f 1954 were:


2 6

The U n i v e r s i t y Coi le ge , IbadanThe U n i v e r s i t y Coi iege Teaching Hospita lThe N ig e r ian Coi iege o f A r t s , Science and TechnologyThe West A f r ic a n I n s t i t u t e o f Social and Economic ResearchThe Pharmacy School , YabaThe Forest School, IbadanThe V e t e r i n a r y School , VorinThe Man-O-War Bay T r a in i n g Centre (p. 8319)

The C o n s t i t u t io n o f 1954 a ls o granted the Regional L e g is la tu re s the

power to make prov is io ns f o r higher educat ion . This power was s t i p u

la te d in item 12 o f the Concurrent L e g i s l a t i v e L i s t . In the Concurrent

L e g i s l a t i v e L i s t o f the C o n s t i t u t i o n (Federa t ion o f N i g e r i a , 1954,

p. 8 2 1 ) , item 12 c l e a r l y e s ta b l is h e d the j o i n t i n t e r e s t o f the Federal

and S ta tes in h igher educat ion .

U n i v e r s i t y o f Ibadan. The U n i v e r s i t y of Ibadan bacame the f i r s t

U n iv e r s i t y to be e s t a b l i s h e d in N i g e r i a . Although i t was o f f i c i a l l y

e s ta b l is h e d by the P r o v is io n a l Council Ordinance #25 o f 1948, i t was

not f o rm a l ly incorporated u n t i l 1954. The government 's ro le in pro

v id ing funds to the U n i v e r s i t y preceded the 1954 Ordinance o f i t s

in c o rp o ra t io n , however. Even though -there was no mode o f f in anc in g

the U n iv e r s i t y as in d ica ted in the c o n s t i t u t i o n , th e government, ac

cording to Tamuno (1973. p. 4 6 ) , between 1948 and 1952 made ad hoc

arrangements f o r meeting the c a p i t a l and recu rren t expenditures o f

the U n i v e r s i t y through supplementing the funds provided by the B r i t i s h

government and o ther in t e re s t e d bodies. The government's haphazard

manner o f funding the i n s t i t u t i o n was f u r t h e r ex e m p l i f i e d by Tamuno's

observât ion:

From 1952, however, government put the f i n a n c i a l r e l a t i o n s between i t s e l f and UCI on quinquennial basis and from time to t ime, as in 1954, rescued i t from ser ious f i n a n c i a l embarassment caused p a r t l y by m a la d m in is t ra t io n and p a r t l y by unforeseen circumstances . (p. 46)


27

When the U n i v e r s i t y in 1954 appealed to the government f o r f u r t h e r

f i n a n c i a l support , the m a t t e r was discussed in the House o f Representa

t i v e s . That probably was the f i r s t t ime th a t the manner o f f in an c in g

the U n i v e r s i t y had been so discussed. I t was, however, an occasion f o r

condemning i n d i s c r e t i o n and lack o f f r u g a l i t y on the p ar t o f the U n i

v e r s i t y ' s a d m in is t r a t o r s in handl ing the f inances o f the i n s t i t u t i o n .

Nnamdi A z ik iw e , according to Tamuno (1 9 7 3 ) , expressed his d is p le asu re

at the manner o f f i n a n c i n g o f the U n iv e r s i t y during d e l i b e r a t i o n s in

the House when he remarked:

My humble op in ion is t h a t the U n iv e r s i t y Col lege is becoming a m i l l i o n d o l l a r baby. . . . Every t ime the baby c r i e s he is given a kiss w o r t h - . 1 m i l l i o n ($ 3 .6 m i l l i o n ) and so the baby has found out t h a t i t pays to c ry , and cry in g has become his past ime. . . . I f e e l t h a t i t was t ime the L e g i s l a t u r e a p p l ie d the brake to t h i s tendency towards squandermania. Those who contro l i t s f inances must be t o l d in p l a i n language t h a t the taxpayers o f t h i s country can no longer a f f o r d to pay super sca le s a l a r i e s to the Senior S t a f f o f the U n iv e r s i t y and cannot a f f o r d the most expensive luxury o f g iv in g them and t h e i r wives and c h i ld r e n a vaca t ion to Europe every year w i th f i r s t - class passages paid in and o u t . I f the sca le o f s a l a r i e s is reasonable and the t r a v e l l i n g o f the s t a f f is reduced to a tour o f two yea rs , instead o f one, then th e re would be no need f o r the heavy d e f i c i t s which f e a t u r e the f inances o f the U n iv e r s i t y C o l lege . (p. 47)

The ad hoc manner o f funding the U n i v e r s i t y , however, co n t in u ed ,

f o r another decade.

The C o n s t i t u t io n o f 1963. The C o n s t i t u t io n o f the Federal Repub

l i c o f N i g e r i a , 1963, l i k e the e a r l i e r c o n s t i t u t i o n s , did not make

s p e c i f i c prov is ions f o r funding the u n i v e r s i t i e s .

The ex c lu s iv e l e g i s l a t i v e l i s t under item 17 o f par t I o f the

schedule contained a l i s t o f higher educat ional i n s t i t u t i o n s which

were the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f the f e d e ra l government. These i n s t i t u t i o n s

were:


28The U n i v e r s i t y o f IbadanThe U n i v e r s i t y C o l lege Teaching Hosp ita l a t IbadanThe U n i v e r s i t y o f LagosThe Lagos U n iv e r s i t y Teaching HospitalThe West A f r ic a n I n s t i t u t e o f Social and Economic ResearchThe Pharmacy School a t YabaThe Fores t ry School a t IbadanThe V e t e r i n a r y School a t Vorn (p. 77)

The C o n s t i tu t io n s have c o n s is t e n t l y recognized the S ta te s ' i n t e r e s t

in h igher educat ion. Th is was a ls o r e f l e c t e d in the Concurrent L e g i s l a

t i v e L i s t o f the 1963 C o n s t i t u t i o n , item 10 o f P a r t I o f the schedule, as:

Higher educat io n , t h a t is to say, i n s t i t u t i o n s and o th er bodies o f f e r i n g courses or conduct ing examinat ions o f a u n i v e r s i t y , techno lo g ica l or o f a p ro fess io na l c h a ra c t e r , o th er than the i n s t i t u t i o n s r e f e r r e d to in i tem 17 o f Part I o f t h i s Schedule, (p. 80)

The C o n s t i t u t io n o f the Federal Republ ic o f N i g e r i a , 1979. The

1979 C o n s t i t u t io n was based on the fed era l p r e s i d e n t i a l system o f govern

ment which recognizes c l e a r l y the separa t io n o f the th ree arms o f govern

ment: the e x e c u t iv e , the l e g i s l a t i v e , and the j u d i c i a r y . A l l the

previous c o n s t i t u t io n s o f N ig e r ia were based on the P ar l i am en tary system

o f government fashioned a f t e r the B r i t i s h system. Th is C o n s t i t u t i o n ,

according to Federal Government o f N i g e r ia (1979b, p. 1 0 ) , s t i p u l a t e d

under fundamental and d i r e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e s o f S ta te p o l i c y , t h a t :

1. Government sh a l l d i r e c t i t s p o l i c y towards ensuring t h a t th e re a re equal and adequate educat ional o p p o r t u n i t i e s a t a l l l e v e ls .

2. Government sh a l l promote science and technology.3. Government s h a l l s t r i v e to e r a d i c a t e i l l i t e r a c y

and to t h i s end Government s h a l l , as and when p r a c t i c a b l e pro v id e—

(a) f r e e , compulsory and u n iv ersa l pr imary educat ion;(b) f r e e secondary educat ion ;(c) f r e e u n i v e r s i t y educat ion; and(d) f r e e a d u l t l i t e r a c y programme.

The new c o n s t i t u t i o n al lowed f o r f r e e u n i v e r s i t y educat ion as and

when p r a c t i c a b l e , but did not make pro v is ions f o r how to f inance i t .

The lo g ic a l assumption is t h a t i t was to be f inanced from the


29

Consol idated Revenue Fund o f the Federa t ion .

S i g n i f i c a n t Federal and S ta te Governments Acts A f f e c t i n g Higher Education in N ig e r i a

In A p r i l , 1959. the Federal Government o f N ig e r i a appointed a

commission " t o conduct an i n v e s t ig a t i o n in to N i g e r i a ' s needs in the

f i e l d o f post-school c e r t i f i c a t e and higher educat ion over the next

twenty y e a r s . " The Commission, w i th E. Ashby as i t s cha i rperson,

became known as the Ashby Commission on Higher Educat ion. The report

o f the Ashby Commission ( i 9 6 0 ) was momentous in the development o f

u n i v e r s i t y educat ion in N i g e r i a . The fe d era l government accepted and

implemented most o f the recommendations o f the Commission.

Recommendations o f the Ashby Commission

The Commission viewed i t s task e s s e n t i a l l y as f o r e c a s t in g N i g e r i a ' s

educat ional needs up to 1980. In approaching the ta s k , the Ashby Com

mission ( i 960) c laimed:

We have to th in k o f N ig e r i a in I 98O: a na t io n o f some 50m i l l i o n people, w i th i n d u s t r i e s , o i l , and a we l l developed a g r i c u l t u r e ; i n t i m a t e l y associated w i th o ther f r e e A f r ic a n co u n t r ie s on e i t h e r s id e o f i t s borders; a vo ic e to be l i s t e n e d to in the C h r i s t i a n and the Moslem wor lds; w i th i t s t r a d i t i o n s in a r t preserved and fo s te red and w i th the beginnings o f i t s own l i t e r a t u r e ; a nat io n which is tak ing i t s place in a tec hn o lo g ica l c i v i l i z a t i o n , w i th i t s own a i rw ays , i t s organs o f mass-communication, i t s research i n s t i t u t e s , (p. 3)

The Commission f u r t h e r remarked:

M i l l i o n s o f the people who w i l l l i v e in t h is N i g e r ia o f 198O are a l re ad y born. Under the present educat ional system more than h a l f w i l l never go to school . . . as many t a le n t e d c h i l d r e n as p oss ib le must be discovered and educated . . . t h is is a stupendous undertak ing . I t w i l l cost la rge sums o f money. The N ig e r ia n people w i l l have to forego o ther th ings they want so t h a t every a v a i l a b l e penny is invested in educat ion . Even t h i s w i l l not be enough. Countr ies


30

o u ts id e N ig e r ia w i l l have to be e n l i s t e d to help w it h men and money. N ig er ian educat ion must f o r a t ime become an in t e r n a t i o n a l e n t e r p r i s e . (p. 3)

I t was from t h is leve l o f t h in k in g t h a t the Commission's recommenda

t io n s were made. The Commission a ls o based t h e i r proposals about

u n i v e r s i t y educat ion on H arb ison 's ( i 9 6 0 , p. 50) e s t im a te o f the need

fo r high leve l manpower in N i g e r i a . He est imated a needed output o f

at lea s t 2 ,000 graduates a year from N ig e r ian u n i v e r s i t i e s . On N igerian

f u t u r e economic growth, he suggested f i v e necessary requirements:

F i r s t , and most im portant , a very s u b s ta n t ia l increase in the p r o d u c t i v i t y o f a g r i c u l t u r e , f o r e s t r y and animal husbandry; second, development o f mineral resources, p a r t i c u l a r l y petroleum; t h i r d , development o f a i r , wa te r , road and r a i l t r a n s p o r t ; f o u r t h , s u b s t a n t ia l i n d u s t r i a l growth; and, f i n a l l y , a cont inued increase in t rad e and commerce. For growth in a l l these areas , c a p i t a l and high leve l manpower a re c r i t i c a l . (p. 51)

Ashby Commission's Recommendations on U n i v e r s i t i e s

Some s i g n i f i c a n t recommendations o f the Ashby Commission ( i 9 6 0 ,

p. 3 2 ) , accepted by the Government, were t h a t : (a) grants should be

made from Regional or Federal funds to a l l students accepted fo r

admission to N ig er ia n u n i v e r s i t i e s who might lack the c a p ac i ty to pay

f o r t h e i r u n i v e r s i t y educat ion themselves; (b) the Federal and Regional

Governments should cont inue t h e i r p o l i c y o f o f f e r i n g overseas s c h o la r

ships f o r under -graduate study; (c) th e re should be postgraduate scho

la rsh ip s tenable in N ig er ian u n i v e r s i t i e s f o r N ig e r ia n graduates; and

(d) those who plan and f in a n ce u n i v e r s i t i e s in N ig e r ia should provide

o p p o r tu n i t i e s f o r research in both the humanit ies and the sciences.

Perhaps the s in g l e recommendation t h a t has in f luenced the


31

present mode o f f in an c in g the u n i v e r s i t i e s was the proposal to e s t a

b l i s h a Nat io na l U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission. The Ashby Commission recom

mended th a t the Nat ional U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission's terms o f reference

should be:

1. To i n v e s t i g a t e proposals f o r the es tab l ishment o f u n i v e r s i t i e s or o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher lea rn in g which d e s i r e to have Federal grants and to adv ise the Federal Government whether the proposals should be approved or not f o r Federal g ran ts .

2. To i n i t i a t e and consider , in c o n s u l t a t io n w it h u n i v e r s i t i e s , plans f o r such balanced development as may be requ ired to enable u n i v e r s i t i e s to meet n a t io n a l needs.

3. To examine the f i n a n c i a l needs, both rec ur ren t and c a p i t a l , o f u n i v e r s i t i e s seeking or re ce iv ing Federal grants and to present these needs to the Federal M i n i s t e r o f Educ a t i o n .

4. To re c e iv e a n n u a l ly a block grant from the Federal Government and to a l l o c a t e i t to u n i v e r s i t i e s w i th such cond i t io ns a t tached as the Commission may t h in k a d v isab le .

5. To c o l l e c t , examine, and pub l ish in form at io n re l a t in g to u n i v e r s i t y f inance and u n i v e r s i t y educat ion in N i g e r ia .

6. To make, e i t h e r by i t s e l f or through committees, such in v e s t ig a t i o n s r e l a t i n g to h igher educat ion as the Commission may th in k necessary, and f o r the purpose of those i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , to have access to the records of u n i v e r s i t i e s seeking or r e ce iv in g Federal g ran ts .

7. To make such recommendations to the Federal Government or to u n i v e r s i t i e s r e l a t i n g to highed educat ion as the Commission may t h i n k to be in the n a t io n a l i n t e r e s t .(pp. 33-34)

For Regional Governments who might wish to e s t a b l i s h u n i v e r s i t i e s ,

the Ashby Commission (p. 34) suggested the adoption o f a common p a t te rn

o f l e g i s l a t i o n to cover the ways in which u n i v e r s i t i e s may be e s ta b l ish ed

and the minimum standards needed f o r the r i g h t to award degrees, and the

requirements f o r e l i g i b i l i t y fo r Federal support .


32

As a r e s u l t o f the acceptance o f most o f the recommendations o f

the Ashby Commission, the Governments o f the Federa t io n embarked upon

expansion o f u n i v e r s i t y educat ion in the country. W ith in th ree years

o f the re p o r t , the number o f u n i v e r s i t i e s had increased from one to

f i v e . By 1979, there were t h i r t e e n u n i v e r s i t i e s , w i th plans f o r the

establ ishment o f s t i l l more.

Nat ional Manpower Board

In September I960 , the Nat iona l Economic Council approved one o f

the major recommendations o f Ashby Commission, t h a t a Nat ionai Manpower

Board should be e s t a b l is h e d . According to the N at io na l Manpower Board

Report ( 1963, p. 1) , the Board was f o r m a l l y c o n s t i t u t e d toward the end

of 1962, and its. terms of re fe ren c e included: (a) the d e term in a t io n of

the n a t i o n 's manpower needs in a i l occupat ions; and (b) f o r m u ia t in g ,

fo r c on s id era t io n by the N a t io na l Economic Council and the Governments

of the F ed era t io n , programs f o r manpower development through u n i v e r s i t y

expansion and t r a i n i n g , s c h o la rs h ip s , f e l lo w s h ip s and o th e r f a c i l i t i e s .

In s e t t i n g up the Manpower Board, the main o b j e c t i v e was to ensure th a t

economic growth is not re tard ed by iack o f the q u a l i f i e d personnei

necessary to implement the n a t io n ' s economic p o l i c i e s and programs.

The Board, t h e r e f o r e , could in f lu e n c e and has in f lu enced the r o l e which

the u n i v e r s i t i e s and o t h e r educat io na l a u t h o r i t i e s have played in meet

ing the high level manpower needs o f the country.


33

Implementat ion Committee f o r the Nat ional Po l icy on Educat ion

One o f the act ions o f the Federal Government was the es tabl ishment

o f the Implementat ion Committee f o r the Nat ional P o l ic y on Educat ion.

This a c t io n was to have profound e f f e c t on educat ion. The Committee

was set up by the Federal Execut ive Council in September 1977, w i th

the fo l lo w in g terms o f re fe ren ce as s ta ted by the Implementation Commit

tee:

(a) to t r a n s l a t e the Po l ic y in to a workable b l u e p r in t and to develop programmes fo r the implementat ion o f the P o l ic y ;

(b) to co ord in a te and monitor the implementation o f those programmes developed under the P o l ic y ;

(c) to advise Government on and to a s s is t in pro v id ing the i n f r a s t r u c t u r e and o ther requirements fo r P o l ic y implementa t ion ; and,

(d) to provide a continuous review and assessment o f the aims, o b je c t iv e s and t a r g e ts o f the P o l ic y w i th a view to ensuring the adequacy and continued relevance o f the p o l ic y (and o f those programmes developed under i t ) to our n a t io n a l needs and a s p i r a t i o n s , and to propose m o d i f ic a t io n s an any aspect as may be found necessary. (p. 5)

In the development o f Nat ional Po l icy on Educat ion the Thi rd

National Development Plan 1975-1980 ( p . 285) (see Federal Government

of N ig e r ia ) r e i t e r a t e d Government commitment in the c r e a t io n o f a

nat io na l ed ucat ional system capable o f ensuring t h a t every c i t i z e n

is given f u l l op p o r tu n i ty “ to develop his i n t e l l e c t u a l and working

c a p a b i l i t i e s . " Some o f the o b je c t iv e s were to “ co n s o l id a te and

develop the n a t io n 's system o f higher educat ion in response to the

economy's manpower needs ," and to “ r a t i o n a l i z e the f in a n c in g o f edu

c a t io n w i th a view to making the educat iona l system more adequate and

e f f i c i e n t . "


34

In approaching i t s t a s k , the Implementat ion Committee (1978) posed

th ree major quest ions. These quest io ns , as contained in Nat ional Po l icy

on Educat ion, B lu ep r in t (1978 -79 ) were:

1. What resources— F ed era l , S t a t e , Lo ca l - -sh ou ld j u s t i f i a b l y be devoted to educat ion as a whole: th a t is , when compared w i th competing demands, such as f o r expend i t u r e s on i n f r a s t r u c t u r e (roads, b r id ges , m i l i t a r y e s t a b l ish m en ts ) , expendi tures on o th e r socia l se rv ice s (h e a l th ) and on extension s e rv ice s ( f o r d i r e c t b e n e f i t o f farmers, s m a l l - s c a le i n d u s t r i a l i s t s ) ?

2. How should these resources be a l l o c a t e d as among the var ious leve ls and types o f educat io n— among pr imary, secondary, t e c h n i c a l , teacher educat ion , the u n i v e r s i t i e s ; as between educat ion w i t h i n schools and co l leges and o u t - of -school (non- form al) educat ion ; as between educat ion o f young people and o f adul ts?

3. How best can e f f i c i e n c y be achieved in any given l i n e o f expenditure on educat ion? How can cost be reduced w ithout lowering the q u a l i t y o f educat ion imparted? How can the q u a l i t y o f educat ion be ra ised w h i le keeping cost (per p u p i i , per student ) constant or w h i le lowering cost?(p. 7)

The Committee main tained th a t a l though i t d id not seek d e f i n i t i v e

answers to the above quest ions , i t n everthe less considered them an

e s s e n t ia l guide in searching f o r o b je c t iv e w a y s and methods o f e f f e c

t i v e l y implementing the N at io na l P o l ic y .

As o u t l in e d in the B l u e p r i n t (1 978 -79 , p. 102) the Implementa

t io n Committee proposed, w i t h regard to the funding o f the u n i v e r s i t i e s ,

th a t " th e Federal Government should bear the cost o f c a p i t a l and recur

rent expendi ture f o r a l l the u n i v e r s i t i e s inc lu d ing t u i t i o n , educat ional

m a t e r ia ls and examinat ion f e e s . " In o th e r words, u n i v e r s i t y educat ion

should be funded 100% by the taxpayers .

With regard to the concept o f f r e e educat ion , the Implementat ion

Committee recommended the fo l lo w in g d e f i n i t i o n :


35

That f r e e educat ion should mean--(a) f r e e t u i t i o n f o r a l l N ig e r ia n s ;(b) no examinat ion fees paid by studen ts ;(c) f r e e ed ucat ional m a t e r i a l s .

These costs should be borne by the Federal Government.

Free educat ion would exclude:(a) boarding and lodging charges;(b) cost o f s tudents ' textbooks .

These costs should not be borne by the Federal Government, (p. 101)

The Implementat ion Committee was in support o f the e x i s t i n g manner

o f funding the u n i v e r s i t i e s through the N a t io n a l U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission,

i t under l ined i t s support o f the recommendation conta ined in the Blue

p r i n t ( 1978- 7 9 * p. 103) which en jo ined the Federal Government to

always endorse the f i n a n c i a l r e q u i s i t i o n made by the NUC on b eh a l f o f

the u n i v e r s i t i e s f o r rec u r re n t and c a p i t a l expend itu res s in ce , as i t

claimed the r e q u i s i t i o n made by NUC is always based on de f in ed p r i o r i

t i e s .

Education in Three Developing Countr ies

Whi le h igher educat ion in N ig e r i a should r e f l e c t N i g e r i a n ' s c u l t u r e

and promote N ig er ian aims and a s p i r a t i o n s , i t cannot a f f o r d to ignore

developments tak ing place in o th e r c o u n t r i e s . I t might be argued th a t

we cannot t r a n s p la n t p r a c t i c e s in to N i g e r i a ' s environment, but they may

in d ic a t e some ways in which the educat iona l system in N ig e r ia may be

improved.

The h i s t o r y o f p rogress ive nat ions dur ing the l a s t one hundred

years shows th a t the standards o f educat ion have become basic f a c t o r s

in n a t io n a l progress , as i l l u s t r a t e d by the P h i l l i p p i n e s (Magsaysay

Committee on General Educat ion, I 9 6 0 ) . The Committee was o f the


36

opin ion t h a t even w i th the re co g n i t io n by the United Nat ions o f

everyone's r i g h t to ed ucat io n , educat ion should cont inue beyond the

compulsory l e v e l . General educat ion , the Committee claimed, " i s

concerned a lso w i th the educat ion o f the whole man, e s p e c i a l l y fo r

those students who take h igher stud ies toward s p e c i a l i z a t i o n " (p. 2 ) .

As much as t h i s w r i t e r would have l i k e d to examine and discuss

in more d e t a i l the development o f higher educat ion , and educat ion in

g e n e ra l , in the se lec te d c o u n t r ie s , he was r e s t r i c t e d by lack o f cu r

rent data on these c o u n t r ie s . Most r e le v a n t in fo rm at ion a v a i l a b l e on

the s e lec te d developing cou n t r ies - -G h an a , Kenya, and I n d ia — is o u t

dated. Many reports were over ten years out o f date. I t appears th a t

one o f the fe a t u re s common to developing economies is the i n a b i l i t y to

gen erate c u rren t in fo rm at io n . The discussion th a t fo l lows i s , t h e r e

f o r e , based on s t a t i s t i c a l data from an a c cred i te d source^ which,

though l im i t e d in scope, o f f e r s the most u p - t o - d a t e and re le v a n t I n f o r

mation a v a i l a b l e on these c o u n t r ie s .

Educat ion in Ghana

The 1961 Educat ion Act made pro v is io n f o r f r e e and compulsory edu

c a t io n a t the pr imary le ve l including the f i r s t two years o f "middle

sch o o l . " A new educat io na l s t r u c t u r e , the implementat ion o f which did

not begin u n t i l 1974-1975, cons is ted o f an i n i t i a l phase o f s i x years

primary and t h r e e years j u n i o r secondary educat ion t o be compulsory

^Source (except where otherw ise s t a t e d ) : A f r i c a South o f theSahara, Europa P u b l i c a t i o n s , L t d . , 1980.


37

and f r e e . In the second phase, pup i ls were prepared f o r the general

c e r t i f i c a t e o f educat ion, o r d in a ry l e v e l , in te ch n ic a l and commercial

courses. Pupi ls who completed the second phase were then e l i g i b l e

e i t h e r fo r a sen io r secondary upper course, lead ing to "A" l e v e l , or

f o r a teacher t r a i n i n g or p o ly te ch n ic course. Successive governments

have c o n s is t e n t l y stressed the need f o r the Ghanaian ed ucat ional system

to be more c lo s e ly geared to the c o u n t ry 's p r a c t i c a l needs.

In Ghana, some p r i v a t e schools are opera ted by the churches in

agreement w ith the local a u t h o r i t i e s . Higher educat ion is given at the

U n iv e r s i t y o f Ghana; the U n i v e r s i t y o f Science and Technology, Kumasi;

and the U n iv e r s i t y o f Cape Coast. There a r e , in a d d i t i o n , nine o ther

i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher educat ion .

As repor ted in the Countr ies o f the World ( I 98O), Ghana, w i t h a

popula t ion of 10.6 m i l l i o n (1977 e s t im a te ) had a 30% a d u l t l i t e r a c y

r a t e , as compared to N i g e r i a , w i th about 80 m i l l i o n people and an ad u l t

l i t e r a c y ra te o f about 25%.

In Ghana, the s i x - y e a r pr imary educat ion begins a t age s ix ; the

middle school is f o r four years . Admission to secondary and post

secondary schools is by exam inat io n . During the 1973-1974 school

year, enro l lm ent t o t a l e d 1 ,5 57 ,2 46 ; 1 ,454 ,9 99 in pr imary and middle

schools, 15,671 in t e c h n i c a l , 10,621 in teacher t r a i n i n g and 7 ,466 in

higher educat ion. In 1970, the number o f students e n r o l le d in higher

educat ion per 10,000 in h a b i ta n ts was 6 . 0 , as compared to 2 . 6 in N ig e r ia

(UNESCO, 1975) .


3 8

Educat ion in Kenya

The development o f the educat ional system in Kenya has fo l lowed

a p a t t e r n s i m i l a r to those o f o th e r A f r ic a n co u n t r ies t h a t were, a t

one t ime o r another , under the B r i t i s h government. The B r i t i s h , in

almost a l l t h e i r dependent c o u n t r i e s , were not in a hurry to educate

the people. Kenya gained her independence in I 963 .

As e a r l y as 1949, the Kenya c i t i z e n s c a l l e d f o r a un iversa l l i t e r

acy program through an expanded primary school system (A f r i c a n Educat ion

in Kenya, 1949)* This was not achieved u n t i l January, I 98O.

I t is i n s t r u c t i v e to observe t h a t some o f the in form at io n reported

in A f r ic a n Educat ion in Kenya r e f l e c t e d some o f the op in ions s t i l l held

in N ig e r ia today. The re p o r t said th a t the A f r ican s in Kenya, " i n d i

cated th a t they regard educat ion as basic to a l l progress; they , t h e r e

f o r e , had no h e s i t a t i o n in urging th a t th ere should be what they f r a n k l y

recognize as unbalanced exp en d i tu re by A f r ic a n D i s t r i c t Councils on

educat ion in r e l a t i o n to the o th er serv ices f o r which those counci ls

are responsib le" (p. 2 7 ) . The report f u r t h e r in d ica ted t h a t A f r ic a n

parents g e n e r a l l y regard, or tend to regard, the fees paid f o r the

educat ion o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n as an investment from which they expect

a m a t e r ia l r e t u r n , such as ready employment f o r t h e i r c h i ld r e n a t a

f a i r l y high s a la r y . When t h i s does not m a t e r i a l i z e , t h e i r f r u s t r a t i o n

has sometimes expressed i t s e l f in "a demand f o r an expansion in post

pr imary academic ed u cat io n , and for the p rov is io n o f post -p r im ary edu

c a t io n in p r a c t i c a l s k i l l s " (p. 31) .

In Kenya, educat ion is not ye t compulsory; however, in January

1980, f r e e pr imary educat ion was o b t a in a b le w i th the a b o l i t i o n o f a l l


39

fees. The Government provides or a s s is t s in the p ro v is ions o f schools

and, in the 1970-1974 Development Plan, embarked on a large expansion

of a l l sectors in educat ion w i th a cons id erab le increase in e xpend it u re .

However, educat ion remains hampered, as in N i g e r i a , by a lack o f t e a

chers. In higher educat ion , the emphasis is on subjects o f p r a c t i c a l

use. In the 1974-1975 school year there were 4 ,4 00 students a t the

U n iv e r s i t y o f N a i r o b i , 1 , l 4 0 a t Kenyatta U n i v e r s i t y Col lege and an e s t i

mated 2 ,500 a t u n i v e r s i t i e s abroad. In 1977, th e re was an enro l lm ent o f

2 ,9 7 4 ,8 4 9 in the pr imary school system, 313 ,997 in the secondary, 6 ,333

in tech n ica l and 8 ,924 in teacher t r a i n i n g . In 1977, the number of s t u

dents e n r o l le d in higher educat ion per 10,000 in a b i t a n t s was 8 .5 as com

pared to 2 . 6 in N ig e r ia (UNESCO, 1975) .

Education in Ind ia

Although Ind ia occupies on ly 2 . 4 per cent o f the w o r ld 's land a rea ,

i t supports 14 per cent o f the w o r ld 's popula t ion ( Countr ies o f the

World, 1981) . With a popu la t io n o f about 629 m i l l i o n , only the People 's

Republ ic o f China has a l a r g e r p o p u la t io n .

Indian so c ia l l i f e is based on the caste system which, as repor ted

in the Countr ies o f the World , encompasses the var ious "c lasses" of

Indian s o c ie t y . I t is t h e o r e t i c a l l y based on employment- re la ted c a t e

g o r ie s , ranked on a t h e o c r a t i c a 1 ly def ined h ie ra rc h y .

Ind ia has 14 o f f i c i a l languages; a dozen o f these are spoken by more

than 10 m i l l i o n people. H i n d i , one o f the most popular languages, w i th

i t s d i a l e c t s , is spoken by 38% o f the p o p u la t io n . Engl ish is w id e ly used

in business, government and educat ion as in N i g e r i a .


40

I t is from the above background th a t the educat ional system in

Ind ia may be b e t t e r understood. Misra (1967 ) , in discuss ing the

recommendations o f an Educat ion Commission (19 66 ) , repor ted th a t the

o b j e c t i v e o f reform in educat ion in Ind ia is to endeavor to r e l a t e i t

to the l i f e , needs and a s p i r a t io n s o f the people, thereby making i t a

powerful instrument o f the s o c i a l , economic and c u l t u r a l t ran s fo rm a t io n

necessary f o r r e a l i z a t i o n o f n a t io n a l goals. To accomplish t h i s , the

Commission, according to M is ra , s ta te d th a t :

Education should increase p r o d u c t i v i t y , achieve soc ia l and n a t io n a l i n t e g r a t i o n , a c c e le r a t e the process o f modernizat io n and c u l t i v a t e s o c i a l , moral and s p i r i t u a l va lues . Inord er to r e l a t e educat ion to p r o d u c t i v i t y , science educat ion and work-exper ience should be made an in t e g ra l p a r t o f educat i o n at a l l stages. A p p l ic a t io n o f science to p roduct ive processes and o r i e n t a t i o n o f work-experience to i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , should be emphasized. Secondary educat ion should be l a r g e l y v o c a t i o n a 1ized and higher educat ion should lay st ress on teaching o f a g r i c u l t u r e and technology. (p. 2 8 l )

Pr imary educat ion is f r e e and compulsory in In d ia . Nine years o f

compulsory educat ion are imposed by the c o n s t i t u t i o n ( Countr ies o f the

Wor1d , 1981) . The l i t e r a t e popula t ion in 1978 was 34% o f the t o t a l ,

compared to about 25% of N ig e r i a in I 98O. In 1970, the number o f s t u

dents e n r o l l e d in higher educat ion per 10,000 in h a b i ta n ts o f Ind ia was

36, as compared to 2 . 6 in N ig e r ia (UNESCO, 1975) .

Financing Higher Educat ion in the United States o f America

The purpose of t h i s sec t io n is to present b r i e f background i n f o r

mation on the system o f educat ion and method of f in a n c in g o f higher

educat ion in the United S ta te s . This country was chosen f o r reasons

th a t w i l l be discussed l a t e r . Many developing c o u n t r ie s , such as


41

N i g e r i a , a re in the process o f adap t ing advanced technolog ies from the

developed c o u n t r ie s to use in t h e i r local environments. In discuss ing

educat ional development in developing c o u n t r i e s , Hunte (1978) c r e d i t e d

W. R. L. F r id ay w i t h the remark:

Many o f these deve loping co u n t r ies have i n h e r i t e d educat io na l systems which were e s ta b l is h e d f o r o th er t imes and o t h e r purposes— systems which are considered a n a c h r o n i s t i c — hindered as they a re in i n b u i l t r i g i d i t i e s which render them u n s u i ta b le to meet adequate ly the demands o f the t imes . As a r e s u l t , n a t io n a l leaders are looking beyond t h e i r own borders to f in d o t h e r models o f educat ional i n s t i t u t i o n s l i k e l y to be more responsive to t h e i r present development needs and to lead to g r e a t e r d e m o cra t iz a t io n o f educat iona l o p p o r t u n i t y . (p. 1)

The d iscussion o f the United Sta tes system is s i g n i f i c a n t f o r the

reason t h a t N i g e r i a ' s present form o f c o n s t i t u t i o n and government is

p at te rned a f t e r the United S ta tes model. Many educators in N ig e r ia

may now be more in t e r e s t e d in a c lo s e r examinat ion o f higher education

f in a n c in g in the United S t a t e s .

The Uni ted S ta tes o f America is the f o u r th l a r g e s t country in the

world in both area and p o p u la t io n . Only Russia, Canada, and China have

la r g e r a reas . China, I n d i a , and Russia are the on ly co u n t r ies w i th more

people. The Uni ted S ta tes covers the e n t i r e midsect ion o f North America,

s t r e t c h i n g from the A t l a n t i c Ocean in the east to the P a c i f i c Ocean in

the west . According to Coffman and S u l l i v a n (1 9 8 1 ) , i t covers an area

2o f appro x im ate ly 3 ,6 1 8 ,4 6 5 square mi les (9 ,371 ,781 km ) . Populat ion

was est imated f o r 198I as 2 2 4 ,2 2 6 ,0 0 0 . The 1970 Census placed i t a t

2 1 8 , 373 ,000 people (World Bank A t l a s , 1979) . Whites make up about 86

per cent o f the c o u n t r y 's p o p u la t io n , and Blacks form the la rg e s t

m in o r i t y group.


4 2

Economie Development

E c o n o m ica l ly , th e U n i te d S t a t e s is one o f th e w o r l d ' s most h i g h l y

developed and p r o d u c t iv e n a t i o n s . Th ere is p ro b ab ly no o t h e r c o u nt ry

t h a t equa ls th e U n i te d S t a t e s in i t s a g r i c u l t u r a l , m anufac tured , and

mined p r o d u c t i v i t y . The U n i t e d S t a t e s ranks f i r s t among th e n a t i o n s

o f th e w o r ld in th e t o t a l v a l u e o f i t s economic p r o d u c t i o n . The n a t i o n ' s

gross n a t i o n a l product (GNP) amounts to more than $ 2 . 3 t r i l l i o n a n n u a l l y .

T h is t o t a l is about t w ic e t h e GNP o f Russ ia , which ranks second (UNESCO,

1 9 7 9 ) ' F ig u re 1 shows the composit ion o f th e U.S. gross n a t i o n a l p ro

duct f o r 1979.

I n d u s t ry

32%S e rv ice s

65%

A g r i c u l t u r e

F ig u re 1

U.S . Gross N a t io n a l Product

T o t a l GNP in 1979 - $ 2 , 3 6 8 , 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0

Source: J . E. Coffman S T . A. S u l l i v a n , U n i te d S t a t e s .The World Book E n c y c lo p e d ia , V o l . 20 ( 198 I, p. 7 2 a ) .


43

Form of Government

The United States cons is ts o f 50 s ta te s and the D i s t r i c t o f Colum

b ia . The D i s t r i c t o f Columbia is a piece o f land set aside by the

f e d e r a l government f o r the n a t io n ' s c a p i t a l , Washington, D.C. The

United States C o n s t i t u t i o n is based on the federa l system o f govern

ment, w i th an e xe cu t ive p r e s id e n t . The government operates on th ree

l e v e ls : n a t i o n a l , s t a t e , and l o c a l . The c o n s t i t u t i o n o f the country

s p e c i f i e s the area o f a u t h o r i t y of each leve l o f government. In some

area , the fe d e r a l ( n a t i o n a l ) and s t a t e governments have concurrent

powers, and in some o th ers t h e i r powers are e xc lu s iv e (Schick S P f i s t e r ,

1975) .

Educat ion

Educat ion is one o f the areas s p e c i f i e d in the c o n s t i t u t i o n f o r

which the s t a t e governments are given ex c lu s iv e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . P r i

mary and secondary educat ion in the United States is f r e e and com

pu lsory . By 1918, every s t a t e had a law re q u i r in g c h i ld r e n to at tend

school u n t i l they reached a s p e c i f i e d age or completed a c e r t a i n

grade l e v e l . In a d d i t i o n to p u b l ic schools (about 80%, elementary

and secondary) th e re are p r i v a t e schools run by r e l i g i o u s o rg a n iz a

t ions or p r i v a t e groups.

The U n i ted States has about 79,000 elementary schools and about

29 ,000 high schools. In a d d i t i o n , th ere are approximately 3,000

u n i v e r s i t i e s , f o u r - y e a r c o l le g e s and two-year j u n i o r co l leges in the

co untry . Enrol lment in p u b l i c co l le g es and u n i v e r s i t i e s increased


44

from 90 ,000 in 1900 to over f i v e m i l l i o n in the l a t e I 9 6 0 ' s. By mid-

19 70 's enro l lm ent was expected to have r isen to seven m i l l i o n (Schick,

P f i s t e r , 1975) ' According to Chambers (1970) enro l lm ent was est imated

as 7 .3 m i l l i o n , o f whom 72 per cent were in p u b l ic i n s i t u t ions and 26

per cent in p r i v a t e . I t was f u r t h e r es t imated that by 1980 the pro

port io ns would have changed to 77 per cent p u b l ic and 23 per cent

p r i v a t e .

Financing o f Higher Educat ion

The p a t te rn of f in a n c in g o f p u b l ic u n i v e r s i t i e s in the United

States v a r ie s from s t a t e to s t a t e . Appropr ia t io ns o f s t a t e - d e r i v e d

funds by the s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e s have been g e n e r a l l y the main source

of opera t ing funds f o r s t a t e - c o n t r o l l e d co l leges and u n i v e r s i t i e s .

There probably is no s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n th a t gets i t s support com

p l e t e l y from a p p r o p r ia t io n s , as the p ro p o r t io n o f t o t a l income from

th a t source v a r i e s from s t a t e to s t a t e .

According to McCoy (1979) the average s t a t e support is 60 per

cent o f t o t a l educat ional and general revenues. She l i s t e d the average

s t a t e a p p r o p r ia t io n s f o r p u b l i c h ig her educat ion a $2,047 per student .

Furthermore, she l i s t e d U.S. average high and low values f o r each

category o f p u b l ic i n s t i t u t i o n s as fo l lo w s (p. 22):

U.S. Average High Low

Major doctoral g ran t in g $ 2 ,627 $ 4 ,1 12 (NY) $1,397 (VT)

Comprehens i ve 2,000 9 ,05 2 (AS) 776 (NH)

General bacca la urea te 1.634 2 ,938 (Wl) 809 (KA)

Two-year 1,398 4 ,523 (AS) 725 (NE)

Health p ro fess io na l 17,376 40 ,918 (NJ) 8 ,106 (MN)

Other pro fess io na l 1,949 28,331 (OH) 856 (NH)


45

However, in a d d i t io n to the s t a t e governments' a p p r o p r i a t io n s , ,

the o ther sources o f funds f o r p u b l ic u n i v e r s i t i e s are t u i t i o n and p r i

va te c o n t r i b u t i o n . According to a Ford Foundation Report (1 9 7 6 ) , "more

than 60 per cent o f the funds f o r undergraduate educat ion in 1970 came

from t u i t i o n and endowment income and p r i v a t e g iv in g " (p. 2 0 ) .

Federal Government Aid to Higher Education

By lo n g -e s ta b l is h e d legal precedent in the United S ta te s , educat ion

is considered a s t a t e f u n c t io n and a s t a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . Local govern

ments have no inherent powers, except those granted to them by the s t a t e

l e g i s l a t u r e s . However, the fe d e ra l government, through l e g i s l a t i o n on

f e d e ra l f i n a n c i a l a id to co l le g e studen ts, has c o n t r ib u te d immensely to

o p era t in g income o f the u n i v e r s i t i e s .

According to U.S. News & World Report (February 2, I 9 8 I ) , there

were a t th a t t ime s i x major student ass is tance programs o f the fe d e ra l

government. These s i x were:

1. Basic Educat ional Opportun ity Grants. Grants were awarded based

on student f i n a n c i a l needs, as determined by a complex fo rm ula , r a th e r

than on academic p o t e n t i a l . Amount per grant was to range up to $1,900

in the academic year , beginning in f a l l 1982 and g r a d u a l l y r i s i n g to

$2,600 by 1985.

2. Guaranteed Student Loans. This program provided f e d e r a l l y

insured loans to students from p r i v a t e lenders , such as banks, c r e d i t

unions, and savings and loan a s s o c ia t io n s . No i n t e r e s t is charged

w h i le the r e c i p i e n t is s t i l l a bona f i d e student , and repayment at

9 per cent i n t e r e s t was to begin s i x months a f t e r g r a d u a t io n . A l l


46

students are e l i g i b l e , regard less of fa m i ly income.

3 . Parent Loans. Under t h i s program, any parent o f an under

graduate was to be ab le t o ob ta in $3,000 a year from p r i v a t e lenders

f o r each c h i ld in c o l l e g e , up to a maximum of $15 ,000 per c h i l d .

Repayment had to begin w i t h i n 60 days o f taking out the loan, a t an

annual i n t e r e s t r a te o f 9 per cent .

4. Supplementary Educat ional Opportunity Grants. This program

was f o r students w i th excep t io n a l f i n a n c i a l needs who had a lre ad y been

given the maximum Basic Educat iona l Opportunity Grants. This program

was to award a d d i t i o n a l sums of up to $2,000 per student per yea r .

The funds, d i s t r i b u t e d through the c o l le g e s , did not have to be repa id .

5 . Col lege Work-Study. F e d e r a l l y funded s a l a r i e s were a v a i l a b l e

f o r needy students who worked up to 20 hours per week. Salary was

based on the p r e v a i l i n g minimum wage sca le .

6. Nat iona l D i r e c t Student Loans. Students who had e x t r a o r d i

nary f i n a n c i a l needs may have been e l i g i b l e f o r f e d e ra l funds paid to

the c o l le g e f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n to students. The i n t e r e s t r a t e was 4 per

cent a yea r . Repayment was to begin s i x months a f t e r g rad u a t io n , and

low-income persons had up to 20 years to repay.

Federal f i n a n c i a l a id has been the major source o f t u i t i o n a id to

studen ts. More than 90 per cent o f an est imated 15 b i l l i o n d o l l a r s a

year a v a i l a b l e in f i n a n c i a l ass is tanc e to students came from t h is

source (U.S. News & World R epor t , Feb. 2, I 98 I ) . The rest came from

s t a t e and p r i v a t e funds.


47

S ta te Support f o r Higher Educat ion

As mentioned e a r l i e r , the pr imary r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the support

o f educat ion a t a 1i l e v e ls res ts w i t h the s ta te s and t h e i r var ious

p o l i t i c a l subd iv is io n s . The bas ic powers and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f each

of the s ta te s are s i m i l a r in s o fa r as the U.S. C o n s t i t u t io n is con

cerned, but the manner in which the s ta te s have c a r r i e d out the respon

s i b i l i t y v a r ie s from s t a t e to s t a t e . The Nat ional Commission on the

Financing o f Postsecondary Educat ion (1973, p. 82) remarked t h a t ,

" i n many respects there is not a s in g le system o f postsecondary educa

t io n in t h is country ( U . S . ) ; there are f i f t y systems."

However, the o b j e c t i v e s o f s t a t e support are shared by the f i f t y

s t a t e s . The bas ic o b j e c t i v e s according to the Nat ional Commission are

as f o l lo w :

1. To provide maximum postsecondary educat iona i o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t h e i r c i t i z e n s according to the f i n a n c i a l resources a v a i l a b l e to s ta tes and the a t t i t u d e s of t h e i r c i t i z e n s regarding government 's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p rov id ing such o p p o r t u n i t i e s .

2. To provide t r a i n i n g in p ro fess io na l and t e c h n i cal occupat ions b e l ie v e d to be important to the economic development o f each s t a t e and the w e l f a r e o f i t s c i t i z e n s .

3. To encourage research in areas o f strong p u b l ic i n t e r e s t ( f o r example, med ic ine, a g r i c u l t u r e and e n g i - neeri n g ) .

4. To encourage young men and women o f except iona l a b i l i t y to ob ta in advanced knowledge and s k i l l s in the a r t s , humani t ies, s o c ia i sc iences , and n a tura l sciences.(p. 82)

Mode of Funding Pub i ic U n i v e r s i t i e s in the S ta te o f Michigan

The d iscussion o f M ich ig an 's method does not n e c e s s a r i l y mean chat

t h i s w r i t e r considers the method as the most e f f i c i e n t . I t deserves an


48

examinat ion because the S ta te has been concerned about the inherent

i n e f f i c i e n c y o f the method and has not long ago adopted a new format

to improve over the o ld method. Furthermore, t h i s w r i t e r ' s major

i n te rn s h ip involved a u n i v e r s i t y budget ing process and mode o f funding

of s t a t e u n i v e r s i t i e s in Michigan . Also Michigan ranks as one o f the

sta tes w i th the highest number o f p u b l ic u n i v e r s i t i e s which is about

the same number th a t N i g e r ia now has. I t may be i n s t r u c t i v e to b r i e f l y

discuss the new process.

Method o f Funding. As in the o th e r s t a t e s , a l l the p u b i i c u n i

v e r s i t i e s and co l leges in Michigan d e r ive the major p o r t io n o f t h e i r

o pera t in g fund from a p p ro p r ia t io n s by the S ta te L e g i s l a t u r e . About

70 per cent o f the t o t a l fund is der ived from t h i s source, w i t h the

re s t coming from t u i t i o n , fees , and o th er sources. Each i n s t i t u t i o n

submits i t s budget request , accompanied by cu rre n t f i n a n c i a l r e p o r t ,

d i r e c t l y to the s t a t e ' s budget d i r e c t o r , who in t u r n , incorpora tes the

approved amount in the b i l l sent from the governor to the l e g i s l a t u r e .

As pointed out by Chambers (1970, 1981) , M ich ig a n 's C o n s t i t u t io n

of 1963 provided th a t each i n s t i t u t i o n o f higher educat ion in the S ta te

of Michigan should have i t s own governing board and each be c o n s t i t u

t i o n a l l y independent. Chambers maintained f u r t h e r t h a t , w i t h the 1963

C o n s t i t u t io n , the l e g i s l a t u r e cannot c re a te any power- laden "super

board" to d i c t a t e the u n i v e r s i t i e s ' p o l i t i c s or e x e r c is e any coerc ive

contro l over the i n s t i t u t i o n .

U n t i l r e c e n t ly , th e re was no uniform format on which the var ious

i n s t i t u t i o n s based t h e i r budget es t im ates . The amount each i n s t i t u t i o n

received was, t h e r e f o r e , due more to the lobbying e f f o r t s o f the


49

i n s t i t u t i o n . In o rd er to a l lo w f o r a r a t i o n a l a l l o c a t i o n o f funds to

the i n s t i t u t i o n s , in 1976 a funding model was developed j o i n t l y by the

Senate and the House f i s c a l agencies o f the S ta te . I t is now g r a d u a l ly

being adopted.

Funding Model . A funding mechanism was necessary f o r Michigan

higher educat ion because, according to the Jo in t Senate and House

F is ca l Agencies (1977, p. 104) , the then current funding approach:

1. Encouraged d e c is io n making on a piecemeal bas is.

2. Was too confusing and t ime consuming.

3. Resulted in funding in e q u i t i e s over t ime.

4. Did not lend i t s e l f to planning f o r the f u t u r e .

5. Provided no uniform means f o r o b j e c t i v e l y e v a lu a t in g program

needs.

6. Did not a l lo w f o r comparisons to see where Michigan stood

e i t h e r s ta tew id e o r n a t i o n a l l y .

7. Did not t e l l l e g i s l a t o r s what the s t a t e is re c e iv in g or should

be re ce iv in g in re turn f o r the taxpayers ' investment.

The J o in t Senate and House F isa l Agencies proposed th a t the goals

of the new funding model were:

1. To encourage equal access o p p o r tu n i ty to h igher educat ion f o r

a l l c i t i z e n s o f the S t a t e .

2. To provide f a i r and equal funding based upon real program needs.

3. To respond to d i f f e r e n c e s which e x is t e d among i n s t i t u t i o n s

because o f d i f f e r e n t ro le s and missions.

4. To e s t a b l i s h a long range plan f o r re s to r in g the budgetary

s h o r t - f a l l s which had occurred f o r 10 years .


50

5. To provide f o r program expansion and c o n t r a c t io n based upon

p u b l ic demand and manpower needs.

6. To e s t a b l i s h l e g i s l a t o r s as p r o a c t iv e policymakers in higher

educat ion r a th e r than r e a c t i v e c r is e s dec is ion makers on a week to

week bas is .

The funding model cons is ts of three p a r ts : (a) foundat ion of

support , (b) added costs, and (c) sp ec ia l g ran ts . Figures 2 and 3

i l l u s t r a t e the e s s e n t ia l th ree p ar ts o f the funding model.

A B

Foundation Addedof + Costs +

Support

ÎFai r and Equ i t a b le Funding f o r Like Programs and Services

ÎFunding f o r Real Program D i f f e re n c e s Due to Unique Roles and Missions

Sped al Grants

Î

AnnualApp ro pr ia t io n

Funding f o r Special Programs Which Do Not F i t In Parts A & B

Source:

Fig ure 2

Important Function o f Each Part of the Funding Model

J o in t Senate and House F isca l Agencies, Michigan Higher Educat ion Funding Model, 1977, p. 107


51

A B C

Foundat ion Added Specialof + Costs + Grants

Support

TPerformance Expecta t i on Factors:

*T o t a l Student Cred i t Hours

-'Class Size *F acu 1ty

S a la r ie s ■'Support

Personnel *CSSM S

Equ i pment '■'Support

Services

TRole andMiss ionFactors :

* I n s t r u c t i on '■'Research '■'Public Service '■'Students

Served '■' I nst i t u t i o n a l

S e t t i ng ^ D i s t r i b u t i o n

o f I n s t i t u t i o n a l E f f o r t

Annua 1Ap p ro p r ia t io n

tSpecial Studies & P ro jec ts :

Time Payments One-Time Grants Medical Schools Vet . Med. School Dental School ROTCIn st i tu tes Coop. Ext.A g r ic . Ext.

Source:

Figure 3

Components o f the Funding Model

J o i n t Senate and House F isca l Agencies, Michigan Higher Educat ion Funding Model. 1977, p. IO8 .


52

Summary

Higher educat ion in N i g e r i a became a p r i o r i t y toward the end o f

the m i l i t a r y a d m in i s t r a t i o n in 1978. Heavy investments in educat ion

were j u s t i f i e d by the c o u n t r y 's admission o f the importance o f educa

t io n to n a t io n a i development.

The Ashby Commission ( i 9 6 0 ) s u c c in c t ly summarized the s i t u a t i o n

when i t remarked:

One has only to read reports on West A f r ic a n educat ionw r i t t e n f i f t e e n years ago to r e a l i z e how even wise andexperienced men underest imated the pace a t which WestA f r i c a is growing up. One o f the w ises t o f them wrote:"Somewhere, in West A f r i c a w i t h i n a ce n tu ry , w i t h i n h a l f a century . . . a new A f r ic a n S ta te w i l l be born. I t w i l l be s trong . I t s vo ice w i l l be l i s t e n e d t o . . . .I t w i l l have a v i t a l need f o r c o u n s e l lo rs , i t s own couns e l l o r s . Now is the t im e , and the t ime is a l re a d y l a t e , to t r a i n them f o r t h e i r w o rk ." That was w r i t t e n in 1945.Already by I960 the prophecy had come t r u e . (p. 3)

Now, in 1981, the country is demanding g r e a t e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n by

the Federal Government in the f in a n c in g o f higher educat io n . I t appears

th a t the lack o f s u f f i c i e n t high leve l manpower or exec u t ive capac ity

remains a b o t t le n e c k to the development o f the n a t i o n . This the Feder

al Government i t s e l f has ad m i t te d . The s e t t i n g up o f the var ious com

missions to look in to the problem has been the r i g h t approach. One

quest ion th a t remains unanswered, however, is : "What is the best

f i n a n c i a l mix f o r funding h igher educat ion?"

In the th ree deve loping co u n t r ie s examined, th e re was evidence o f

concerted e f f o r t being made to increase the l i t e r a c y percentage o f the

p o pula t io n . By comparison, the th re e co u n t r ies have a cons iderab ly

g r e a t e r p roport ion o f the popula t ion e n r o l l e d in t h e i r higher


53

educat io na l systems than does N i g e r i a .

In the United Sta tes o f America, educat ion is a s t a t e resp onsi

b i l i t y . However, the Federal Government, through l e g i s l a t i o n o f

Federal f i n a n c i a l a id to c o l l e g e studen ts , has c o n t r ib u te d immensely

to the o p e r a t in g income o f the u n i v e r s i t i e s . A d e s c r ip t i o n o f a

funding model f o r higher educat ion th a t was proposed f o r the S ta te o f

Michigan in 1977 was provided but should be considered w i th c a u t io n .

There was no a v a i l a b l e evidence o f how wel l t h i s funding model has

worked, but some o f those persons experienced w i th i t reported t h a t ,

in p r a c t i c e , p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t i e s have a f f e c t e d i t s e f f i c a c y .


CHAPTER I I

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

The focus o f t h i s study was a systematic i n v e s t i g a t io n in to the

s ta tu s o f f in a n c in g o f h ig h er educat ion in N ig e r i a in a n t i c i p a t i o n

o f developing some f i n a n c i a l recommendations th a t should be used f o r

funding the u n i v e r s i t i e s . The purposes o f t h is study were to d e t e r

mine answers to the f o l l o w in g quest ions:

1. What are the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and l e g i s l a t i v e provisions fo r

support o f higher educat ion in N ig er ia ?

2. What are the sources and amounts o f revenue f o r higher educa

t ion?

3. What p o r t io ns o f the Federal Government's budget f o r educa

t io n is a l l o c a t e d to h ig her education? What is the funding mechanism?

A. How do the Federal Government's budgeted educat ional appro

p r i a t i o n s compare w i th the ap p ro p r ia t io n s f o r o th er se le c ted major

soc ia l s e rv ice s w i th respect to amount and needs?

5. Is th ere a c o n s is te n t p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n between the gross

domestic product o f N i g e r i a and the type o f support provided f o r higher

educat ion in the country?

6. How does N i g e r ia compare w i th some se le c ted developing and

developed c o u n t r ie s w i th respect to the amount o f expen ditures fo r

h ig h er educat ion?

54


55

Design o f the Study

The design o f t h i s study included a review o f the h i s t o r i c a l

method o f research , which was u t i l i z e d f o r t h i s study , and an o u t l i n e

o f the procedures u t i l i z e d to conduct the study.

The H i s t o r i c a l Method

This study u t i l i z e d the h i s t o r i c a l method o f research , one o f the

methods o f a s c e r t a in in g f a c t , which was summarized by Got tshca lk (1969)

as :

1. The c o l l e c t i o n o f the s u rv iv in g o b je c ts and o f the p r i n t e d , w r i t t e n , and o ra l m a t e r i a l s th a t may be r e le v a n t ;

2. The exc lu s io n o f those m a t e r i a l s (o r par ts th e reo f ) t h a t a re un au th en t ic ;

3. The e x t r a c t i o n from the a u t h e n t ic m a t e r ia l o f test imony t h a t is c r e d i b l e ; and,

4. The o r g a n iz a t io n o f th a t r e l i a b l e test imony in to a meaningful n a r r a t i v e or e x p o s i t io n , (p. 28)

Procedures

This sect ion o f the study i d e n t i f i e s the kinds o f data c o l l e c t e d ,

the sources o f d a t a , the i n t e r v ie w techniques u t i l i z e d , and the pro

cedures used to ana lyze the da ta .

Kinds o f Data

Data f o r t h is research were from w r i t t e n and o ra l pr imary sources.

Both types o f pr imary data were corrobora ted to the e x te n t t h a t c o r

responding data were obta in ed from more than one source whenever

p o s s ib le . The study was based more, however, on the w r i t t e n primary

sources.


56

Budget E s t im a te s . Budget es t im ates a re the planned expendi tures

o f the var ious departments o f government. Budget e s t im a tes a ls o pro

v ide statements o f a n t i c i p a t e d revenue during the account ing p er io d .

They are important documents f o r a s c e r t a in in g the p r i o r i t y o f a

government 's opera t ions a t a given p er io d . An e s t im a te f o r any one

year u su a l ly has d e t a i l s o f the approved es t im ates o f the previous

y e a r , and o f ac tua l expenditures o f the year b e fore t h a t . Some com

parisons o f government expenditures dur ing th re e co nsecut ive per iods

were t h e r e f o r e po ss ib le .

Reports o f the N at io na l U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission. The Nat iona l

U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission was e s tab l is h ed as a r e s u l t o f a recommenda

t io n in the I960 report Investment in Educat io n , o f the Ashby Commis

sion . The U n i v e r s i t i e s a re funded by the Federal Government through

the Nat ional U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission (NUC). NUC Reports provided

i n s ig h t in to the mechanism used in d isburs ing funds from the govern

ment to the U n i v e r s i t i e s .

The C o n s t i t u t io n o f N i g e r i a . As contained in the C o n s t i t u t i o n

of the Federal Republ ic o f N ig e r ia 1979 (p. 1 ) , th e r e is a p ro v is ion

t h a t " the C o n s t i t u t io n is supreme and i t s p ro v is io n s s h a l l have binding

fo rc e on a l l a u t h o r i t i e s and persons throughout the c o u n t r y . " The

var ious c o n s t i t u t i o n s o f the country were examined to a s c e r t a i n the

prov is io ns th a t were made in them f o r f in a n c in g h igher ed u cat io n . Past

N ig e r ia n c o n s t i t u t io n s were based on the B r i t i s h P a r l ia m e n ta r y form

fo government. The c u r r e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n , based on the e xe cu t ive


57

p r e s i d e n t i a l system o f government, was introduced in 1979.

S t a t i s t i c a l Reports. The Federal O f f i c e o f S t a t i s t i c s issues,

among o th e rs , p u b l ic a t io n s t i t l e d :

1. Economic I n d i c a t o r s , which provide in form at io n on general

economic a c t i v i t i e s covering ai i the sectors o f the economy. They are

one o f the sources o f data f o r determining the p o t e n t i a l weal th o f the

country.

2. Ana lysis o f Government Accounts, which provide d e t a i l e d

analyses of government t r a n s a c t i o n s . They provide data on the Federal

and S ta te Governments' economic a c t i v i t i e s and out la ys in f i n a n c i a l

terms.

3. Nat ional Accounts o f N i g e r i a , which provide in form at ion on

gross n a t io n a i product and gross f i x e d c a p i t a l fo rm at ion . They pro

v id e data on Federal Government f i n a l consumption expend itu re according

to cost composit ion and purpose. They provide in form at ion on the w ea lth

o f the country and how i t is u t i l i z e d at a given per iod .

4. Diges t of S t a t i s t i c s , a q u a r t e r l y p u b l i c a t i o n . i t updates

in form at ion on popula t ion and m ig r a t io n , manpower, economic a c t i v i t i e s ,

p u b l ic f in ance and n a t io n a l accounts.

The Central Bank of N i g e r ia publ ishes:

1. Economic and F in a n c ia l Review, which provides in form at io n on

the e f f e c t s of government and non-governmental a c t i v i t i e s on the weal th

of the country. I t provides data on in t e r n a t i o n a l t rad e s i t u a t i o n s

a f f e c t i n g N ig e r ia and N i g e r i a ' s ex te rn a l assets.

2. Annual Report and Statement o f Accounts, a y e a r ly p u b l i c a t io n

u su a l ly publ ished by 31st December o f a given year . I t reviews g e n e r a l l y


58

the economic a c t i v i t y o f the country and examines the ongoing economic

and f i n a n c i a l p o l i c i e s o f the government. I t provides in formation on

manpower s i t u a t i o n s and the Federal Government's c u r re n t and c a p i t a l

expenditures w i th regard to f u n c t io n .

In a d d i t io n to the above, the United Nat ions' S t a t i s t i c a l Year

book 1979, the t h i r t i e t h issue o f the S t a t i s t i c a l Yearbooks publ ished

by the United Nat ions, was the most c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e , having

been publ ished in I 98O. The S t a t i s t i c a l Yearbook is designed to serve

as a convenient summary volume of the in t e r n a t i o n a l s t a t i s t i c s c u r r e n t l y

a v a i l a b l e . I t provides worldwide summaries o f p o p u la t io n , manpower,

balance o f payments, n a t io n a l accounts, budget accounts, educat ion ,

e t c . I t is a convenient source f o r data f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l comparisons.

Sources o f Data

The task o f c o l l e c t i n g the data f o r t h is study was a g i g a n t i c one.

Fox ( 1969) admitted th a t the problem fac in g the h i s t o r i c a l researcher

in the use o f data are unique. According to Fox:

Because his data a l rea d y e x i s t and he has no a b i l i t y to generate new da ta , he can only f i n d them. S i m i l a r l y , . he has no a b i l i t y to a l t e r the form in which the data appear . . . in essence cannot contro l his data in the same sense the survey and experimental researcher can.(p. 407)

Primary data sources included publ ished documents such as the

N ig er ia n C o n s t i t u t io n , Budget Est imates o f the Federal and S ta te

Governments o f N i g e r i a , Reports o f the Nat ionai U n i v e r s i t i e s Commis

sion , the Federal Government's S t a t i s t i c a l Reprots , Reports o f the

United Nat ions' S t a t i s t i c a l Yearbook.


59

The o ther pr imary sources o f data included th ree key in d i v id u a l s

who have had wide exper iences in mat ters r e l a t e d to some o f the research

quest ions: Benoni Briggs ( D i r e c t o r o f P lanning , N ig e r ia n U n i v e r s i t i e s

Commission); Arch ibald Cal laway (UNESCO R ep re s e n ta t iv e , P lan n in g ) ; and

Emmanuel 01u Akinnefes i (A s s is ta n t D i r e c t o r o f Research, Cent ra l Bank

of N i g e r i a ) .

Persons In terv iewed

1. Dr. Benoni Br iggs, Ph .D . , is a D i r e c t o r o f Planning o f the

National U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission. Dr. Br iggs' spec ia l a rea o f i n t e r e s t

and e x p e r t i s e is educat iona l f in a n c e . He was author o f many o f the

p o s i t io n papers on u n i v e r s i t y p lann ing prepared by the Nat iona l Uni

v e r s i t i e s Commission. Dr. Briggs took p a r t in many seminars and d i s

cussions organized by the Implementat ion Committee on Na t iona l P o l icy

on Educat ion. His experiences in the area o f higher educat ion f in a n c in g ,

which he r e a d i l y shared w i t h the present w r i t e r , had some in f lu en c e on

the approaches adopted in conduct ing the study.

2. Dr. Arch ibald Ca l laway, P h .D . , has been engaged in economic

f i e l d research in N ig e r ia since I960 and was a t one t ime a research

a ssoc ia te o f the Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e o f Technology's Centre fo r

I n t e r n a t io n a l S tud ies. He c u r r e n t l y is UNESCO ad v iso r on ed ucat ional

planning to the Federal Government o f N i g e r i a . Dr. Cal laway is a

member of the Implementat ion Committee f o r the Nat iona l P o l ic y on

Educat ion. His study (co-au thored w i t h A. Mosone) on Financing o f

Educat ion in N i g e r ia , sponsored by UNESCO and pub l ished in 1968, has

been of much b e n e f i t in the course o f t h i s study. The d iscuss ion w i th


60

Dr. Callaway was on the B l u e p r i n t , 19 78 -7 9 , publ ished by the Implementa

t io n Committee f o r the Nat iona l P o l ic y on Educat ion.

3 . Mr. Emmanuel 0. A k i n n i f e s i , M .S c . , is an economist . He is the

A ss is tan t D i r e c t o r of Research at the Central Bank o f N ig e r i a . Mr.

A k in n i f e s i has had over ten years o f experience w i t h the Centra l Bank.

His discussion w i th the w r i t e r helped in an a lyz ing the var ious s t a t i s

t i c a l reports o f the Centra l Bank r e le v a n t to the d e te rm in a t io n o f the

wealth o f the country.

Instrumentat ion

Most o f the data u t i l i z e d came from the publ ished documents.

The in terv iews conducted were unstru ctured . As such, no i n t e r v ie w

guide was developed, because the type o f in form at io n requ ired o f each

in d iv id u a l in terv iewed was d i f f e r e n t . The in t e r v ie w was informal as

i t was meant p r i m a r i l y as a discuss ion to e n l ig h te n the w r i t e r on some

c r u c ia l quest ions r e l a t e d to the research. However, some techniques

were adopted to guide the d iscussions. Copies o f l e t t e r s o f thanks

sent to the in d iv id u a ls in te rv iew ed are included as Appendix C.

In te r v ie w Techniques

Van Dalen (1973) suggested th a t a good in t e r v i e w is a dynamic

in te rpersona l experience to be shared. I t is more than a s e r ie s o f

casual quest ions and g e n e r a l i z e d r e p l i e s . I t has to s t im u la t e both

the in t e rv ie w e r and the respondent.

Rizzo ( 1979) pointed out t h a t in in t e rv ie w in g people who have had

p r a c t i c a l experiences w i th the problem a t hand th e re are th ree po in ts


61

to remember:

1. You should aim a t o b ta in in g in s ig h t in t o the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between v a r i a b l e s ra th e r than to get an accura te p i c t u r e o f cu r re n t p r a c t ic e s or simple consensus as to the best p r a c t i c e s .

2. Ask quest ions such as, " i f a given e f f e c t is d es i red , what methods w i l l , in your experience , be most l i k e l y to produce i t ? "

3. S t im u la te the informant to compare the major a l t e r n a t i v e methods f o r accomplishing a s p e c i f i c end.Use concrete i l l u s t r a t i o n s , from the respondents' own exper ience i f p o s s ib le , o f successful at tempts to achieve a s p e c i f i c e f f e c t . (p. B-3)

In order to keep the main to p ic of the in te r v ie w in focus, the

respondents were informed a t the beginning of the in t e r v ie w about the

general and s p e c i f i c purposes o f the i n v e s t i g a t i o n . However, in

order to mainta in the informal atmosphere o f the discussion there

was no s p e c i f i c schedule o f quest ions used.

A l l the above f a c t o r s were kept in mind during the discussions

w ith the respondents. Both general and s p e c i f i c quest ions were asked

and, where a p p ro p r ia t e , notes were made o f the responses.

Ana lysis o f Data

The f i r s t step in an a ly z in g the data was to describe or summarize

them, using d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s . There are two major funct ions

served by s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s , according to Fox (1969, p. 167) .

These are d e s c r ip t io n and in fe re n ce . Fox expla ined th a t in d e s c r ip

t i v e s t a t i s t i c s we seek to describe to the reader o f our research

rep o r t the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the data we have obta in ed . V/e use

d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c a l procedures to summarize our data to enable


62

the reader to learn the h i g h l i g h t s o f our f in d in g s .

Summary

The c o l l e c t e d data were ca teg o r iz ed according to the research

quest ions o f the study to which they r e l a t e d . N a r r a t i v e e xp os it io n

o f the data is presented in Chapter IV.


CHAPTER IV

REPORT OF THE FINDINGS

I n t ro d u c t ion

The purpose o f t h i s chapter is to present a d iscuss ion o f the

data obta ined from var io us government p u b l i c a t i o n s , the N ig er ian con

s t i t u t i o n s , the Federal Budget , p r i v a t e p u b l ic a t io n s and personal

discuss ions . The d iscu ss ion o f the data o f f e r s an exp la na t io n o f the

quest ions to be i n v e s t i g a t e d . These quest ions , as l i s t e d in Chapters

I and I I I , f o l lo w :

1. What are the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and l e g i s l a t i v e p rov is ions f o r

support o f higher educat ion in N ig er ia?

2. What are the sources and amounts o f revenue f o r higher

educat ion?

3. What port ions o f the Federal Government's budget f o r educa

t io n are a l lo c a t e d to h ig h er educat ion? What is the funding mechanism?

4. How do the Federal Government's budgeted educat ional appro

p r i a t i o n s compare w i th the ap p ro p r ia t io n s f o r o th er se le c ted major

soc ia l serv ices w i th respect to amount?

5. Is th ere a c o n s is te n t p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n between the gross

n a t io n a l product o f N i g e r ia and the type o f support provided f o r

higher educat ion in the country?

6. How does N i g e r ia compare w i th se le c ted developing and

developed co unt r ies w i th respect to the amount o f her expenditu res

f o r higher educat ion?63


64

In repor t ing the f i n d in g s , t h i s chapter is organized to discuss

the above s ix quest ions in order .

C o n s t i t u t io n a l and L e g i s l a t i v e Provis ions f o r Higher Education

N ig e r ia has had s ix d i f f e r e n t c o n s t i t u t io n s since the amalgamation

o f the Northern and Southern Provinces o f N ig e r ia in 1914. None of

the s ix c o n s t i t u t io n s s p e c i f i c a l l y made provisions fo r the f inanc ing

o f higher educat ion. The c o n s t i t u t io n s , however, placed the respon

s i b i l i t y fo r u n i v e r s i t y educat ion on both the Federal government and

the s ta te s . The c o n s t i t u t io n s (past and present ) do not permit the

establ ishment of p r i v a t e l y funded u n i v e r s i t i e s . The C o n s t i tu t io n

p resen t ly in e f f e c t recognizes u n i v e r s i t y i n s t i t u t i o n s in N ig e r ia as

a pub l ic concern.

Even though there a re no s p e c i f i c prov is io ns in the c o n s t i t u t i o n

f o r funding the u n i v e r s i t i e s , the e x i s t in g t h i r t e e n u n i v e r s i t i e s are

a l l funded by the Federal Government through y e a r l y ap p ro p r ia t io n s

charged upon the Consol idated Revenue Fund o f the Federa t ion . The

r a t i o n a l e f o r th is was based in p a r t on the sec t io n o f the C o n s t i tu

t io n which gave the l e g is l a t u r e s power and control over p u b l ic funds.

The C o n s t i tu t io n (1979) s p e c i f i c a l l y s ta tes th a t :

The President sha l l cause to be prepared and la id before each House of Nat ional Assembly at any t ime in each f i n a n c i a l year est imates o f the revenues and expend i tu re of the Federat ion f o r the next fo l lo w in g f i n a n c i a l ye a r . The heads of expenditure contained in the est imates (other than expenditures charged upon the Consolidated Revenue Fund of the Federat ion by t h i s c o n s t i t u t io n ) sha l l be included in a b i l l , to be known as an A ppropria t io n B i l l , p ro v id ing fo r the issue from the Consol idated Revenue Fund o f the sum necessary to meet t h a t expenditure and the ap p ro p r ia t io n of those sums f o r the purposes s p e c i f i e d t h e r e i n , (p. 28)


65

The l e g i s l a t u r e s have, t h e r e f o r e , in t e r p r e t e d such p o r t io ns o f the

c o n s t i t u t i o n as approving f i n a n c i a l prov is io ns f o r the u n i v e r s i t i e s in

the form o f y e a r ly a p p r o p r ia t io n s .

The Sources and Amounts o f Revenue f o r Higher Educat ion

The revenue f o r the u n i v e r s i t i e s is e s s e n t i a l l y from two sources:

grants from the fed e ra l government and local income. The local income

is from f i v e i d e n t i f i a b l e sources: (a) ex te rn a l income grants and

c o n t r ib u te d s e r v i c e s - - t h e s e are grants from p r i v a t e sources, and

others (b) t u i t i o n fe e s , (c) students ' room and board payments,

(d) i n t e r e s t earnings from investments and (e) rents on u n i v e r s i t y

pro p er ty .

Tables 1 and 2 show the sources and amounts o f revenue f o r the

u n i v e r s i t i e s f o r the years 1976-1977 and I 98O - I 98 I , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

Table 3 shows the a n a l y s is o f local income sources f o r the u n i v e r s i t i e s

f o r the f i s c a l year 1979-1981.

During a four year per iod (1 976 -19 80 ) , the rec u r re n t expenditures

o f the u n i v e r s i t i e s increased from N l8 2 ,7 2 6 ,0 0 0 to N 323 ,05 2 ,000 , an

increase o f 7 6 . 8%. w h i le en ro l lm ent increased by 44.9% (39 ,69 9 to

5 7 , 5 4 2 ) . By 1981, the Federal Government was f in a n c in g 90% o f t o t a l

rec u r re n t expenditu res o f the u n i v e r s i t i e s . T u i t i o n fees accounted

f o r less than h a l f o f 1% o f the revenue o f the u n i v e r s i t i e s , and, in

th r e e u n i v e r s i t i e s - - K a n o , Maiduguri and I l o r i n - - t h e r e are no t u i t i o n

fe es . Funds from ex te rn a l sources besides the Federal Government

amounted to b are ly 1% o f the t o t a l revenue o f the u n i v e r s i t i e s . This

may be an in d i c a t i o n o f the lack o f a b i l i t y o f the u n i v e r s i t i e s to


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Ta b le 1

N ig er ian U n i v e r s i t i e s — Sources and Amounts o f Funds f o r Recurrent Expendit u r e — 1976-1977

Tota l Expend!ture GovernmentGrant Local Income Student

Enrol Iment

Ibadan 3 2 ,4 01 ,0 00 2 9 ,8 26 ,0 00 2 ,5 7 5 ,0 0 0 (7.95%) 7 ,85 5

Lagos 2 8 ,9 91 .0 00 26 ,2 8 3 ,0 0 0 2 , 3 0 8 ,0 0 0 (7.96%) 5 ,4 70

Nsukka 2 9 ,5 9 2 ,0 0 0 2 6 ,8 9 1 ,0 0 0 2 ,7 0 1 ,0 0 0 (9.13%) 6 ,5 18

Zar i a 37 ,4 7 2 ,0 0 0 33 ,5 7 2 ,0 0 0 3 ,9 0 0 ,0 0 0 (10.4%) 8 ,374

i f e 2 5 ,025 ,000 22 ,9 2 5 ,0 0 0 2 ,1 0 0 ,0 0 0 (8.4%) 5,874

Benin 14 ,522 ,0 00 13 ,800 ,0 00 722,000 (4.97%) 2 ,0 50

Jos 3 , 2 8 6 ,0 0 0 3 , 0 1 6 ,0 0 0 270,000 (8.22%) 600

Calabar 4 , 2 3 3 ,0 0 0 3 , 8 3 5 ,0 0 0 398,000 (9.14%) 1,100

Kano 4 , 5 4 0 ,0 0 0 4 , 0 7 5 ,0 0 0 465 ,000 (10.24%) 1,250

Maiduguri 3 , 6 6 4 ,0 0 0 3 ,3 0 8 ,0 0 0 356,000 (9.72%) 600

Sokoto 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 ,00 0 ,0 0 0

1 lo r in 1 ,0 00 ,0 00 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0

(cont inued)

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Table 1 (concluded)

Uni vers i ty Tota l Expenditure GovernmentGrant Local Income Student

Enrol Iment

Port Harcourt 1 ,000 ,0 00 1 ,000 ,0 00

Al 1 Un I vers i t i e s 186 ,726 ,000 170,931,000 15 ,7 95 ,000 (9.24%) 36,699

Source: Nat ional U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission, N ig er ian U n i v e r s i t i e s A l l o c a t i o n of RecurrentGrants F isc a l Year, 1976-77 (1976 ) .

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N ig e r ia n U n i v e r s i t i e s — Sources and Amounts o f Funds f o r Recurrent Exp enditure— I 98O - I 9 8 I

Univers i ty Total expenditure GovernmentGrant Local Income Student Enrol lment

Pro jec te d1980-81

Actual1979-80

Ibadan N 4 4 , 601,000 N 3 9 , 631,000 N 4 , 970,000 (11.14%) 8 ,500 (6 ,85 2 )

Lagos 39 ,8 6 2 ,0 0 0 3 5 , 192,000 4 ,67 0 ,0 0 0 ( 11. 72%) 8 , 64o (8 ,0 93 )

Nsukka 4 0 ,8 7 7 ,0 0 0 3 6 ,102 ,000 4 , 7 7 5 ,0 0 0 (11,68%) 8 ,410 (7 ,155 )

Zar i a 4 5 , 722,000 4 0 ,3 4 3 ,0 0 0 5 , 3 7 9 ,0 0 0 (11,76%) 10,455 (9 ,442 )

i f e 4 1 , 018 ,000 37 , 386 ,000 3 ,63 2 ,0 0 0 (8.85%) 8 ,930 ( 8 , 712)

Benin 2 1 ,7 6 6 ,0 0 0 19 , 532 ,000 2 , 234,000 (10.26%) 5,000 (3 ,93 0 )

Jos 1 6 ,3 71 ,0 00 14 ,7 94 ,000 1 ,577 ,0 00 (9 . 63%) 3 ,1 90 (2 , 512)

Calabar 14 ,667 ,0 00 13, 511 ,000 1, 156,000 (7.88%) 2 ,753 (2 ,2 43 )

Kano 13, 563,000 12 ,4 08 ,0 00 1 ,155 ,0 00 ( 8 . 52%) 2,700 (2 ,3 97 )

Maidugur i 12, 859,000 11, 852 ,000 1, 007,000 ( 7 . 83%) 3,000 ( 2 , 132)

Sokoto 8 , 806 ,000 8 ,3 7 6 ,0 0 0 430,000 (4.88%) 1,050 (644)

1lo r i n 12, 658,000 11 ,695 ,0 00 963 ,000 (7.61%) 2.011 ( 1, 312)

(cont i nued)

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U n i v e r s ! t y Tota l expend i tu re GovernmentGrant Local Income Student Enrol lment

P ro jec ted Actual 1980-81 1979-80

Port Harcourt N 10 ,282 ,0 00 N 9 ,6 9 9 ,0 0 0 N 583,000 (5.67%) 1.805 (1 ,2 78 )

Al 1 U n i v e r s i t i e s 323 ,05 2 ,00 0 N 290 ,5 2 1 ,000 N 3 2 ,5 3 1 ,0 0 0 (10.07%) 66 ,444 (57,542)

Source: Nat ional U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission, N ig e r ian U n i v e r s i t i e s A l lo c a t i o n o f Recurrent Grants

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N ig er ia n U n i v e r s i t i e s : Ana lys is o f Local Income 1980-1981

Uni vers i ty StudentFood

Student Rents o f U n i v e r s i t y T u i t i o n Housing Proper ty Fees Others Total

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Ibadan

Lagos

Nsukka

Zar ia

I f e

Benin

Jos

Calabar

Kano

Maiduguri

Sokoto

1l o r i n

Port Harcourt

N 2 , 5 6 9 ,5 0 0

3 ,0 34 ,8 75

2 , 9 9 8 ,1 8 5

3 ,5 4 0 ,7 5 0

3 ,267,000

1 ,8 75 ,0 00

942 .000

841,125

898,875

799.500

241.500

492.000

479 ,250

A l l U n i v e r s i t i e s 2 1 ,5 78 ,2 50

800,000

448,200

497.000

900.000

175,000

152.500

300,000

121.500

166,000

150,000

45 .000

90.000

75,000

3 ,920,000

400.000

265.000

195,000

600,000

105,000

68,000

100,000

50,000

80,000

50,000

60,000

252,000

20,000

2 , 2 4 5 ,0 0 0

300,000

180,000

185,000

138,700

35 ,000

35,000

40,000

3,000

1,000

3,000

1 ,238,000

900,000

742 .000

900.000

200,000

50,000

103,800

195,000

140,000

10,000

7,700

82,000

128,920

6,000

4 .9 7 0 .0 0 0

4 .6 7 0 .0 0 0

4 .7 7 5 .0 0 0

5 .37 9 .0 0 0

3 .6 3 2 .0 0 0

2 . 2 3 4 .0 0 0

1 .577 .0 00

1.156.000

1 .155 .0 00

1.007.000

430.000

963.000

583.000

3 ,4 6 5 ,4 2 0 32 ,3 5 1 .00 0

Source: Na t iona l U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission, N ig e r ian U n i v e r s i t i e s A l l o c a t i o n o f Recurrent GrantsF isca l Year I 98O-8 I ( I 98O).

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71

a t t r a c t f i n a n c i a l support from p r i v a t e businesses and o r g a n i z a t io n in

N ig e r ia and o th er bodies o u ts id e N ig e r ia th a t might be i n t e r e s t e d in

the support of higher educat ion in the co untry .

Port ions o f the Federal Government's Budget f o r Educat ion A l lo c a te d to Higher Educat ion

The Federal M i n i s t r y o f Educat ion is the arm o f the Government

which discharges the r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f the Federal Government in the

f i e l d o f educat ion . The M i n i s t r y has the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the t h i r

teen u n i v e r s i t i e s , a l though funds to the i n s t i t u t i o n s a re channeled

through the Nat ional U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission. The M i n i s t r y in the

past had l i t t l e i n t e r e s t in pr imary and secondary educat ion which are

res idual subjects^ on the C o n s t i t u t io n L e g i s l a t i v e l i s t s . But r e c e n t ly

the M i n i s t r y has become more involved in both, p a r t l y because o f the

Universal Primary Educat ion Scheme th a t was introduced in 1976. The

M i n i s t r y ' s deepened involvement was due a lso to the f in a n c in g o f the

massive expansion program in secondary and tec h n ica l educat ion by the

Federal Government.

The funds a l l o c a t e d to the u n i v e r s i t i e s are a p o r t io n o f the t o t a l

funds ap p ro p r ia ted f o r educat io n , under the M i n i s t r y o f Educat ion, by

the Federal Government.

Table 4 shows the a n a ly s is o f the Federal Government rec u r ren t

expendi tures f o r educat ion f o r 197&-1977, 1977-1978 and 1978-1979 and

the p o r t io n a l l o c a t e d to the U n i v e r s i t i e s . For each o f the t h re e years .

^Subjects not s p e c i f i c a l l y mentioned in the C o n s t i t u t i o n are e s s e n t i a l l y the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f the s t a t e governments.


72

the government a l l o c a t e d to higher educat ion over 50% o f the t o t a l

funds ap p ro pr ia ted f o r educat io n .

Table 4

Federal Government Budget f o r Recurrent Expenditures f o r Educat ion, Showing P o r t io n A l lo c a te d to the U n i v e r s i t i e s

Recurrent Expenditures 1978-79 1977-78 1976-77

M M M

N.Ü.C. grants to un i vers i t i e s

149, 150,000 147,010 ,500 155, 311,955

T ota l Educat ion 2 6 8 , 162,610 2 3 8 , 617,290 252 , 617 ,117

In the O u t l i n e o f the Fourth Nat iona l Development Plan I 98 I - I 985

(Federal Government, I 98O ) , the planned c a p i t a l expend itu re f o r the

u n i v e r s i t i e s o f 1 ,250 m i l l i o n Na i ra is more than the t o t a l a l l o c a t i o n

to a l l o th e r l e v e l s combined. The amounts, according to the Develop

ment Plan ( 1981- 85 ) document, c o n s t i t u t e 56 .8 per cent o f the t o t a l

investment in educat io n . The government has j u s t i f i e d the g r e a t e r

share a l lo c a t e d to higher educat ion by c la im in g , in the Nat iona l

Development Plan (1980, p. 6 6 ) , t h a t the leve l o f demand f o r u n iv e r

s i t y places has increased beyond e x p e c ta t io n s . The Plan a n t i c i p a t e d

t h a t about 103,000 students would be e n r o l l e d in the u n i v e r s i t y system

by 1985.

The t o t a l a l l o c a t i o n to educat ion dur ing the plan per iod ( I 98 I - 85)

is M2.2 b i l l i o n , amounting to about 5 .5 per cent o f t o t a l c a p i t a l

investment in a l l sectors o f the economy by the Federal Government,

o f which M l . 25 b i l l i o n is earmarked f o r the u n i v e r s i t i e s .


73

National U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission

The Government o f N i g e r ia e s ta b l is h e d the Nat iona l U n i v e r s i t i e s

Commission in 1962, as an agency f o r developing and improving higher

educat ion in the country.

In funding the u n i v e r s i t i e s , the f i n a n c i a l needs of the i n s t i t u

t ions (c a p i t a l and r e c u r r e n t ) a re determined by the Nat ional U n iv e r

s i t i e s Commission and are paid from the fe d era l revenue in accordance

with the funding formulae adopted by the NUC. Up t o and including the

academic year 1974-1975, these formulae represented 100% p ro v is io n f o r

both re cu r re n t and c a p i t a l expenditures f o r the Federal U n i v e r s i t i e s

of Ibadan, Lagos, N ig e r ia and Benin; 75% of c a p i t a i and rec u r ren t

expenditures f o r Ahmadu B e l l o U n i v e r s i t y , and 30% recu r re n t and 50%

c a p i t a l expenditures f o r the U n i v e r s i t y o f I f e . Both o f the l a t t e r were

s t a t e owned i n s t i t u t i o n s a t the t ime. But now th a t a l l the e x is t in g

t h i r t e e n u n i v e r s i t i e s are f e d e r a l l y owned, a l l the u n i v e r s i t i e s are

t o t a l l y funded except f o r any local income generated by the u n i v e r s i

t i e s .

Method of A l l o c a t in g Recurrent Grants

The "Mode o f Operat ion" se c t io n o f the Nat iona l U n i v e r s i t i e s

Commission Report (1975) provided a d e t a i l e d d iscuss ion on how the

recu rren t grant approved f o r each u n i v e r s i t y is determined. Accord

ing to the unpubl ished r e p o r t , the t o t a l amount o f funds made a v a i l a b l e

is appropr ia ted by the Federal Government and the Nat iona l U n i v e r s i t i e s


74

Commission then a l l o c a t e s the money to the u n i v e r s i t i e s .

The u n i v e r s i t i e s submit t h e i r es t imates to the Commission in a

format prescr ib ed by the Commission (see Appendix D) . There are two

broad areas o f rec u r ren t expendi tures ind icated by the format:

(a) academic support and (b) a d m i n is t r a t i v e support .

Academic suppor t . Academic support comprises p rov is io n f o r the

operat ing costs o f : (a) teach ing departments and f a c u l t y s a l a r i e s ;

(b) teaching support u n i t s , f o r example, Central Language Laboratory;

(c) p u b l ic s e rv ic e u n i t s , f o r example. Cont inuing Educat ion Centre;

(d) general u n i v e r s i t y research; (e) l i b r a r i e s , in c lud in g pro v is io n

f o r books, p e r i o d i c a l s , and o ther l i b r a r y m a t e r i a ls ; ( f ) s t a f f deve lop

ment schemes; and, (g) a c t i v i t i e s r e la t e d to academic f u n c t io n s , f o r

example, examinat ions.

A d m i n is t r a t i v e s u p p o r t . The second area o f expend it u re i d e n t i f i e d

in the Report (p. 2 ) , was a d m i n i s t r a t i v e support , which comprises the

costs o f m a in ta in in g : (a) the ce n t ra l a d m in is t r a t io n ; (b) student

s e r v i c e s - - c a t e r i n g , h a l l s o f res idence; (c) general s e r v ic e s — works

and h ea l th ; (d) general e x p en d i tu re s - -w h ich include amounts f o r gen

era l passages, leave bonus, t ra n s p o r t a l lowance , and v e h ic l e loans.

In the de te rm in a t io n o f t o t a l r ec u r re n t exp enditures o f the u n i

v e r s i t y system, the U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission has developed a set of

r a t i o s which i t app l ies to the e n t i r e u n i v e r s i t y system, but not

n e c e s s a r i l y to a p a r t i c u l a r u n i v e r s i t y . This means t h a t r a t i o s o f the

Commission are not u n if o rm ly app l ied in i t s de te rm inat ion o f re curren t

grants to a l l the u n i v e r s i t i e s . The Commission adopted the method, as

claimed, in the "Mode o f Opera t ion" o f the Nat ional U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission


75

(19 75 ) , because " u n i v e r s i t i e s d i f f e r a g reat deal in the ex ten t in

which they are involved in research, teaching and p u b l ic se rv ic e and

the in t e n t i o n is not to encourage u n i f o rm i t y o f p r a c t i c e or in vo lve

ment" (p. 5 ) .

As a ls o in d ic a te d by the U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission, a r a t i o o f

5:1 is a p p l ied f o r expenditures on teaching to the expendi tures on

research . The r a t i o of teach ing expenses to p u b l ic s e rv ic e a c t i v i t i e s

was f i x e d a t 4 0 :1 . For l i b r a r i e s , a r a t i o o f 20:1 o f a u n i v e r s i t y ' s

approved fund was earmarked fo r i t s l i b r a r y a c t i v i t i e s . Academic

expenses and any o ther s p e c i f i c dec is ions o f the Commission as to

expenditures on items such as s t a f f development are a l l based on the

t o t a l teaching cos ts . The o v e r a l l r ecu r ren t e xpend it u re is d e t e r

mined through another r a t i o o f the t o t a l academic cost to the t o t a l

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e co s t , f i x e d a t 59 :41 . Tab le 5 shows r a t io s th a t are

app l ied by the U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission to determine a l l o c a t i o n o f

grants f o r re c u r r e n t e xp e nd i tu re o f the u n i v e r s i t i e s .

C ap i ta l Grants

The mechanism by which grants f o r the c a p i t a i development o f the

u n i v e r s i t i e s is made is known as the quinquennial a l l o c a t i o n . This

system o f a l l o c a t i o n co inc ides w i t h the Nat ional f i v e - y e a r development

planning cyc le . Each u n i v e r s i t y formula tes i t s c a p i t a l development

plans f o r the quinquennium and submits i t s proposals and est imates to

the Commission. The Commission eva luates the var ious proposals and

est im ates o f the u n i v e r s i t i e s and subsequently requests c a p i t a l grants

f o r the quinquennium from the Federal Government. The Federal


76

Tab le 5

Rat ios Appl ied by the Nat io na l U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission f o r A l l o c a t i o n o f Recurrent Grants

1 tern R at io

S tu d e n t /F acu l ty 15:1 (a r ts -b ase d d i s c i p l i n e s )

12:1 (sc i ence-based d i s c i p l i n e s )

Faculty Cost /Research 5:1

Facu lty C ost /P ub l ic Serv ic e A c t i v i t i e s 40:1

Recurrent E x p e n d i t u r e / L i b r a r i e s 20:1

Facu lty C o s t / S t a f f Development not sta ted

Facu lty C o s t / A c t i v i t y Re la ted to Academic Factors not s ta te d

Total Academic C ost /T o ta l A d m in is t r a t iv e Cost 59:41

Source: The Nat ional U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission, Mode o f O p e r a t io n ,1975 a.

Government a l l o c a t i o n to the Commission is a block g r a n t , without

re ference to any p a r t i c u l a r u n i v e r s i t y . The Commission i s , t h e r e f o r e ,

f r e e to a l l o c a t e the grant monies among the u n i v e r s i t i e s as i t sees f i t .

The Nat iona l U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission ( 1 9 7 5 a ) , h i g h l i g h t e d some of

the present funding mechanism. The Commission pointed out (p. 10) there

may not be a s in g le method o f a l l o c a t i o n acceptab le to a l l as being

wholly f a i r . T h ere fo re , the best t h a t can be expected is the development

o f a system which is as f a i r , e f f i c i e n t and open as p o s s ib le .


7 7

The Commission admit ted in the report r e f e r r e d to in the previous

paragraph t h a t the present manner o f funding the u n i v e r s i t i e s was to

some e x te n t a m at te r o f s u b j e c t i v e judgment. I t pointed out th a t the

u n i v e r s i t i e s themselves a r e not using uniform standards in assessing

t h e ! r needs.

i t appears t h a t a more e f f i c i e n t funding mechanism needs to be

developed and un i fo rm ly a p p l i e d .

Federal Government's A p p ro pr ia t io n s f o r Educat ion Compared to Those f o r Other Major Social Services

The vast commitment o f funds to educat ion by the government can

r e a l i s t i c a l l y be j u s t i f i e d on grounds t h a t the people want such a se r

v i c e . The expend itu re o f p u b l ic funds in a democracy should r e f l e c t

the needs, wants, and demands o f the people. In the Phi D e l ta Kappa

Commission Report (1973)» i t was suggested t h a t the j u s t i f i c a t i o n fo r

expenditure o f p u b l ic funds f o r educat ion goes much deeper than a mere

common d e s i re to possess knowledge. I t maintained th a t "mass p u b l ic

educat ion can be j u s t i f i e d on the more basic grounds t h a t i t c reates

and perpetuates the c u l t u r e , promotes soc ia l e q u a l i t y and enhances

economic development." Tha t rep o r t f u r t h e r c laimed:

Every human being has a r i g h t to develop his undivided a b i l i t i e s to his f u l l e s t , through educat ion , and the s t a t e has the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to f in ance educat ion in a p p r o p r ia te ways to a l l o w each person to r e a l i z e t h is go a l . (p. 7)

Tables 6 and 7» r e s p e c t i v e l y , g ive an i n d i c a t i o n o f the govern

ment 's concern f o r educat ion in terms o f c a p i t a l o u t la ys f o r educa

t i o n v i s - a - v i s o th e r s e rv ic e s dur ing the per iods 1970-1974 and


78

T a b le 6

Actual Pu b l ic C a p i ta l Expenditure f o r A l l Sectors1970-1974

Sector Fe d era 1 Government

A11 Sta tes

N M i l l i o n Tota l

Educat i on 99 ,087 155,492 254,579 (11.04%)*

Hea1th 39,273 72,756 112,029 (5%)*

Labor andSocial Wel fare 11,174 17,078 28,252 (0 .9% )*

1nformat i on 22 .320 19,315 41,635 (1.3%)*

Town and Country P1anni ng 16,002 33,828 49,830 (2 .2%)*

Water and Sewage 24 ,000 105,098 129,098 (5 .8% )*

Defense 231,730 231,730 (10 .4%)*

A g r ic u l t u r e 64 ,575 108,620 173,195 (7 .7% )*

T ra n s p o r ta t io n 306 ,726 210,071 516 ,797 (23 .1%)*

Commun i cat i ons 54 ,178 54 ,178 (2."4%)*

■•■percentage o f grand t o t a l p u b l i c c a p i t a l expenditure during the 4 -y e a r per iod .

Source: Federal Government o f N i g e r i a , T h i rd Nat iona l DevelopmentP lan . 1975-80 (1974, p. 2 6 ) .


79

Table 7

Summary of P u b l ic Sector C a p i ta l Programs1975-1980

Sector Fe d era 1 Government

Al lStates

N M i l l Tota

i on 1

Educat ion 1 ,656 ,1 93 807,629 2 , 4 6 3 ,8 2 2 ( 7 . 5%)*

Hea1th 314,160 455,768 759,928 ( 2 . 3%)*

Labor 43,187 43,187 (0 .1% )*

Social Development and Sports 24,950 114,653 139,603 (0 .4% )*

1nformat ion 234,341 145,884 380,225 (1 .2% )*

Town Planning 250,453 504,414 754,867 ( 2 . 3%)*

Water 317,413 612,625 930,038 (2 .8% )*

Sewage, Drainage and Refuse Di sposal 154,499 273 ,996 428,495 ( 1 . 3%)*

Defense 3 , 325,517 3 , 325 ,517 (10 .1%)*

A g r ic u l t u r e 750,845 895 ,007 1 ,645 ,8 52 ( 5 . 0%)*

T ran s p o r ta t io n 6 , 2 7 4 ,3 4 2 1 ,0 28 ,7 26 7 , 303,068 (22 .2% )*

Commun i ca t i ons 1, 338,944 1, 338 ,944 (4 .1 % )*

^percentage o f t o t a l es t im ated c a p i t a l p u b l ic ex pend i tu re f o r the per iod (1975-80)

Source: Federal Government o f N i g e r i a , T h i rd Na t iona l Development Plan,1975-80 ( 1974, p. 348) .


80

1975- 1980. The Federal government admitted In the T h i r d Nat iona l Deve l

opment P lan , 1975-80 ( 1974 , p. 237) , t h a t , h i s t o r i c a l l y , educat ion has

enjoyed a high p r i o r i t y in N i g e r i a ' s development p la n n in g . I t pointed

out t h a t , in the F i r s t N a t io na l Development Plan 1962-68 ( I 96 I ) , educa

t io n ranked f i f t h , judged by the percentage o f f i n a n c i a l resource a l l o

c a t io n . However, as shown in T ab le 6 , the educat ion sec to r p r i o r i t y

r a t in g f o r c a p i t a l e xp e n d i tu re rose to second place ( f o l l o w in g t ra n sp o r

t a t i o n ) in the second plan p e r io d , 1970-1974. In the gross p u b l ic sec

t o r investment ( c a p i t a l and re c u r re n t ) o f about N2,000 b i l l i o n , educat ion

accounted f o r N77.8 m i l l i o n , or 13 .5 per cent o f t h a t t o t a l investment.

As shown in Tab le 7, the p r i o r i t y r a t i n g f o r educat ion dropped to

t h i r d place behind t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and defense. In the cu r re n t Federal

Government's O u t l i n e o f the Fourth N at io na l Development Plan 1981-85

( 1980) , the t o t a l a l l o c a t i o n f o r educat ion under the fe d era l govern

ment programs is N2.2 b i l l i o n , which is about 5-5 per cent o f the pro

j e c t e d Federal Government t o t a l c a p i t a l investment during the per io d .

I t again ranks t h i r d , below t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and defense.

The Gross Nat iona l Product o f N ig e r i a and the Amount o f F in an c ia l Support f o r Higher Educat ion

I t would have been i n t e r e s t i n g to study the p ro p o r t io n o f the

Gross Nat iona l Product t h a t has been spent on h ig her educat ion during

the post-independence per iod to assess the adequacy o r inadequacy o f

t h i s e xp e nd i tu re . I t was not p o ss ib le to o b ta in s u f f i c i e n t data to

make such an assessment p o s s ib le .

However, as in d ic a te d in the F i r s t Nat io na l Development Plan


81

1962-68 (Federal Government o f N i g e r i a , 1961) , investment in educat ion

during the per iod was 10 .3 per cent o f the gross p u b l ic sec to r i n v e s t

ment o f about N1,400 b i l l i o n . In the second plan p e r io d , 1970-1974,

out o f the t o t a l p u b l ic investment ( c a p i t a l and r e c u r re n t ) o f about

H2,200 b i l l i o n , educat ion accounted f o r M77-8 m i l l i o n , which was about

13 .5 per cent o f the t o t a l investment. In the O u t l i n e o f the Fourth

Nat iona l Development Plan I 98 I -85 (Federal Government o f N i g e r i a , I 98O),

the t o t a l a l l o c a t i o n to educat ion under the fed era l program was M2.2

b i l l i o n , amounting to about 5 .5 per cent o f the p ro jec te d t o t a l f ed era l

government c a p i t a l investment during the plan p er io d . The fe d e ra l pro

gram under t h i s plan does not include p ro je c t s a t the pr imary l e v e l .

The C o n s t i t u t i o n o f the Federal Republ ic o f N i g e r i a , 1979 vested the

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r pr imary educat ion on the s t a t e and local governments

(Federal Government o f N i g e r i a , 1979b).

There is a general p a t t e r n o f c o n s is te n t p o s i t i v e support o f educa

t io n by the Government s in ce the country a t t a i n e d independence in I960 .

The support , however, has been d i s c r im in a t o r y and perhaps w i th o u t s u f

f i c i e n t p lann ing . The government i t s e l f admitted in the T h i rd Na t iona l

Development Plan 1975-80 (Federal Government o f N i g e r i a , 1974, p. 240)

t h a t th e re was " s t r u c t u r a l imbalance in the co u n t ry 's ed ucat io na l sys

tem. I t f u r t h e r admitted t h a t :

An imbalance remains in the p a t te r n o f development among the var ious le v e ls o f educat ion perhaps owing to inadequate co o rd in a t io n and co ntro l in the past . Thus, w h i le 90 percent o f students e n r o l l e d in the formal school system are in pr imary schools only about 10 percent a re in the o th e r two l e v e l s . The corresponding r a t i o s f o r many advanced economies a r e 60 percent and 40 percent respect i v e l y . This has meant t h a t the second level o f educat ion could provide n e i t h e r adequate o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r the products o f the pr imary schools nor s u i t a b l e and s u f f i c i e n t


input f o r the t e r t i a r y and higher educat ion l e v e l s . I t has a ls o ensured t h a t the system remains unable to meet the economy's manpower needs p a r t i c u l a r l y in the middle and higher leve l manpower c a te g o r ie s . (p. 240)

T ab le 8 shows t h a t funds a l lo c a t e d f o r u n v e r s i t y educat ion

dropped f o r the per iod 1976-1977 to 1978-1979 by about fo u r per cent ,

whereas th e re was an increase in n a t io na l income o f about 35 per cent

dur ing the corresponding p er io d . The drop shows lack o f any p o s i t i v e

c o r r e l a t i o n between the f i n a n c i a l support f o r h igher educat ion and the

in creas in g gross n a t ion a l product o f the country.

Tab le 8

Gross Domestic Product , Expenditures f o r Educat ion and Funds A l lo c a t e d to U n i v e r s i t i e s

82

Fi seal Year

Gross Nat iona l Product

Expenditures f o r educat ion; r ecu r ren t ;

c a p i t a l ( t o t a l )

Grants to Un i vers i t i e s

1976-1977 Ml 8 ,6 0 8 , 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 N 5 2 ,6 1 7 ,5 6 2 ;

5 67 ,85 9 ,37 9

( 6 2 0 ,476 ,941 )

155 ,311 ,939

1977-1978 2 1 ,5 1 2 , 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 23 8 ,6 1 7 ,2 9 0 ;

400 ,0 0 0 ,0 00

(638 ,617 ,290 )

I47,010m500

1978-1979 2 5 ,1 3 1 ,1 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 6 8 ,16 2 ,610 ;

301 ,4 0 0 ,0 00

( 569 ,5 6 2 ,6 1 0 )

149 ,150 ,000

Sources: Federal Government o f N i g e r i a , T h i rd N at io na l DevelopmentPlan 1975-80 (1974, P- 5 1 ) .

Federal Government o f N i g e r i a , Recurrent and C a p i ta l Est imates 1978-79 (19 78 ) .


83

I n t e r n a t io n a l ' Comparison o f Pub l ic Expenditures o f Some Se lected Countr ies f o r Educat ion and Higher Educat ion

The importance o f comparat ive stud ies in educat ion appears e v id e n t .

However, as Cerych (1979) pointed out , the motive behind most compara

t i v e stud ies is the b e l i e f th a t they can have an impact on p o l i c y

making. He argued th a t to show th a t a s p e c i f i c country is lack ing in

c e r t a i n areas compared to o ther nat ions has o f te n put strong pressure

on p o l ic y makers to o f f e r more f a c i l i t i e s and to a p p r o p r ia t e l a r g e r

resources.

Glenny (1979) on the o ther hand, argued th a t even when comparat ive

in format ion is a v a i l a b l e , many times i t is ignored by the p o l i t i c i a n s ,

who erroneously assume t h e i r own country to be unique, re q u i r in g d i f

f e r e n t so lu t ions to problems f o r which o ther c o u n t r ie s have a l rea dy

devised workable s o lu t io n s .

In Tables 9 through 12, an at tempt has been made to prov ide

comparat ive analyses o f p u b l i c expenditu res on educat ion o f some

se lected c o u n t r i e s — having developed, developing, and c e n t r a l l y planned

economies— by showing the per cent o f support provided from the gross

n a t io n a l product o f the c o u n t r ie s . For as Misra (1967, p. 1) remarked,

"Unless the nat ion invests on the improvement o f human m a t e r ia l by edu

ca t io n and techn ica l t r a i n i n g in order to br ing t h e i r a b i l i t y to maxi

mum e f f i c i e n c y , n a t io n a l progress may be s ev ere ly hampered."

The analyses show how N ig e r ia compared w i t h o th e r c o u n t r ie s o f

the world and w i t h i n the commonwealth c o u n t r ie s in t h i s respect .


84

Publ ic Expenditures on Educat ion o f Some Selected Developed and Developing Countr ies

Not many years ago, educat ion was perceived by many as a non

pro duct ive a c t i v i t y . Th is po in t o f v iew is more p re v a le n t in develop

ing c o u n t r ie s than in developed c o u n t r ie s . But g r a d u a l ly i t has changed

as educat ion is now seen as product iv e as o th er economic endeavors.

According to Misra (1967, p. 7 ) , "educa t ion as a p ro duct ive a c t i

v i t y has fo u r s a l i e n t fe a t u r e s which d i s t i n g u i s h i t from o th er a c t i v i

t i e s . " He s ta te d t h a t , in the f i r s t p lace , educat ion can be seen as

both an item o f consumption and a f a c t o r o f product io n , i t is a commo

d i t y th a t is vaiued and demanded f o r i t s own sake. Secondly, i t c r e

ates the s k i l l e d manpower which makes i t e a s i e r to produce o th e r th in gs .

T h i r d l y , i t has a h ig h ly fa v o r a b le c o s t / b e n e f i t r a t i o . This us u a l ly

r e s u l ts in a le sse r y i e l d in those s o c i e t i e s th a t a re inadequately

organized to make f u l l use o f t a l e n t and t r a i n i n g . L a s t l y , Misra

added th a t educat ion is marked by n o n - lo g ic a l dec is ions based on va lue

judgments.

The r e a l i z a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y by developing c o u n t r i e s , o f the pro

d u c t ive s i g n i f i c a n c e o f educat ion as a major item in the rapid d e v e l

opment o f t h e i r economies is evidenced by the high proport ion o f

a l l o c a t i o n s to educat ion in the n a t io n a l budget. According to Glenny

(1979, p. 1 2 ) , "many s tu d ie s look a t comparat ive f i g u r e s f o r na t io na l

GNP and the p ropor t io n a l l o c a t e d to h igher educat ion as i t s share o f

n a t io n a l income. Such data i n d ic a t e the p r i o r i t y t h a t higher educat ion

holds in r e l a t i o n to o t h e r serv ices o f the na t ion s t a t e s . " He con

cluded t h a t the percentage o f s t a t e or n a t io n a l revenue o f GNP fo r


85

higher educat ion is an important in d ic a t o r o f i t s p r i o r i t y in the

spectrum o f p u b l ic s e r v ic e s .

As shown in Tab le 9, Zambia, Jamaica and Saudi Arab ia spent a

higher percentage o f t h e i r GNP's on educat ion than did the United S ta tes

in 1976. N ig e r i a was much behind Egypt, Kenya, Gambia, Zambia, Jamaica,

Saudi Arab ia and S yr ia in the percentage o f GNP expended on educat ion .

P opu la t io n , Gross N at io na l Product , GNP Per C a p i t a , and Pub l ic Expenditure f o r Educat ion

"The e x te n t and n a tu re o f popu la t ion has profound e f f e c t on the

pro v is io n o f educat ion" (M is ra , 1968, p. 3 9 ) . The increase in popula

t io n u su a l ly r e s u l t s in g r e a t e r demand f o r p rov is io n o f more f a c i l i t i e s

f o r educat io n . Bertrand Russel l once remarked t h a t "There is , in any

given so c ie ty a t any given t ime, a cons id erab le p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t in

crease in popula t ion may o u t s t r i p improvement in technique , and, t h e r e

f o r e , cause a general lowering o f standards o f l i f e " (M is ra , p. 3 9 ) .

The above co n s id era t io n s should have bearings on the amount o f expendi

tures f o r educat ion . Another important f a c t o r is l i f e expectancy which

is high in most o f the developed c o unt r ie s and very low in some d e v e l

oping c o u n t r ie s . The r e s u l t is th a t the r a t i o o f the school-age c h i l d

ren to ad u l ts is h igher in the developing c o u n t r i e s , thus in f lu e n c in g

the per c a p i t a exp e nd i tu re on educat ion. On the o th e r hand, as economic

cond i t io ns improve in the developing c o unt r ie s and l i f e expectancy in

creases, th ere are in creas ing proport ions o f a d u l ts in the t o t a l popu

l a t i o n . This has to be r e f l e c t e d in increased prov is io ns f o r a d u l t

educat ion.

Table 10 shows the t o t a l expenditure on educat ion as a percentage


86

Tab le 9

P u b l ic Expenditures on Educat ion o f Some Selected Developed and Developing Countr ies

Pu b l ic Expenditure on EducationCountry Year To ta l As % o f As % o f Total

Expenditures GNP Pub l ic Expen-d I t u r e

Developed Economies^

1. South A f r i c a na na na

2. Canada ( d o l l a r s )

1976 14,757,381 7 .9 na

3. United Sta tes 1976 110 ,700,000 6 .0 17.7

4. Is rae l(pound)

1975 5 ,51 1 ,0 0 0 6 . 8 na

5. Japan(yen)

1975 8 , 1 5 6 ,6 7 3 ,0 0 0 5 .5 22 .6

6. Germany Fed. Rep. (D.mark)

1975 53 ,2 15 ,0 00 5 .2 10.6

7. United Kingdom (pound)

1974 5 ,5 0 7 ,5 0 0 6 .2 14 .0

8. Finland (markka)

1976 7 ,6 2 8 ,7 2 7 7.1 16.8

Developing Economies^

9. Egypt(pound)

1976 305,031 5 .4 na

0 . Ghana ( l e d i )

1976 380,038 4 .2 na

'#

1. Kenya ( s h i 11i ng)

1974 1 , 119,620 5 .7 20 .5

2. Malawi(kwacha)

1975 13,052 2 .0 9 .6

(cont inued)

^ ’ *^Developed, deve loping and c e n t r a l l y planned economies are as c l a s s i f i e d in S t a t i s t i c a l Yearbook 1978 (UNESCO, 1979) .


87

Table 9 (conc luded)

Publ ic 1Expend i tu re on Educat ionCountry Year Total

Expendi turesAs % o f

GNPAs % of Total P u b l Ic Expen- d i tu re

13. S ie r r a Leone ( leone)

1976 19,972 3. 1 15.1

14. Gambia (dalas i )

1976 8,353 4 .4 9 .2

15. Zambia(kwacha)

1976 115,157 6 . 7 na

16. B r a z i 1 (c ruze i ro)

1976 35 ,0 25 ,0 00 2 .3 na

17. Jama i ca ( d o l l a r )

1976 187,203 6 . 9 15.8

18. Jordan (di nar)

1976 20 ,222 3 .5 7 .7

19. Saudi Arabia ( r i y a l )

1976 13 ,9 77 ,4 58 9 . 9 10.6

20. Syr i a (pound)

1976 1 ,442 ,1 85 5 . 8 8 .7

21. India(rupee)

1975 19,662 ,000 2 . 7 na

22. N ig er ia (na i ra)

1974 601 ,7 95 ,0 00 4 .3 na

C e n t r a l l y Planned Economies''

23. German Dem. Rep. 1974 na 5 .6 7 .6

24. Czechoslovakia(kruna)

1976 18 ,897 ,597 4 . 5 na

25. USSR(rub le )

1976 28 ,8 4 9 ,40 0 7 .5 2 .7

Source: S t a t i s t i c a l Yearbook 1978 (UNESCO, 1979).

' 'Developed, developing and c e n t r a l l y planned economies a re as c l a s s i f i e d in S t a t i s t i c a l Yearbook 1978 (UNESCO, 1979).


88

T a b l e 10

P opula t ion , Gross N a t ion a l Product , Gross Nat iona l Product Per C ap it a , and P u b l ic Expenditure f o r Educat ion

Country YearPo pula t ion ( m i l l ions)

GNP a t Market Prices (US $)

( m i l l ions)

GNP per Capi ta

(US $)

Publ i c Expenditu re on Educat io n as

% o f GNP

Expend!ture on Educat io n as % of To ta l Pu b l ic Expend!ture

Developed Economies

South A f r i c a 27 .708 40,940 1,480 na na

Canada 1976 23 ,568 216,090 9,200 7 .8 na

United States 1976 218,373 2 ,1 1 7 ,8 9 0 9 ,700 6 . 0 17.7

Is rae l 1975 3 ,716 15,300 4,120 6 .8 na

Japan 1975 114,053 836,160 7,330 5 .5 22 .6

France 1976 53 ,182 439 ,970 8,270 5 .8 na

- Fed. Cermany 1975 61 ,212 587 ,700 9,600 5 .2 10.6

1 t a l y 1975 56 ,800 218 ,320 3,840 5 .0 11.7

Un i ted Ki ngdom 1974 55,918 2 8 1 ,090 5,030 6 . 2 14.0

F in land 1976 4 ,7 45 32,380 6,820 7.1 16.8

Sweden 1976 8 ,2 97 84 ,750 10,210 7 .7 18.6

Greece 1974 9 ,3 2 5 30,530 51 1.8 8 . 0

Yugoslavia 1976 21 ,933 52,340 2 ,390 5 . 4 na

A u s t r a l Î a 1975 14,366 113,830 7 ,920 6 .3 14.4

New Zealand 1976 3 ,187 15,270 4 ,790 5 .5 na

Developing Economies

Egypt 1976 36 ,686 15,520 400 5 .4 na

Ghana 1976 10,972 4 ,250 390 4 .2 na

Kenya 1974 15,187 4,830 320 5 .7 20 .5

(cont inued)


89

Table 10 ( c o n t in u e d )

Country Year Po pula t ion (mi 11 ions)

GNP atMarket GNP per Pr ices Capita (US $) (US $)

(mi 11 ions)

Publ i c Expendit u re on Educat io n as

% o f GNP

Expendi tu re on Educat io n as % o To ta l Publ i i Expendi tu re

Malawi 1975 5 ,780 1,010 180 2 .0 9 . 6

Morocco 1976 18,914 12,610 670 6 .0 14 .4

Tun i s i a 1975 6 ,050 5,760 950 4 .9 15.8

D ie r ra Leone 1976 3 ,326 770 230 3.1 15.1

Uganda 1975 12,421 na na 3 . 0 17.0

Li ber i a 1975 1,742 820 460 2 .4 na

Cameroon 1976 8 ,0 65 3,700 460 4 .6 na

Tanzania 1976 16,871 3,880 230 4 .4 15.5

Zai re 26 ,410 5,510 210 na na

Zambia 1976 5 ,2 95 2 ,530 480 6 .7 na

B r a z i 1 1976 119,430 187,190 1,570 2 .3 na

Columbia 1976 25 ,136 21,790 870 1 .9 21 .0

Jama i ca 1976 2,131 2,350 1,110 6 .9 15.8

Mex i CO 1976 65 ,470 84,150 1.290 4.3 na

Cyprus 1976 646 1.370 2,110 4.1 14.9

Jordan 1976 2 ,985 2,270 1,050 3 .5 7 .7

Saudi Arabia 1976 7,870 63,310 8 ,040 9 .9 10.6

Syr ia 1976 8 ,088 7,490 930 5 . 8 8 .7

Turkey 1972 42,929 51,750 1,210 5 .3 na

Ind ia 1975 643,896 112,660 180 2 .7 na

Korea, Rep. o f

1976 36,616 42,460 1,160 na

(cont i nued)

na


T a b l e 10 ( c o n c l u d e d )

9 0

Country Year Popula t ion (mi 11 ions)

GNP atMarket GNP per Prices Capita (US $) (US 6)

( m i l l ions)

Publ i c Expendit u r e on Educat io n as

% o f GNP

Expendi tu re on Educat io n as % of Total Pu b l ic Expendi tu re

Pakistan 1976 77,337 17,530 230 2. 1 5.1

P h i l i p p i n e s 1976 45 ,639 23,250 510 na 7 .6

Thai land 1976 44 ,345 21,790 490 4.1 20 .8

C e n t r a l l y Planned Economies

B ulgaria 1976 8 ,892 28,450 3,200 5 .4 na

Czechoslovakia 1976 15,120 71,320 4,720 4 .5 na

German Dem. Rep. 1974 16,859 95 ,490 5,660 5 .6 7 .6

Hungary 1976 10,672 36,860 3,450 4 . 6 na

Poland 1976 35,081 128,330 3,660 na 7 .6

USSR 1976 261 ,234 965,520 3,700 7 .5 12.7

N ig e r ia 1074 81 ,039 45,720 560 4 .3 na

na - not a v a l l a b l e

Sources: Popu la t io n , World Bank A t las (197 9 ) .

Gross Nat io na l Product and Gross Nat ional Product per C ap i ta , World Bank A t la s (19 79 ) .

Pu b l ic Expenditures f o r Educat ion, S t a t i s t i c a l Yearbook 1978, (UNESCO, 1979) .


91

o f the gross n a t io n a l product (GNP) o f some se le c ted c o u n t r ie s compared

to N i g e r i a . I t a ls o shows expendi tures on educat ion r e l a t i v e to t o t a l

p u b l ic expenditures o f the c o u n t r ie s . N ig e r ian exp e nd i tu re on educa

t io n (4.3% GNP) was a le s s e r percentage than th a t o f 39 o f the o th er

50 c o u n t r i e s . With a GNP per c a p i t a o f US $560, N ig e r ia n ex pend itu re

on educat ion as a percentage o f the gross n a t io n a l product was less

than t h a t o f any o f the f i v e co u n t r ies (Egypt , Kenya, Cameroon, Tanzan

i a , and Zambia) having lower GNP's per c a p i t a .

Gross Nat ional Products o f Independent Commonwealth Countr ies and Expenditures f o r Education

N ig e r i a became an independent member o f the Commonwealth o f Nat ions

in I960 . Most o f the c o u n t r ie s th a t belong to the body were a t one t ime

or another co lon ies o f the United Kingdom. Most o f the c o u n t r ie s are

regarded as developing n a t io n s , w i th the except ion o f the United Kingdom,

Canada, A u s t r a l i a and New Zealand (UNESCO, 1979) .

As shown in Tab le 11, the GNP per c a p i t a o f N i g e r i a (US $560) was

less than 25 per cent o f the GNP per c a p i t a o f any o f the fo u r developed

co u n tr ies in the Commonwealth o f Nat iona. A l l the developed cou n t r ies

were a ls o spending a g r e a t e r p roport ion o f t h e i r gross n a t io n a l produc-

on educat ion than was N i g e r i a . When compared w i th o t h e r Commonwealth

c o u n t r i e s , N i g e r i a ' s exp en d i tu re on educat ion , as a percentage o f the

GNP, was less than t h a t o f 26 o f the 36 c o u n t r ie s . I t exceeded the

percentage o f on ly ten c o u n t r ie s : Bangladesh, Cyprus, Ghana, In d ia ,

Lesotho, Malawi , S i e r r a Leone, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and T r i n i d a d .


92

T a b l e 11

Estimates o f Gross Nat io na l Products o f Independent Commonwealth Countr ies and Expenditures f o r Educat ion 1976

CountryGNP a tMarket P r ices US $ m i l l i o n

GNP per Capi ta US $

Publ i c Expendi ture f o r Educat ion as % of GNP

Developed Countr ies

A u s t r a 1i a 113,830 7,920 6 .3

Canada 216 .090 9 ,170 7.8

New Zealand 14,270 4 ,790 5.5

United Kingdom 281,090 5,030 6 .2

Developing Countr ies

Bahamas 570 2,620 5 .4

Bangladesh 7 ,630 90 1.4

Barbados 490 1,940 7 .5

Cyrpus 1,370 2,110 4.1

Dominica 30 440 na

F i j i 860 1,440 5.1

The Gambia 130 230 4 .4

Ghana 4 ,2 50 390 4 .2

Grenada 60 530 9 . 4

Guyana 460 530 7.0

India 112 ,660 180 2 . 7

Jamaica 2 ,35 0 1,110 6 .9

Kenya 4 ,830 320 5 .7

Ki r i b a t a 40 690 na

Lesotho 360 280 3/7(cont inued)


93

Table 11 (conc luded)

CountryGNP a tMarket Pr ices US $ m i l l i o n

GNP per Capi ta US $

Publ i c Expendi tu re f o r Educat ion as % o f GNP

Malawi 1,010 180 2 .0

Malays ia 14,540 1,090 na

Ma 1 ta 730 2,160 4 .0

M a u r i t iu s 760 830 4 .3

Niger i a 45 ,720 560 4 .3

Papua New Guinea 1,640 560 na

St. Lucia 80 630 na

St. Vincent 40 380 na

Seyche l les 70 1,060 na

S ie r r a Leone 690 210 3.1

Si ngapore 7 ,960 3,260 2 . 7

Solomon Islands 90 430 4 .9

Sri Lanka 2 ,7 20 190 3.1

Swazi land 310 590 5 . 2

Tanzania (mainland) 3 .8 80 230 4 .4

Zambia 2 ,53 0 480 6 . 7

na - not a v a l l a b l e

Sources: Gross Nat ional Products, World Bank A t las ( 1 9 7 9 ) .

Pu b l ic Expenditures f o r Educat ion, S t a t i s t i c a l Yearbook 1978 (UNESCO, 1979) .


94

Comparison on P u b l ic Expenditures o f Selected Countr ies f o r Higher Educat ion

UNESCO ( 1975, p. 5) po inted o u t , "h igher educat ion is assuming an

i n c r e a s in g ly important r o l e not only in the educat ion system but in the

whole l i f e o f nat ions in s o fa r as i t must respond to the new demands

a r i s i n g from the rap id t ran s fo rm at io n o f the world , to the needs o f

so c ie ty and to the d es i re o f in d iv i d u a ls f o r c u l t u r e . " This concern,

UNESCO concluded, has been r e f l e c t e d in most co u n t r ie s in g r e a t e r commit

ment to ensure e d u c a t io n 's development.

Tab le 4 .12 shows the t o t a l p u b l ic expenditures f o r h igher educa

t io n o f some s e lec ted c o u n t r ie s . Whi le the data are useful f o r i n t e r

n a t io n a l comparison, such comparison should be done w i th c a u t io n . In a

few cases (Ghana, Zambia, I t a l y , Greece, In d ia , T h a i l a n d ) , the year for

which the in form at io n was gathered is d i f f e r e n t than f o r the m a j o r i t y

and f o r some important c o u n t r ie s r e le v a n t data were not a v a i l a b l e .

For example, N i g e r i a , w i th over 15 m i l l i o n more people than Mexico,

in 1977 spent about o n e - t h i r d of the amount, expressed in U.S. d o l l a r s ,

th a t Mexico expended on -h ig h er educat ion. Egypt, w i th a pop u la t io n o f

37 . 7M to N i g e r i a ' s 79M, committed more funds than d id N ig e r ia to higher

educat ion during the same period . Canada, w ith less than o n e - t h i r d

of N i g e r i a ' s p o p u la t io n , spent almost s ix teen times as much on h igher

educat ion.

Thus, i t may be seen th a t N i g e r i a ' s expenditure on h ig h er educat io n ,

as compared to o th e r c o u n t r ie s , has been ra th e r low when viewed r e l a t i v e

to the w ea l th and p op u la t ion o f the country .

There was not s u f f i c i ent in format ion a v a i l a b l e on the th ree developing


CD■ D

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I n t e r n a t i o n a l Comparison on Pub l ic Expenditures of Se lected Countr ies f o r Higher Educat ion

Country YearGNP per Capi ta (US $)

Expendi turesf o r HigherEd u ca t io n ,Local _ a Currency

Expendi tures f o r Higher Educat ion,US d o l l a r s ^

US D o l l a rExchangeRate

Populat i on

Developed Economies

Canada 1977 8 ,350 3 ,9 4 1 ,9 8 5 3 ,7 0 9 ,4 2 2 0 .9410 23,320

Norway 1977 8 ,570 1 .619 ,0 00 304,414 0.18791 4,034

Japan 1977 6,510 803,095 3 ,003 0.00374 113,216

Denmark 1977 na 2 ,8 4 0 ,0 0 0 443,229 0.16663 5.076

France 1977 7.500 8 ,5 6 1 ,6 0 0 1 ,742 ,7 99 0.20356 53,051

I t a l y 1976 3,300 777,439 879 0.00113 52,515

1 re la nd 1977 3,060 53.347 93 ,080 1.7448 3 .198

A u s t r i a 1977 6.450 5 .4 0 2 ,3 0 0 327,163 0.06056 7 ,506

Fi niand 1977 na 966,760 240,190 0.24845 4 ,732

Sweden 1977 9,340 2 ,8 9 7 ,8 0 0 648,440 0.22377 8.263

Swi t z e r l a n d 1977 11,080 1 ,1 09 ,0 00 461,410 0.41606 6,327

Greece 1974 2,000 2 ,0 5 8 ,3 0 3 68,541 0.0333 7,293

Developing Economies

Egypt 1977 340 108,463 277,231 2 ,556 37,796

^The f ig u re s are reported In thousands. (cont i nued) vx>VJ1

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Table 12 . (concluded)

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Country YearGNP per Capi ta (US $)

Expenditures f o r Higher Educat ion, Local Currency

Expendi tures f o r Higher Educat i on US do 1lars^

US D o l l a rExchangeRate

Popula t ion^

8■ D N ig e r ia 1977 510 150,500 233 ,485 1.5514 78 ,982c q '3" Ghana 1976 370 6 ,287 5 ,467 0 .8696 10,634

1 Malawi 1975 140 2 ,378 3 ,033 1.1077 5 ,297CD Zambia 1978 480 9 ,540 11,740 1.2307 5 ,295"nc Mexico 1977 1,160 15 ,419 ,962 683 ,567 0.04433 63 ,3193"CD Kuwa i t 1977 12,690 22,083 77,065 3.4898 1,137CD

■ DCypurs 1977 1,830 492 1,206 2.4510 644

OQ . Jordan 1977 940 858 2 ,606 3.0373 2 ,888

1.O Ind ia 1975 160 4 , 6 3 8 ,3 9 0 555,493 0.11976 607,7363

■D Korea, Rep. 1977 908 30,053 63 0.0021 35,953O3"

CT Thai land 1976 430 883 ,712 43 ,320 0 .04902 43,3261—HCDQ. C e n t r a l l y Planned Economies§ 1—H3"

Bulgar ia 1977 2 ,830 110,282 113,700 1.031 8 ,835O

Czechoslovakia 1977 4 .240 3 ,0 6 1 ,9 7 5 512,880 0 .1675 15,013"OCD

3Hungary 1977 3,450 4 ,1 8 5 ,7 7 6 493,921 0 .1 18 10,628

The f ig u r e s are repor ted in thousands.

Sources: P opu la t io n , World Bank A t la s (1979 ) .

Gross Natwonal Product , Expenditures f o r Higher S t a t i s t i c a l Yearbook 1978 (UNESCO, 1 9 7 9 ) .

Educat ion, and US D o l l a r Exchange Rate,

ON

97

c o u n tr ies (Ghana, I n d i a , and Kenya), which were examined in more d e t a i l ,

to provide a basis f o r meaningful comparison on the p a t t e r n o f f i n a n

c i a l support o f higher educat ion among those c o u n t r ie s and N ig e r i a .

There was ev idence, however, to suggest th a t the th r e e c o u n t r ie s were

spending a higher p ro por t io n o f t h e i r Gross Nat io na l Product on educa

t io n than was N ig e r i a . N i g e r i a , w i th a g rea t GNP (over two t imes th a t

o f I n d i a ) , has on ly 25 per cent popula t ion l i t e r a c y , which was the same

as Kenya (25%) but lower than Ghana (30%) and In d ia (43%).

Financing Higher Educat ion in the United States

In the United S ta tes o f America, educat ion has t r a d i t i o n a l l y been

recognized as the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f the s t a t e s . Federal government's

main support to educat ion was in the form of t u i t i o n as s is tan c e or loan

to the studen ts. Major expenditures o f the s t a t e governments have been,

however, on educat ion . Th is has made educat ion the number one p r i o r i t y

o f s t a t e fu n c t io n s .

According to Chambers (1970, p. 430):

The f i n a n c i a l support o f pub l ic i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher educa t io n is p r i m a r i l y an o b l i g a t i o n and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f the s t a t e i t s e l f ; and al though su b s ta n t ia l supplementary support may be received from p r i v a t e donors, the fe d e r a l government, and local tax in g subd iv is io ns o f the S t a t e , i t is the p o l ic y o f the L e g i s l a t u r e t h a t , in i t s co n s id e ra t ion o f revenue laws and o th e r f i s c a l measures, inc lu d ing i t s ac ts approp r i a t i n g s t a t e tax funds f o r the support o f the several func t io ns o f s t a t e government, p rov is io n f o r adequate and s a t i s f a c t o r y support o f h igher educat ion sh a l l have f i r s t p r i o r i t y , in keeping w i th i t s r e c o g n i t io n as a paramount and un iq ue ly important a c t i v i t y o f the s t a t e , somewhat a p ar t from and comparable w i th o th e r fu n c t io n s o f government as a whole.

Some s ta te s s p e c i f i c a l l y made c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p ro v is io n s f o r the


98

support o f educat ion , f o r example, the C a l i f o r n i a C o n s t i t u t i o n ,

A r t i c l e X I I I , Sect ion 15, s t i p u l a t e d t h a t , out o f the revenues from

s t a t e taxes f o r which p ro v is io n was made in the a r t i c l e , together w it h

a l l o th e r s t a t e revenues, th ere sha l l f i r s t be set ap a r t moneys to be

a p p l ied by the s t a t e to support the pu b l ic school system and the S ta te

U n i v e r s i t y (Chambers, 1978, p. 430 ) .

Michigan Higher Education Funding Model

The devised model was the f i r s t o f i t s kind in the United States

and cons is ts o f th ree p a r t s : (a) a foundat ion o f support , (b) an added

cost f a c t o r der ived from r o le and mission d i f f e r e n c e s o f each i n s t i t u

t i o n , and (c) spec ia l grants to fund unique programs. The funding model

made i t p o s s ib le , in s o fa r as p r a c t i c a b l e , f o r the a l l o c a t i o n o f funds

to the u n i v e r s i t i e s to be based on e m p i r i c a l l y v e r i f i a b l e f a c t o r s .

Summary

This chapter was devoted to the p res en ta t io n and d iscussion o f

data presented under s i x headings, g e n e r a l l y corresponding to the s ix

research quest ions . The f i r s t sect ion o f the chapter d e a l t w i th the

l e g i s l a t i v e prov is ions f o r the support o f h igher educat ion .

The second sect ion o f the chapter examined the sources and amounts

o f revenue f o r the u n i v e r s i t i e s , and the t h i r d considered the Federal

government's budget f o r educat ion in r e l a t i o n to the p o r t io n a l lo c a t e d

to higher educat ion . Th is sect ion a lso discussed the funding mechanism

c u r r e n t l y used by the government to d i s t r i b u t e funds to the u n i v e r s i t i e s ,

along w i th the r o le o f the Nat iona l U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission as a channel .


99

The f o u r th sect ion o f the chapter presented a comparison o f

a p p ro p r ia t io n s f o r educat ion and o t h e r soc ia l s e rv ice s f o r the periods

1970-1974 and 1975- 1980, which co inc id ed w i th the second and t h i r d

quadrennium development p lan s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The f i f t h sect ion o f the chapter presented in fo rm at io n on the

wealth o f N i g e r i a and r e l a t e d i t to the amounts o f money a l l o c a t e d f o r

educat ion. I t provided in fo rm at io n on the gross n a t io n a l product f o r

the th ree year per iod 1976-1979, and on the funds a l l o c a t e d to educa

t io n and to the u n i v e r s i t i e s dur ing the same p er io d .

The s ix t h sect ion o f the chapter fe a tu r e d comparat ive d a ta — regard

ing Gross Nat iona l Product , p o p u la t io n , p u b l ic expend itu res on educat ion

and expenditures on h ig h er ed u cat io n — f o r some s e lec te d c o u n t r ie s having

developed, develop ing , or c e n t r a l l y planned economies.


CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary o f the Study

The purpose o f t h is study was to I n v e s t ig a t e : (a) the s ta tu s o f

the f in a n c in g o f higher educat ion in N i g e r i a , (b) the h i s t o r i c a l and

legal s t r u c t u re s r e l a t i n g to f in a n ce , and (c) s t a t e and fed era l ac t ions

which have in f luenced u n i v e r s i t y educat ion f in a n c in g in N i g e r i a . The

w r i t e r assumed the N ig e r ia n government 's commitment to c re a t e in the

country a h igher educat iona l system capable o f ensuring t h a t every c i t i

zen has f u l l o p p o r tu n i ty to develop h i s / h e r i n t e l l e c t u a l and working

c a p a b i l i t i e s .

The l i t e r a t u r e review included a search f o r l e g i s l a t i v e prov is ions

f o r support o f h igher educat ion in N i g e r i a . In t h i s resp ect , the l i t e r

a tu r e revea led t h a t no s p e c i f i c l e g i s l a t i v e p ro v is io n has been made to

date f o r the support o f h ig her educat ion . The cu r re n t c o n s t i t u t i o n

supports the concept o f f r e e educat ion a t a l l l e v e l s , but is not spe

c i f i c on ages a t which t h i s should take place or how to f in an ce the

" f r e e e d u c a t io n ."

L i t e r a t u r e focusing on fed era l government a c t io n s r e l a t i n g to the

support o f h igher educat ion was a lso reviewed. The review in v e s t ig a te d

s p e c i f i c ro les and fu n c t io n s o f some commissions and bodies set up as

a r e s u l t o f the government 's a c t io n s . The in form at ion gathered on the

sources and amounts o f revenue f o r higher educat ion and how those

r e l a t e to the wea lth o f the country was organ ized to e s t a b l i s h a data

100


101

base f o r comparat ive a n a ly s is .

A b r i e f l i t e r a t u r e review o f p e r t in e n t m a t e r i a l s regarding three

developing co u n t r ies and the United Sta tes o f America was undertaken to

a s c e r t a in the p a t t e r n and sources o f revenue f o r t h e i r h igher educat ion

systems. I t showed th a t the United Sta tes system o f support is geared

to making i t poss ib le f o r h igher educat ion to be a v a i l a b l e to a l l who

re q u i re i t . The S ta te o f Michigan funding model, which was discussed,

was developed to permit the a l l o c a t i o n o f funds to be accomplished in

a more o b j e c t i v e manner.

Conclusions

Fol lowing are some conclusions based upon the review o f the

1i t e r a t u r e .

1. The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r higher educat ion in N ig e r ia is vested

by the C o n s t i t u t i o n in the Federal and S ta te governments. However,

a l l the e x i s t i n g u n i v e r s i t i e s are c o n t r o l l e d and coord inated d i r e c t l y

or i n d i r e c t l y by the Federal government.

2. The C o n s t i t u t io n provides f o r f r e e higher educat ion f o r a l l

the c i t i z e n s as and when the country can a f f o r d i t . The C o n s t i t u t i o n ,

not being s p e c i f i c as to when higher educat ion should be made f r e e ,

has al lowed th a t m at te r to become a p o l i t i c a l campaign issue.

3. There is no l e g i s l a t i v e f i n a n c i a l p r o v is io n f o r higher edu

c a t io n . There are no tax bases f o r the support o f h igher educat ion .

Funds ap p ro p r ia ted y e a r l y by the l e g i s l a t u r e are drawn from the general

consol id ated fund and compete w i t h funds a l l o c a t e d to o th er government

se rv ic e s .


102

4. The sources o f h ig her educat ion f in an c e cont inue to be the

same now as in the pre- independence e r a . They a re : (a) government

g r a n ts , (b) t u i t i o n , and (c) o th er sources , which include endowments

and g i f t s from pu b l ic and p r i v a t e c h a r i t i e s .

5 . Income from " o t h e r sources" has remained somewhat constant

over the past four years . In 1976-1977, i t accounted f o r 9.24% o f

the t o t a l recu rren t expenditures o f the u n i v e r s i t i e s . In I 98O - I 9 8 I i t

accounted f o r 10% o f the budget plan in which the a p p r o p r ia t e a l l o c a

t io n to a u n i v e r s i t y was secured through q u as i -a d ve rsa ry budget

h ear ings. Without e s ta b l is h e d g u i d e l i n e s , the process may d e t e r i o r a t e

in to unnecessary p o l i t i c k i n g and patronage. Th is was the problem w i th

the system in e a r l i e r use in the S t a t e o f Michigan.

6. Higher educat ion has been c o n s i s t e n t l y and in c re a s in g ly sup

ported by the governments o f N i g e r i a , but the amounts or proport ions

o f f i n a n c i a l support have not been c o n s i s t e n t .

7 . N i g e r i a ' s t o t a l expendi tures f o r educat ion in r e l a t i o n to the

w ealth o f the na t io n ranked very low when compared to the expenditures

o f many o th er co unt r ies having developed o r c e n t r a l l y planned econo

mies. I t a lso f e l l below those o f many contemporary developing coun

t r i e s . This may po int to a need f o r the reo rd er ing o f p r i o r i t i e s .

Recommendations

The fo l lo w in g recommendations seem j u s t i f i e d by the f in d in g s in

t h i s study, supplemented by the experienc.es o f the i n v e s t i g a t o r w i t h i n

and o u ts id e N ig e r i a .

1. Higher educat ion , as the o t h e r l e v e l s o f educat ion , should be


103

the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f the s t a t e s . C e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f a d m in i s t r a t i o n

and contro l o f the higher educat ion system is not c o n s is te n t w i th the

r e a l i t i e s o f the e x e c u t iv e p r e s i d e n t i a l system o f government in a

fed e ra l p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e . Coleman, according to P e i l (1976, p. 115)

has suggested t h a t "excess ive c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and s ta t is m o f most

developing co u n t r ie s . . . not on ly means g r e a t e r v u l n e r a b i l i t y as a

r e s u l t o f n o n - f u l f i l l m e n t o f p o p u l is t e xp e c ta t io ns ; i t a lso means

heightened i n e f f i c i e n c y . " The United S ta te s , from which N i g e r ia der ives

in s p i r a t i o n f o r the present p a t t e r n o f government, has t r a d i t i o n a l l y

delegated the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r educat ion e x c l u s i v e l y to the s t a t e s .

This ac t io n has made poss ib le the q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e educa

t io n a l systems a v a i l a b l e in t h a t country today. Each s t a t e has been

ab le to concentra te on the educat ional development o f the people w i t h in

i t s j u r i s d i c t i o n . In the United Sta tes o f America, educat ion is the

most important preoccupat ion o f the s t a t e s .

2. The Federal government's i n t e r e s t in h ig her educat ion should

be l i m i t e d to the support o f t u i t i o n ass is tance programs in the u n i

v e r s i t i e s , such th a t v i r t u a l l y a l l who d e s i re h igher educat ion can

have i t . This should not be seen as in cons is ten t w i t h the recommen

dat ion number one made above. Federal government i n t e r e s t , as is

o b ta in in g in the United S t a t e s , should be through f i n a n c i a l a id to

the students to make f r e e educat ion v i r t u a l l y p o ss ib le to a l l q u a l i

f i e d c i t i z e n s a t a l l l e v e ls o f h igher educat ion . As P e i l (1976)

pointed o u t , "What is wanted, i t would seem, is a system which would

a l lo w popular pressures to be f e l t a l l the way up, so t h a t develop

ment in some real sense comes from the bottom ra t h e r than from the


104

t o p . " (p. 118) . S ta te s and loca l governments a re nearer to the

people to a d m in is te r educat iona l programs more e f f i c i e n t l y and e f f e c

t i v e l y .

3 . The mechanism f o r use in a l l o c a t i n g funds to the u n i v e r s i t i e s

should be based on a model t h a t recognizes the performance, the r o le

and mission , and the s pec ia l s tud ies and p r o je c t s o f each u n i v e r s i t y .

This would provide f o r f a i r and equal funding based upon real program

needs. I t may respond to d i f f e r e n c e s which e x is t e d among i n s t i t u t i o n s

because o f t h e i r d i f f e r e n t ro le s and missions (J o i n t Senate and House

Fiscal Agencies, 1977) . Some m o d i f ic a t io n s may be requ ired in the

e x i s t i n g mechanism in use in o rder to r e f l e c t the added exchange recom

mended. The S ta te o f Michigan funding model, descr ibed in Chapter I I ,

could form the basis f o r such a m o d i f i c a t i o n . However, i t should be

observed t h a t models, l i k e mathematical formulas , tend to provide a

measure o f o b j e c t i v i t y , b u t because o f p o l i t i c a l co n s id era t io ns they

may f a l l short o f the d e s i r a b l e goal o f c e r t a i n t y .

4. A uniform format f o r budget requests should be adopted by the

u n i v e r s i t i e s . The format should be based on the model recommended in

number t h r e e (above) . The Nat io na l U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission (1975a)

admitted in i t s repor t t h a t the present manner o f funding the u n i v e r

s i t i e s was to some e x te n t a m at te r o f s u b j e c t i v e judgment. The Com

mission po inted out t h a t th e u n i v e r s i t i e s themselves are not using

uniform standards in assessing t h e i r needs. A uniform format needs to

be a p p l i e d . This is d e s i r a b l e and necessary i f meaningful comparison

o f the performance o f the u n i v e r s i t i e s is to be made.

5 . Each u n i v e r s i t y should be required to prepare an e n d - o f - y e a r


105

f i n a n c i a l s ta tem en t . The format to be used should be the same fo r

a l l the u n i v e r s i t i e s (see Appendix D ) . Such a statement should be

made p u b l ic and should accompany any budget submitted to the Nat ional

U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission. The highest places o f le a rn in g should pro

v id e examples in pu b l ic a c c o u n t a b i l i t y . In the S t a t e o f Michigan i t

is mandatory f o r a l l s t a t e u n i v e r s i t i e s and c o l leg e s to submit t h e i r

e n d - o f - y e a r f i n a n c i a l statements along w i th the budget requests , i t

should be considered mandatory f o r the N ig e r ia n U n i v e r s i t i e s to do

1i kewi se.

6. The N ig er ia n p u b l ic should be more involved in the f in a nc in g

o f h igher educat ion in the c o u n t ry . The Ashby Commission ( i 9 6 0 ) sug

ges t ion made over twenty years ago is s t i l l very r e le v a n t today. The

Commission has advocated th a t the N ig e r ia n people should be prepared

to forego o th e r things they wanted so t h a t every a v a i l a b l e penny could

be invested in educat ion . Educat ion " f o r e d u c a t io n 's sake" must not

be a guid ing p r i n c i p l e f o r any who are concerned w i t h educat io n . The

aim must be to produce a t a l l l e v e ls o f A f r i c a n s o c ie t y m o ra l ly sound,

economica l ly v a lu a b le c i t i z e n s . A l l f i n a n c i a l p ro v is io n s o f an educa

t io n a l plan designed to achieve t h i s can p r o p e r ly be regarded as c a p i

t a l investment, and so j u s t i f i e d (A f r ic a n Educat ion in Kenya, p. 5 7 ) .

7. The l e g i s l a t u r e should amend the c o n s t i t u t i o n to a l lo w fo r

p r i v a t e o rg a n iz a t io n s which d e s i re to e s t a b l i s h a u n i v e r s i t y to do so .

This w i l l appear to be co n s is ten t w i th the recommendation in number

s i x . As suggested by the Ashby Commission ( i 9 6 0 ) , investment in

higher educat ion should be the business o f a l l N ig e r ia n s .

8. Educat ional technology should be updated c o n s ta n t ly to a l low


106

f o r the accommodation o f g r e a t e r numbers o f students in the u n i v e r s i t y

system. The Federal government (1980) pointed out in the Nat iona l

Development Plan (1981 -8$ , p. 6 6 ) , th a t " the level o f demand f o r u n i

v e r s i t y places has increased beyond e x p e c t a t io n s . " In o rd er to meet

the present demand and f u t u r e demands, the educat ional technology

must be dynamic and e v o lv in g . Enrol lment in one u n i v e r s i t y in the

S ta te o f Michigan is g r e a t e r than the t o t a l enro l lm ent in a l l the u n i

v e r s i t i e s o f N ig e r ia combined.

9. The present p a t t e r n o f funding the u n i v e r s i t i e s — government

subvent ions, t u i t i o n and loca l sources— should be m a in ta in e d . I t is

doubtful i f the economy is s u f f i c i e n t l y bouyant to support f r e e educa

t io n a t a l l l e v e ls as advocated in the cu rre n t c o n s t i t u t i o n o f the

Federal Republ ic o f N ig e r ia (see Federal Government, 1978) . However,

the u n i v e r s i t i e s should be encouraged to develop a sound p u b l ic r e l a

t io n s program to in t e r e s t the N ig er ian pu b l ic in the a c t i v i t i e s o f the

u n i v e r s i t i e s . Such gestures could improve revenues from local sources.

10. The Nat iona l U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission should provide the neces

sary guidance to the u n i v e r s i t i e s to evo lve uniform f i n a n c i a l record-

keeping and re p o r t in g procedures as recommended in t h i s s tu d y .

Summary

This chapter summarizes the study, presents the conclusions

derived from the data c o l l e c t e d , and makes some recommendations f o r

the f u t u r e .


APPENDICES

107


APPENDIX A

THE AREA AND POPULATION OF EACH OF THE NINETEEN STATES OF NIGERIA

108


109

APPENDIX A

The area and po p u la t io n o f each o f the nineteen s ta tes of N ig e r ia

are given in Afunku, Oloko, and O layn iy i ( 198O) as fo l low s:

Sta te Area (Sq. km.)

Po pula t ion (1963 es t im ate )

Anambra 2,317 2 , 500 ,000

Bauchi 432 2 , 496 ,329

Bendel 3,361 2 ,3 3 6 ,0 0 0

Benue 4,633 2 ,6 4 1 ,4 9 6

Borno 307 2 . 853 ,553

Cross River 431 3 , 6 3 3 ,5 9 3

Gongola 3,297 1, 585,200

Imo 210 5 ,000 ,0 00

Kadura 1,047 4 ,0 9 8 ,3 0 5

Kano 643 5 ,7 7 5 ,0 0 0

Kwara 716 1 ,6 00 ,0 00

Lagos 66 1 ,100 ,0 00

Niger 442 2 , 900 ,000

Ogun 328 1 ,448 ,9 66

Ondo 347 2 , 727,676

Oyo 17,600 5 , 208,944

P1 ateau 11,213 2 , 500,000

Rivers 271 1 ,544 ,3 14

Sokoto 502 5 , 520,000

Tota l 48,163 5 7 ,469 ,374


APPENDIX B

MAP OF NIGERIA SHOWING STATES' CAPITALS, AND LOCATIONS OF AGRICULTURAL AND OTHER PRODUCTS

110


I l l

Q . CP Q

Source: Federal M in istry o f Information, Lagos.


APPENDIX C

LETTERS OF APPRECIATION TO INTERVIEW RESPONDENTS

112


IVAU 113Western Michi,uan U nivers ityKalamazoo, M ielnxan 49008

College of Education Department of

A p r i l 2 7 , 1981 Educational Leadership

Dr. A. CallawayUNESCO R epresenta t iv ec /o Dr. B. BriggsNat ionai U n i v e r s i t i e s CommissionP.M.B. 12694Lagos, N ig e r ia

Dr. Dr. Cal laway:

I wish to thank you f o r the t ime you spared to discuss some of the conclusions o f the Implementat ion Committee f o r the Nat ional Po l ic y in Educat ion. I a p p re c ia ted your c o n t r i b u t i o n e s p e c i a l l y as my v i s i t was unexpected. As you in d ica ted th a t my study, "Financing o f Higher Educat ion in N i g e r i a , " might be the f i r s t o f i t s k ind ,I s h a l l make a copy o f the study a v a i l a b l e to you whenever i t is completed.

in the meantime, please l e t me have your postal address. Once again , many thanks f o r your w i l l i n g n e s s to help.

Yours s i n c e r e l y ,

Gabr ie l 0. T ay lo r


114Western Michi.t'an U n ive rs ityKalamazoo, Michi,i;an 49008

College of Education Department of

A pr i l 27 , 1981 Educational Leadership

Mr. Emman. 0. A k in n i f e s i Asst. D i r e c t o r o f Research Central Bank o f N ig er ia P.M.B. 12194 Lagos, N ig e r ia

Dr. Mr. A k i n n i f e s i :

I wish to thank you f o r the t ime you spared to e x p la in some o f the datain your r ep o r ts . I w i l l be using gross na t io na l product to representwealth o f a n a t io n , as you advised. I f you have thought o f somethinge l s e , please l e t me know.

I hope to complete my d i s s e r t a t i o n by June, I 9 8 I . On my re tu rn home,I s h a l l c a l l to see you w i t h a copy o f the study as promised.

With kind regards.

Yours s in c e r e l y .

- 'K

Gabrie l 0. T ay lo r


115Western Michi,m\n,Universi.t>:Kalamazoo, Michi,i^an 49008

College of Educiition Department of

A p r i l 2 7 , I 9 8 I Educational Leadership

Dr. Benoni Briggs Nat iona l U n i v e r s i t i e s Commission P.M.B. 12694 Lagos, N ig e r ia

Dr. Br iggs:

I wish to thank you f o r the many hours you spared to discuss w i th me the method the NUC is using in d isbursing funds to the u n i v e r s i t i e s .I have found some o f the documents you gave me to be very u s e f u l .I t may i n t e r e s t you to know th a t I am l i m i t i n g my study to the f i n a n cing of the u n i v e r s i t i e s as you advised.

I hope to complete the d i s s e r t a t i o n by the month o f June, 1981.On my r e t u r n to N ig e r ia I sha l l c a l l to see you w i t h a copy o f the study as requested.

Thank you again f o r your he lp .

Yours s i n c e r e l y ,

G abriel 0. T ay lo r


APPENDIX D

1978-1979 OPERATING BUDGET REQUEST FORM AND DATA SHEET FORMAT ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL UNIVERSITIES COMMISSION

116


117

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF N I G E R I A

NATIONAL UNIVERSITIES COMMISSION

INDIVIDUAL UNIVERSITY DATA SHEET ESTIMATE OF

RECURRENT OPERATING EXPENSES

1978/79

NAME OF INSTITUTION:

DEADLINE FOR SUBMISSION AT LAGOS - SEPTEMBER 15, 1977


118

NAME OF I N S T I T U T I O N :

EXHIBIT A

ESTIMATES OF LOCAL INCOME

Income Sources 1975/76Actual

1976/77Actual

1977/78Budgeted

1978/79Est imated

(Externa l Income Grants and Contr i buted Serv ices)

T u i t i o n Fees

Students' Room and Board

I n t e r e s t Earnings

Rents on U n ive r - s i t y Proper ty

Others(S p ec i fy )

TOTAL


119

E X H I B I T B-1

ESTIMATES OF RECURRENT OPERATING EXPENSES - 1978/79

Uni ts Actual1975/76

N

Actua1976/77

Budgeted1977/78

N

Estimated1978/79

N

ACADEMIC EXPENSES

D i r e c t Teaching Units (s p e c i fy )

Teaching Support Units ( sp ec i fy )

Sub-Total (Teaching Support)

Total - Teaching

RESEARCH

Organised Research Unites (sp ec i fy )

Sub-Total (Organised Research)

General U n iv e r s i t y Research

Total - Research

Publ ic Serv ice Units (speci fy )

Total - Pub l ic Serv ice

Other Academic

L ib raryU n i v e r s i t y S t a f f

Development General Academic

Expendi tu re

Tota l - Other Academic

Tota l - A l l Academic Ext

ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT Admi n 1st ra t ion Student Services Serv ice Departments General Expenditure Retirement Benef i ts Total Admin. Support

Grand Total : A11Recurrent Expenditure


E X H I B I T B - 2

120

BREAKDOWN OF RECURRENT EXPENDITURES

(A separa te form to be completed fo r each o f the years 1975/76, 1976/77, 1977/78 and 1978/79)

SENIORSTAFFSALARIES

JUNIORSTAFFSALARIES

RECURRENTEXPENSES

TEACHING & RESEARCH EQUIPMENT

TOTAL

ACADEMIC EXPENSE

Di r e c to r Teach i ng Uni ts (Spec if y ) Teaching Support Uni ts (Spec if y ) T ota l - Teaching

RESEARCH

Organ i sed Research Un i ts General Univ. ResearchT ota l - Research

Pub 1i c Serv i ce Uni ts ( s p e c i f y ) Tota l - Pub l ic

Serv ice Other Academic L ib ra ryS t a f f Development General Academic

Exp,Tota 1

Tota 1

Jl ther Academic A11Academi c

ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT

A dm in is t ra t i on Student Services Service Departments General Expenditure Retirement B e n e f i ts Tota l - Admin.

Support

Grand Total - A11 Recurrent Exp.


121

E X H I B I T B - 3

ANALYSIS OF EXPENDITURE ON GENERAL U N I V E R S I T Y RESEARCH

Academic Un I ts

1975/76 Actual

Expend I t u r e

1976/77 Actual

Expendi tu re

1977/78Budgeted

1978/79Est i ma ted

(Spec i fy )

e . g . Facu lty of Arts

Tota l

Notes :

On a separate sheet , p lease summarize each year expenditu res by a c t i v i t i e s , e .g .

Trave l Costs NX, P u b l i c a t i o n s NY, St ipends o f v i s i t i n g scholars NZ,

Equipment and M a t e r i a l s NP, Computer t ime NW, e t c .


CD■DOQ.C

gQ.

EXHIBIT B-4

"OCD

(/)C/)

8■D( O '

3.3"CD

CD■DOQ.CaO3■DO

CDQ.

■DCD

(/)(/)

ANALYSIS OF COMMITMENT AND ESTIMATED COMMITMENT OF STAFF DEVELOPMENT FUNDS

Type of Expendi t u re

1. P re -d o c to ra l Scholarships and Fel lowsh ip ( in cwn i n s t i t u t i o n )

2. Po s t -d o c to ra l Research and Fe l lowship ( in own i n s t i t u t i on)

3. Overseas T ra in in g ( P r e - d o c t o r a l )

4. Overseas T r a in in g ( P r e - d o c t o r a l )

5. V i s i t i n g Professors and Lecture rs

6. Non-Academic S t a f f T r a in in g

7. Attendance a t Learned S o c ie t ie s Meet ings

8. Other (Spec ify )

1975/76Actual

No. o f Persons

Expend i t u r e

1976/77Actual

No. o f Persons

Expendi tu re

1977/78Budgeted

No. o f Persons

Expen- d i tu re

1978/79Est imated

No. o f Persons

Expend i t u r e

MM

123

EXHIBIT B-5

JUSTIFICATION OF EXPENDITURE INCREASES 1978/79 OVER 1977/78

INCREASES DUE TO

NORMALGROWTH

NEWDEVELOPMENT

REPLACEMENT OF OBSOLETE OR WORn-OUT EQUIPMENT

SPECIALEXPENDITURE

TOTALINCREASES

ACADEMIC EXPENSE

Di re c t Teaching Un i ts

Teaching Support Uni ts

Organi sedResearch Un i ts

Publi c Serv ice Un i ts

LIBRARY

Sub-Tota1 :Academic Expense

ADMINISTRATIVESUPPORT

Central Administ r â t i on

Student Departments

Ret irement B enef i ts

Others (Spec ify )

Sub-Tota1 :Admin. Support

Tota l : A l l Uni ts

Note: Please g iv e d e t a i l s o f any Special Expenditures to bei ncurred.


CD■DOQ .C

gQ .

T3(D

EXHIBIT C-1FULL-TIME HEADCOUNT ENROLLMENT

(/)(/) Estimated - 1978/79 Academic Year

CD

8T3»<( O '

33"CD

CDT3OQ.C

ao3

T3O

CDQ.

T3CD

(/)(/)

Di rec t Teaching Units

(S p ec i fy ) e .g .

( i ) F acu l ty o f Arts

( i i ) F acu l tyo f Science

e tc .

TOTAL

P re l im .Year I

or Part I

Year I I or

Par t I I

Year I I I or

Par t I I I

Year IV or

Part IV

Year V or

P ar t V

Sub-Degree 1 or 2 Years Durât i on

P/G Diploma

P/G Hi gher Degree

To ta lStudents

No. o f Teachers

N>jr-

125

EXHIBIT C-2

PART-TIME STUDENTS— HEADCOUNT ENROLLMENT

UNDERGRADUATE1977/78Budgeted

1978/79Estimated

POSTGRADUATE1977/78Budgeted

1978/79Est imated

D i r e c t Teaching Un i ts

(S pec ify )

TOTAL

Note:

( i ) Include persons e n r o l le d in courses o f iess than one academic year d u r a t io n , or evening students .

( i i ) What is a F u l l - T im e Equiva lent student of the above? The U n i v e r s i t y ' s p o l ic y should be s t a t e d , e .g . 1 .5 evening students equal to 1 f u l l - t i m e s tu dent .


126

EXHIBIT C-4

ANALYSIS OF OUTPUT GRADUATES— BUDGETED JUNE 1978

F i r s tDegree

Sub- Degree Diploma

P/G Di pioma

HigherDegrees Tota l

Di rec t Teachi ng

Uni ts

(Spec ify )

Others

(Spec ify )

To ta l : A l l Uni ts


EXHIBIT C-5

ANALYSIS OF OUTPUT GRADUATES— ESTIMATED JUNE 1979

127

F i r s t Deg ree

Sub- Degree Diploma

P/G Diploma

HigherDegrees Tota 1

Di r e c t Teach ing

Un i ts

(Sp ec i fy )

Others

(S pec if y )

T ota l : A l l Units


EXHIBIT D

128

ANALYSIS OF NEW ENTRANTS--UNDERGRADUATES DIPLOMA AND HIGHER DEGREE STUDENTS

Pre l im.or

1st Yr. o f 4 Years

Part I of

2nd Yr. o4 4 Years

Dip]oma Sub-

Degree

P/G Dip]oma

H i gher Degree Tota]

Di r e c t Teach i ng

Un i ts

Budgeted 1977/78

(S pec i fy )

D i r e c t Teaching

Un i ts

Est imated 1978/7!)

(Spec ify )


129

EXHIBIT E-1

ANALYSIS OF SENIOR STAFF BY FUNCTION ESTIMATED 1978/79

(The number o f le ve l 07 s t a f f included in the t o t a l should be shown in parentheses beside the t o t a l number. )

Teachers Researchers Graduate Ass i stants

T ec hn i cians

Admi n i - s t r a t i v e Total

Di rec t Teach i ng Uni ts (Spec ify )

Teach i ng Support Uni ts

Spec ify )

Organ i sed Research Uni ts (Spec ify )

Publ i c Service Uni ts (Spec i fy )

L ib ra ry

Centra 1Administ rât(Spec ify )

i on

Student Serv i ces

Serv i ce Dept.

Others(Spec ify )

Tota l :A l l Uni ts


BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adewoye, 0. The antecedents . Ch. 1 in J. F. A jay i & I . N. Tamuno ( E d s . ) , The U n i v e r s i t y o f Ib adan . Ibadan: Ibadan U n iv e r s i t y Press, 1973.

A f r i c a south o f the Sahara 1980 -81 . London: Europa P u b l i c a t io n s , L t d . ,Î99Ô1

A f r ic a n educat ion in Kenya, A repor t of a committee appointed to in q u i re in to the scope, co n te n t , and methods o f A f r ic a n educat ion . N a r io b i , Kenya: The Government P r i n t e r , 1949.

Afunku, A . , Oloko, A . , & O l a n i y i , 0. A guide to N ig er ian S t a t e s .Lagos: John West P u b l i c a t io n s , L t d . , I 9 8 0 .

AJayi , J. P . , & Tamuno, T. N. The U n i v e r s i t y of Ibadan, 1948 -73 :A h is t o r y o f the f i r s t t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s . Ibadan: Ibadan U n i v e r s i t yPress, 1973.

Ashby, E . , Bike, K. 0 . , Gustanson, R. G. , Hannah, H. W . , Kashim, S . ,Keppel, F . , Lockwood, J . P . , Onabimiro, S. D. , Wat ts , G. E . , &Flannagan, M. K. S. Investment in educat ion: The re por t o f thecommission on pos t -g ra du a te c e r t i f i c a t e and higher educat ion in N i g e r i a ! Lagos: Federal Government P r i n t e r , I960 .

Awolowo, 0. The Peop le 's Repub l i e . Ibadan: Oxford U n iv e r s i t y Press,1968.

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