The environment of the Neolithic archaeological sites in Sventoji, Western Lithuania

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Quaternary International xxx (2009) 1–13

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The environment of the Neolithic archaeological sites in Sventoji,Western Lithuania

Migl _e Stancikait _e a,*, Linas Daugnora b, Kari Hjelle c, Anne Karin Hufthammer d

a Institute of Geology and Geography, T. Sevcenkos 13, LT-03223 Vilnius, Lithuaniab Lithuanian Veterinary Academy, Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Til�z _es 18, LT-47181 Kaunas, Lithuaniac University of Bergen, Natural History Collections, Allegt. 41, N-5007 Bergen, Norwayd University of Bergen, Natural History Collections, Museplass 3, N-5007 Bergen, Norway

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ370 52104700/4691E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. St

(L. Daugnora), [email protected] (K. Hjelle), a(A.K. Hufthammer).

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a b s t r a c t

Geological–geomorphological, palaeobotanical (pollen and diatoms) and palaeozoological (bone) studieshave been carried out in relation to archaeological excavations in Sventoji, on the coast of westernLithuania. Here, several Neolithic settlement sites existed in an area of wetlands and lake systems, which istoday the Paj�uris bog. Investigations show minor influence of sea water after the maximum Litorina Searegression in the Early Neolithic, and habitats for a range of fresh/brackish water fishes existed in the area.During the Neolithic, mixed forest vegetation and wetland communities dominated the area, and devel-opment of the fauna followed this pattern, with a dominance of open woodland mammals and wetlandbirds which were exploited by people. Four seal species present in the region were probably decisive forthe settlements in Sventoji during the Neolithic. Indications of agriculture in the area are few, but includeanthropogenic species such as Plantago lanceolata from ca. 4000 cal. BC, scattered finds of cereals from ca.3600 cal. BC, and a few bones of domesticated animals in Neolithic contexts. These indicate that someagricultural activity took place in the region, but not within the settlement area of the Paj�uris bog.

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1. Introduction

During the Neolithic (5500 cal. BC–1800 cal. BC in Lithuania),knowledge of agriculture, animal husbandry and cereal cultivationspread into Northern Europe including the Baltic and Scandinavia.Sventoji on the northwestern Lithuanian coast (Fig. 1A), is rich inarchaeological finds from this time period, and is especially famousfor having preserved wood remains of remarkable quality includingart objects (Rimantien _e, 1992c). The first archaeological stray findsfrom Sventoji were reported at the end of the 19th century anda systematic archaeological survey of the area began in 1966.Archaeological excavations were carried out during 1966–1972(Rimantien _e, 1979, 1980) and 1982–1995 (Rimantien _e, 1992a,b,1996a,b, 1996c, 1998a,b). In relation to these, environmental recon-structions based on analyses of pollen, diatoms, bones and someplant macrofossils were made (Rimantien _e et al., 1971; Kabailien _eand Rimantien _e, 1995). Kabailien _e and Rimantien _e (1995) give anoverview of the vegetation history of the area and show a good

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_e, M., et al., The environmen6/j.quaint.2009.01.012

agreement between palaeobiological and archaeological data con-cerning the first traces of cereals and domesticated animals. Theydescribe the development of a lagoon close to the shore after themaximum of the Litorina Sea transgression and indicate how furtherdevelopment of the lagoon and sea-level changes influenced thesettlement pattern in the Neolithic and at later stages.

The Sventoji area shows evidence of the Narva and Pamariu (BayCoast) cultures of the Baltic area. The economy in the Narva culturewas based on hunting, gathering and fishing, but also graduallyincluded cereal cultivation and animal husbandry (Rimantien _e,1992b, 1996a,b; Daugnora and Girininkas, 1995, 1998). The Bay Coastculture developed from existing local cultures together with influ-ence from the Globular Amphora and Corded Ware Populations, bothof which are connected to agriculture (Rimantien _e, 1992b). From theLate Neolithic, both Narva and Bay Coast cultures existed in theSventoji area, and the importance of hunting and fishing is docu-mented through investigations of bone samples (Duoba and Daug-nora, 1994; Daugnora, 2000a,b; Daugnora et al., 2002). Thepalynological investigations and plant macrofossil data also indicatesome agricultural activity in the area from the Middle and LateNeolithic (Rimantien _e, 1992b; Kabailien _e and Rimantien _e, 1995), butthere is no direct dating of these signals. An interdisciplinary exca-vation project, involving archaeology (Juodagalvis and Simpson,

t of the Neolithic archaeological sites in Sventoji, Western Lithuania,

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Fig. 1. Situational scheme of the investigated area with the Sventoji archaeological sites (according to R. Rimantien _e, 2005) marked (A) and geological-geomorphological map (B,compiled by R. Guobyt _e). 1. Peatland, wetland and agriculture areas; 2. Forested plots; 3. The deepest holes of the ancient lagoon, peat; 4. Bottom of the ancient lagoon, gyttja;5. Terraces of the ancient lagoon, fine-grained sand; 6. Modern beach, fine-grained sand; 7. Modern dune ridge, fine-grained sand; 8. Terraces of the Litorina Sea, coarse to fine sand;9. Isolines; 10. a) slopes and terraces; b) amelioration channels; 11. a) altitudes, meters above sea level; 12. a) roads; b) buildings; 13. a) archaeological sites; b) Sventoji 4 and 6archaeological sites with results presented in the paper.

M. Stancikait _e et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2009) 1–132

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2000), palaeobotany (preliminary results in Stancikait _e, 2000) andpalaeozoology (preliminary results in Daugnora and Hufthammer,1999; Daugnora, 2000b) took place in Sventoji in 1997 and 1998.

Results of pollen, diatom and osteological analyses from the 1997/1998 excavations at Sventoji sites 4 and 6, as well as results of a newanalysis of bones from earlier excavations at seven Sventoji sites (1, 2, 3,4, 6, 23, 26), are presented here. The main aim is to synthesize infor-mation on vegetation, animal life and environmental development ina direct chronological framework, to be able to evaluate human influ-ence on the vegetation and the utilization of different resources duringthe Neolithic. Of special interest is the question whether a change ineconomy from hunting/fishing to agriculture took place within thelagoon settlements of Sventoji during the Neolithic.

2. Study area

The Paj�uris bog is nearly 8 km long and is situated on theLitorina Sea terrace, on the northern part of the Lithuanian coast(Fig. 1A). A territory of up to 3 km width has been influenced by theBaltic Sea at different stages (Bitinas et al., 2002). A ridge of modernsand dunes stretches between the Paj�uris bog and the present-day

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coast. Today, the area is a flat landscape used for agriculture andcattle breeding, but was probably more undulating before amelio-ration took place in the 1960s. At present, human activity in thearea is high, due to the value of the region as a recreation zone.

About 40 archaeological settlement and find sites (archaeolog-ical finds deposited outside settlements) are found within thePaj�uris bog (Rimantien _e, 2005). Sventoji find site 4 (56�0005400N,21�0500500E) contained artefacts deposited on the bottom of theprevious lagoon, and two archaeological horizons have beenidentified in the gyttja. Horizon B relates to the Narva culture andhas been dated between 4230–3660 cal. BC (Vs-811, 5110�110 14CBP) and 2900–2495 cal. BC (T-11004, 4145� 80 14C BP). Horizon A,connected to the Globular Amphora culture, has been dated to2920–2350 cal. BC (Vs-967, 4120�110 14C BP) (Rimantien _e, 1998b).Archaeological data and pollen analysis from horizon A indicatethat some agriculture was practiced (Rimantien _e, 1998a). Sventoji 6(56�0003800N, 21�0405000E) is a Narva culture settlement site withinfluence of the Globular Amphora Culture, dated to 2895–2310 cal.BC (Vs-500, 4070�110 14C BP) (Rimantien _e, 1992a,b, 1998a). Macroremains of Setaria italica and Triticum dicoccum in the cultural layershow the presence of cereals at this site.


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3. Methods

3.1. Geology and geomorphology

Geological and geomorphological investigations through coring,field observation and interpretation of aerial photographs (scale1:17000; year 1952), are the basis for the palaeogeographical recon-struction (Fig. 1B). Using these methods, areas of different lithologyand altitude have been identified within the Paj�uris bog, including theSventoji River valley and areas influenced by aeolian activity.

3.2. Pollen and diatom analysis

Palaeobotanical samples from Sventoji 4 and 6 were collected incolumns from profile walls. Parallel samples of 2 cm thickness weresampled for pollen, diatoms, loss-on-ignition and radiocarbondating. At Sventoji 4, the samples were taken from the wall of thetrial pit, whereas samples were taken from a W-E running trench15 m north of the excavation area at Sventoji 6.

The pollen samples were processed according to standardprocedures, including acetolysis and HF-treatment (Fægri andIversen, 1989). Lycopodium spores were added to samples of fixedvolume in order to estimate the pollen concentration (Stockmarr,1971). About 1000 terrestrial pollen grains were counted persample. Pollen and spore identification was based on Fægri andIversen (1989), Moore et al. (1991) and Moe (1974), in combinationwith the reference collection at the pollen laboratory, University ofBergen. The pollen diagrams are based on the sum of arboreal(P

AP) and non-arboreal (P

NAP) taxa (P

APþP

NAP¼P

P).Calculation basis for aquatics and spores is

PPþX.

Diatoms were extracted from the sediments at Sventoji 6following Battarbee (1986). Between 400 and 1000 diatom frus-tules were counted in each sample, except for the depth 20–30 cmwhere about 200 diatom frustules were counted. Identification tospecies was based on Krammer and Lange-Bertalot (1988, 1991a,b,1997). The results of the analyses are synthesized in two groups.The first is made according to habitat: planktonic (species floatingin the water), benthic (species living on the bottom of the basin),and epiphytic (species attached to different surfaces). The secondecological group is made according to salinity: brackish (watersalinity 30–0.2&), and freshwater species separated into hal-ophilous (diatoms tolerating low salinity), indifferent (mostly infresh water), halophobous (only in fresh water).

The pollen and diatom percentage diagrams were preparedusing the computer programs ‘‘TILIA’’ (version 2) and ‘‘TILIA-GRAPH’’ (version 2.0 b.5) (Grimm, 1990, 1992). CONISS within TILIAwas used to identify local pollen and diatom assemblage zones. Tobe able to identify the main gradient in the pollen data, a principalcomponent analysis was carried out using the program Canoco forWindows 4.5 (ter Braak and Smilauer, 1997–2002; Leps and Smi-lauer, 2004). The plots were drawn using CanoDraw for Windows4.0 (Smilauer, 1999–2002).

3.3. Loss-on-ignition

The organic content of the sediments (loss-on-ignition) wasmeasured by drying the samples at 100 �C for 8 h followed byignition at 550 �C for 4 h.

3.4. Osteological analysis

A total of 196.5 l of sediments for osteological analysis wassystematically collected from Sventoji 4 and 6 in 1997. At Sventoji 4,sediment sample collection took place where bones were observedduring the archaeological excavation. Additional samples


(10� 25� 4 cm) were collected systematically from three columnsfrom the trench wall, including one parallel to the palaeobotanicalsequence. In 1998, another 26 samples were taken from mechanicallayers during the excavation. At Sventoji 6, 80 samples werecollected in the NE-quadrant (14�14� 5 cm) of each square meterwithin the archaeological excavation. From this site none of the 136small bone fragments (133 mammals, two birds and one fish) hasbeen identified to the level of species. Percentage calculation of theseparated specimens was based on the total sum of identified finds.

The sediment samples were sieved in the laboratory withmeshes of 1, 2 and 4 mm. The bones have been identified by meansof the collections of the Osteological Laboratory at the NaturalHistory Collections at the University of Bergen, at the LithuanianVeterinary Academy, and the sea mammal collections of the KaunasT. Ivanauskas Zoological Museum.

3.5. Radiocarbon dates

Bulk samples of gyttja from Sventoji 4 and 6 and bone samplesfrom Sventoji 4 were dated at the National Laboratory for Radio-carbon dating at NTNU, Trondheim, Norway. One bone sample andtwo bulk samples of gyttja from Sventoji 4, as well as three samplesof seal bones (sites 2B, 6, 23), were dated at Kiev RadiocarbonLaboratory in Ukraine. These samples, as well as earlier dates fromSventoji that are mentioned in the text, have been calibrated usingCalib version 5.0 (Stuiver et al., 2005).

The following periodization within the Neolithic is used: EarlyNeolithic 6550/6300–5600/5400 14C BP, c. 5500/5300–4400/4200 cal. BC; Middle Neolithic 5600/5400–4400/4300 14C BP,c. 4400/4200–3100/2900 cal. BC; and Late Neolithic 4400/4300–3500 14C BP, c. 3100/2900–1800 cal. BC (Antanaitis-Jacobs andGirininkas, 2002).

4. Results and interpretation

4.1. Geological–geomorphological setting and chronologyof the layers

The geological–geomorphological map (Fig. 1B) shows thesurface topography, the different types of deposits present, and thebottom topography of the northern part of the Paj�uris bog,including sites Sventoji 4 and 6. The chronology of the identifiedlithological units as well as environmental variations is based onthe radiocarbon dating results (Table 1) and biostratigraphical data.

The altitude of the Paj�uris bog surface varies from 0.7 m to 2 ma.s.l. Sventoji site 4 (0.7 m a.s.l.) is situated in the area connected tothe deepest parts of the bog, whereas Sventoji 6 (2 m a.s.l.) is foundin a higher and dryer part. Gyttja, in some places covered by peat,fills the deepest areas. Higher-lying areas are composed of sandwith gyttja and at some places, a thin cover of peat.

The investigated sequences are composed of organic and min-erogenic sediments (Table 2). The oldest investigated sedimentsconsist of sand deposited in the surroundings of Sventoji 6throughout the maximal transgression of the Litorina Seac. 5090–4780 cal. BC (Bitinas et al., 2002). In Sventoji 4 formation ofgyttja was recorded from 3930–3635 cal. BC and from about3315–2945 cal. BC peat accumulation took place.

4.2. Pollen analysis

The pollen diagram from Sventoji 4 represents about fivehundred years within the Middle Neolithic and is divided into threepollen assemblage zones (Fig. 2). Based on existing radiocarbondates the sedimentation rate is estimated to be 0.3 cm/year in theanalyzed section. Assuming constant sedimentation, this means


Table 1Radiocarbon dates from Sventoji 4 and Sventoji 6.

Depth, cm Dated material 14C years BP, uncalibrated Calibrated time, cal BC/AD (2s range) Laboratory code

Sventoji 462–64 Gyttja 4545� 80 BC 3315–2945 T-13523a180–182 Gyttja 4930� 55 BC 3930–3635 T-13524a180 Fish bones 4875� 65 BC 3890–3520 Tua-207694 Canis familiaris 4530� 65 BC 3485–3020 Tua-2075128 Bos primigenius 4168� 80 BC 2910–2565 Ki-9460

Sventoji 624–26 Peaty gyttja 1550� 60 400–635 AD Ki-1141034–36 Peaty gyttja 3200� 100 BC 1740–1215 Ki-1141465–66 Peaty gyttja 4530 � 75 BC 3500–2940 T-13525a

Table 2Description of the lithological composition and results of pollen analyses at Sventoji 4 and Sventoji 6.

Sventoji 4 Sventoji 6

Lithology Local pollen zones (LPAZ) Lithology Local pollen zones (LPAZ)

Depth, cm Description Depth, cm Description Depth, cm Description Depth, cm Description

26–62 Brown peatygyttja

Sv 4-III,41–62

The zone is characterized by a decrease in AP,e.g. in Ulmus, Tilia, Alnus, Betula andCorylus. Filipendula gets high percentagesand Poaceae reaches a maximum of 12% inthe upper analyzed sample. Several herbs arefound, including Polygonum persicaria typeand Papaver argemone type, as well as pollenof Triticum type and Hordeum type. In thetwo upper spectra the amount of microscopiccharcoal is high.

20–67 Brown, siltygyttja, peaty inupper part

Sv 6-VI 21–26 The representation of Betula and Pinusincreases in this zone, but the totalamount of AP decrease. Poaceae andCyperaceae get high values. Pollen grainsof Cerealia, Triticum type, Avena type andSecale are common and microscopiccharcoal has higher values than in Sv 6-V.

Sv 6-V 26–35 High values of Alnus (58.6%) characterizethe zone. The percentages of other treespecies and NAP are lower than in theprevious zone, but NAP diversityincreases. The pollen concentration curveculminates.

62–190 Green gyttjawithTrapa natans(100 cm) andfish bones(150–190 cm)

Sv 4-II62–138

The tree pollen composition, percentages ofPoaceae and Cyperaceae and pollenconcentration are comparable to Sv 4-I,whereas some changes may be observed in theherb pollen composition. Artemisia iscontinuously present and taxa like Humulustype, Ranunculus acris type, Brassicaceae,Lychnis type and Helianthemum are foundmore often than in Sv 4-I. Cereals are presentin nearly all the samples and both Triticumtype and Hordeum type are identified. Nuts ofTrapa natans were found during the excavationand in the 100-cm sample.

Sv 6-IV 35–55 Alnus, Pinus and Quercus are the bestrepresented AP. The NAP diversity islower than in the previous zone, but thetotal herb pollen percentages are higher,dominated by Chenopodiaceae andPoaceae. A single pollen grain of Triticumtype is present. Charcoal increasesupwards whereas pollen concentrationhas an opposite trend.

67–75 Yellow/greyfine-grainedsand

Sv 6-III 55–85 High values of Quercus, Corylus and Alnuscharacterize the zone, together withrelatively high values of Fraxinus. Thediversity of NAP species is highest in thiszone, especially in the second half.Triticum type and Cerealia appear for thefirst time. Charcoal particles are betterrepresented in the lower part of the zone,whereas the pollen concentrationincreases upwards.

Sv 4-I138–189

AP makes up about 80%, dominated by Alnus,Quercus, Betula and Corylus. Ulmus,Fraxinus and Tilia are constantly present withlow values. Poaceae (5%) and Cyperaceae(2%) are common and herbs like Rumexlongifolius type, Plantago lanceolata,Chenopodiaceae, Galium type, Apiaceae,Artemisia and Filipendula are present inseveral pollen spectra. Pollen of cereals:Triticum type and Hordeum type are found intwo samples. The charcoal percentages arelow whereas the pollen concentrationis constantly high.

75–119 Yellow/greyinterbedding offine-grained andsilty sand

Sv 6-II 85–119 Increasing values of nearly all trees, withBetula, Pinus and Picea being bestrepresented, throughout the zone. NAP isdominated by Poaceae, Cyperaceae,Artemisia and Filipendula. Plantagolanceolata and Rumex acetosa/acetosellahave single occurrences, and the pollenconcentration is still low. Microscopiccharcoal increases in the second half ofthe zone.

119–154 Grey silty sand Sv 6-I 119–155 AP is dominating the zone (71.7%). Pinusand Alnus are best represented and alsoBetula and Corylus have high values.Poaceae (5.4%) and Cyperaceae (5.3%)dominate the NAP, and the pollenconcentration is low whereas theamount of microscopic charcoal is ratherhigh in this zone.

154–158 Bluish sand


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Fig. 2. Pollen percentage diagram from Sventoji 4, including selected fish species.


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that each pollen sample represents three years. The pollen diagramfrom Sventoji 6 represents the end of the Early Neolithic to the IronAge and is divided into six pollen assemblage zones (Fig. 3). Theinterpretations of the two diagrams are summarized in Table 2.

Principal component analysis (PCA) of the pollen samples fromSventoji 4 and 6 (Fig. 4) shows that the main gradient in the pollendata is the change from forest to an open landscape. Forest species,e.g. birch (Betula), oak (Quercus), spruce (Picea), elm (Ulmus), andpine (Pinus) are found on the negative (left hand) side of the first(horizontal) axis. Pollen samples from Sventoji 4 and two of thelower phases from Sventoji 6 are found on this side of the plot. On


the positive side of the first axis, alder (Alnus) and light demandingherbs are found. The upper half of the diagram from Sventoji 6 isplaced here. The second axis separates Sventoji 4 on the negativeside (bottom) from Sventoji 6 on the positive side (top of thediagram). The samples from Sventoji 4 have scattered records ofbarley (Hordeum) type and ribwort plantain (Plantago lanceolata)throughout the sequence, as well as scattered records of purpleloosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) growing along the shores of fresh-water rivers and lakes. Hazel (Corylus avellana) is positively corre-lated to the second axis and better represented in Sventoji 6 than inSventoji 4. The earliest occurrences of Triticum and Hordeum-type


Fig. 3. Pollen percentage diagram from Sventoji 6, including summary diatom diagram.


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in the diagrams from Sventoji 4 and 6 were dated to 3600–3500 cal.BC, the second half of the Middle Neolithic time period.

4.3. Diatom analysis

The diatom diagram from Sventoji 6 represents the same timeperiod as the pollen diagram and has been divided into five diatomassemblage zones. The bottom of the analyzed sequence showsa composition characteristic of the shallow littoral zone of theLitorina Sea (Fig. 3). No marine planktonic species characteristic ofopen sea has been discovered, and a water level drop that could berelated to the continued Litorina Sea regression, is indicated in zone


Sv 6d-I. In the next zone, covering most of Sv 6d-II, increasednumbers of freshwater epiphytic species and fewer brackish waterspecies indicate a further lowering of the water level in the basin.From the top of Sv 6d-II to the middle of Sv 6d-III, the number offreshwater species including halophobous species, increases indi-cating the presence of a fresh water basin. The diatom composition inthe middle of Sv 6d-IV shows increased numbers of brackish benthicdiatoms characteristic of shallow water basins. This indicates a shortperiod of increased salinity in the basin. In the upper part of thediagram, corresponding to zone Sv 6d-V, the number of diatomsdecreases and benthic, generalist species dominate, indicating lowwater salinity and depth and unfavorable conditions for diatoms.


Fig. 4. PCA (Principal component analysis) of the pollen data from Sventoji 4 and 6,showing PCA axis 1 and 2 with (A) samples, and (B) selected species with symbolsreferring to pollen zones. The first axis shows the main gradient in the pollen data andarrows pointing in the same direction show correlated species.


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4.4. Osteological analysis

The majority of the bones from the 1997/98 excavations werefound in the gyttja at Sventoji 4, especially in a ‘‘fish bone layer’’close to the bottom. From this layer more than 3700 fish scales anda number of fish bones have been recovered, of which 578 havebeen identified to the level of family or species (Fig. 2, Table 3).Fresh or brackish water species: pike (Esox lucius), rudd (Scardiniuserythrophthalmus), bream (Abramis brama), perch (Perca fluviatilis)and zander (Sander lucioperca), have been identified (Fig. 5).Another important family is Pleuronectidae (flounders and soles),which is characteristic of a marine/brackish environment. Withinthis group, plaice (Pleuronectes platessa), a marine species thatsurvives in the brackish water of the Baltic Sea has been identified.The high frequency of fish scales suggests that the bone layerrepresents a natural deposit and is not of cultural origin.

Bones from seven sites (Sventoji 1B, 2B, 3B, 4, 6, 23, 26) haveproved a rich vertebrate fauna: 22 mammal, 21 bird and 12 fishspecies have been identified (Table 3, Fig. 5). Roughly they can beseparated into three groups. The largest includes species that areclosely connected to marshland, lakes or marine environment; i.e.ducks, fish, otter (Lutra lutra), beaver (Castor fiber, 5.5%), and seals


(33%) (Fig. 5). Three seal bones from these sites have been dated tothe Late Neolithic (Table 4). Four species of seals: grey seal (Hal-ichoerus grypus), ringed seal (Phoca hispida botnica), harbor seal(Phoca vitulina) and Arctic harp seal (Phoca groenlandica), werefound in Sventoji 1 and 23. Based on the stages of epiphyseal fusion,two age groups of seal could be identified at Sventoji 2B and 3B.

A second group of bones represents domesticated animals; dog(Canis familiaris), cattle (Bos taurus, 0.2%), sheep (Ovis aries, 0.4%) orgoat (Capra hircus), as well as horse (Equus caballus) (Table 3, Fig. 5).In the third bone group, other terrestrial mammals are included;pig (Sus scrofa, 17%), herbivores like aurochs (Bos primigenius, 5%),elk (Alces alces, 4.5%), red deer (Cervus elaphus, 3%), roe deer(Capreolus capreolus, 1.5%), red fox (Vulpes vulpes, 1.5%) and brownbear (Ursus arctos, 1.5%).

5. Discussion

5.1. Sea level changes and development of the Paj�uris bog

The development of the Sventoji area has been influenced by thedifferent stages of the Baltic Sea, and the Litorina Sea stage haslargely influenced the evolution of the present Paj�uris bog(Rimantien _e et al., 1971; Kabailien _e and Rimantien _e, 1995;Kabailien _e, 1999). Throughout the maximal Litorina transgression,about 6010�125 14C BP (5090–4780 cal. BC) (Bitinas et al., 2002),a semi-closed lagoon separated from the open sea by a belt ofemerging shallows, existed in the area. The bottom sand collectedfrom Sventoji 6 (Sv 6d-I, Fig. 3) and numerous cores investigatedearlier (Kabailien _e, 1999), contain sediments characteristic of thislittoral shallow zone of the Litorina Sea.

At about 6100–5900 14C BP (Bitinas et al., 2002) or 5700 14C BP(Kabailien _e, 1999) a Litorina Sea regression started along theSventoji coast and neighboring regions (Mojski, 2000; Miettinen,2004). The water lowering was gradual and coastal terraces rep-resenting this regression are today seen on the eastern outskirts ofthe Paj�uris bog (Fig. 1B). After the sea-level regression a compli-cated system of wetlands and lakes of various depths formed in thearea of the former lagoon. Water-level changes and the lowering ofwater salinity are reflected in the formation of silty sand andlaminated sediments as well as in the diatom composition fromSventoji 6 where the number of halophobous freshwater speciesincreases (Sv 6d-II/III, Fig. 3). After the final regression, aeolianprocesses caused the formation of fine-grained sand beds (Fig. 6).Wet areas were undoubtedly situated nearby as diatoms of fresh-water habitats were abundant in the sand.

Simultaneously with the development of wetlands and lakesystems, formation of gyttja started in the deepest parts of the basins.The presence of gyttja has previously been described for Sventoji sites2, 3 and 4 (Kabailien _e and Rimantien _e, 1995; Rimantien _e, 2005). Thenew investigation indicates the onset of gyttja formation at 4930� 5514C BPat Sventoji 4. This fits well with datingof awooden trunk withinthe gyttja to 5110�110 14C BP (Rimantien _e, 1996a). As the new datewas obtained from the sediments deposited on the slopes, the initialsedimentation may be older. Increased organic content within thegyttja indicates a stable depositional environment until 4545� 80 14CBP. In Lithuania, the third Litorina Sea transgression has been dated to5200–4500 14C BP (Kabailien _e,1999) and has been used to explain theso-called washing out of archaeological finds from their initial placesto the bottom of the lagoon in Sventoji sites 1–4 (Rimantien _e, 1979,2005). According to the new data, Sventoji 4 was not directly influ-enced by sea water inflow at that time. Low values of marine dino-phyceae cysts indicate a small marine influence and a constantamount of organic material excludes an exposed position in relationto sea water, which usually receives minerogenic material. A fewmarine fish species also seen in the brackish water in the Baltic


Table 3Results of osteological analyses from seven Sventoji sites, including the excavations of Sventoji 4 and 6 in 1997/1998.

Species/archaeological sites 1B 2B 3B 4 6 23 26 4 Total

97/98

Salmonidae (Salmonids) 1 1 5 7Coregonus sp. (Whitefish) 1 11 1 1 14Silurus glanis (Wels) 12 10 2 34 2 1 61Esox lucius (Northern pike) 5 54 7 353 16 28 62 525Cyprinidae (Minnows or carps) 5 63 199 267Scardinius erythrophthalmus (Rudd) 1 1Tinca tinca (Tench) 11 11Abramis brama (Bream) 3 55 58Leuciscus idus (Ide) 1 1 3 15 18 17 55Gadus morhua (Cod) 1 1 1 1 4Lota lota (Burbot) 3 3Percidae (Perches) 7 7Perca fluviatilis (Perch) 5 6 1 19 1 96 128Sander lucioperca (Pike-perch) 25 44 3 52 4 3 57 188Pleuronectidae (Righteye flounders) 3 57 60Scophthalmus rhombus (Brill) 2 13 15Pleuronectes platessa (Plaice) 10 10

Fish Total 49 126 18 551 43 49 578 1414

Gavia stellata (Red-throated Diver) 1 1Podiceps cristatus (Great Crested Grebe) 1 1Ardea cinerea (Grey Heron) 15 15Ciconia ciconia (White Stork) 1 1Cygnus cygnus (Whooper Swan) 1 1 1 3Anser anser (Greylag Goose) 0 1 1Anas crecca (Common Teal) 1 1 2Anas platyrhynchos (Mallard) 1 48 1 1 5 56Anas acuta (Northern Pintail) 7 7Anas clypeata (Norther Shoveler) 1 1Melanitta fusca (White-winged Scoter) 8 8Aythya fulicula (Tufted Duck) 1 1Mergus merganser (Common Merganser) 1 1Pernis apivorus (Honey Buzzard) 3 3Haliaeetus albicilla (White-tailed Eagle) 1 1Accipiter gentilis (Northern Goshawk) 1 1Tetrao tetrix (Black Grouse) 1 1Tetrao urogallus (Capercaillie) 2 2Fulica atra (Coot) 2 2L. hyperboreus/marinus (Glaucous Gull/Great Black-backed Gull) 2 2Larus fuscus (Lesser Black-backed Gull) 1 1Strigiformes 1 1Garrulus glandarius (Eurasian Jay) 1 2 8 6 17Birds unidentified 11 17 28

Birds total 2 97 19 11 1 27 157

Alces alces (Elk) 18 7 16 16 29 3 89Bos primigenius (Aurochs) 1 1 16 15 54 6 2 95Cervus elaphus (Red deer) 6 3 13 15 8 12 3 60Capreolus capreolus (Roe deer) 1 14 4 7 4 1 31Sus scrofa (Wild boar/domestic pig) 38 9 148 8 73 46 12 334Ursus arctos (Brown bear) 6 1 18 7 1 33Castor fiber (Beaver) 8 30 14 11 32 11 106Martes martes (Pine marten) 1 1 2Mustelidae (Mustelids) 1 1Meles meles (Badger) 1 1 4 4 10Lutra lutra (Otter) 1 1 4 6Canis lupus (Wolf) 1 4 5Vulpes vulpes (Fox) 3 2 9 3 8 5 30Lepus sp. (Hares) 4 1 5Phocidae (Seals) 27 183 77 33 169 134 17 640Phoca vitulina (Common seal) 1 5 2 2 5 15Pusa hispida (Ringed seal) 2 4 2 4 4 16Phoca groenlandica (Harp seal) 1 9 12 10 3 35Halichoerus grypus (Grey seal) 1 3 3 3 3 2 6 21Phocoena phocoena (Porpoise) 1 3 4Bos taurus (Cattle) 1 2 1 4Capra hircus/Ovis aries (Goat/sheep) 1 5 1 7Equus caballus (Horse) 3 3Canis familiaris (Dog) 8 1 4 3 19 13 1 7 56Unidentified fragments 320 18 338

Mammals total 119 253 335 89 376 686 78 10 1946


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Please cite this article in press as: Stancikait _e, M., et al., The environment of the Neolithic archaeological sites in Sventoji, Western Lithuania,Quaternary International (2009), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2009.01.012

Fig. 5. Summary chart of fish, bird and mammal bones from Sventoji archaeological sites.


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(Scophthalmus rhombus (brill) and P. platessa (plaice)) indicatespossible hydrological links of the basin to the sea via the valley of theSventoji River. A protected position, with low influence of sea water issupported by the dominant group of fish; freshwater and brackishspecies (e.g. northern pike, bream and perch), brackish-freshwateralgae, as well as by the plant purple loosestrife (L. salicaria) whichprefers freshwater conditions and grows along shores. The brackishwater species bream is present in the bottom of the fish layer, but isabsent from the top, indicating that changes towards lower salinitytook place. This means that the archaeological finds from Sventoji 4were most probably deposited directly in the water by people, andwere not the result of redeposition. The particular palaeoenviron-ment of Sventoji 4, including the possible connections to the SventojiRiver and existence of some kind of natural ‘‘trap’’, may explain thedeposition of the bone layer, dated to 3890–3520 cal. BC.

Further development of the basin produces differences in thetwo investigated areas. At Sventoji 4, overgrowing of open waterand peaty gyttja formation is dated to 3515–2945 cal. BC (Fig. 6), atthe same time as the start of peaty gyttja formation at Sventoji 6,dated to 3500–2940 cal. BC. This may correspond to the previouslydefined post-Litorina water-level rise dated to about 4000–3500 14CBP (Kabailien _e and Rimantien _e, 1995). However, the simultaneousformation of peat at Sventoji 4 suggests a lowering of the waterlevel. Alternative explanations may be local input of salt water dueto stormy weather or short-lasting invasion of sea water to the areaaround Sventoji 6. The lower part of the gyttja is dominated byfreshwater species, whereas a change towards increased salinity

Table 4Radiocarbon dates of seal bones from Sventoji archaeological sites.

Archaeological site 14C years BP,uncalibrated

Calibrated time,cal BC/AD (2s range)

Laboratorycode

Sventoji 23 3730� 30 BC 2265–2030 Ki-9459Sventoji 6 4180� 70 BC 2905–2575 Ki-9463Sventoji 2B 4250� 80 BC 3085–2580 Ki-9456


and diatoms characteristic of shallow brackish water took placelater and culminated around 1740–1215 cal. BC (Fig. 6). Eronen(1974) and Hyvarinen et al. (1988) suggested that most of the water-level fluctuations during the Litorina stage were caused by localfactors and not transgressions involving the whole Baltic basin. Insoutheastern Sweden, minor transgressions of the Litorina Sea wereassociated with centennial-scale variations in regional wind patternor coastal storminess (Yu et al., 2003). After 1740–1215 cal. BC, thewater became fresh, bog formation processes started and alder(Alnus glutinosa) carr developed close to Sventoji 6.

5.2. Relationship between vegetation and fauna

The vegetation development in the Paj�uris bog area has beeninfluenced by climate variations, sea-level changes and localgeological–geomorphological factors. According to earlier palyno-logical data, different forest communities have dominated the areathroughout the last five thousand years (Kabailien _e andRimantien _e, 1995; Stancikait _e, 2000). After the retreat of themaximum Litorina transgression during the Early Neolithic, thevegetation was dominated by deciduous forests, reflected inSventoji 6 (Fig. 6). Alder (Alnus), willow (Salix) and birch (Betula)were growing along the wet shores of the coastal zone whereasbroad-leaved trees e.g. lime (Tilia), elm (Ulmus), oak (Quercus),hazel (Corylus) and ash (Fraxinus), grew on fertile soils situatedoutside the area directly influenced by the sea. Sandy eminencesstretching along the eastern limit of the marine formations as wellas dry parts of the terraces were favored by pine (Pinus). Spruce(Picea) gradually spread into habitats with clayey soils, although itwas rather sparse in the area. Newly emerged areas were colonizedby Cyperaceae, Phragmites and other plants forming a belt along thewater line. Also species like Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae mayhave thrived in the coastal zone. Open areas were rather sparse andthe quantity of herb pollen stays low during this time period.


Fig. 6. Summary of the development of the Paj�uris bog; vegetation, fauna and human activity at the Sventoji sites.


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The Middle Neolithic is represented in the pollen diagrams fromSventoji 6 (Fig. 3, Sv 6-II and 6-III, from c. 4300 cal. BC) and Sventoji4 (Fig. 2, Sv 4-I and 4-II, from c. 3800 cal. BC). The forest composi-tion from the Early Neolithic continued to dominate the differentareas surrounding the Paj�uris bog, although some changes tookplace. Scattered occurrences of ribwort plantain (P. lanceolata) fromc. 4000 cal. BC, pollen of cereals from about 3600 cal. BC, andincreased numbers of species characteristic of ruderal habitats atboth sites, indicate disturbance of the forest surrounding thePaj�uris bog. Limited areas of the forest were probably cleared foragricultural purposes. Despite these changes, the vegetation wasstill dominated by forest and wetland communities.

The first part of the Late Neolithic is also represented in Sventoji6 (Fig. 3, Sv 6-III), and a change in vegetation composition involvingopening up of the forest, took place around 2600 cal. BC (Sv 6-IV,Fig. 3). From this time several species characteristic of opencommunities, e.g. Persicaria maculosa-type, Asteraceae and Apia-ceae appear, and a marked increase in Chenopodiaceae is seen. Thismay, however, be related to changes in water level discussed aboveand the possible appearance of shore vegetation in the vicinity ofSventoji 6, rather than to human activity at the investigated sites orin their immediate surroundings.

Basins and channels within the Paj�uris bog during Neolithictimes provided suitable habitats for a range of fish species. Also four


seal species were present in the region; common seal, harp seal,ringed seal and grey seal. The harp seal is common in the Subborealin Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (Forsten andAlhonen, 1975; Lasota-Moskalewska, 1997; Lougas, 1997; Daug-nora, 2000a; Zagorska, 2000).

The bird and mammal bones identified from different Sventojisites, give a broader picture of the mammal life of the area. Birdsconnected to lakes and wetlands dominate, although the discov-ered remains of birds may reflect hunting and other human activity(Tomek and Guminski, 2003; Guminski, 2005) rather than directlyreflecting species diversity and abundance in the Sventoji area.Wild pig, a species that today is also found in the mixed forests ofLithuania, is the most common terrestrial mammal in the Sventojisites. Mammals typical of open woodland, i.e. elk, roe deer and reddeer are also quite common, whereas only two fragments havebeen found of a species preferring denser forests, the pine marten(Martes martes). This is in contrast to the high presence of pinemarten in Middle Neolithic contexts from Piestina in Latvia (Loze,1993) and Kretuonas 1B in Lithuania (Daugnora and Girininkas,1996), and may indicate relatively open forest close to the Paj�urisbog, compared to other regions. The appearance of a few undatedbones of domesticated animals from Neolithic contexts may becorrelated to the palaeobotanical data indicating some firstattempts of farming activity in the region.



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During the Bronze Age, after 1500 cal. BC, the structure andcomposition of the vegetation changed, including local establish-ment of black alder (A. glutinosa) around Sventoji 6. The top of thediagram shows continued agricultural activity during the Iron Age,probably including expansion closer to Sventoji 6.

5.3. Human activity and resource exploitation

The present investigation has provided new informationconcerning the farming practices in the Sventoji area. Ribwortplantain (P. lanceolata), an important indicator of cultural activityand especially of grazing (Behre, 1981; Hjelle et al., 2006), ispresent by 4000 cal. BC (Middle Neolithic) in the investigatedarea. Hemp seeds (Cannabis sativa), in contexts dated to c.4000 cal. BC, indicate that this plant was cultivated in the areaby inhabitants of the Narva culture (Rimantien _e, 2005). This mayindicate that some economical changes had taken place, or atleast that the knowledge of agriculture had reached westernLithuania. The earliest indication of agricultural activity in theSventoji area generally coincides with the pattern for north-western and western Europe (Berglund et al., 1996). Althoughpollen grains of Triticum and Cannabis-type dating back to5600 cal. BC were discovered in eastern Estonia (Poska andSaarse, 2006) as well as Cerealia-type pollen grains of EarlyNeolithic age in southeastern Lithuania (Stancikait _e et al., 2002)and Latvia (Ilves and Medne, 1979), most pollen diagramsconfirm that the earliest signs of crop cultivation are at about4000 cal. BC in Lithuania and Estonia (Veski, 1998; Lang, 1999;Stancikait _e, 2000; Poska et al., 2004; Stancikait _e et al., 2006), atabout 4300 cal. BC in Latvia (Vasks et al., 1999), and at about4350 cal. BC in coastal Poland (Ralska-Jasiewiczowa and Lata-lowa, 1996). The occurrence of a few pollen grains of Triticumand Hordeum-type, dated to 3600–3500 cal. BC in the diagramsfrom Sventoji 4 and 6 (Fig. 6) may be interpreted as directevidence of agricultural activity in the area and dispersal fromcultivated fields onto dry ground situated inland from the Paj�urisbog. Hordeum and Triticum are self-pollinated species whichhave poor dispersal, although it is possible that the ancient typeshad better dispersal than today (cf. Behre, 1981). However, dueto the specific geological–geomorphological situation, the Paj�urisbog contained a mosaic of vegetation types, including openareas, which makes dispersal of cereal pollen from somedistance possible. Alternatively, as pollen stays with the cerealsafter harvesting (cf. Greig, 1982), cereal pollen may reflectcereals brought to and utilized by people during their staywithin the Paj�uris bog.

The Late Neolithic is represented in numerous archaeologicalsettlement and find sites investigated in the Sventoji area; 1(cultural horizon A), 4 (cultural horizon A), 6, 23, and 26, with thesettlement site of Sventoji 6 containing evidence of the Narvaculture with influence of the Globular Amphora Culture. Gradualopening of the forest has been confirmed by increased herb pollendiversity. Further, the continuous appearance of ruderal speciesmay be used as evidence of settlement. This has been supported bynumerous archaeological finds including remnants of houses(Rimantien _e, 1996b). In addition to the presence of macro remainsof cultivated plants, e.g. T. dicoccum and S. italica (Rimantien _e,1980), there is one group of artefacts especially important for theidentification of agrarian practices: agricultural tools. Woodenhoes, ards, scoops, and mauls have been discovered in the settle-ment area (Rimantien _e, 1996b), confirming farming activity andsubsequent handling of the yield. The number and diversity ofagricultural indicators in the pollen spectra from Sventoji 6 are,however, few. This is in contrast to the rising intensity of cattlebreeding and cultivation observed from the beginning of the Late


Neolithic in the majority of Lithuanian pollen diagrams (Seibutisand Savukynien _e, 1998; Stancikait _e et al., 2002, 2006) as well as inmost parts of the eastern Baltic region (Ralska-Jasiewiczowa andLatalowa, 1996; Veski, 1998; Vasks et al., 1999; Stancikait _e, 2000;Poska, 2001; Niinements and Saarse, 2006). The short-term riseand low representation of anthropogenic indicators and cultivatedplants may be related to their origin being some distance from theinvestigated sites, and subsequent transportation of the yield to thesettlement site of Sventoji 6. The sandy and boggy soils predom-inating in the closest surroundings of the site would not have beensuitable for cultivation.

Except for the fish bone layer at Sventoji 4, the bones that havebeen found in the archaeological excavations are of cultural origin.This means that they are refuse from human activity, in particularrelated to food consumption. The main mammal resource to thepeople of the Sventoji sites were seals and wild pigs, a patterncommonly found in coastal sites of the Baltic Sea (Zvelebil, 1979;Rowley-Conwy and Storå, 1997). Large numbers of seal bones arecharacteristic for the Neolithic coastal sites of the Baltic Sea, andfour seal species have been found in a number of sites (Lepiksaar,1986; Forsten and Alhonen, 1975; Lougas, 1997; Storå, 2000, 2001,2002). This may have been an important reason for people to visitcoastal regions and stay there.

The presence of game mammals such as aurochs, elk and reddeer, suggests that this was a hunting place utilizing moreresources than just those from the marine and lagoon environ-ments. The presence of beaver in the majority of samples confirmsthe importance of this species in the Narva and Bay Coast culturesat Sventoji.

From the relatively low frequency of bird bones, it may seemthat birds played a marginal role in the diet of the Neolithicinhabitants of Sventoji, and that birds were of less importance forpeople than mammals and fishes as it was mentioned by otherresearches (Makowiecki, 2003). On the other hand, particulararchaeological artefacts e.g. an awl made of a bird’s wing bone fromcultural horizon B at Sventoji 3 (Daugnora and Girininkas, 1995)and beads made of long bones of unidentified bird species fromDudka (Guminski and Michniewicz, 2003; Guminski, 2005) suggesta wider usage of birds than solely for consumption and may explaintheir low representation in the refuse layers.

Some of the bird species are seasonal indicators, i.e. the greyheron (Ardea cinerea) which is a summer visitor in Lithuania, whileothers like the velvet scoter (Melanitta fusca) are winter migrants.The presence of both species at cultural horizon B of Sventoji 2could indicate both summer and winter occupation or that the sitewas in use during a cross-over season in late autumn/early winteror late winter/early spring.

The results of the new botanical and zoological analyses fromSventoji, show a clear pattern of hunting and fishing as the mainactivity at these sites of the Neolithic Narva and local Pamariu (BayCoast) Cultures, as earlier stated by Rimantien _e (2005). Further-more, the results show the importance of wild pigs and seals in theeconomy during Neolithic time. The bones of domesticatedanimals; cattle, goat/sheep, though few, show contact with farmingcommunities, possibly Globular Amphora and Corded Ware pop-ulations as registered in the archaeological data (Rimantien _e,1992b). Most of the bones though, are not directly dated and maythus be later intrusions. For example, a metatarsal bone witha spavin from a horse in a Neolithic context in Sventoji 23 has beendated to the Iron Age (Antanaitis-Jacobs and Daugnora, unpublisheddata). However, indications of farming in the Sventoji region duringNeolithic times are given by the palynological and archaeologicaldata. This proves contact with farming communities and there arestrong indications that some of the domesticated bones are fromNeolithic times.



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6. Conclusions

Interdisciplinary studies including geological–geomorphological,palaeobotanical and zoological data as well as radiocarbon dates,have produced new information concerning the environment of thePaj�uris bog with the Sventoji archaeological sites settled during theNeolithic. After the regression of the maximum Litorina Sea(5090–4780 cal. BC), the influence of the sea on the Paj�uris bog waslow, except for a possible short local influence of brackish water tothe Sventoji 6 area during the time period 1740–1215 cal. BC. Thisimplies that the archaeological find sites are not the result ofoutwash of artefacts due to a later transgression. The basin bySventoji 4 was brackish during the Middle Neolithic, probably causedby connection to the sea via the Sventoji River. This provided habitatsfor a range of fresh/brackish water fishes. During the Neolithic, forestvegetation and wetland communities dominated the area, andnatural factors were the main cause of the changes that took place.The fauna were concordant with the vegetation pattern, dominatedby sea mammals, open woodland mammals and wetland birdspecies. Four seal species were present in the region and theexploitation of these species may have been the decisive factor forthe settlements in Sventoji during the Neolithic. A few bones ofdomesticated animals are present in Neolithic contexts, but theyhave not been directly dated and it is uncertain whether they are ofNeolithic origin. Weak signals of agriculture in the palaeobotanicaldata indicate that farming practices probably took place in the regionoutside the Paj�uris bog. P. lanceolata is present from c. 4000 cal. BCand scattered finds of cereals are found from c. 3600 cal. BC.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the archaeologists; Rimut _e Rimantien _e,Vygandas Juodagalvis, D�ziugas Brazaitis, Trond Lødøen, Asle BruenOlsen, and David Simpson for fruitful cooperation. Solfrid Hjelmt-veit and Ivar Kalkvik took part in the fieldwork, Solfrid Hjelmtveitanalyzed the pollen samples from Sventoji 4, Giedr _e Vaikutien _eanalyzed the diatom section from Sventoji 6 and Rimant _e Guobyt _emade the geological–geomorphological reconstruction of the area.Cathy Jenks made language corrections. Two anonymous refereeshave given valuable comments to earlier versions of the manu-script. Thanks to all of you.

The project has been financed by The University of Bergen,NorFa, Lithuanian National Science and Studies Foundation within‘‘PALEOKLIMATAS’’ (C-07008) project.

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The environment of the Neolithic archaeological sites in Sventoji, Western Lithuania

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