The Effects of Hypnosis and Mastery Imagery on Task ...

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8-1980

The Effects of Hypnosis and Mastery Imagery on Task The Effects of Hypnosis and Mastery Imagery on Task

Performance Performance

Robert J. Russell Western Michigan University

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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Russell, Robert J., "The Effects of Hypnosis and Mastery Imagery on Task Performance" (1980). Dissertations. 2611. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/2611

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THE EFFECTS OF HYPNOSIS AND MASTERY IMAGERY ON TASK PERFORMANCE

by

R o b e rt J . R u s s e l l

A D i s s e r t a t i o n S u b m i t t e d t o t h e

F a c u l t y o f The G r a d u a t e C o l l e g e i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e

r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e Degree o f D o c to r o f E d u c a t io n

D e p a rt m e n t o f C o u n s e l i n g and P e r s o n n e l

W e s te rn M ic h ig a n U n i v e r s i t y Ka lam azoo, M ich ig an

A ug us t 1980

R e p ro d u c e d w ith p e rm iss io n of th e co p y rig h t ow ner. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ited w ithou t p erm iss io n .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I woul d l i k e t o e x p r e s s my d e e p e s t g r a t i t u d e t o my m o t h e r ,

J o s e p h i n e R. R u s s e l l , who has bee n a p r i m e i n f l u e n c e i n t h e co mpl e

t i o n o f t h i s a c ad e m ic e n d e a v o r . Her e n c o u r a g e m e n t , p r a i s e , and

lo v e have p r o v e n t o be t h e b e s t o f a l l met hod s i n f o s t e r i n g a s e n s e

o f m a s t e r y .

I wo uld l i k e t o g i v e s p e c i a l t h a n k s t o my d o c t o r a l c h a i r p e r s o n ,

Dr. W i l l i a m C a r l s o n , f o r h i s g u i d a n c e and i n t e r e s t ; and t o my o t h e r

co m m i t te e member s , Dr. Edward Tre m ble y an d Dr. C h r i s K or onako s. I

am a l s o a p p r e c i a t i v e o f Dr. R o b e r t S t r a h a n and Dr. Dale P e a s e o f

Iowa S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y and Dr. D a n ie l C l a i b o r n o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f

M i s s o u r i - K a n s a s C i t y f o r t h e i r a d v i c e and a s s i s t a n c e w i t h t h i s

d i s s e r t a t i o n .

R o b e r t J . R u s s e l l

i i


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R u s s e l l , R o b e r t J.

THE EFFECTS OF HYPNOSIS AND MASTERY IMAGERY ON TASK PERFORMANCE

Western Michigan University Ed.D. 1980

University Microfilms

International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106 18 Bedford Row, London WC1R 4EJ, England


TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................................................... i i

LIST OF TABLES.............................................................................................................................. v

LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................................................... vi

C h a p t e r

I INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 1

P u r p o s e ...................................................................................................................... 1

M a s te r y I m a g e r y ................................................................................................... 1

L i t e r a t u r e R ev iew .............................................................................................. 3

Menta l P r a c t i c e ........................................................................................... 3

H y pnos is V e rs u s Waking S u g g e s t i o n ............................................... 10

H yp nos is A l o n e .............................................................................................. 13

P r o b l e m ...................................................................................................................... 14

H y p o t h e s e s ............................................................................................................... 17

H y p o t h e s i s A............................................................................................... 17

H y p o t h e s i s B ............................................................................................... 17

H y p o t h e s i s ......C.................................................................................. 17

H y p o t h e s i s ......D................................................................................................ 17

H y p o t h e s i s ......E ................................................................................................ 18

S i g n i f i c a n c e o f E x p e r i m e n t ........................................................................ 18

I I METHOD.......................................................................................................................... 20

P i l o t S t u d y ............................................................................................................. 20

S u b j e c t s ............................................................................................................. 21

D e s i g n .................................................................................................................. 22

i i i


TABLE OF CONTENTS ( c o n t 'd )

C h a p t e r

P r o c e d u r e ................................................................................................... 24

I I I RESULTS................................................................................................................ 29

E x p e r i m e n t a l R e s u l t s .............................................................................. 29

IV CONCLUSIONS....................................................................................................... 34

REFERENCES................................................................................................................................ 39

APPENDIX A: A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e P u r s u i t R o to r T a s k .................... 45

APPENDIX B: I n f o rm e d C o n se n t A g r e e m e n t ....................................................... 47

APPENDIX C: H y p n o s i s : Q u e s t i o n s and A n s w e r s .......................................... 48

APPENDIX D: D e b r i e f i n g H a n d o u t ........................................................................... 50

APPENDIX E: H y p n o t i c I n d u c t i o n P r o c e d u r e ................................................... 51

APPENDIX F: M a s t e r y Im age ry N a r r a t i v e .......................................................... 55

APPENDIX G: Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s A, B, C ................................................................. 58

APPENDIX H: P i l o t S tu d y R e s u l t s ......................................................................... 61

APPENDIX I : E x p e r i m e n t a l Raw D a t a .................................................................... 63

APPENDIX J : A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e : S e x ......................................................... 65

APPENDIX K: R e g r e s s i o n A n a l y s i s : Sex by G r o u p ..................................... 66

APPENDIX L: A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r i a n c e : P o s t t e s t as D e p e n d e n tM e a s u r e , P r e t e s t as C o v a r i a t e .................................................. 67

APPENDIX M: Q u e s t i o n n a i r e R e s u l t s .................................................................... 68

BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................................ 70

i v


LIST OF TABLES

T a b le

1.1 S e l e c t e d S t u d i e s on t h e E f f e c t s A s s o c i a t e dw i t h Mental P r a c t i c e ........................................................................................ 5

3 .1 S u b j e c t C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : Sex and H y p n o t i cS u s c e p t i b i l i t y ....................................................................................................... 29

3 . 2 Means and S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s : P r e t e s t ,P o s t t e s t and Ga in S c o r e s ............................................................................... 31

3 . 3 Between Group D i f f e r e n c e s on Gain S c o r e s ......................................... 31

3 . 4 A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e f o r t h e Depen den t V a r i a b l e ........................ 32

v


LIST OF FIGURES

F ig u r e

2.1 P u r s u i t R o to r T a s k .......................................................................................... 22

2 . 2 E x p e r i m e n t a l C o n d i t i o n s .............................................................................. 24

2 . 3 P r o c e d u r a l Flow C h a r t .................................................................................. 28

vi


CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

P urp ose

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y i s t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f

h y p n o s i s an d m a s t e r y im ag er y on f a c i l i t a t i n g p e r f o r m a n c e on a

m o to r t a s k . M a s t e r y im ag er y i s t h e c o v e r t p r o c e s s o f i m a g i n i n g o n e

s e l f p e r f o r m i n g e f f e c t i v e l y on a t a s k and i n c l u d e s t h e two compo nen ts

o f p o s i t i v e s u g g e s t i o n and m ent al p r a c t i c e . T h i s s t u d y s e e k s t o

d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f i c a c y o f c om bi ni ng m a s t e r y imag ery w i t h h y p n o s i s

a s an a i d t o e n h a n c e p e r f o r m a n c e c a p a b i l i t i e s ; and t o i d e n t i f y t h e

v a r i a b l e s w hi ch a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r su c h an e f f e c t . The p o s s i b i l i t y

e x i s t s t h a t m a s t e r y im ag er y a l o n e , r e g a r d l e s s o f h y p n o s i s , may be

s u f f i c i e n t t o h e l p f a c i l i t a t e t a s k p e r f o r m a n c e . L i k e w i s e , t h e

h y p n o t i c e x p e r i e n c e , r e g a r d l e s s o f m a s t e r y i m a g e r y , may be t h e c o n

t r i b u t i n g v a r i a b l e w hi ch s e r v e s as an a i d t o p e r f o r m a n c e . How o n e ' s

l e v e l o f h y p n o t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y i n t e r a c t s w i t h t h e u s e o f m a s t e r y

i m ag er y i s a l s o o f i n t e r e s t . To s e e k o u t t h e an sw er s t o t h e s e

q u e s t i o n s , a c o m p r e h e n s i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s n ee de d w hi ch c o n t r o l s

f o r t h e v a r i a b l e s o f h y p n o s i s , m a s t e r y im ag er y and h y p n o t i c s u s c e p

t i b i l i t y . T h i s s t u d y i s d e s i g n e d t o a c c o m p l i sh t h i s .

M as t er y Im agery

M a s te r y i m a g e r y i s c o m p r i s e d o f two co m p o n e n ts : p o s i t i v e

s u g g e s t i o n and m e n t a l p r a c t i c e . P o s i t i v e s u g g e s t i o n ca n be u sed

1


t o a l t e r s e l f image ( M a l t z , 1 9 60) . T h i s i s i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e o n e ' s

s e l f image i n f l u e n c e s o n e ' s b e h a v i o r i n t h e s e n s e t h a t one a c t s i n

a c o n g r u e n t way w i t h how one p e r c e i v e s o n e s e l f , o n e ' s l i m i t a t i o n ,

and o n e ' s a b i l i t i e s ( R o g e r s , 1 9 5 1 ) . For p e o p l e who may u n d e r e s t i m a t e

t h e i r a b i l i t i e s and s e t t h e i r l i m i t s t o o low , t h e f i r s t p u r p o s e o f

m a s t e r y im ag er y i s t o h e l p a l t e r t h i s s e l f image i n t o an i d e n t i t y whi ch

i s more c o n g r u e n t w i t h s u c c e s s . T h i s e n h a n c e m e n t o f s e l f image i s

a c c o m p l i s h e d th r o u g h s u g g e s t i o n s o f s e l f a f f i r m a t i o n w h ic h s e r v e as

an e g o - s t r e n g t h e n i n g t e c h n i q u e and a l l o w s t h e p a r t i c i p a n t t o im a g in e

him o r h e r s e l f i n a s e l f - c o n f i d e n t and c o m p e te n t man ne r . These

s u g g e s t i o n s a r e t y p i c a l l y o f a m o t i v a t i o n a l and e m o t i v e q u a l i t y and

s e r v e t o " p s y c h - u p " t h e p a r t i c i p a n t t o p e r f o r m t o t h e b e s t o f h i s o r

h e r a b i l i t y . In t h i s p r o c e s s o f m a s t e r y i m a g e r y , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t

can e x p e r i m e n t w i t h t h i s new i d e n t i t y and l e a r n from i t .

The se c o n d com ponent o f m a s t e r y im a g e r y p e r t a i n s t o m e nt al

p r a c t i c e w hi ch i s a l e a r n i n g t e c h n i q u e b a s e d on t h e same p r e m i s e

o f a c t u a l p r a c t i c e - - b u t r e h e a r s e d i n t h e mind ( R i c h a r d s o n , 1 9 6 7 a ) .

I t e n t a i l s t h e c o v e r t p r o c e s s o f i m a g i n i n g o n e s e l f im p r o v i n g a t a

c h a l l e n g i n g t a s k . L ike a c t u a l p r a c t i c e , m e n ta l p r a c t i c e u s u a l l y

i n c l u d e s a s e r i e s o f s e l f - c o r r e c t i n g r e s p o n s e s wh ic h l e a d u l t i m a t e l y

t o t h e d e s i r e d b e h a v i o r which i s b e i n g l e a r n e d . In t h i s s e l f

c o r r e c t i n g p r o c e s s , t h e a n t i c i p a t e d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f e a c h r e s p o n s e

p r o v i d e s f e e d b a c k t o t h e p a r t i c i p a n t who u s e s t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n t o

more c l o s e l y a p p r o x im a te t h e b e h a v i o r n e e d e d t o o b t a i n t h e d e s i r e d

o u tc om e. I t i s b a s e d on t h e p r e m i s e t h a t i m a g i n i n g a s u c c e s s f u l

b e h a v i o r i s t h e f i r s t s t e p to w a r d i t s a c q u i s i t i o n . Men tal p r a c t i c e


3

may a l s o i n c l u d e a p r o c e s s o f c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n i n w hich t h e p a r t i

c i p a n t can a n a l y z e t h e p ro b le m s whi ch a r e i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h p e r f o r

mance, and t h e n e x p e r i m e n t w i t h new methods o f i n c r e a s i n g p e r f o r m a n c e .

In a d d i t i o n t o a c q u i r i n g new b e h a v i o r s , m a s t e r y im ag er y may a l s o be

us e d t o m a i n t a i n o r e n h a n c e e x i s t i n g b e h a v i o r s .

For t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y , m a s t e r y im ag er y w i l l be d e f i n e d

as f o l l o w s :

M a s te r y i m a g e r y i s t h e c o v e r t p r o c e s s o f i m a g i n i n g

o n e s e l f p e r f o r m i n g e f f e c t i v e l y a t a t a s k , a p r o c e s s

w hich i n c l u d e s p o s i t i v e s u g g e s t i o n and m en tal

p r a c t i c e u s e d t o e n h a n c e p e r f o r m a n c e c a p a b i l i t i e s .

The two com pone nt p a r t s o f m a s t e r y i m a g e r y , m en tal p r a c t i c e , and

p o s i t i v e s u g g e s t i o n , w i l l now be r e v i e w e d ; bot h i n - a n d - o u t o f t h e

c o n t e x t o f h y p n o s i s .

L i t e r a t u r e Review

Mental P r a c t i c e

R ic h a r d s o n (1 9 6 7 a ) r e f e r s t o m en tal p r a c t i c e as " t h e s y m b o l i c

r e h e a r s a l o f a p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y i n t h e a b s e n c e o f any g r o s s m u s c u l a r

movement" ( p . 9 5 ) . A l th o u g h m en tal p r a c t i c e i s t h e m ost common t e r m

u sed t o d e s c r i b e t h i s c o v e r t a c t i v i t y , i t ha s been c a l l e d by d i f f e r e n t

names: s y m b o l i c r e h e a r s a l ( S a c k e t t , 1 9 3 4 ) , i m a g i n a r y p r a c t i c e ( P e r r y ,

1 9 3 9 ) , i m p l i c i t p r a c t i c e ( M o r r i s e t t , 1 9 5 6 ) , c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n

(E g s t r o m , 1 9 6 4 ) , c o v e r t r e h e a r s a l ( C o r b i n , 1967) v i c a r i o u s

m o d el in g ( B a n d u r a , 1 9 6 9 ) , and c o v e r t m o d e l in g ( K a z d i n , 1 9 7 4 ) .


4

Menta l p r a c t i c e i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o m a s t e r y im ag er y i n t h e s e n s e

t h a t b o t h i n v o l v e t h e c o v e r t r e h e a r s a l o f a d e s i r e d b e h a v i o r . I f a

d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t s b et w e en t h e two i t would be o v e r t h e d e g r e e t o

wh ich e a c h em ploys s u g g e s t i o n s o f s e l f a f f i r m a t i o n u sed t o e n h a n c e

s e l f image and t o m o t i v a t e . M as t er y im ag er y i s e x p l i c i t i n t h e use

o f s uch p o s i t i v e s u g g e s t i o n s , w h e re a s m en ta l p r a c t i c e i s n o t . I t i s

i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t a l t h o u g h Co rb in (19 72 ) s t a t e s t h a t t h e

s p e c i f i c i n t e n t o f m en tal p r a c t i c e i s t h a t o f l e a r n i n g , R ic h a r d s o n

(1 967b) p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e r e may w e l l be m o t i v a t i o n a l e l e m e n t s

wh ich a r e i m p l i c i t i n m en tal p r a c t i c e . I f t h i s i s t r u e , t h e n t h e r e

may be e v e n a c l o s e r s i m i l a r i t y betw een m e n ta l p r a c t i c e and m a s t e r y

i m a g e r y .

S e v e r a l s t u d i e s have u sed m en ta l p r a c t i c e as an a i d i n d e v e l o p

i n g p e r c e p t u a l m o to r s k i l l s as w e l l as p h y s i c a l e n d u r a n c e . T hes e

s t u d i e s ha ve co mpa red m en tal p r a c t i c e g ro u p s w i t h a c t u a l p h y s i c a l

p r a c t i c e g r o u p s and w i t h no p r a c t i c e c o n t r o l g r o u p s . A c o m p r e h e n s iv e

r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e by R ic h a r d so n (1 9 6 7 a , p p . 9 8 , 9 9 ) s um ma ri ze s

t h i s m e n ta l p r a c t i c e r e s e a r c h ( s e e T ab le 1 . 1 ) .

C o r b in (1 9 7 2 ) i n h i s r e v ie w o f t h e r e s e a r c h i n m e n ta l p r a c t i c e

has f ound more s t u d i e s s u p p o r t i n g t h a n r e j e c t i n g t h e u se o f t h i s

t e c h n i q u e as an a i d i n t h e de v e lo p m e n t o f s k i l l e d m o to r b e h a v i o r .

His c o n c l u s i o n s a r e g u a r d e d , h o w e ve r , and he s t a t e s :

T h e r e seems t o be l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t m en tal p r a c t i c e

ca n p o s i t i v e l y e f f e c t s k i l l e d m o to r p e r f o r m a n c e ,

e s p e c i a l l y when p r a c t i c e c o n d i t i o n s a r e " o p t i m a l . "


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Further reproduction

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T a b l e 1.1

S e l e c t e d S t u d i e s on t h e E f f e c t s A s s o c i a t e d w i t h Men tal P r a c t i c e

R e s e a r c hWorker S u b j e c t s T as k s

P e r c e n t g a i nMP

Comparison be tw e en g ro u p s

PP NP MP NP PP MP

E g g l e s t o n N=20 p e r g rp Cord s o r t i n g 4 . 0 5 12 .4 4 * * 1 7 .3 0 * * P .05 n . s . n . s .(1 936 ) 32 men, 28 women D i g i t s u b s t i t u t i o n 8 .7 9 * 4 1 . 5 1 * * 4 9 .6 9 * * P .01 p. 01 n . s .

Age r g e : 2 0 -5 3 y r s

P e r r y School N=16 p e r gr p Ta p p in g 0.51 5 .7 2 * 1 1 .9 3 * * P .01 n . s . n . s .(1 939 ) C h i l d r e n N=16 p e r g rp Card s o r t i n g 5 .1 5 * 2 0 . 2 8 * * 3 7 .5 5 * * P .003 p .003 p .0 03

N=12 p e r gr p Peg b o a r d 0 . 7 0 4 2 .6 3 * * 3 5 .3 9 * * P .0 03 p .0 03 n . s .N=14 p e r g rp M i r r o r d r a w in g 2 9 .6 0 * * 6 4 .6 0 * * 12 8 .2 0 * * P . 003 p .01 p .01N=15 p e r g rp D i g i t s u b s t i t u t i o n 2 1 .5 9 * * 6 4 .9 2 * * 8 9 . 3 1 * * P .0 03 p .003 p .0 5

V a nd el l J r . Hi N=4 p e r gr p D a r t s - 2 . 0 0 4 . 0 0 7 .0 0 n. a . n . a . n . a .and Sch . boysO t h e r s S r . Hi N=4 p e r grp B a s k e t b a l 1 2 . 0 0 4 3 . 0 0 4 1 . 0 0 n. a . n . a . n . a .

(19 43 ) Sch. goys f r e e t h ro wC o l l e g e N=4 p e r grp D a r t s 0 . 0 0 2 2 . 0 0 2 3 .0 0 n. a . n . a . n . a .

men

Tw in in g Col l e g e(1 949 ) men N=12 p e r gr p Ring t o s s i n g 4 . 3 0 3 6 .2 0 * * 1 37 .3 0 * * n. a . n . a . n . a .

T r u s s e l l Col l e g e N= p e r g rp(19 52) women 13 J u g g l i n g 3 6 .7 6 6 2 .4 8 4 4 7 .8 8 * * P .05 n . s . p .0 5

S t e e l School(19 52) boys N=15 p e r g rp T e n n i s b a l l 7 .5 6 11 .9 0 * * 1 5 .3 2 * * P .05 n . s . n . s .

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T a b l e 1.1 ( C o n t i n u e d )

R e s e a r c h P e r c e n t g a i n s Compa riso n be tw e en gr o u p sWorker S u b j e c t s T a sk s NP MP PP PP NP MP NP PP MP

C la r k(196 0)

V a r s i t yJ r .V a r s i t yN ov ic e s

N=72 p e r gr pP a c i f i c C o a s t on hand fo und s h o t ( b a s k e t b a l l )

n . u .n . u .n . u .

15 .0 0 * *2 3 .0 0 * *2 6 .0 0 * *

1 6 .0 0 * *24 .0 0 * *4 4 .0 0 * *

n . a .n . a .n . a .

n . a .n . a .n . a .

n . a ,n . a ,n . a ,

Wil son(19 60)

U n i v e r s i t yWomen

PP-23MP=30NP=22

T e n n i s f o r e h a n d and bac khan d d r i v e s

1 1 .8 6 * 7 .0 7 * 1 0 .3 0 * n . s . n . s . n . s .

K e ls e y (19 61)

U n i v e r s i t ymen

N=12 p e r g rpM u s c u la r e n d u r a n c e f o r s i t - u p s 8 . 7 0 2 9 . 1 0 * 3 2 2 .8 0 * * p .0 5 n . s . P •

W h i t l e y(19 62)

Schoolboys

N=50 p e r grp T e n n i s b a l l t h ro w s 3 . 6 3 1 2 .9 8 * * 1 9 .4 4 * p .01 p .05 n . s .

**p .0 1 .*p .0 5 .

n . a . — n o t a v a i l a b l e n . s . - - n o t s i g n i f i c a n t n . u . — n o t u sed in f i n a l s t u d yNP=No P r a c t i c e ; MP=Mental P r a c t i c e ; PP= Ph y s i ca l P r a c t i c e

cn

7

I t i s e q u a l l y c l e a r , how e ve r , t h a t m en tal p r a c t i c e i s

n o t a lw a ys an a i d t o p e r f o r m a n c e and t h a t f a c t o r s s u c h

as p r a c t i c e t y p e , t h e s k i l l t a s k , and t h e n a t u r e o f t h e

p e r f o r m a n c e u l t i m a t e l y r e f l e c t t h e e x t e n t o f b e h a v i o r

ch a ng e r e s u l t i n g from m en ta l p r a c t i c e ( p . 1 1 5 ) .

I n d e e d , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s , which can e i t h e r f a c i l i t a t e

o r i n h i b i t t h e use o f m en tal p r a c t i c e . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e l e n g t h o f

t i m e u s e d f o r m en tal p r a c t i c e s h o u l d be l on g enoug h t o ha ve an i m p a c t

and y e t n o t so l on g t h a t i t would l o s e t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t e n t i o n . I t

seems t h a t a t i m e p e r i o d o f t h r e e t o f i v e m i n u te s i s i d e a l f o r m en ta l

p r a c t i c e (T w in i n g , 194 9; S h i c k , 19 6 9 ) . The p e r s o n ' s f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h

t h e t a s k p r i o r t o t h e us e o f m en tal p r a c t i c e i s i m p o r t a n t i n t h a t i t

i s d i f f i c u l t t o im a g i n e o n e s e l f p e r f o r m i n g a t a s k w i t h w h ic h on e ha s had

l i t t l e o r no e x p e r i e n c e ( C l a r k , 1960; C o r b i n , 1 9 6 7 ) . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e

more com plex t h e t a s k i s , t h e g r e a t e r t h e need f o r p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e

( P h i p p s , 1 9 6 8 ) .

Some t h e o r i s t s ( S t a r t & R i c h a r d s o n , 19 64; W a t e r l a n d , 1956)

c o n t e n d t h a t f o r m e n ta l p r a c t i c e t o be e f f e c t i v e i t m us t n o t o n l y

i n c l u d e a v i s u a l co m p o n e n t , b u t a l s o a k i n e s t h e t i c com po ne nt as w e l l .

T h i s n e u r o m u s c u l a r t h e o r y e s p o u s e s t h e b e l i e f t h a t d u r i n g m e n t a l

p r a c t i c e , a c t u a l e l e c t r i c a l p o t e n t i a l s p a s s t h r o u g h t h e n e r v e s w hich

i n n e r v a t e a t t h e m u s c l e g ro u p s which a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e im a g in e d

t a s k . In t h e p r o c e s s o f c o v e r t r e h e a r s a l , p e r c e p t u a l m o to r l e a r n i n g

t a k e s p l a c e as t h e p a r t i c i p a n t p a i r s v i s u a l d a t a w i t h n e u r o m u s c u l a r

s e n s a t i o n s .

Along t h i s same p r i n c i p l e , one c o u l d a l s o h y p o t h e s i z e t h e nee d

f o r an a u d i t o r y comp onen t i n m e nt al p r a c t i c e , w he re t h e t a s k i s


a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a u d i t o r y s t i m u l i . Of t h e s e s e n s e m o d a l i t i e s ( v i s u a l ,

k i n e s t h e t i c , and a u d i t o r y ) , c e r t a i n t a s k s may r e q u i r e a d i f f e r e n t

e m p h a s i s on one o r more o f t h e s e . I t i s a l s o l i k e l y t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t s

may d i f f e r i n t h e i r own r e l i a n c e on t h e s e m o d a l i t i e s ( B a n d l e r &

G r i n d e r , 1 9 7 5 ) . Men tal p r a c t i c e wh ich u t i l i z i e s t h e r i g h t m i x tu r e

o f t h e s e m o d a l i t i e s t o f i t t h e t a s k as w e l l as t h e s u b j e c t may be

t h e m ost e f f e c t i v e .

P e r h a p s t h e m os t s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a b l e wh ich would d e t e r m in e

t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f m en tal p r a c t i c e i s t h e s u b j e c t ' s a b i l i t y t o

h av e v i v i d and c o n t r o l l e d im a g e r y (G or don, 1949 ; S t a r t & R i c h a r d s o n ,

1 9 5 4 ) . I t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o e x p e c t t h a t t h e more v i v i d o r r e a l an

image i s , t h e more s i m i l a r i t woul d be t o a c t u a l p r a c t i c e . L i k e w i s e ,

t h e amoun t o f c o n t r o l a s u b j e c t has o v e r t h e image w i l l d e t e r m in e

t h e s u b j e c t ' s a b i l i t y t o keep t h e image "on c o u r s e . " O b v i o u s l y ,

i f a m a s t e r y image w e re t o f a d e away i n t o a t o t a l l y i r r e l e v a n t image

o r w e re t o become an image o f f a i l u r e , i t woul d hav e a n e u t r a l o r

d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t .

I f t h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s t r u e t h e n one m ig h t e x p e c t t h a t t h e r e

w ou ld be b e t t e r u t i l i z a t i o n o f m en tal p r a c t i c e when u s e d i n c o n

j u n c t i o n w i t h h y p n o s i s . T h i s i s b e c a u s e h y p n o s i s h as t h e c a p a b i l i t y

o f making im ag er y more v i v i d and r e a l when comp ared t o im ag er y i n

t h e wa k in g s t a t e ( V in a c k e , 1 9 5 2 ) . The s u b j e c t ' s i n c r e a s e d c o n c e n

t r a t i o n i n h y p n o s i s h e l p s f a c i l i t a t e t h i s r i c h d e t a i l i n t h e image

and may a l s o p e r m i t a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f c o n t r o l o v e r t h e imag e.

With t h i s i n m in d , Poe (1 963) h y p o t h e s i z e d a r e a l i t y co n t in u u m

w i t h a c t u a l p r a c t i c e b e i n g a t t h e t o p o f t h i s c o n t i n u u m , f o l l o w e d


by h y p n o t i c p r a c t i c e , t h e n by i m a g in e d p r a c t i c e , and t h e n a t t h e

b o t to m o f t h e c o n t in u u m by no p r a c t i c e . In one o f h i s s t u d i e s , Poe

(1 966) s c r e e n e d s u b j e c t s f o r h y p n o t i z a b i 1i t y f rom w hic h 30 "good"

h y p n o t i c s u b j e c t s w e re e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n t o t h r e e g r o u p s :

(1) h y p n o t i c i m a g in e d p r a c t i c e , (2.) wa k ing im a g in e d p r a c t i c e , and

(3 ) wa king no p r a c t i c e . T h i r t y "p o o r " h y p n o t i c s u b j e c t s were e q u a l l y

d i s t r i b u t e d i n t o t h r e e g r o u p s : (1 ) w a king im a g in e d p r a c t i c e , (2)

wak ing no p r a c t i c e , and (3 ) w a king a c t u a l p r a c t i c e . "Good" h y p n o t i c

s u b j e c t s were n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e wa k in g a c t u a l p r a c t i c e g r o u p , n o r

were "p o o r" h y p n o t i c s u b j e c t s i n c l u d e d i n t h e h y p n o t i c im a g in e d

p r a c t i c e g r o u p . Al l "good" h y p n o t i c s u b j e c t s were t r a i n e d i n t h e

use o f h y p n o t i c im a g e r y ( i m a g e ry which was u n r e l a t e d t o t h e p e r f o r m a n c e

c r i t e r i o n ) p r i o r t o t h e t r e a t m e n t i n t e r v e n t i o n . The p e r f o r m a n c e

c r i t e r i o n i n c l u d e d a m o to r t a s k , t h e P u r s u i t Rotor-, and a c o g n i t i v e

t a s k , t h e d i g i t - s y m b o l . Al l s u b j e c t s we re p r e t e s t e d , p r e s e n t e d w i t h

t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e and p o s t t e s t e d . A n a l y s i s o f t h e r e s u l t s

i n d i c a t e d t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t im p ro v em en t s o c c u r r e d f o r a l l c o n d i t i o n s ,

and t h a t t h e wak ing a c t u a l p r a c t i c e g ro up s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r

t h a n t h e o t h e r f i v e g r o u p s . Only n o n s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were

f ound among t h e o t h e r f i v e c o n d i t i o n s .

A s t u d y by G a r v e r (1 973) was a l s o c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e e f f e c t s

o f h y p n o t i c ( m e n t a l ) p r a c t i c e v e r s u s r e g u l a r m en ta l p r a c t i c e on

t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f a m o to r s k i l l a s m ea su r ed by t h e P u r s u i t R o to r

T as k . His i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e c o n s i s t e d o f n o n h y p n o t i c d i r e c t

p o s i t i v e s u g g e s t i o n i n t h e fo rm o f m en tal p r a c t i c e , and h y p n o t i c

s u g g e s t i o n o f t h e same t y p e and d u r a t i o n . In t h i s s t u d y , ea c h


10

o f t h e 12 h y p n o t i c a l l y t r a i n e d s u b j e c t s r e c e i v e d a t o t a l o f 48 t r i a l s ,

e a c h l a s t i n g 30 s e c o n d s , on t h e P u r s u i t R o to r o v e r a f o u r day p e r i o d

e m p lo yi ng " u n i f o r m a l y " b o t h r e g u l a r m e nt al p r a c t i c e and h y p n o t i c

( m e n t a l ) p r a c t i c e . R e s u l t s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g : ( 1 ) a s i g n i f i

c a n t l y g r e a t e r im p ro v em en t i n s u b j e c t s who f i r s t t r a i n e d i n m e n ta l

p r a c t i c e f o l l o w e d by h y p n o t i c p r a c t i c e as comp ared t o s u b j e c t s who

f i r s t t r a i n e d i n h y p n o t i c p r a c t i c e f o l l o w e d by m e nt al p r a c t i c e , (2 )

t h e f i n a l a v e r a g e h y p n o t i c p r a c t i c e s c o r e s w e re s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r

t h a n t h e f i n a l a v e r a g e m en tal p r a c t i c e s c o r e s . The a u t h o r c o n c l u d e d

t h a t h y p n o t i c p r a c t i c e was s u p e r i o r t o m e n ta l p r a c t i c e i n f a c i l i t a t i n g

p e r f o r m a n c e and l e a r n i n g on t h e P u r s u i t R o to r T a s k . Th is s t u d y can

be q u e s t i o n e d , h o w e v e r , due t o t h e sm al l sa m pl e s i z e u s e d and t h e

p o s s i b i l i t y o f c a r r y - o v e r e f f e c t s f o r t h e s u b j e c t s u n d e r g o in g b o th

t y p e s o f p r a c t i c e c o n d i t i o n s .

Hypn os is Ve rs us Waking S u g g e s t i o n

In t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n r e s e a r c h d e a l t w i t h t h e u s e o f im ag er y

as a l e a r n i n g t e c h n i q u e t o im pr ov e t a s k p e r f o r m a n c e . In c o m p a r i s o n ,

t h i s s e c t i o n w i l l f o c u s on t h e u s e o f s u g g e s t i o n as a m o t i v a t i o n a l

d e v i c e t o e n h a n c e p e r f o r m a n c e . T h i s w i l l com pare t h e e f f i c a c y o f

s u g g e s t i o n i n h y p n o s i s and i n t h e w a king s t a t e .

R i e g e r (1 8 8 4 ) d i s c o v e r e d t h a t h y p n o s i s and s u g g e s t i o n s f o r

arm c a t a l e p s y g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e d a woman's p e r f o r m a n c e on an arm

e n d u r a n c e t a s k . S e v e r a l a d d i t i o n a l s t u d i e s ( W e l l s , 1947 ; Hammer,

1954 ; G l a d f e l t e r & C r a s e l n e c k , 1960 ; C o l l i n s , 196 1; McCord &

S h e r r i l l , 1961) hav e a l s o fo u n d s u g g e s t i o n s g i v e n u n d e r h y p n o t i c


nt r a n c e t o be e f f e c t i v e i n a i d i n g t a s k p e r f o r m a n c e . Ye t c r i t i c s

( P a r k e r & B a r b e r , 1964 ; B a r b e r 1965; G i l b e r t & B a r b e r , 197 2; Morgan,

19 72) p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e s e s t u d i e s f a i l e d t o use a c o n t r o l g ro up o f

s u b j e c t s who we re awake and r e c e i v e d t h e same s u g g e s t i o n s as d i d t h e

h y p n o t i z e d s u b j e c t s . Morgan (19 72 ) e s p o u s e s t h i s p o s i t i o n and s t a t e s :

"one o f t h e m os t s e r i o u s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b le m s t h a t has c h a r a c t e r i z e d

h y p n o s i s r e s e a r c h i n v o l v i n g m u s c u l a r p e r f o r m a n c e has bee n t h e c o n

f o u n d i n g o f s u g g e s t i o n and s t a t e " (p . 1 9 5 ) . And o t h e r s t u d i e s

( S e a r s , 19 55; H o t t i n g e r , 1958; S a l z b e r g , 1960) w h ic h d i d c o n t r o l

f o r h y p n o t i c v e r s u s wak ing s u g g e s t i o n e r r o r e d by n o t c o n t r o l l i n g

f o r s u b j e c t h y p n o t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y . Th ese s t u d i e s f a i l e d t o r e q u i r e

wa k in g s u b j e c t s t o mee t t h e same h igh h y p n o t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y r e q u i r e

ment s wh ich w e re made o f t h e h y p n o t i c s u b j e c t s .

B a r b e r and C a l v e r l y (1 964) c o n t e n d t h a t h y p n o t i c o r p o s t h y p n o t i c

s u g g e s t i o n i s no b e t t e r t h a n w ak ing s u g g e s t i o n on i m p r o v i n g m u s c u l a r

p e r f o r m a n c e . S e v e r a l s t u d i e s ( W i l l i a m s , 19 30 ; London & F u h r e r , 1961;

P a r k e r & B a r b e r , 1964; B a r b e r & C a l v e r l y , 196 4; B a r b e r , 19 65 ; A l b e r t

& W i l l i a m s , 1975) comp ared s u g g e s t i o n g i v e n i n b o t h h y p n o t i c and wak ing

c o n d i t i o n s and fo u n d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e s e two

c o n d i t i o n s . Two s t u d i e s (M a nz er , 1934 ; C r a n e , 1940) i n v e s t i g a t e d

t h e u se o f s u g g e s t i o n s d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e and s u g g e s t i o n s d e s i g n e d

t o d e c r e a s e s t r e n g t h i n wa king s u b j e c t s . A l th o u g h no h y p n o t i c

s u g g e s t i o n g ro u p was u s e d , b o t h s t u d i e s d i d f i n d t h a t p o s i t i v e and

n e g a t i v e s u g g e s t i o n c o u l d s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e and d e c r e a s e t h e

s t r e n g t h o f w a k in g s u b j e c t s . Th ese s t u d i e s a t t e s t t o t h e e f f e c t i v e

n e s s o f w a k in g s u g g e s t i o n i n a f f e c t i n g m u s c u l a r p e r f o r m a n c e .


12

Th er e a r e s e v e r a l w e l l c o n t r o l l e d s t u d i e s , h o w e v e r , w hich do

a t t e s t t o t h e e f f i c a c y o f h y p n o t i c s u g g e s t i o n o v e r wak ing s u g g e s t i o n

i n e n h a n c i n g m u s c u l a r p e r f o r m a n c e . One o f t h e e a r l i e r s t u d i e s by

N i c h o l s o n (19 20 ) d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t s u g g e s t i o n a d m i n i s t e r e d i n h y p n o s i s

was more e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e same s u g g e s t i o n a d m i n i s t e r e d i n t h e wa king

s t a t e i n i n c r e a s i n g m u s c u l a r c a p a b i l i t y . A c l o s e l y r e p l i c a t e d s t u d y

by W i l l i a m s (1 930 ) s u p p o r t e d t h i s same c o n c l u s i o n .

S t u d i e s by Mead and Roush (1 94 9) and by Roush (1 951 ) u sed

i d e n t i c a l s u g g e s t i o n s on s u b j e c t s i n b o th h y p n o t i c and waking c o n d i

t i o n s t o f a c i l i t a t e m u s c u l a r p e r f o r m a n c e i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t s t r e n g t h

and e n d u r a n c e t a s k s . The r e s u l t s f r om t h e s e s t u d i e s showed t h a t

h y p n o t i c s u g g e s t i o n was s i g n i f i c a n t l y more e f f e c t i v e t h a n w ak ing

s u g g e s t i o n b u t o n ly on c e r t a i n t a s k s . Both s t u d i e s i l l u s t r a t e t h e

f a c t t h a t t h e u t i l i t y o f h y p n o t i c s u g g e s t i o n may be a f u n c t i o n o f t h e

t y p e o f t a s k u s e d . R e l a t e d t o t h i s i s a s t u d y by Jo h n so n and Kramer

(1 96 1) who f o u n d t h a t h y p n o t i c s u g g e s t i o n was s i g n i f i c a n t l y more

e f f e c t i v e t h a n w a king s u g g e s t i o n on an e n d u r a n c e t a s k . S t r e n g t h and

powe r t a s k s , h o w e v e r , w e re n o t a f f e c t e d by t h i s h y p n o t i c s u g g e s t i o n .

In a s t u d y by S l o t n i c k and London (1 965) bo th h ig h and low

s u s c e p t i b l e s u b j e c t s w e re a s s i g n e d t o v a r i o u s h y p n o t i c and w a king

c o n d i t i o n s . V a ri o u s i n s t r u c t i o n s o f an e x h o r t a t i v e o r an a n a l g e s i c

n a t u r e w e re u se d t o e n h a n c e s t r e n g t h and e n d u r a n c e . R e s u l t s showed

t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n s h e l p e d t o im pro ve p e r f o r m a n c e i n t h e h y p n o t i c

s t a t e b u t n o t i n t h e w a king s t a t e . I t was a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t

e x h o r t a t i v e i n s t r u c t i o n s w e re more e f f e c t i v e t h a n a n a l g e s i c i n

s t r u c t i o n s i n a c c o m p l i s h i n g t h i s . A s e c o n d s t u d y ( S l o t n i c k , L i e b e r t ,


13

& H i l g a r d , 1965 ) f o u n d t h a t " i n v o l v i n g " i n s t r u c t i o n s comb ined w i t h

e x h o r t a t i v e i n s t r u c t i o n s h e l p e d pr om ot e s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e m e n t s w i t h

s u b j e c t s i n b o t h h y p n o t i c and wa king c o n d i t i o n s . P e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e

h y p n o t i c g r o u p , h o w e v e r , was s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e

wa k in g g ro u p . T he se two s t u d i e s n o t o n l y s u p p o r t t h e n o t i o n t h a t

h y p n o t i c s u g g e s t i o n i s s u p e r i o r t o wa king s u g g e s t i o n , b u t t h e y a l s o

e m p h a s i z e t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f i c a c y o f v a r i o u s k i n d s o f s u g g e s t i o n s

and i n s t r u c t i o n s .

H yp no si s Alone

Rosenhan and London (1 963) empl oyed b o th h ig h and low s u s c e p t i b l e

s u b j e c t s , and f o u n d t h a t m u s c u l a r e n d u r a n c e was r e d u c e d i n h y p n o t i z e d

s u b j e c t s . They a t t r i b u t e d t h i s t o t h e b e l i e f t h a t h y p n o s i s had

c a u s e d a l e t h a r g i c s t a t e i n t h e s u b j e c t s . A s e c o n d s t u d y (Graha m,

O l s e n , P a r i s h , & L e i b o w i t z , 1968) t e s t e d s u b j e c t r e a c t i o n t i m e s and

fo un d p s y c h o m o t o r r e t a r d a t i o n an d i m p a i r e d r e a c t i o n t i m e i n s u b j e c t s

who w e re i n t h e h y p n o t i c s t a t e . A n o th e r s t u d y ( B a r b e r & C a l v e r l y ,

1964) f o u n d t h a t h y p n o s i s a l o n e d e p r e s s e d m u s c u l a r e n d u r a n c e , w h i l e

h y p n o t i c s u g g e s t i o n an d w a k ing s u g g e s t i o n h e l p e d t o i n c r e a s e e n d u r a n c e .

T h e r e i s e v i d e n c e , h o w e v e r , wh ic h c o n t r a d i c t s t h e s e f i n d i n g s .

Fo r i n s t a n c e , two s t u d i e s ( L e v i t t & B r a d y , 1964; London & F u h r e r , 1961)

d i d n o t f i n d any i m p a i r m e n t i n m u s c u l a r e n d u r a n c e i n h y p n o t i c s u b j e c t s .

A n o th e r s t u d y (Ham & Ed m on ston , 1971) d i d n o t f i n d any d i f f e r e n c e i n

r e a c t i o n t im e i n s u b j e c t s who we re i n a r e l a x e d h y p n o t i c s t a t e and

i n s u b j e c t s who w e re i n a wa king s t a t e . O t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s ( E y s e n c k ,


14

19 41 ; S a k a t a & A n d e r s o n , 1970) ha ve f ound t h a t h y p n o s i s a l o n e can

a c t u a l l y e n h a n c e a s u b j e c t ' s p h y s i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e .

I f h y p n o s i s a l o n e can h e l p t o i n c r e a s e p e r f o r m a n c e , t h i s may

be due t o one o f s e v e r a l e x p l a n a t i o n s . Hy pnosi s may r e l a x t h e

s u b j e c t and s e r v e t o r e d u c e any p e r f o r m a n c e a n x i e t y w h ich woul d

i n h i b i t t h e s u b j e c t ' s p e r f o r m a n c e c a p a b i l i t i e s ( N a r u s e , 1 9 6 5 ) . A

se c o n d e x p l a n a t i o n m i g h t be t h a t t h e h y p n o t i c e x p e r i e n c e works as a

p l a c e b o on s u s c e p t i b l e s u b j e c t s who b e l i e v e i n i t s "pow er s" t o a f f e c t

ch a n g e (M or gan , 1 9 7 2 ) . A t h i r d e x p l a n a t i o n m i g h t be t h a t t h e h y p n o t i c

r e l a t i o n s h i p b et w e en t h e s u b j e c t and t h e h y p n o t i s t n u r t u r e s a hi gh

d e g r e e o f c o o p e r a t i o n and m o t i v a t i o n on t h e s u b j e c t ' s p a r t ( O r n e ,

Sheehan & E v a n s , 1968 ; W h i t e , 1 9 4 1 ) . I t c o u l d a l s o be p o s s i b l e t h a t

h i g h l y s u s c e p t i b l e s u b j e c t s a r e a l r e a d y more m o t i v a t e d t o p e r f o r m

p r i o r to h y p n o s i s as com pa red t o low s u s c e p t i b l e s u b j e c t s . Evans and

Orne (1 9 6 5 ) found no d i f f e r e n c e , h o w e v e r , be tw e e n s u s c e p t i b l e and

u n s u s c e p t i b l e s u b j e c t s on b a s e l e v e l p e r f o r m a n c e . Th es e r e s e a r c h e r s

a l s o f o u n d t h a t t h e mere i n d u c t i o n o f h y p n o s i s was n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o

a l t e r p e r f o r m a n c e i n e i t h e r low o r h i g h s u s c e p t i b l e s u b j e c t s .

P ro b lem

The r e s e a r c h i s c l e a r t h a t u n d e r o p t i m a l c o n d i t i o n s m en tal

p r a c t i c e ca n f a c i l i t a t e t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f a m o to r s k i l l . The

r e s e a r c h i s e q u a l l y c l e a r t h a t s u g g e s t i o n s o f a m o t i v a t i o n a l n a t u r e

can a l s o e n h a n c e p e r f o r m a n c e c a p a b i l i t i e s . What r e m a in s u n c e r t a i n

i s w h e t h e r t h e use o f h y p n o s i s when u s e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h m en tal

p r a c t i c e o r w i t h s u g g e s t i o n can be a s u p e r i o r met hod when comp ared


15

t o m en tal p r a c t i c e o r s u g g e s t i o n u s e d i n t h e w a k ing s t a t e . The

r e s e a r c h i s a l s o mixed on w h a t e f f e c t h y p n o t i c e x p e r i e n c e has on

p e r f o r m a n c e , r e g a r d l e s s o f m en tal p r a c t i c e o r s u g g e s t i o n .

P e r h a p s an i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e whi ch c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h i s i s s u e

i s t h e t y p e o f h y p n o s i s e m p lo yed . For i n s t a n c e , Ham and Edmonston

(197 1) fou nd t h a t a l e r t i n g h y p n o t i c i n d u c t i o n s were more e f f e c t i v e

th a n r e l a x i n g h y p n o t i c i n d u c t i o n s i n l o w e r i n g r e a c t i o n t i m e . One

m ig h t a l s o e x p e c t s u b j e c t s t o be more l e t h a r g i c w h i l e i n t h e r e l a x e d

h y p n o t i c s t a t e , w h i l e p o s t h y p n o t i c s u b j e c t s may b e n e f i t f rom h y p n o s i s

w h i l e a v o i d i n g th e p o s s i b l e l e t h a r g i c e f f e c t s .

Many o f t h e s t u d i e s w hich hav e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e s e v a r i o u s i s s u e s

have n o t been a d e q u a t e l y c o n t r o l l e d f o r and t h e o nes whi ch hav e been

c o n t r o l l e d f o r s t i l l c o n f l i c t w i t h e a c h o t h e r . Th ese c o n f l i c t i n g

r e s u l t s may be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t s u c h p r o c e d u r a l v a r i a b l e s

as c r i t e r i o n t a s k s , h y p n o t i c i n d u c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s , t y p e o f s u g g e s t i o n

o r m en tal p r a c t i c e u s e d and s u b j e c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s hav e v a r i e d w i d e l y

from s t u d y t o s t u d y . For t h i s r e a s o n i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o a s s e s s f rom

t h i s r e s e a r c h how h y p n o s i s may i n t e r a c t w i t h m en tal p r a c t i c e o r

s u g g e s t i o n t o e n h a n c e t a s k p e r f o r m a n c e . How h y p n o s i s w i l l i n t e r a c t

w i t h m a s t e r y im ag er y i s , t h e r e f o r e , j u s t a s u n c e r t a i n .

A n o th e r p r o b le m a r i s e s i n s t u d i e s w hi ch us e s u b j e c t s i n wa king

im ag er y c o n d i t i o n s who a r e h ig h on h y p n o t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y . The

p o s s i b i l i t y e x i s t s t h a t t h e s e s u b j e c t s c o u l d s p o n t a n e o u s l y e n t e r a

h y p n o t i c t r a n c e w i t h o u t t h e a i d o f any f o r m a l i n d u c t i o n p r o c e d u r e .

T h i s c o u l d be a c c o m p l i s h e d by m e r e l y a s k i n g them t o c l o s e t h e i r

e y e s and v i s u a l i z e an im ag e. Poe ( 1 9 6 3 ) m e n t i o n e d t h e p o s s i b l i t y


16

o f such an o c c u r r e n c e o f s p o n t a n e o u s h y p n o s i s and G a r d n e r (19 76)

s t a t e s t h a t " h y p n o s i s ne ed n o t be t i e d t o any fo r ma l i n d u c t i o n a t

a l l . . . ( a n d t h a t ) t h e c r i t e r i o n f o r d e t e r m i n i n g h y p n o s i s v s .

n o n h y p n o s i s s h o u l d be b a s e d on some a s p e c t s o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o r

b e h a v i o r o f t h e ' p a t i e n t ' and n o t on t h a t o f t h e ' t h e r a p i s t ' " ( p . 2 1 1 ) .

An i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s i s t h e f a c t t h a t M i l t o n E r i c k s o n r e p o r t e d l y

us e s f o r m a l i z e d i n d u c t i o n s i n l e s s t h a n 10% o f h i s h y p n o t i c work

( B e a h r s , 1 9 7 1 ) . I f s p o n t a n e o u s h y p n o s i s do es o c c u r i n h i g h l y

s u s c e p t i b l e s u b j e c t s , t h e n t h i s woul d t e n d t o e q u a l i z e w a king im a g e r y

and h y p n o t i c im ag er y g r o u p s whi ch a r e c o m p ri s e d o f t h e s e s u s c e p t i b l e

i n d i v i d u a l s . Of c o u r s e , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o c o n t r o l f o r s u s c e p t i b i l i t y

when c om pa rin g h y p n o t i c and wa king s u b j e c t s , and y e t one s t i l l w on de rs

i f s p o n t a n e o u s h y p n o s i s does o c c u r and i f t h i s m i g h t be a c o n f o u n d in g

v a r i a b l e i n many o f t h e s t u d i e s whi ch were c i t e d i n t h i s l i t e r a t u r e

r e v i e w . One way t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s woul d be t o com pare low and

h ig h s u s c e p t i b l e s u b j e c t s i n t h e w a king im ag er y c o n d i t i o n .

To s u m m a ri z e , w h e t h e r i t i s m a s t e r y im ag er y a l o n e , h y p n o s i s

a l o n e o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e two whi ch i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e

f a c i l i t a t i o n o f t a s k p e r f o r m a n c e i s s t i l l u n c e r t a i n . A l s o unknown

i s w h e t h e r s p o n t a n e o u s h y p n o s i s may o c c u r i n w a king i m a g e r y s u b j e c t s

who a r e h i g h l y s u s c e p t i b l e . A c o m p re h e n s iv e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s n e e d e d ,

t h e r e f o r e , whi ch c o n t r o l s f o r t h e v a r i a b l e s o f h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y

im ag er y and f o r low and h i g h s u s c e p t i b i l i t y f o r s u b j e c t s i n wa k in g

im a g e r y .


H yp oth es i s

17

Based on an e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n w hi ch wo ul d i n c l u d e t h e

f o l l o w i n g g r o u p s : ( 1 ) h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y i m a g e r y , (2 ) h y p n o s i s ,

(3) m a s t e r y im ag er y ( H ) \ (4 ) n o - t r e a t m e n t c o n t r o l , and (4 ) m a s t e r y

2im ag er y (L) ; t h e f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e s e s a r e s t a t e d .

H y p o t h e s i s A

Hy pnos is and m a s t e r y imag ery s u b j e c t s w i l l d e m o n s t r a t e a

s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r g a i n s c o r e on a m o to r t a s k when com pa red t o

t h e n o - t r e a t m e n t c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s .

H y p o t h e s i s B

M a s te r y im a g e r y (H) s u b j e c t s w i l l d e m o n s t r a t e a s i g n i f i c a n t l y

g r e a t e r g a i n s c o r e on a m o to r t a s k when co mpa red t o t h e n o - t r e a t m e n t

c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s .

H y p o t h e s i s C

H yp n o s i s and m a s t e r y im ag er y s u b j e c t s w i l l d e m o n s t r a t e a

s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r g a i n s c o r e on a m o to r t a s k when co mpa red t o

t h e m a s t e r y im ag er y (H) s u b j e c t s .

H y p o t h e s i s D

Hy p n o s i s and m a s t e r y im ag er y s u b j e c t s w i l l d e m o n s t r a t e a

s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r g a i n s c o r e on a m o to r t a s k when co mpa red t o

t h e h y p n o s i s s u b j e c t s .

^M a s te r y im a g e r y (H) i s f o r s u b j e c t s who a r e h i g h on s u s c e p t i b i l i t y . 2

M a s t e r y i m a g e r y (L) i s f o r s u b j e c t s who a r e low on s u s c e p t i b i l i t y .


18

H y p o t h e s i s E

Hypn osis and m a s t e r y im ag er y s u b j e c t s w i l l d e m o n s t r a t e a

s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r p a i n s c o r e on a m o to r t a s k when comp ared t o

t h e m a s t e r y im ag er y (L) s u b j e c t s .

S i g n i f i c a n c e o f E x p e r im e n t

C u r r e n t l y t h e us e o f t e c h n i q u e s s i m i l a r t o m a s t e r y im ag er y a r e

becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y p o p u l a r i n c l i n i c a l p r a c t i c e (M eichenbaum, 1 9 7 4 ) .

I t has r e c e i v e d new im p e tu o u s from r e s e a r c h e r s who a r e f i n d i n g many

d i v e r s i f i e d a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r i t s u s e s . Fo r i n s t a n c e , i t may be

u s e d t o a c q u i r e com plex i n t e r p e r s o n a l s k i l l s s uc h as a s s e r t i v e n e s s

( K a z d i n , 1 9 7 4 ) , t o overcome p h o b i a s ( B a n d u r a , 1977 ; G r ays on & B o r k o v e c ,

19 78 ; N o r to n , MacLean, & Wachna, 1978) t o e x t i n g u i s h h a b i t b e h a v i o r s

su c h as smoking (N es se & N e l s o n , 1977) o r t o en h a n c e a t h l e t i c p e r

fo r ma nce (Mahoney & A v e n e r , 1977 ; S h e l t o n & Mahoney, 1 9 7 8 ) . G a r d n e r

(1 976) e m p h a s i z e d t h e use o f m a s t e r y im a g e r y i n t h e c o n t e x t o f h y p n o s i s

f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y t o be u se d t o e n h a n c e e s t e e m and

c o n f i d e n c e i n t h r e e b r o a d a r e a s : s e l f , n o n p e r s o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t and

i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . He a l s o p o i n t e d o u t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f

t h i s t e c h n i q u e t o h u m a n i s t i c p s y c h o l o g y f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f s e l f -

a c t u a l i z a t i o n .

The goal a t t h e p r e s e n t , h o w e v e r , i s n o t t o f i n d new a p p l i c a t i o n s

f o r t h e use o f m a s t e r y i m a g e r y , b u t t o e x p l o r e t h e i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s

wh ich a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s phenomenon. For i n s t a n c e , i f h y p n o s i s

w e re f ound t o be an i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e i n t h e f a c i l i t a t i o n o f m a s t e r y

i m a g e r y , t h e n t h i s d i s c o v e r y woul d hav e i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r


19

t h o s e c l i n i c i a n s who u se m a s t e r y im ag er y i n t h e w a k ing c o n d i t i o n .

I f , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , h y p n o s i s we re fo u n d t o hav e no a p p r e c i a b l e

e f f e c t when comb ined w i t h m a s t e r y i m a g e r y , t h e n t h i s would s e r v e as

a mess age t h a t a more s i m p l i f i e d wak ing im ag er y i s j u s t as e f f e c t i v e

as h y p n o t i c i m a g e r y . W he ther h y p n o s i s when us ed a l o n e has a f a c i l i -

t o r y , a n e u t r a l , o r an i n h i b i t o r y e f f e c t on t a s k p e r f o r m a n c e wo uld

a l s o have i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h o s e who w i s h t o use m a s t e r y im ag er y

i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h h y p n o s i s .

R e g a r d l e s s o f t h e r o l e w hi ch h y p n o s i s p l a y s i n t h i s p r o c e s s ,

a se c o n d g oa l o f t h i s s t u d y i s t o d i s c o v e r i f m a s t e r i m a g e r y , as

u se d i n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t , ca n f a c i l i t a t e t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f a m o to r

s k i l l . Wh e th er i t ca n o r c a n n o t w i l l p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n

on t h e u se o f s uc h c o v e r t p r a c t i c e t e c h n i q u e s .

F i n a l l y , a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n may be o b t a i n e d on w h e t h e r o r

n o t s p o n t a n e o u s h y p n o s i s o c c u r s i n h i g h l y s u s c e p t i b l e s u b j e c t s who

u se im ag er y i n t h e wa k in g s t a t e . S p o n ta n e o u s h y p n o s i s c o u l d be

o c c u r r i n g i n t h e s e s u b j e c t s , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e f o l l o w i n g w e re fo u n d :

(a ) no d i f f e r e n c e i n h i g h l y s u s c e p t i b l e s u b j e c t s i n t h e wa k in g

m a s t e r y im ag er y c o n d i t i o n and t h e h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y im a g e r y c o n d i t i o n ,

and (b ) a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n h i g h l y s u s c e p t i b l e and low

s u s c e p t i b l e s u b j e c t s b e n e f i t i n g more from m a s t e r y im ag er y t h a n low

s u s c e p t i b l e s u b j e c t s . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n may a l s o h i g h l i g h t o t h e r

s u b j e c t t r a i t s whi ch may c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e u se o f im ag er y i n i m p r o v i n g

t a s k p e r f o r m a n c e . T he se f i n d i n g s woul d g i v e a new p e r s p e c t i v e on much

o f t h e p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h whi ch h as fo u n d no d i f f e r e n c e i n h y p n o t i c

and wa k ing s u b j e c t c o n d i t i o n s .


CHAPTER I I

METHOD

P i l o t S tudy

A p i l o t s t u d y was i n i t i a l l y c o n d u c t e d t o t e s t t h e f e a s i b i l i t y

o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e s and t o g a i n some p r e l i m i n a r y f i n d i n g s

on t h e e f f e c t s o f h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y im ag er y on t a s k p e r f o r m a n c e .

The s u b j e c t s (N=18) we re c o u n s e l o r s a t a u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t c o u n s e l

i n g s e r v i c e who w e re a s k e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e s t u d y . P r o c e d u r e s

f o r t h i s p i l o t s t u d y whi ch c l o s e l y f o l l o w e d t h e p r o c e d u r e s u sed f o r

t h e e x p e r i m e n t a r e o u t l i n e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r . Ten s u b j e c t s who were

s u s c e p t i b l e t o h y p n o s i s were a s s i g n e d t o t h e f o l l o w i n g g r o u p s :

h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y im ag er y ( n = 4 ) , h y p n o s i s ( n = 3 ) , and m a s t e r y im ag er y

(H) ( n = 3 ) . T h re e l e s s s u c e p t i b l e s u b j e c t s we re a s s i g n e d t o a s e c o n d

m a s t e r y im a g e r y (L) g ro u p . F ive s u b j e c t s who we re n o t t e s t e d f o r

h y p n o t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y were a s s i g n e d t o t h e n o - t r e a t m e n t c o n t r o l

g r o u p . Out o f n e c e s s i t y , t h i s p i l o t s t u d y made two main d e v i a t i o n s

from t h e p r o c e d u r e s o u t l i n e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r : (1 ) S u b j e c t s we re n o t

ran domly a s s i g n e d i n t o gr o u p s and (2 ) t h e l e v e l o f s u s c e p t i b i l i t y

f o r s u b j e c t s was n o t s t r i c t l y c o n t r o l l e d . A l th o u g h no s i g n i f i c a n t

f i n d i n g s we re f o u n d , t h e r e s u l t s were e n c o u r a g i n g en oug h t o c o n t i n u e

w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t ( s e e Ap pe nd ix H).

20


21

Su b j e c t s

S t u d e n t v o l u n t e e r s f rom a medium s i z e , m idw es t u n i v e r s i t y were

t h e s u b j e c t s f o r t h i s e x p e r i m e n t . All v o l u n t e e r e d w i t h t h e knowle dge

t h a t t h e y would be p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n an " e x p e r i m e n t i n h y p n o s i s " and

woul d r e c e i v e c r e d i t f o r t h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e i r i n t r o d u c t o r y

p s y c h o l o g y c o u r s e . All o f t h e i n i t i a l s t u d e n t s (n=99) we re s c r e e n e d

f o r h y p n o t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y on t h e H a rv a r d Group S c a l e o f H y p n o t i c

S u s c e p t i b i l i t y (S h o r and O r n e, 1 9 5 9 ) . From t h i s i n i t i a l s c r e e n i n g ,

59 s t u d e n t s were r a n k e d h ig h on s u s c e p t i b i l i t y , 25 w e re ra n k e d medium

on s u s c e p t i b i l i t y and 15 w e re ra n k e d low on s u s c e p t i b i l i t y . L e v e l s

o f s u s c e p t i b i l i t y we re p r e d e t e r m i n e d on t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a a c c o r d

i n g t o t h e s t u d e n t ' s s c o r e s oh t h e H a rv a r d Group S c a l e o f H y p n o t i c

S u s c e p t i b i l i t y : hi gh s u s c e p t i b l e ( 1 2 - 8 ) , medium s u s c e p t i b l e ( 7 - 5 ) ,

low s u s c e p t i b l e ( 4 - 1 ) . Of t h e i n i t i a l 99 s t u d e n t s , 40 o f t h e h igh

s u s c e p t i b l e and 10 o f t h e low s u s c e p t i b l e r e t u r n e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n

t h e e x p e r i m e n t . All o f t h e medium s u s c e p t i b l e s t u d e n t s (n=25) were

t h a n k e d f o r t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h i s s c r e e n i n g s e s s i o n and were

d i s m i s s e d from f u r t h e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e s t u d y . S e v e r a l o f t h e

h i g h s u s c e p t i b l e s t u d e n t s (n=13) and a few o f t h e low s u s c e p t i b l e

s t u d e n t s (n=3) w e re a l s o d i s m i s s e d from f u r t h e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e

s t u d y due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i r t r e a t m e n t c o n d i t i o n s had been f i l l e d .

F iv e o f t h e s t u d e n t s who were a s k e d t o r e t u r n f o r t h e s t u d y d i d n o t ,

w h i l e t h r e e who d i d r e t u r n c o u l d n o t p a r t i c i p a t e . One o f t h e s e

s t u d e n t s had p h y s i c a l i n j u r i e s and two had e m o t i o n a l p r o b le m s whi ch

p r e v e n t e d them from p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t . T h e r e f o r e , o f


22

t h e i n i t i a l 99 v o l u n t e e r s , 50 o f t h e s e s t u d e n t s became t h e s u b j e c t s

f o r t h i s e x p e r i m e n t ; 23 w e re women and 27 w ere men.

D es ign

D e pe nd en t V a r i a b l e . P e r f o r m a n c e on t h e P u r s u i t R o to r Task^ was

u se d as t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e . The P u r s u i t R o to r i s a r a p i d , g r o s s

m o to r t a s k wh ic h r e q u i r e s t h e s u b j e c t t o keep a s t y l u s wand on a

sm a l l t a r g e t w hich i s l o c a t e d on t h e o u t e r e dg e o f a t u r n t a b l e w hich

r o t a t e s ar o u n d ( s e e F i g u r e 2 . 1 ) .

F ig u r e 2 . 1 . P u r s u i t R o to r Task

^ d e l 2203A, L a f a y e t t e I n s t r u m e n t C o . , L a f a y e t t e , I n d i a n a .

R e p ro d u c e d w ith p e rm is s io n of th e c o p y rig h t o w n er. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ited w ith o u t p e rm iss io n .

23

T i m e - o n - t a r g e t (TOT), as r e c o r d e d by an e l e c t r o n i c d i g i t a l

m i l l e s e c o n d t i m e r , s e r v e d as t h e p e r f o r m a n c e s c o r e . T h i s f u l l y

a u t o m a t e d t u r n t a b l e r o t a t e d a t 60 r e v o l u t i o n s p e r m i n u te and r o t a t e d

f o r t h r e e 15 s e c o n d t r i a l s w i t h e a c h t r i a l b e i n g s e p a r a t e d by a 25

s e c o n d p a u s e . On a r e g u l a r b a s i s , t h e P u r s u i t R o to r a p p a r a t u s was

c h e c k e d f o r i t s r e l i a b i l i t y . The t o t a l TOT s c o r e f o r t h e s e t h r e e

t r i a l s was t h e s u b j e c t ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s c o r e . The d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e

c o n s i s t e d o f t h e g a i n s c o r e bet we en p r e and p o s t t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e

s c o r e s .

A ll s u b j e c t s ha d t h e t a s k a d m i n i s t e r e d t o them on an i n d i v i d u a l

b a s i s and i n t h e p r i v a c y o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r 1s o f f i c e . Each s u b j e c t

was s e a t e d a t a t a b l e which s u p p o r t e d t h e P u r s u i t R o to r T a s k , w h i l e

t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r s a t d i r e c t l y b e h i n d t h e s u b j e c t and o u t o f t h e

s u b j e c t ' s l i n e o f v i s i o n . Both t h e s u b j e c t and t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r

we re a b l e t o s e e t h e s u b j e c t ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s c o r e on t h e e l e c t r i c a l

d i g i t a l t i m e r w hi ch was t o t h e s u b j e c t ' s l e f t . The room was w e l l

l i g h t e d . D ur in g t h e p r e t e s t s e s s i o n a l l s u b j e c t s we re r e q u e s t e d

t o l i s t e n t o a t a p e - r e c o r d e d s e t o f i n s t r u c t i o n s on t h e o p e r a t i o n

o f t h e P u r s u i t R o to r Task ( s e e App en dix A).

I n d e p e n d e n t V a r i a b l e . The i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e c o n s i s t e d o f

t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f h y p n o s i s and t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f

m a s t e r y i m a g e r y . T h r e e e x p e r i m e n t a l m a n i p u l a t i o n s , a n o - t r e a t m e n t

c o n t r o l g r o u p an d a s p e c i a l c o m p a ri s o n gro up c o m p r i s e d t h e f i v e

t r e a t m e n t c o n d i t i o n s . H ig hl y s u s c e p t i b l e s u b j e c t s were rand om ly

a s s i g n e d t o one o f f o u r c o n d i t i o n s : (1 ) h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y i m a g e r y ,


(2) h y p n o s i s , ( 3 ) m a s t e r y im a g e r y ( H ) , and (4 ) a n o - t r e a t m e n t c o n t r o l

g r o u p . Low s u s c e p t i b l e s u b j e c t s we re a s s i g n e d t o a s e c o n d m a s t e r y

im ag er y (L) c o n d i t i o n whi ch s e r v e d a s a s p e c i a l c o m p a ri s o n g ro up ( s e e

F ig u r e 2 . 2 ) . A d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s a r e

g iv e n i n t h e p r o c e d u r e s .

High S u s c e p t i b l e Low S u s c e p t i b l eS u b j e c t s S u b j e c t s

m a s t e r y im a g e r y (H)

h y p n o s i s &m a s t e r yim ag er y

h y p n o s i s

no t r e a t m e n tc o n t r o l

m a s t e r y im ag er y (L)

F i g u r e 2 . 2 . E x p e r i m e n t a l C o n d i t i o n s

P r o c e d u r e

F i r s t S e s s i o n . S t u d e n t s we re a s k e d t o r e a d and s i g n t h e

" I n fo r m e d C o n s e n t Ag re em en t" i n o r d e r t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t

( s e e App en d ix B ), an d were g i v e n t h e " H y p n o s i s : Q u e s t i o n s and Answers"

h a n d o u t whi ch was u s e d t o d i s p e l any m i s c o n c e p t i o n s whi ch t h e y may

hav e had r e g a r d i n g h y p n o s i s ( s e e A pp en dix C ).

S t u d e n t s we re t h e n p r e t e s t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y on t h e P u r s u i t R o to r

Task by t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r ( s e e A ppe nd ix A) . T he se s t u d e n t s were t h e n


25

s c r e e n e d h y p n o t i c a l l y i n g r o u p s o f 10 t o 15 i n d i v i d u a l s u s i n g t h e

H a rv ar d Group S c a l e o f H y p n o t i c S u s c e p t i b i l i t y (S ho r and O r n e, 1 9 5 9 ) .

Using e a c h s u b j e c t ' s s u s c e p t i b i l i t y s c o r e , s c r e e n i n g was t h e n done

t o s e p a r a t e t h e h igh s u s c e p t i b l e s t u d e n t s f rom t h e low s u s c e p t i b l e

s t u d e n t s .

High s u s c e p t i b l e s t u d e n t s who s c o r e d e i g h t o r h i g h e r on t h e

s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t e s t w e re r a nd om ly a s s i g n e d t o one o f f o u r c o n d i t i o n s :

(1 ) h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y i m a g e r y , (2 ) h y p n o s i s , (3 ) m a s t e r y im ag er y

( H ) , and (4) no - t r e a t m e n t c on t r o l . Low s u s c e p t i b l e s t u d e n t s who

s c o r e d f o u r o r l o w e r on t h e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t e s t were d i r e c t l y a s s i g n e d

i n t o t h e f i f t h g r o u p , t h e m a s t e r y im ag er y (L) c o n d i t i o n . S t u d e n t s

who s c o r e d be tw e en f o u r and e i g h t on t h e h y p n o t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t e s t

we re t h a n k e d f o r t h e i r h e l p f u l c o o p e r a t i o n and were t h e n d i s m i s s e d

from any f u r t h e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t . As w i t h e v e r y

p e r s o n who l e f t t h e e x p e r i m e n t , t h e y r e c e i v e d a " D e b r i e f i n g Handou t"

w hich i n s t r u c t e d them t o c o n t a c t t h i s e x p e r i m e n t e r - c o u n s e l o r i f

any p ro b le m s o r c o n c e r n s a r o s e r e g a r d i n g t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e

e x p e r i m e n t ( s e e A pp e nd ix D).

Secon d S e s s i o n . D u r in g t h e s e c o n d s e s s i o n wh ich o c c u r r e d a t

a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same t i m e o f d a y , s i x t o e i g h t da ys a f t e r t h e f i r s t

s e s s i o n , a l l s u b j e c t s w e re s e e n on an i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s i n t h e e x p e r i

m e n t e r ' s o f f i c e . S u b j e c t s who w e re a s s i g n e d t o t h e h y p n o s i s and

m a s t e r y im ag er y c o n d i t i o n were h y p n o t i z e d by a s t a n d a r d i z e h y p n o t i c

i n d u c t i o n p r o c e d u r e ( s e e A p p e nd ix E ) . F o l l o w in g t h e i n d u c t i o n and

w h i l e i n t h e h y p n o t i c s t a t e , t h e y we re p r e s e n t e d w i t h a t a p e - r e c o r d e d

m a s t e r y im a g e r y n a r r a t i v e ( s e e App en dix F ) . I n s t r u c t i o n s a t t h e


26

en d o f t h i s n a r r a t i v e s e r v e d t o d e h y p n o t i z e t h e s u b j e c t . F o l l o w i n g

t h i s , t h e y w e re i n s t r u c t e d t o w a i t f i v e m i n u te s i n a w a i t i n g room

a f t e r w h ic h t im e t h e y r e t u r n e d t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s o f f i c e t o be

p o s t t e s t e d on t h e P u r s u i t R o to r Ta sk .

Hy pnos is s u b j e c t s were h y p n o t i z e d by t h e same s t a n d a r d i z e d

h y p n o t i c i n d u c t i o n p r o c e d u r e used w i th t h e h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y im ag er y

s u b j e c t s , b u t we re n o t p r e s e n t e d w i t h t h e m a s t e r y i m a g e r y n a r r a t i v e .

R a t h e r , t h e y w e re a l l o w e d t o re ma in i n t h e h y p n o t i c s t a t e f o r t h e

same d u r a t i o n o f t im e whi ch was u sed f o r t h e m a s t e r y im a g e r y n a r r a

t i v e ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y s i x m i n u t e s ) . In t h i s m a n n e r , b o th h y p n o s i s and

h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y imagery s u b j e c t s we re i n t h e h y p n o t i c s t a t e f o r

a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same p e r i o d o f t i m e - - a b o u t 20 m i n u t e s . The h y p n o s i s

s u b j e c t s we re d e h y p n o t i z e d and i n s t r u c t e d t o w a i t f i v e m i n u te s i n a

w a i t i n g room a f t e r whi ch t im e t h e y we re p o s t t e s t e d on t h e P u r s u i t

R o to r T a sk .

S u b j e c t s who we re a s s i g n e d t o t h e m a s t e r y i m a g e r y (H) and t h e

m a s t e r y i m a g e r y (L) c o n d i t i o n s were t r e a t e d i n i d e n t i c a l f a s h i o n .

They w e re m e r e l y i n s t r u c t e d t o c l o s e t h e i r e y e s and l i s t e n t o a t a p e

r e c o r d e d m e s s a g e , w hi ch was t h e same t a p e r e c o r d e d m a s t e r y im ag er y

n a r r a t i v e u s e d i n t h e h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y im a g e r y c o n d i t i o n . F o l

l o w in g t h i s t h e y w e re i n s t r u c t e d t o w a i t f i v e m i n u te s i n a w a i t i n g

room a f t e r w h ich t i m e t h e y r e t u r n e d t o be p o s t t e s t e d on t h e P u r s u i t

R o to r Ta sk .

The n o - t r e a t m e n t c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s we re m e r e l y p o s t t e s t e d on

t h e P u r s u i t R o to r Task and d i d n o t r e c e i v e any o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n s

(h y p n o s i s a n d / o r m a s t e r y im a g e r y ) whi ch we re e m plo yed w i t h t h e o t h e r

s u b j e c t s .


27

B e f o r e l e a v i n g , e a ch s u b j e c t ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e n o

t r e a t m e n t c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s ) was a s k e d t o c o m p l e t e a b r i e f q u e s t i o n

n a i r e w hi ch was u sed t o g a i n some a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e i r

e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t . A s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t v a r i a t i o n o f t h i s

q u e s t i o n n a i r e was g i v e n t o e a c h g ro u p ( s e e A pp en dix G). F o l l o w in g

t h i s , e a ch s u b j e c t r e c e i v e d th e ’' D e b r i e f i n g Handou t" ( s e e Appe nd ix

D) , w e re t h a n k e d f o r t h e i r h e l p f u l c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t ,

and we re t h e n d i s m i s s e d .

A s c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n o u t l i n i n g t h e p r o c e d u r a l a c t i v i t i e s

d u r i n g t h e s e two s e s s i o n s i s now p r e s e n t e d ( s e e F ig u r e 2 . 3 ) . I t

s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s d i d n o t a l l o w f o r a " b l i n d "

s t u d y . T h a t i s t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r knew w h a t gr o u p t h e s u b j e c t had been

a s s i g n e d t o when he p r e s e n t e d t h e s u b j e c t w i t h t h e i n d e p e n d e n t

v a r i a b l e .


Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Figu

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2.3.

Pr

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Flo

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hart

CHAPTER I I I

RESULTS

E x p e r i m e n t a l R e s u l t s

S u b j e c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r ea c h g ro up ( s e e T a b l e 3 . 1 ) r e v e a l

t h a t two o f t h e g ro u p s were u n b a l a n c e d on t h e number o f male and

f e m a le s u b j e c t s who were ra ndomly a s s i g n e d t o them . The h y p n o s i s

and m a s t e r y im ag er y gr ou p has n i n e male and o n l y one f e m a le s u b j e c t ( s ) .

H y p n o s i s s u b j e c t s a r e t h e mos t s u s c e p t i b l e o u t o f a l l gr o u p s w i t h an

a v e r a g e h y p n o t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y s c o r e o f 9 . 5 a n d , as i n t e n d e d ,

m a s t e r y im ag er y ( L ) s u b j e c t s were t h e l e a s t s u s c e p t i b l e w i t h an

a v e r a g e h y p n o t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y s c o r e o f 3 . 3 .

T a b le 3 .1

S u b j e c t C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : Sex and H y p n o t i c S u s c e p t i b i l i t y

Group n Male Female H . S . a

h y p n o s i s & m a s t e r y im ag er y 10 ' 3 7 8 . 9

h y p n o s i s 10 5 5 9 . 5

m a s t e r y i m a g e r y (H) 10 4 6 9.1

n o - t r e a t m e n tc o n t r o l 10 9 1 9.1

m a s t e r yim a g e r y 10 6 4 3 . 3

T o t a l s 50 27 23

a H . S . : mean s c o r e on H a rv a r d Group S c a l e o f H y p n o t i c S u s c e p t i b i l i t y

29


30

D e s c r i p t i v e d a t a on t h e mean p r e t e s t , p o s t t e s t , and g a i n s c o r e

( s e e Ta b le 3 . 2 ) r e v e a l s t h e f o l l o w i n g : On t h e a v e r a g e , m a s t e r y im ag er y

(H) s u b j e c t s hav e t h e l a r g e s t p r e t e s t s c o r e , w h i l e t h e h y p n o s i s and

m a s t e r y im ag er y s u b j e c t s hav e t h e l o w e s t p r e t e s t s c o r e . However ,

h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y im a g e r y s u b j e c t s have t h e h i g h e s t p o s t t e s t s c o r e s ,

f o l l o w e d by m a s t e r y im a g e r y (H) s u b j e c t s . The m a s t e r y imag ery (L)

s u b j e c t s hav e t h e l o w e s t p o s t t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e s c o r e s .

The d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e , t h e g a i n s c o r e on t h e P u r s u i t R o to r

T a s k , i s t h e l a r g e s t f o r h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y im ag er y s u b j e c t s ,

f o l l o w e d by mas t e r y im a g e r y (H) s u b j e c t s , h y p n o s i s s u b j e c t s , m a s t e r y

im ag er y (L) s u b j e c t s , and n o - t r e a t m e n t c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s , who as a g ro up

ha ve th e l o w e s t g a i n s c o r e s o f a l l o f t h e s u b j e c t s . Between grou p

d i f f e r e n c e s on g a i n s c o r e s i s c a l c u l a t e d ( s e e T a b le 3 . 3 ) .

S t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s ( s e e T a b le 3 . 2 ) f o r t h e p r e t e s t and p o s t

t e s t , and g a i n s c o r e s show t h a t , f o r e a c h g r o u p , i n t r a g r o u p v a r i a b i l i t y

i s h i g h e r f o r t h e p o s t t e s t t h a n i t i s f o r t h e p r e t e s t s c o r e s . S t a n d a r d

d e v i a t i o n s f o r t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e , t h e g a i n s c o r e , r e f l e c t s t h a t

t h e h i g h e s t i n t r a g r o u p v a r i a b i l i t y o c c u r s f o r t h e m a s t e r y im ag er y (H)

s u b j e c t s , f o l l o w e d by hy p n o s i s s u b j e c t s , and h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y

im a g e r y s u b j e c t s . N o - t r e a t m e n t c o n t r o l arid m a s t e r y imag ery (L) s u b

j e c t s d e m o n s t r a t e l o w e r i n t r a g r o u p v a r i a b i l i t y . A s u r v e y o f t h e raw

d a t a ( s e e App en dix I ) r e v e a l s t h a t t h e m a s t e r y im ag er y (H) c o n d i t i o n

i n c l u d e s t h e s u b j e c t w i t h t h e l o w e s t g a i n s c o r e ( . 9 6 9 ) and t h e s u b j e c t

w i t h t h e h i g h e s t g a i n s c o r e ( 1 8 . 5 1 7 ) o u t o f t h e e n t i r e s u b j e c t p o o l .

G r e a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e r f o r m a n c e among s u b j e c t s i s a l s o n o t e d i n

o t h e r g r o u p s .


31

T a b l e 3 . 2

Means ( i n s e c . ) and S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s ( S . D . ) : P r e t e s t , P o s t t e s t and Gain S c o r e s

P r e t e s t P o s t t e s t Ga in Sc o reGroup Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.

h y p n o s i s & m a s t e r y im ag er y 6 . 8 4 5 4 3.1 2 1 2 17 .22 96 5. 2 2 6 2 1 0. 38 42 4 .3 0 2 3

h y p n o s i s 6 .9 4 0 0 3 .2 06 6 1 4. 5 3 8 8 6 .1 6 0 2 7 . 5 9 8 8 4 . 9 9 2 8

m a s t e r y i m ag er y (H) 7 .7 1 7 8 4.6 0 0 2 15 .3 86 2 7.3421 7 . 6 6 8 4 5 .1 9 1 2

n o - t r e a t m e n tc o n t r o l 7 .7 5 3 2 4 .0 0 1 4 1 4. 45 79 4 . 8 7 8 0 6 .7 0 4 7 2 . 8 4 3 0

m a s t e r y i mag ery (L) 7. 263 1 3 .9 8 7 7 1 4 .1 34 3 5 . 1 4 9 0 6 .8 7 1 2 2 . 7 3 9 6

Average 7 . 3 0 3 9 3.6841 1 5. 14 94 5 .6 9 2 7 7 .8 4 5 5 4 .1 9 3 4

T a b le 3 . 3

Between Group D i f f e r e n c e son Gain S c o re s ( i n

cJjb

s e c ) —

>> >,Qj a) -t-> cr> i/) <a

No

-tre

atm

ent

Con

trol

Mas

tery

Im

ager

y (L

)

Hy pn osi s & M as ter y Imagery 2 . 7 8 2.71 3 . 6 8 3.51

Hy pno si s - .08 .90 .73

M a s te r y Im ag e ry (H) - - .97 .80

N o - t r e a t m e n tC o n tr o l - - - .17


An a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e was ru n t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t i n f l u e n c e ,

i f a n y , d i d t h e v a r i a b l e s o f s e x , h y p n o t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y , p r e t e s t

and p o s t t e s t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s hav e on t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e , t h e

g a i n s c o r e . T h i s a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e shows t h a t t h e v a r i a b l e s o f

h y p n o t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y , p r e - and p o s t t e s t s c o r e s hav e no i n f l u e n c e

on t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e . As e x p e c t e d , t h e t e s t d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t

t h e s e x o f t h e s u b j e c t d i f f e r s a c c o r d i n g l y t o wh at g ro u p h e / s h e

b e l o n g s t o ( F = 3 . 15 2, p ^ 0 . 0 3 ) ( s e e Ap pe ndix J ) . R e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s ,

h o w e v e r , shows t h a t t h e r e i s no s e x by g ro up i n t e r a c t i o n f o r t h e

d e p e n d e n t m e a su r e ( F = 0 . 3 5 2 , p = 0 .7 9 ) ( s e e Ap pe nd ix K).

N o t i n g t h a t t h e r e s u l t s a r e f r e e f rom t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e

v a r i a b l e s o f s e x , h y p n o t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y , p r e - and p o s t t e s t s c o r e s ;

an a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e was c o n d u c t e d among t h e f i v e g ro u p s i n t h e

s t u d y . T h i s a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e f i n d s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s

among t h e s e f i v e g ro u p s ( F = 1 . 2 9 2 , p = 0 . 2 9 ) ( s e e T a b l e 3 . 4 ) .

T a b le 3 . 4

A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e f o r t h e D e pen den t V a r i a b l e

S o u rc eDe gree s

o fFreedom

Sum o f S q u a re s

MeanSq u a re

F P r o b a - V a lue b i l i t y

Group 4 87 .8790 31 2 1 .9 6 9 7 7 0 3 1 .2 7 7 6 9 0 . 2 9 2 2

R e s i d u a l 45 773 .77 3381 17 .1 94964 0

C o r r e c t e dT o t a l

49 8 6 1 .6 52 46 2 17. 584 7441


33

A n a l y s i s o f c o v a r i a n c e a l s o f i n d s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s

among t h e f i v e g r o u p s . I t d i d , h o w e v e r , f i n d a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a

t i o n s h i p bet w e en p r e and p o s t t e s t s c o r e s . The s i z e o f t h e p o s t t e s t

s c o r e i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e s i z e o f t h e p r e t e s t s c o r e

( F=27. 5 7 2 , p = .0001) ( s e e Ap pe nd ix L) . T h a t i s , t h e l a r g e r t h e p o s t

t e s t s c o r e - - t h e l a r g e r t h e p r e t e s t s c o r e .

A n a l y s i s on t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e w h ic h was d i s t r i b u t e d r e v e a l s

no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n g ro up c o m p a r i s o n s ( s e e App en d ix M ).

Be ca use a d i f f e r e n t q u e s t i o n n a i r e was u s e d f o r e a ch g ro up ( w i t h t h e

e x c e p t i o n o f t h e n o - t r e a t m e n t c o n t r o l g r o u p wh ich d i d n o t r e c e i v e a

q u e s t i o n n a i r e ) , o n l y c e r t a i n q u e s t i o n s can be comp ared b et w e en e a c h

g ro u p .


CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSIONS

Becau se c o m p a r i s o n s a r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t , t h e n u l l

h y p o t h e s e s can n o t be r e j e c t e d . T h a t i s , t h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t

d i f f e r e n c e b et w e en t h e h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y im ag er y g ro up and any o f

t h e o t h e r g r o u p s i n g a i n s c o r e s on t h e P u r s u i t R o to r T a s k , n o r i s

t h e r e any d i f f e r e n c e b et w e en t h e m a s t e r y im ag er y (H) g ro u p and t h e

n o - t r e a t m e n t c o n t r o l g ro up i n g a i n s c o r e s on t h e P u r s u i t R o to r T a s k .

R e s u l t s a r e i n t h e p r e d i c t e d d i r e c t i o n , ho w e v er , w i t h t h e h y p n o s i s and

m a s t e r y im a g e r y g ro up sh owi ng t h e l a r g e s t a b s o l u t e v a l u e s on t h e g a i n

s c o r e s , f o l l o w e d n e x t by t h e m a s t e r y im ag er y (H) c o n d i t i o n ( s e e

Ta b le 3 . 2 , p . 3 1 ) . The l a r g e s t d i f f e r e n c e among c o m p a r i s o n s on t h e

d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e ( s e e T a b l e 3 . 3 , p . 31) i s be tw e en t h e h y p n o s i s

and m a s t e r y i m a g e r y g r o u p and t h e n o - t r e a t m e n t c o n t r o l g ro u p w i t h a

d i f f e r e n c e i n g a i n s c o r e s o f 3 . 6 3 s e c o n d s . The s e c o n d l a r g e s t d i f

f e r e n c e i s b et w e en t h e h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y im ag er y gr o u p and t h e

m a s t e r y i m a g e r y ( L ) g r o u p w i t h a d i f f e r e n c e i n g a i n s c o r e s o f 3 .51

s e c o n d s . The n e x t two l a r g e s t d i f f e r e n c e s i n g a i n s c o r e s o c c u r s

b et w e en t h e h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y im ag er y g ro up and t h e h y p n o s i s g ro up

and t h e m a s t e r y i m a g e r y (H) gr o u p w i t h d i f f e r e n c e s o f 2 . 7 8 and 2 .7 1

s e c o n d s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . All o t h e r c o m p a r i s o n s among g ro u p s r e v e a l

d i f f e r e n c e s o f l e s s t h a n one s e c o n d . A l tho ugh i t i s e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e

l a r g e s t d i f f e r e n c e s i n g a i n s c o r e s woul d o c c u r betw e en t h e h y p n o s i s

and m a s t e r y i m a g e r y g r o u p and t h e r e m a i n in g g r o u p s - - e s p e c i a l l y t h e

34


35

n o - t r e a t m e n t c o n t r o l g r o u p - - i n f i n a l a n a l y s i s , none o f t h e s e d i f f e r

e n c e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t .

As t h e r e s u l t s i l l u s t r a t e , d i f f e r e n c e s b et w e en g r o u p s a r e due

t o i n d i v i d u a l s u b j e c t d i f f e r e n c e s and n o t t o t r e a t m e n t d i f f e r e n c e s .

On t h e a v e r a g e , t h o s e who ha ve h i g h e r p r e t e s t s c o r e s o b t a i n h i g h e r

p o s t t e s t s c o r e s . A l th o u g h t h i s v a r i e s f rom s u b j e c t t o s u b j e c t , i t

can be s a i d t h a t t h o s e who a r e a d e p t on t h e P u r s u i t R o to r Task d u r i n g

t h e f i r s t s e s s i o n , im pro ve t h e m os t on t h i s m o to r t a s k d u r i n g t h e

se c o n d s e s s i o n . The one g ro u p wh e re t h i s does n o t seem t o h o l d t r u e

i s f o r t h e h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y im ag er y g r o u p w hic h h o l d s t h e l o w e s t

p r e t e s t s c o r e and t h e h i g h e s t p o s t t e s t s c o r e among t h e f i v e g r o u p s .

The l a c k o f s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n g s can be a t t r i b u t e d t o two

p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s : (1 ) t h e h ig h d e g r e e o f s u b j e c t v a r i a b i l i t y

and (2 ) a t r e a t m e n t i n t e r v e n t i o n w hich may n o t h av e been p o w e rf u l

en oug h t o a f f e c t ch a n g e a c r o s s s u b j e c t s .

In a r e v i e w o f t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r p r e t e s t , p o s t t e s t ,

and g a i n s c o r e s ( s e e T a b l e 3 . 2 , p . 3 1 ) , i t i s shown t h a t i n t r a g r o u p

v a r i a b i l i t y i n c r e a s e s a c r o s s a l l g ro u p s on t h e p o s t t e s t m e a su r e .

T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e f o r t h e m a s t e r y im a g e r y ( H ) , h y p n o s i s and

h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y im ag er y c o n d i t i o n s . Less o f an i n c r e a s e o c c u r s

f o r t h e m a s t e r y i m a g e r y ( L ) and n o - t r e a t m e n t c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n s i n

v a r i a b i l i t y f r om p r e t o p o s t t e s t m e a s u r e s . T h i s i n c r e a s e i n v a r i a

b i l i t y on t h e p o s t t e s t r e s u l t s i n r a i s i n g t h e v a r i a b i l i t y on t h e

g a i n s c o r e s w h i c h , i n t u r n , c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e l a c k o f s i g n i f i c a n t

f i n d i n g s . In a r e v i e w o f t h e raw d a t a ( s e e Ap pe nd ix I ) i t i s s e e n

t h a t many s u b j e c t s i m pr ov e s u b s t a n t i a l l y a f t e r r e c e i v i n g t h e


36

i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s o f h y p n o s i s a n d / o r m a s t e r y i m a g e r y , w h i l e

some s u b j e c t s r e c e i v e l i t t l e o r no b e n e f i t f r om t h i s t r e a t m e n t

i n t e r v e n t i o n .

I t c o u l d w e l l be t h a t some unknown s u b j e c t v a r i a b l e s which

a r e n o t c o n t r o l l e d f o r c o u l d hav e a c o n f o u n d in g e f f e c t on t h e r e s u l t s .

I t i s t h e s e v a r i a b l e s w hich c o u l d c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e h ig h d e g r e e o f

v a r i a b i l i t y among s u b j e c t s . F a c t o r s su c h as im ag in g a b i l i t y , m o to r

a b i l i t y , "game" a b i l i t y and s e l e c t i v e a t t e n t i o n may be r e l a t e d t o

t h e b e n e f i t wh ich a s u b j e c t r e c e i v e s f rom m e n ta l p r a c t i c e ( R i c h a r d s o n ,

1 9 6 7 a ) . Yet t h e s e v a r i a b l e s , w i t h p e r h a p s t h e e x c e p t i o n o f im ag in g

a b i l i t y , may be a b e n e f i t t o l e a r n i n g a m o t o r s k i 11 r e g a r d l e s s o f

m en tal p r a c t i c e o r m a s t e r y i m a g e r y . A more i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e m ig h t

be t h e s u b j e c t ' s i n i t i a l p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e c r i t e r i o n t a s k . As t h e

r e s u l t s i l l u s t r a t e , o n e ' s p o s t t e s t s c o r e i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o

o n e ' s p r e t e s t s c o r e on t h e P u r s u i t R o to r T a s k . I t i s s t i l l unknown,

h o w e v e r , as t o w h a t s u b j e c t v a r i a b l e s , i f a n y , may have i n t e r a c t e d

w i t h m a s t e r y im ag er y o r h y p n o s i s .

A se c o n d p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e l a c k o f s i g n i f i c a n t

f i n d i n g s may be t h a t t h e t r e a t m e n t i n t e r v e n t i o n i s n o t p o w e rf u l

e nou gh t o a f f e c t ch an ge a c r o s s more s u b j e c t s . I t seems p r o b a b l e

t h a t , f o r some, t h e t r e a t m e n t i n t e r v e n t i o n o f h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y

im a g e r y i s s u f f i c i e n t t o h e l p p r o d u c e g a i n s i n p e r f o r m a n c e above

t h a t whi ch wo uld be e x p e c t e d due t o p r a c t i c e e f f e c t . S t i l l t h i s

t r e a t m e n t i n t e r v e n t i o n i s n o t s t r o n g en ou gh t o a f f e c t ch an ge c o n

s i s t e n t l y a c r o s s enou gh s u b j e c t s t o make t h e r e s u l t s s i g n i f i c a n t .


37

I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e m a s t e r y im ag er y may n o t be p o w e r f u l

enough as an i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e t o a f f e c t ch a n g e . R e s u l t s f r om

t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( s e e A pp e nd ix M) show t h a t t h e t h r e e g r o u p s whi ch

r e c e i v e m a s t e r y i m a g e r y p e r c e i v e t h i s imag ery as r e a l ( s e e Ap pe ndix

M.3) . These same g r o u p s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e i r p r i v a t e im ag er y i s c l o s e

t o b e i n g t h e same as t h e m a s t e r y im a g e r y n a r r a t i v e ( s e e Ap pe ndix M.4) .

F i n a l l y , t h e s e g r o u p s b e l i e v e t h a t m a s t e r y im ag er y i s an a i d t o p e r

forma nce ( s e e A p p e nd ix M .5 ) . Ye t b e c a u s e t h i s i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e

o f m a s t e r y im a g e r y i s o n l y p r e s e n t e d o n c e , t h i s may be t o o b r i e f a

t im e t o have a l a r g e en ough i m p a c t . I t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o e x p e c t t h a t

t h e more one p r a c t i c e s a t a s k , w h e t h e r t h i s be a c t u a l o r c o v e r t p r a c

t i c e , t h e more one w ou ld im p ro v e a t t h e t a s k . A lt h o u g h t h e t im e o f

s i x m in u te s f o r t h e m a s t e r y im a g e r y s h o u l d n o t be l e n g t h e n e d ( T w in i n g ,

1 9 4 9 ) , p e r h a p s a d d i t i o n a l s e s s i o n s c o u l d be u s e d f o r m a s t e r y im ag er y

whi ch would add a d d i t i o n a l po we r t o t h i s i n t e r v e n t i o n .

W he th er o r n o t t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e o f h y p n o s i s i s po w e r

f u l enough i s u n c e r t a i n . From t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e one o b s e r v e s t h a t

t h e s u b j e c t s i n t h e two g r o u p s w hi ch r e c e i v e h y p n o s i s p e r c e i v e t h e i r

d ep th o f t r a n c e a s b e i n g medium t o v e r y deep ( s e e Ap pe nd ix M . l ) , and

i t a p p e a r s t h a t s u b j e c t s i n b o th g ro u p s b e l i e v e t h a t h y p n o s i s i s an

a i d t o p e r f o r m a n c e ( s e e A p p e nd ix M .2 ) . S t i l l p e r h a p s a d d i t i o n a l

h y p n o t i c t r a i n i n g w o u ld s t r e n g t h e n t h e e f f e c t s o f h y p n o s i s . Or i t

may be p o s s i b l e t o i n c r e a s e t h e powe r o f h y p n o s i s by u s i n g an " a l e r t i n g "

h y p n o t i c i n d u c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a " r e l a x e d " h y p n o t i c i n d u c t i o n (Ham &

Edrnonston, 1 9 7 1 ) . At l e a s t i t i s c l e a r t h a t h y p n o s i s a l o n e do es n o t


38

i n h i b i t f u n c t i o n i n g on a m o to r t a s k . T h i s i s t r u e when t h e t a s k

f o l l o w s d e h y p n o s i s by f i v e m in u te s o r more. T h i s i s a p p a r e n t b e c a u s e

t h e h y p n o s i s g ro u p does n o t p e r f o r m any w or se on t h e P u r s u i t R o to r

Task when co mpa red t o t h e n o - t r e a t m e n t c o n t r o l g ro u p .

A n o t h e r f i n d i n g s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e i s a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t

s p o n t a n e o u s h y p n o s i s o c c u r s i n s u b j e c t s who a r e i n t h e wa k in g s t a t e

and who use im a g e r y . A c c o r d in g t o t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( s e e A ppe nd ix

M.6) s e v e r a l o f t h e h i g h and low s u s c e p t i b l e s u b j e c t s i n t h e two

m a s t e r y i m a g e r y c o n d i t i o n s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y may ha ve e n t e r e d a

t r a n c e . T h i s i s somewhat s u r p r i s i n g b e c a u s e i t i s e x p e c t e d t h a t low

s u s c e p t i b l e s u b j e c t s wo ul d n o t s p o n t a n e o u s l y e n t e r a t r a n c e . Ye t

b e c a u s e t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s o f a s e l f - r e p o r t n a t u r e , i t s t i l l re m a in s

u n c e r t a i n as t o w h e t h e r b o th h ig h and low s u s c e p t i b l e s u b j e c t s e n t e r

a t r a n c e d u r i n g t h e u se o f im a g e r y .

F u t u r e r e s e a r c h i n t h e a r e a o f h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y i m a g e r y

s h o u l d i n c o r p o r a t e t h e f o l l o w i n g f e a t u r e s : F i r s t , more t h a n one

t r e a t m e n t s e s s i o n s h o u l d be u sed t o make t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s

o f h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y im ag er y more p o w e r f u l . S e c o n d , a t e c h n i q u e

t o make t h e h y p n o t i c i n t e r v e n t i o n more p o w e r f u l wo u ld be t o u se an

a l e r t i n g r a t h e r t h a n a r e l a x i n g h y p n o t i c i n d u c t i o n p r o c e d u r e . T h i r d ,

f u t u r e r e s e a r c h s h o u l d ex a m ine v a r i o u s s u b j e c t v a r i a b l e s whi ch

i n t e r a c t w i t h h y p n o s i s arid m a s t e r y im ag er y t o f a c i l i t a t e o r i n h i b i t

t a s k p e r f o r m a n c e . One p o s s i b i l i t y would be t o d e s i g n a s t u d y whi ch

w oul d c o n t r o l f o r t h e s u b j e c t ' s p r e t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e c r i t e r i o n

t a s k . O t h e r s u b j e c t v a r i a b l e s c o u ld a l s o be c o n t r o l l e d f o r . T h i s

wou ld p r o v i d e f o r b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h a t k i n d o f i n d i v i d u a l

w ou ld b e n e f i t m o s t f r om h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y im a g e r y .


39

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40

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M o r r i s e t t , L. N . , J r . The r o l e o f i m p l i c i t p r a c t i c e i n l e a r n i n g . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , Ya le U n i v e r s i t y , 19 56 .


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N a r u s e , 6 . The h y p n o t i c t r e a t m e n t o f s t a g e f r i g h t i n championa t h l e t i c s . I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l and E x p e r i m e n t a l H y p n o s i s , 1 965 , 13 , 6 3 - 7 0 .

N e s s e , M . , & N e l s o n , R. 0 . V a r i a t i o n s o f c o v e r t m o d e l in g on c i g a r e t t e smok ing. C o g n i t i v e T h e r a p y and R e s e a r c h , 197 7,1 , 3 4 3 -3 5 4 .

N i c h o l s o n , N. C. John Hop kins H o s p i t a l B u l l e t i n , 19 20 , 89.

N o r t o n , G. R . , MacLean, L . , & Wachna, E. The u se o f c o g n i t i v ed e s e n s i t i z a t i o n and s e l f - d i r e c t e d n o s t e r y t r a i n i n g f o r t r e a t i n g s t a g e f r i g h t . C o g n i t i v e T h e r a py and R e s e a r c h , 197 8, 2_, 6 1 - 6 4 .

O r n e , M. T . , S h e e h a n , P. W ., & E v a n s , F. J . O c c u r r e n c e o f p o s t h y p n o t i c b e h a v i o r o u t s i d e t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s e t t i n g . J o u r n a l o f P e r s o n a l i t y and S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 19 68 , 9 , 18 9 -1 9 6 .

P a r k e r , P. D . , & B a r b e r , T. X. H y p n o s i s , t a s k - m o t i v a t i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s , an d l e a r n i n g p e r f o r m a n c e . J o u r n a l o f Abnormal and S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 1 964 , 6 9 , 4 9 9 - 5 0 4 .

P e r r y , H. M. The r e l a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y o f a c t u a l and i m a g i n a r y p r a c t i c e i n f i v e s e l e c t e d t a s k s . A r c h i v e s o f P s y c h o l o g y ,19 3 9 , 3 4 , 5 - 7 5 .

P h i p p s , S. J . E f f e c t o f m e nt al p r a c t i c e on a c q u i s i t i o n o f m ot or s k i l l s o f v a r y i n g c o m p l e x i t y . U n p u b l i s h e d m a s t e r ' s t h e s i s , P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1968 .

P o e , D. C. The e f f e c t s o f h y p n o t i c h a l l u c i n a t e d p r a c t i c e o f a m o to r t a s k . U n p u b l i s h e d m a s t e r ' s t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i , C o lu m b ia , 1963.

___________. The e f f e c t s o f h y p n o t i c h a l l u c i n a t e d p r a c t i c e o f am o to r and a c o g n i t i v e t a s k . U n p u b l i s h e d d i s s e r t a t i o n ,U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i , C o lu m b ia , 1966.

R i c h a r d s o n , A. Mental p r a c t i c e : A r e v i e w and d i s c u s s i o n , P a r t I .The R e s e a r c h Q u a r t e r l y , 1 96 7, 3 8, 9 5 - 1 0 7 .

___________. Mental p r a c t i c e : A r e v ie w and d i s c u s s i o n , P a r t I I .R e s e a r c h Q u a r t e r l y , 196 7 , 3 8 , 2 6 3 - 2 7 3 .

R i e g e r , C. Der H y p n o t i sm u s . G u s t av F i s h e r . 188 4. C i t e d by Hull ( 1 9 3 3 ) , 2 2 6 - 2 2 7 .

R o g e r s , C. R. C l i e n t - c e n t e r e d t h e r a p y , i t s c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e , i m p l i c a t i o n s , and t h e o r y . B o s t o n : H o u g h t o n - M i f f l i n , 1951.


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R o sen ha n, D. & Londo n, P. H y p n o s i s : E x p e c t a t i o n , s u s c e p t i b i l i t y ,and p e r f o r m a n c e . J o u r n a l o f Abnormal S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y ,19 63 , 6 6 , 7 7 - 8 1 .

Roush, E. S. S t r e n g t h and e n d u r a n c e in t h e wa king and h y p n o t i c s t a t e s . J o u r n a l o f A p p l i e d P h y s i o l o g y , 1951 , 3 , 4 0 4 - 4 1 0 .

S a c k e t t , R. S. The i n f l u e n c e s o f s y m b o li c r e h e a r s a l upon t h er e t e n t i o n o f a maze h a b i t . J o u r n a l o f G en era l P s y c h o l o g y , 1 93 4, 10 , 37 6 -3 9 5 .

S a k a t a , K. I . , & A n d e r s o n , J . P. The e f f e c t s o f p o s t h y p n o t i c s u g g e s t i o n on t e s t p e f o r m a n c e . I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l and E x p e r i m e n t a l H y p n o s i s , "1970, 18, 6 1 - 7 1 .

S a l z b e r g , H. C. The e f f e c t s o f h y p n o t i c , p o s t h y p n o t i c and waking s u g g e s t i o n on p e r f o r m a n c e u s i n g t a s k s v a r i e d i n c o m p l e x i t y . I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l and E x p e r i m e n t a l H y p n o s i s , 1960 , 8 , 2 5 1 - 2 5 8 .

S e a r s , A. B. A c o m p a r i s o n o f h y p n o t i c and wak ing l e a r n i n g o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Morse Code. J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l and E x p e r i m e n t a l H y p n o s i s , 1 9 5 5 , 3 , 2 1 5 - 2 2 1 .

S h e l t o n , T. 0 . , & Mahoney, M. J . The c o n t e n t and e f f e c t o f" p s y c h i n g - u p " s t r a t e g i e s i n w e ig h t l i f t e r s . C o g n i t i v e T h e r a p y and R e s e a r c h , 1 9 7 8 , 2 , 2 7 5 - 2 8 4 .

S h i c k , J . E f f e c t s o f m e n ta l p r a c t i c e on s e l e c t e d v o l l e y b a l l s k i l l s f o r c o l l e g e women. A b s t r a c t s o f R e s e a rc h P a p e r s , AAHPER C o n v e n t i o n , 1 9 6 9 , p . 8 4 .

S h o r , R. E . , & O r n e , E. C. H a r v a r d Group S c a l e o f H y p n o t i cS u s c e p t i b i l i t y . C o n s u l t i n g P s y c h o l o g i s t s P r e s s , I n c . , 1959.

S l o t n i c k , R. S . , L i e b e r t , R. M ., & H i l g a r d , E. R. The en h a n c e m e n t o f m u s c u l a r p e r f o r m a n c e i n h y p n o s i s t h r o u g h e x h o r t a t i o n and i n v o l v i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s . J o u r n a l o f P e r s o n a l i t y , 19 6 5 , 3 3 , 3 7 -4 5 .

S l o t n i c k , R. S . , & Lon don , P. I n f l u e n c e o f i n s t r u c t i o n s on h y p n o t i c and n o n h y p n o t i c p e r f o r m a n c e . J o u r n a l o f Abnormal P s y c h o l o g y , 196 5 , 7 0 , 3 8 - 4 6 .

S t a r t , K. B . , & R i c h a r d s o n , A. I n t e l l i g e n c e and t h e im pro vem en t i n a g r o s s m o to r s k i l l a f t e r m en ta l p r a c t i c e . B r i t i s h J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y , 196 4, 3 4 , 8 5 - 9 0 .

S t e e l , W. I . The e f f e c t o f m en tal p r a c t i c e on t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f a m o to r s k i l l . J o u r n a l o f P h y s i c a l E d u c a t i o n , 19 5 2 , 4 4 , 1 0 1 -1 0 8 . ~


T r u s s e l l , E. M. Mental p r a c t i c e a s a f a c t o r i n t h e l e a r n i n g o f a com pl ex m o to r s k i l l . U n p u b l i s h e d m a s t e r ' s t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , 1952.

T w in in g , W. E. Men tal p r a c t i c e and p h y s i c a l p r a c t i c e i n l e a r n i n g a m o to r s k i l l . R e s e a r c h Q u a r t e r l y , 1949 , 2 0 , 4 3 2 - 4 3 5 .

V a n d e l l , R. A . , D a v i s , R. A . , & C l u g s t o n , H. A. The f u n c t i o n o f m en ta l p r a c t i c e in t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f m ot or s k i l l s . J o u r n a l o f G e n e t i c P s y c h o l o q y , 1 94 3, 29_, 24 3- 2 5 0 .

V i n a c k e , W. E. The p s y c h o l o g y o f t h i n k i n g . New York: McGraw-H i l l , 1952.

W a t e r l a n d , J . C. The e f f e c t s o f m e nt al p r a c t i c e com bined w i t hK i n e s t h e t i c p e r c e p t i o n when t h e p r a c t i c e p r e c e d e s ea c h o v e r t p e r f o r m a n c e o f a m o to r s k i l l . U n p u b l i s h e d m a s t e r ' s t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f W i s c o n s i n , M ad i so n , 1956.

W e l l s , W. R. E x p e c t a n c y v e r s u s p e r f o r m a n c e i n h y p n o s i s . J o u r n a l o f G e n e ra l P s y c h o l o g y , 19 47 , 3 5 , 9 9 -1 1 9 .

W h i t e , R. W. A p r e f a c e t o a t h e o r y o f h y p n o t i sm . J o u r n a l o f Abnormal and S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 194 1, 36 , 4 7 7 - 5 0 5 .

W h i t l e y , G. The e f f e c t o f m en tal r e h e a r s a l on t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f m o to r s k i l l . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f M a n c h e s t e r , 1962.

W i l l i a m s , G. W. A c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f v o l u n t a r y and h y p n o t i c c a t a l e p s y . Am er ican J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o l o g y , 1 93 0, 42_, 8 3 - 9 5 .

W i l s o n , M. E. The r e l a t i v e e f f e c t o f m e nt al p r a c t i c e and p h y s i c a l p r a c t i c e i n l e a r n i n g t h e t e n n i s f o r e h a n d and ba c k h an d d r i v e s . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f Iow a, 1960.


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APPENDIX A

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e P u r s u i t R o to r Task (PRT)

P h y s i c a l A r ra ng e me nt

The s u b j e c t was s e a t e d a t a t a b l e w hi ch s u p p o r t s t h e PRT a p p a r a t u s . The e x p e r i m e n t e r was s e a t e d d i r e c t l y b e h i n d t h e s u b j e c t and o u t o f t h e s u b j e c t ' s l i n e o f v i s i o n . Both t h e s u b j e c t and t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r were a b l e t o s e e t h e s u b j e c t ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s c o r e on t h e e l e c t r i c a l d i g i t a l t i m e r whi ch was t o t h e s u b j e c t ' s l e f t . The room was w e l l l i g h t e d and o t h e r t h a n t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r t h e r e was no one e l s e p r e s e n t i n t h e room t o o b s e r v e t h e s u b j e c t ' s p e r f o r m a n c e .

I n s t r u c t i o n s

The i n s t r u c t i o n s we re p l a y e d t o e a c h o f t h e s u b j e c t s by a t a p e r e c o r d e r a f t e r t h e s u b j e c t had t a k e n h i s / h e r s e a t i n f r o n t o f t h e p u r s u i t r o t o r .

Now you w i l l be a sk e d t o p e r f o r m t h e P u r s u i t R o to r T a s k .You w i l l s e e i n f r o n t o f you a t u r n t a b l e w i t h a s i l v e r d o t a l o n g i t s o u t e r ed ge and a s t y l u s wand which i s t o t h e l e f t o f t h e t u r n t a b l e . The o b j e c t o f t h i s t a s k i s t o keep t h e t i p o f t h e s t y l u s wand on t h e s i l v e r d o t o r t a r g e t as t h e t u r n t a b l e r o t a t e s . I t w i l l r o t a t e c l o c k w i s e q u i t e r a p i d l y ; s o when i t d o e s , you m us t q u i c k l y f o l l o w i t b e i n g s u r e t o keep i n c o n t a c t w i t h i t . The l o n g e r you a r e a b l e t o ke ep t h e t i p o f t h e s t y l u s wand on t h e s i l v e r d o t o r t a r g e t , t h e h i g h e r t h e s c o r e you w i l l r e c e i v e . I f y ou l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h t h e t a r g e t , q u i c k l y t r y t o c a t c h up t o i t a g a i n . Every s e c o n d c o u n t s . The e l e c t r o n i c c o u n t e r whi ch y ou s e e t o y o u r l e f t w i l l r e c o r d y o u r t i m e - o n - t a r g e t s c o r e i n mi H i s e c o n d s .

You w i l l hav e t h r e e t i m e t r i a l s . Each t r i a l w i l l l a s t f o r 15 s e c o n d s . Between e a c h t r i a l t h e r e w i l l be a 25 s e c o n d p a u s e . The i m p o r t a n t p o i n t f o r you t o remember i s t h a t t h e t u r n t a b l e w i l l s t a r t and s t o p e a c h t r i a l a u t o m a t i c a l l y , so yo u w i l l n o t be w a rn e d . In a moment , I w i l l a c t i v a t e t h e t u r n t a b l e . Do n o t p u r s u e t h e t a r g e t a t t h i s t i m e , b u t m e re ly o b s e r v e t h e r o t a t i n g t u r n t a b l e . When i t s t o p s a u t o m a t i c a l l y , g e t p r e p a r e d t o b e g i n r i g h t away by p l a c i n g t h e t i p o f t h e wand on t h e t a r g e t . S h o r t l y t h e t u r n t a b l e w i l l b e g i n a u t o m a t i c a l l y f o r y o u r f i r s t t i m e d t r i a l . Between


46

e a c h t r i a l , l o o k a t y o u r s c o r e and g e t p r e p a r e d f o r y o u r n e x t t r i a l by p l a c i n g t h e wand on t h e t a r g e t .

Do you hav e any q u e s t i o n s b e f o r e we b e g i n ?

(The e x p e r i m e n t e r a n sw e re d o n ly q u e s t i o n s whi ch p e r t a i n e d t o t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d i n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s and d i d n o t s u g g e s t o r recommend h e l p f u l t e c h n i q u e s o r g i v e any c o a c h i n g . )


47

APPENDIX B

INFORMED CONSENT AGREEMENT

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s e x p e r i m e n t i s t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f im ag er y and h y p n o s i s on t a s k p e r f o r m a n c e . As s u b j e c t s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t , y ou w i l l have t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o be h y p n o t i z e d , t o e x p e r i e n c e i m a g e r y and t o p e r f o r m t h e P u r s u i t R o to r T a s k , wh ichi s a p e r c e p t u a l m o t o r t a s k .

Whil e i n h y p n o s i s o r a f t e r h y p n o s i s , you w i l l n o t be d e c e i v e d n o r w i l l you be a s k e d t o do a n y t h i n g w hich w i l l be a g a i n s t y o u r w i l l .I t i s v e r y r a r e f o r any one t o e n d u r e any p h y s i c a l o r m en tal d i s c o m f o r t w h i l e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a h y p n o t i c e x p e r i m e n t o f t h i s n a t u r e . R a t h e r , i t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t y o u w i l l r e c e i v e some b e n e f i t s f o r y o u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t , i n c l u d i n g b e i n g a b l e t o e x p e r i e n c e t h e p l e a s u r e and dee p r e l a x a t i o n t y p i c a l o f a h y p n o t i c t r a n c e .

Fo r some o f y o u , t h e t im e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t w i l l m e r e ly i n c l u d e t h i s f i r s t s e s s i o n which w i l l l a s t a b o u t two h o u r s . Many o f y o u , h o w e v e r , w i l l be a s k e d t o r e t u r n f o r a s e c o n d s e s s i o n a week l a t e r whi ch w i l l l a s t a b o u t one h o u r . A m a j o r e f f o r t w i l l be made t o a r r a n g e t i m e s f o r yo u t o come i n f o r t h i s s e c o n d s e s s i o n whi ch w i l l be c o n v e n i e n t f o r y o u . A f t e r a t im e has been a g r e e d up o n , ho w e v e r , you w i l l be e x p e c t e d t o keep t h e a p p o i n t m e n t and t o be p ro m p t . For y o u r h e l p i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t , you w i l l r e c e i v e a p p r o p r i a t e c r e d i t i n y o u r p s y c h o l o g y c l a s s . F a i l u r e t o keep an a p p o i n t m e n t w i l l r e s u l t i n a r e d u c t i o n o f y o u r e x t r a c r e d i t p o i n t t o t a l by t h e number o f p o i n t s you would hav e e a r n e d had you k e p t t h e a p p o i n t m e n t .

The o n ly d a t a w hi ch w i l l be k e p t on yo u i s y o u r s c o r e s on t h e P u r s u i t R o to r Task an d y o u r an sw er s t o a b r i e f q u e s t i o n n a i r e . At t h e en d o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t , a l l o f t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l be t o t a l l y d i s s o c i a t e dfrom y o u r name, t h u s k e e p i n g e v e r y t h i n g c o n f i d e n t i a l .

I t w i l l be r e q u i r e d o f you t h a t yo u do n o t d i s c u s s y o u r e x p e r i e n c e s i n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t w i t h any o t h e r s t u d e n t s d u r i n g t h i s q u a r t e r . By d i s c u s s i n g y o u r e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h a n o t h e r s t u d e n t , you may u nk no w in gl y b i a s h i s / h e r r e a c t i o n t o t h i s e x p e r i m e n t i f t h e y were t o p a r t i c i p a t e w i t h i t a t a l a t e r t i m e . Your c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h i s wo uld be g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d .

I , ____________________________ , hav e r e a d and u n d e r s t o o d t h i s In f o rm edC o n se n t A gr ee m en t and do h e r e b y a g r e e t o p a r t i c i p a t e w i t h t h i s e x p e r i m e n t , r e a l i z i n g t h a t I hav e t h e o p t i o n t o d i s c o n t i n u e my p a r t i c i p a t i o n a t any t i m e w hic h I so d e s i r e .

S i g n a t u r e

Date


APPENDIX C

HYPNOSIS: QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. W i l l I be a b l e t o go i n t o t h e h y p n o t i c s t a t e ?

As a m a t t e r o f f a c t e v e r y normal p e r s o n h as many t i m e s be e n i n a s t a t e w hich i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same as t h e h y p n o t i c c o n d i t i o n . You hav e a t t i m e s be en c o m p l e t e ly a b s o r b e d i n s o m e t h i n g you were d o i n g ; e . g . , r e a d i n g a h i g h l y i n t e r e s t i n g n o v e l . When you a r e i n t h i s s t a t e p e o p l e may sp e a k t o you and you do n o t h e a r . Your a t t e n t i o n i s p i l e d up on w h a t you a r e d o i n g . In h y p n o s i s you g i v e y o u r a t t e n t i o n t o w h a t y o u r p s y c h o l o g i s t i s s a y i n g t o you and o t h e r t h i n g s do n o t b o t h e ry o u . You w i l l c e r t a i n l y be a b l e t o go i n t o t h e h y p n o t i c s t a t e i f youc o o p e r a t e and c o n c e n t r a t e on wh at i s b e in g s a i d t o y o u .

2. W il l I l o s e c o n s c i o u s n e s s ?

No! You w i l l no more l o s e c o n s i o u s n e s s i n t h e h y p n o t i c s t a t e t h a n y ou d i d when yo u we re p a y i n g c o m p le t e a t t e n t i o n t o y o u r r e a d i n g . The wo rd s l e e p i s f r e q u e n t l y u se d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o h y p n o s i s b u t i t i s n o t t h e n i g h t t i m e s l e e p . To someone e l s e you w i l l a p p e a r t o be a s l e e p b e c a u s e y o u r e y e s a r e c l o s e d and yo u a r e r e l a x e d , b u t you w i l l know t h a t y ou a r e n o t a s l e e p l i k e a t n i g h t .

3 . W i l l I hav e d i f f i c u l t y aw ak en in g?

No! You a r e a t a l l t i m e s a b l e t o awaken y o u r s e l f s h o u l d y ou w i sh t odo s o . However , i t i s t o y o u r a d v a n t a g e t o re m a in i n t h e h y p n o t i c s t a t e u n t i l y o u r p s y c h o l o g i s t a s k s yo u t o awake n.

4. I s a weak w i l l e s s e n t i a l f o r h y p n o s i s ?

On t h e c o n t r a r y , a s t r o n g w i l l e d p e r s o n i s more l i k e l y t o be s u c c e s s f u l i n h y p n o s i s . S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g you p u t y o u r s e l f i n t o t h e h y p n o t i c s t a t e . Your p s y c h o l o g i s t can o n l y be a t e a c h e r o r i n s t r u c t o r . I t t a k e s s e l f - c o n t r o l t o go i n t o t h e h y p n o t i c s t a t e and w i t h r e p e a t e d h y p n o s i s you w i l l l e a r n b e t t e r s e l f - c o n t r o l . T h i s w i l l be u s e f u l t o y o u i n many o t h e r ways.

5. On r e p e a t e d o c c a s i o n s w i l l I f i n d g o in g i n t o h y p n o s i s e a s i e r ?

Y e s , b e c a u s e yo u w i l l l e a r n b e t t e r how t o go i n t o t h e h y p n o t i c s t a t e j u s t as you l e a r n o t h e r s k i l l s by p r a c t i c e ,

6 . Can I be h y p n o t i z e d a g a i n s t my w i l l ?

No! No m a t t e r how w e l l you hav e l e a r n e d t o go i n t o t h e h y p n o t i c s t a t eyo u ca n al wa ys r e f u s e t o do s o i f you d e s i r e . You ha ve l e a r n e d t ow r i t e b u t you do n o t hav e t o w r i t e u n l e s s y o u w i s h t o . H ypnos is i s t h e same.


49

7. I f I am i n t h e h y p n o t i c s t a t e and someone s u g g e s t s I do an in m o ra l a c t w i l l I comply?

No! I t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t a p e r s o n can be c a u s e d t o v i o l a t e a c o n c e p t o f m o r a l i t y t o w h ic h he i s s t r o n g l y a t t a c h e d . However , y o u r p s y c h o l o g i s t i s a p r o f e s s i o n a l who i s g o v e r n e d by a v e r y s t r i c t code o f e t h i c s and h e / s h e wo uld n o t t h i n k o f a s k i n g you t o do a n y t h i n g im m o r a l .

8 . I f I do n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e i s any such t h i n g as h y p n o s i s w i l l t h a t make any d i f f e r e n c e .

You do n o t have t o b e l i e v e i n h y p n o s i s i n o r d e r t o go i n t o t h e s t a t e . You m u s t , h o w e v e r , be w i l l i n g t o go a l o n g w i t h wha t y o u r p s y c h o l o g i s t t e l l s y o u .

9. Can any p s y c h o l o g i s t do h y p n o s i s ?

To h e l p you go i n t o t h e h y p n o t i c s t a t e y o u r p s y c h o l o g i s t h as t o have a c e r t a i n amount o f s k i l l wh ich h e / s h e a t t a i n s by a s t u d y o f t h e m a t t e r . Ask y o u r p s y c h o l o g i s t i f h e / s h e has had t r a i n i n g i n h y p n o s i s . He /she w i l l g i v e y ou an h o n e s t a n sw e r.

10. I s h y p n o s i s new?

Hy pnosi s i s p r o b a b l y as o l d as t h e human r a c e . Some o f i t s a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e f a i r l y new.

11. Wil l h y p n o s i s harm me?

Hy pnosi s can do you no more harm t h a t n i g h t t i m e s l e e p . However , i f y ou a r e h y p n o t i z e d by an u n t r a i n e d p e r s o n h e / s h e m ig h t g i v e you s u g g e s t i o n s w h ic h may c a u s e you d i s c o m f o r t . Be h y p n o t i z e d o n l y by t h o s e who a r e s k i l l e d and who u se h y p n o s i s f o r m e d i c a l , d e n t a l , o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l p u r p o s e s .

12. Are t h e r e d i f f e r e n t d e p t h s o f h y p n o s i s ?

Yes! Some p e o p l e go q u i c k l y i n t o a much d e e p e r h y p n o s i s t h a n o t h e r s .However , a normal p e r s o n can go d e e p e r w i t h p r a c t i c e ,

13. I s i t p o s s i b l e t o h y p n o t i z e o n e s e l f ?

Yes! Most p e o p l e w i t h a l i t t l e p r a c t i c e and h e l p can l e a r n t o doa u t o - h y p n o s i s . T h i s i s a v e r y v a l u a b l e s k i l l t o hav e b e c a u s e by means o f i t one can c o n t r o l o n e s e l f much b e t t e r t h a n one m ig h t o t h e r w i s e be a b l e t o do.

14. W i l l I remember w ha t hap p e n ed i n t h e h y p n o t i c s t a t e ?

I f you go i n t o v e r y deep h y p n o s i s , w ha t w e n t on w h i l e you we re h y p n o t i z e d may seem l i k e a n i g h t t i m e dre am . Upon a w a k e n in g , p o r t i o n s o f t h e dream w i l l be re me m be re d , w h i l e o t h e r p o r t i o n s o f t h e dream w i l l be f o r g o t t e n .


50

APPENDIX D

DEBRIEFING HANDOUT

Thank yo u f o r y o u r h e l p i n p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h i s r e s e a r c h . As yo u

know, yo u w i l l r e c e i v e a p p r o p r i a t e c r e d i t i n y o u r p s y c h o l o g y c l a s s

f o r y o u r t i m e s p e n t .

I f yo u ha ve any q u e s t i o n s o r c o n c e r n s which a r i s e a f t e r you l e a v e

t o d a y , f e e l f r e e t o c o n t a c t me. I t i s v e r y r a r e f o r p e o p l e t o

e x p e r i e n c e u nw a nte d s i d e e f f e c t s a f t e r h y p n o s i s . However , i f f o r -

any r e a s o n y o u w ou ld l i k e t o t a l k w i t h m y s e l f o r a n o t h e r c o u n s e l o r

r e g a r d i n g p e r s o n a l c o n c e r n s yo u may h a v e , p l e a s e c o n t a c t me a t t h e

S t u d e n t C o u n s e l i n g S e r v i c e (2 9 4 - 5 0 5 6 ) o r a t my home ( 2 3 3 - 4 8 9 1 ) ,

Thank vj

R o b e r t J . R u s s e l l , M.A.

C o u n s e l o r

S t u d e n t C o u n s e l i n g S e r v i c e

R e p ro d u c e d w ith p e rm is s io n of th e co p y rig h t ow ner. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ited w ithou t p e rm iss io n .

APPENDIX E

H y p n o t i c I n d u c t i o n P r o c e d u r e

51

T h i s e v e n i n g yo u w i l l have t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e e x p e r i e n c e h y p n o s i s

f o r t h e s e c o n d t i m e . F o l l o w in g t h i s you w i l l t a k e a s h o r t b r e a k

and t h e n come back and p e r f o r m t h e p u r s u i t r o t o r t a s k . A f t e r w a r d s

y o u '1 1 1 f i l l o u t a s h o r t q u e s t i o n n a i r e and t h e n y o u ' l l be f i n i s h e d .

Do you ha ve any q u e s t i o n s b e f o r e we b e g i n ?

So t h i s e v e n i n g would you l i k e t o go i n t o a l i g h t t r a n c e o r

i n t o a de ep t r a n c e ?

Good, y o u ' d l i k e t o go i n t o a ( l i g h t , d e e p ) t r a n c e . But

b e f o r e y o u d o , I w a n t you t o f a c e t h e w a l l and make s u r e t h a t b ot h

o f y o u r f e e t a r e f l a t on t h e f l o o r and t h a t you ha nd s a r e r e s t i n g

c o m f o r t a b l y i n y o u r l a p .

I ' d l i k e yo u t o f i n d a s p o t o p p o s i t e y o u r s e l f on t h e w a l l and

f o c u s a l l o f y o u r a t t e n t i o n on t h a t s p o t . And y ou w i l l r e c a l l how

a week ago when yo u we re f o c u s i n g y o u r a t t e n t i o n , some v e r y p e c u l i a r

t h i n g s be ga n t o h a p p e n . T h in g s d i d n o t seem q u i t e t h e same. For

i n s t a n c e , yo u can im a g i n e t h a t one o f y o u r f e e t i s bec om ing h e a v y ,

v e r y h e a v y . I w on de r i f i t w i l l be y o u r l e f t f o o t w h ic h w i l l

become h e a v i e r f i r s t , o r p e r h a p s i t w i l l be y o u r r i g h t . S o o n e r o r

l a t e r , i t w i l l f e e l so h e a v y — i t w i l l f e e l l i k e l e a d , b e i n g w e ig h t e d

down, down i n t o t h e f l o o r .

And on ce when y o u become aw are o f t h a t h e a v i n e s s , t h a t same

s e n s a t i o n w i l l s p r e a d t o o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e body. I w onde r i f i t


52

w i l l s p r e a d t o y o u r l e g s f i r s t o r t o y o u r arms f i r s t ? I 'm s u r e t h a t

t h i s h e a v i n e s s w i l l e v e n t u a l l y s p r e a d t o y o u r e y e s , b e c a u s e s o o n e r

o r l a t e r y o u r e y e s w i l l b e g i n t o b l i n k , b l i n k arid w a t e r . And t h e r e

i s n o t h i n g m y s t e r i o u s a b o u t t h i s , b e c a u s e when t h e y b l i n k and w a t e r ,

i t i s m e r e ly a s i g n t h a t you a r e bec om ing v e r y drowsy and t h a t y o u r

e y e s a r e t i r e d . T h e r e , y o u r e y e s a r e b l i n k i n g more and morel And

now t h a t s p o t t h a t yo u a r e l o o k i n g a t w i l l s o o n e r o r l a t e r move

i n - a n d - o u t o f f o c u s , as i t becomes more and more d i f f i c u l t t o keep

y o u r e y e s op en .

Now, a l l t h e w h i l e t h a t w e 'v e be en f o c u s i n g on y o u r e y e s , you

p r o b a b l y h a v e n ' t ev e n n o t i c e d how numb y o u r l e g s have become, how

he a vy and l im p y o u r l e g s hav e become. And s o m e th in g e l s e i s v e r y

i n t e r e s t i n g . You know w ha t i t i s l i k e t o f a l l a s l e e p , b u t wh a t

h a pp e ns i f yo u f a l l a s l e e p and aw ake , b u t o n ly h a l f o f yo u i s

awake and t h e o t h e r h a l f i s a s l e e p ? You know wha t i t i s l i k e t o

awake and f i n d t h a t y o u r arm i s s t i l l a s l e e p . Some p e o p l e d e s c r i b e

i t as a t i n g l i n g s e n s a t i o n , w h i l e o t h e r s d e s c r i b e i t as a numbing

s e n s a t i o n , a l m o s t a h o l l o w s e n s a t i o n . I wo nd e r how i t w i l l be f o r

y ou?

And yo u r e a l i z e how n i c e h y p n o s i s can b e . You d o n ' t hav e t o do

a n y t h i n g a t a l l ; yo u d o n ' t ha ve t o be awar e o f how d e e p l y r e l a x e d

y ou a r e o r how y o u r arms f e e l a p a r t f r om y o u r b od y; yo u d o n ' t ev e n

have t o keep y o u r e y e s open as t h e y b l i n k and w a t e r and w i sh t o c l o s e .

And l e t me show yo u s o m e t h i n g w h ic h yo u w i l l f i n d v er y c u r i o u s .

I 'm g o i n g t o p i c k up y o u r r i g h t arm and i t w i l l somehow m y s t e r i o u s l y

hang t h e r e i n m i d - a i r , as th o u g h an i m a g i n a r y s t r i n g we re h o l d i n g i t


53

t h e r e . (The h y p n o t i c - o p e r a t o r l i f t s t h e p e r s o n ' s arm o u t t o a

h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n . I f t h e arms d r o p s o r l o w e r s , t h e h y p n o t i c -

o p e r a t o r e x c l a i m s : "You r arm i s so r e l a x e d , i t i s so l imp t h a t

you c a n ' t ev e n h o l d i t i n one p o s i t i o n . T h i s i s a good s i g n t h a t

you a r e i n a t r a n c e . But n o t i c e how e a s y i t i s t o ke ep y o u r l e f t

arm i n one p o s i t i o n when y ou r e a l l y wa n t t o . " F o l l o w i n g t h e

i n e v i t a b l e c o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t t o h o ld o u t an ar m , t h e

i n d u c t i o n c o n t i n u e s . ) Your arm w i l l hang i n m i d - a i r as t h o u g h i t

were f l o a t i n g on i t s own, f l o a t i n g . But s o o n e r o r l a t e r y o u r arm

w i l l b e g i n t o f e e l h e a v y , and i t w i l l l o w e r , s l o w l y on i t s own.

And when y o u r arm b e g i n s t o l o w e r , you w i l l go d e e p e r i n t o t r a n c e .

The lo w e r y o u r arms g o e s , t h e d e e p e r yo u w i l l go u n t i l y o u r

hand t o u c h e s e i t h e r y o u r l a p o r t h e c h a i r and when i t do es y o u ' l l

go i m m e d i a t e l y i n t o a much d e e p e r s t a t e o f h y p n o s i s . ( I f t h e

s u b j e c t ' s e y e s a r e s t i l l open a t t h i s p o i n t , t h e h y p n o t i c - o p e r a t o r

comments: "And i f y o u r e y e s a r e n o t a l r e a d y c l o s e d by t h e t i m e

y o u r han d t o u c h e s , t h e y w i l l c l o s e a t t h a t t im e and you w i l l go

d e e p e r an d d e e p e r i n t o t r a n c e . " )

Now l e t me h e l p yo u t o go ev e n d e e p e r s t i l l i n t o t r a n c e . I 'm

g o in g t o c o u n t f r om t e n down t o on e. The c l o s e r I g e t t o o n e , t h e

d e e p e r y o u w i l l g o , u n t i l I r e a c h ONE and when I d o , y o u ' l l go

much d e e p e r i n t o a h y p n o t i c s t a t e . Ten . . . n i n e . . . e i g h t . . .

You a r e s i n k i n g d e e p e r and d e e p e r . . . s e v e n . . . s i x . . . f o u r

. . . t h r e e . . . Much d e e p e r now . . . two . . . ONE.

(A t t h i s p o i n t , t h e m a s t e r y im ag er y n a r r a t i v e i s p l a y e d f o r

t h e h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y im ag er y s u b j e c t s . T h i s t a p e i n c l u d e s


54

d i r e c t i o n s t o d e h y p n o t i z e t h e s u b j e c t . The h y p n o s i s s u b j e c t s do

n o t l i s t e n t o t h e n a r r a t i v e , b u t m e re ly r e ma in i n t h e h y p n o t i c

s t a t e f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y s i x m i n u t e s , a t whi ch t im e t h e h y p n o t i c -

o p e r a t o r d e h y p n o t i z e s them by s a y i n g : " L i s t e n c l o s e l y t o w ha t I

am g o i n g t o s a y . I am g o i n g t o c o u n t f rom one t o f i v e , and when I

r e a c h f i v e y ou w i l l open y o u r e y e s and be t o t a l l y awake and r e f r e s h e d .

Ready . . . one . . . two . . . t h r e e . . . f o u r . . . f i v e . You

may open y o u r e y e s and be t o t a l l y awake and r e f r e s h e d ! " F o l l o w in g

d e h y p n o s i s f o r b o th h y p n o s i s and m a s t e r y im ag er y and h y p n o s i s

s u b j e c t s , t h e h y p n o t i c - o p e r a t o r gav e t h e f o l l o w i n g d i r e c t i o n s :

"Now I ' d l i k e yo u t o s t a n d up and wa lk down t o t h e l o b b y . You

may w a n t t o s t r e t c h o r g e t a d r i n k o f w a t e r , and I ' l l be down

i n a few m i n u te s t o b r i n g yo u b a c k . " )


APPENDIX F

M a s te r y Imagery N a r r a t i v e

55

You w i l l remember p e r f o r m i n g t h e P u r s u i t R o to r Task d u r i n g

y o u r f i r s t a p p o i n t m e n t h e r e . In a moment I am g o in g t o ask you t o

v i s u a l i z e i n y o u r m i n d ' s ey e p e r f o r m i n g t h i s same t a s k a g a i n . But

f i r s t , t h e i m p o r t a n t a c h i e v e m e n t f o r you i s t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t you

have c e r t a i n c a p a b i l i t i e s w i t h i n y o u r s e l f whi ch have y e t t o be

r e a l i z e d . P e r f o r m in g t h e P u r s u i t R o t o r Task e f f i c i e n t l y i s one

o f t h e s e .

Now b e g i n by v i s u a l i z i n g i n y o u r m i n d ' s e y e w ha t t h e P u r s u i t

R o to r l o o k s l i k e from y o u r p o s i t i o n i n f r o n t o f i t a t t h e t a b l e ,

w i t h i t s b l a c k t u r n t a b l e and s i l v e r d o t . Focus y o u r t o t a l a t t e n t i o n

on t h i s image u n t i l yo u can s e e e v e r y t h i n g a b o u t i t v er y c l e a r l y - -

as t h ou gh you were r e a l l y t h e r e . Now r e c a l l how t h e s t y l u s wand

f e e l s i n y o u r hand as you p r e p a r e f o r t h e t u r n t a b l e t o b e g i n . As

you h o l d i t , yo u s a y t o y o u r s e l f "how e a s y i t i s f o r me t o c o n c e n

t r a t e . " As yo u p l a c e t h e wand on t h e t a r g e t , n o t i c e how i t f e e l s

t o have e v e r y mus cl e i n y o u r arm and ha nd p o i s e d , re a d y t o b e g i n .

Now t h e t u r n t a b l e s t a r t s t o r o t a t e and yo u a r e q u i k e t o f o l l o w th e

t a r g e t . As yo u o b s e r v e t h i s r o t a t i n g t a r g e t , yo u f i n d t h a t y o u r

ha nd f o l l o w s i t e a s i l y and y o u f i n d t h a t you a r e p e r f o r m i n g t h i s

t a s k much more e f f i c i e n t l y and c o r r e c t l y t h a n b e f o r e . N o t i c e

how i t f e e l s t o keep t h e s t y l u s on t h e t a r g e t . L i s t e n t o t h e sound

o f t h e m o to r and t h e s t y l u s t i p c o n n e c t i n g w i t h t h e s i l v e r t a r g e t .

Take a l l t h e t im e y o u ne e d t o v i s u a l i z e t h i s , b e c a u s e one m in u te


56

o f im ag er y i s e q u i v a l e n t t o s e v e r a l m i n u te s o r ev en an h o u r o f

a c t u a l p r a c t i c e . Ar ound and a r o u n d , ar o u n d and a r o u n d , you f o l l o w

t h e t a r g e t . I f t h e s t y l u s l e a v e s t h e t a r g e t t e m p o r a r i l y , t h i s o n l y

m o t i v a t e s you more and yo u t e l l y o u r s e l f t o " q u i c k l y c a t c h - u p " - -

w hi ch you do v e r y e a s i l y . As t h i s image becomes c l e a r e r f o r y o u ,

you s e e t h a t you a r e b e g i n n i n g t o m a s t e r t h e t a s k and t h i s i s v er y

p l e a s i n g f o r you t o d i s c o v e r .

Now t h e r o t o r s t o p s and y ou f i n d a s e n s e o f a c h i e v e m e n t w i t h

y o u r s e l f . B e f o r e i t s t a r t s up a g a i n , you f e e l t h e a n t i c i p a t i o n

s u r g e t h r o u g h e v e r y m u s c l e i n y o u r hand and arm. You f e e l c o n f i d e n t ,

b u t n o t o v e r c o n f i d e n t . You do f e e l d e t e r m in e d t o do t h e v e r y b e s t

t h a t yo u c a n . When i t s t a r t s up a g a i n , you t e l l y o u r s e l f t o " q u i c k l y

f o l l o w " whi ch y ou do e a s i l y . Around and a r o u n d , ar o u n d and a r o u n d ,

y o u r hand and arm f e e l c o o r d i n a t e d as you f o l l o w t h e t a r g e t . You

s a y t o y o u r s e l f "how e a s y i t s e e m s . " Any s l i p o f f o f t h e t a r g e t

m e r e ly amuses yo u an d c r e a t e s t h e c h a l l e n g e and t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n

i n you t o " q u i c k l y c a t c h - u p . " Around and a r o u n d , ar o u n d and a r o u n d ,

yo u f o l l o w t h e t a r g e t e a s i l y . Now t h e r o t o r s t o p s a g a i n . You s a y

t o y o u r s e l f t h a t y o u h av e done a "good j o b . " You a r e e n j o y i n g

t h i s t a s k now and f e e l e a g e r t o b e g i n a g a i n f o r t h e f i n a l t r i a l .

Your body f e e l s r e a d y and yo u a r e r e a d y . As t h e t u r n t a b l e s t a r t s ,

you a r e q u i c k t o f o l l o w i t . Around and a r o u n d , a r oun d and a r o u n d ;

we ha ve a l l had t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f d o i n g so m e t h i n g and knowing t h a t

we we re g e t t i n g b e t t e r a t i t , t h a t we w e re m a s t e r i n g i t . When t h i s

h a p p e n s , y ou f e e l c o n f i d e n t an d s e l f - a s s u r e d o f y o u r a b i l i t y t o

p e r f o r m t h e t a s k v e r y w e l l . Around and a r o u n d , a r o u n d and a r o u n d ;


57

you f o l l o w t h e t a r g e t e a s i l y . Now i t s t o p s and y ou a r e p l e a s e d

a t y o u r a b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m t h e p u r s u i t r o t o r t a s k e f f i c i e n t l y , much

more e f f i c i e n t l y t h a n b e f o r e . You u n d e r s t a n d how i n c r e a s e d c o n

c e n t r a t i o n and i n c r e a s e d m o t i v a t i o n hav e h e l p e d yo u t o do much

b e t t e r on t h e t a s k t h a n b e f o r e .

Now when you a r e r e a d y , I w a nt yo u t o l e a v e t h i s s a t i s f y i n g

image and l i s t e n t o wha t I have t o s a y . A f t e r I t e l l you t o open

y o u r e y e s , you w i l l be a s k e d t o w a i t a few m i n u te s b e f o r e you

a c t u a l l y t a k e t h e P u r s u i t R o to r Task f o r r e a l . T h i s image w i l l

s t a y v e r y c l e a r i n y o u r mind d u r i n g t h i s t i m e . I t w i l l h e l p you

t o lo o k f o r w a r d t o d o in g t h i s t a s k w i t h a n t i c i p a t i o n . And when i t

i s t im e t o a c t u a l l y do t h e t a s k , yo u w i l l be v e r y a l e r t and m o t i v a t e d

t o do t h e b e s t t h a t y ou can do .

Now I am g o in g t o c o u n t f rom one t o f i v e and when I r e a c h f i v e ,

you w i l l open y o u r e y e s and be f u l l y a l e r t an d t o t a l l y r e f r e s h e d .

T h i s i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t , when you open y o u r e y e s y ou w i l l be f u l l y

a l e r t and t o t a l l y r e f r e s h e d and y o u ' l l be a b l e t o c o n c e n t r a t e v e r y

w e l l when i t i s a c t u a l l y t i m e t o p e r f o r m t h e t a s k . Now I ' l l c o u n t

f rom one t o f i v e and a t f i v e you w i l l open y o u r e y e s : o n e . . .

two . . . t h r e e . . . f o u r . . . f i v e . Open y o u r e y e s .


APPENDIX G

58

QUESTIONNAIRE A

Name: _____________________________

D a te : _____________________________

D i r e c t i o n s : Read e a c h q u e s t i o n and c i r c l e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e number.

1. You were h y p n o t i z e d d u r i n g e a c h s e s s i o n . D ur ing t h i s l a s t s e s s i o n , how woul d you r a t e t h e " d e p t h " o f y o u r t r a n c e ?

v e r y ve ryl i g h t deep

2. D ur ing t h i s l a s t s e s s i o n , how " r e a l " was t h e t a p e - r e c o r d e d , m a s t e r y im ag er y n a r r a t i v e o f p e r f o r m i n g t h e P u r s u i t R o to r Task ?

n o t v er yr e a l r e a l

3. Was y o u r own p r i v a t e im a g e r y t h e same as t h e t a p e r e c o r d e d i m ag er y o r was i t d i f f e r e n t ?

d i f f e r e n t same

4 . Do yo u b e l i e v e t h a t t h e h y p n o s i s h e l p e d o r h i n d e r e d y o u r a b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m t h e P u r s u i t R o t o r Task ?

h i n d e r e d h e l p e d

5 . Do you b e l i e v e t h a t t h e m a s t e r y i m a g e r y h e l p e d o r h i n d e r e d y o u r a b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m t h e P u r s u i t R o to r Task?

h i n d e r e d " h e l p e d

6 . I f you hav e any comments r e g a r d i n g t h i s r e s e a r c h e x p e r i m e n t , p l e a s e make t h e s e comments on t h e bac k o f t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e .

R e p ro d u c e d w ith p e rm is s io n o f th e co p y rig h t ow ner. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ited w ithou t p erm iss io n .

59

QUESTIONNAIRE B

Name:______________________

D a t e : ______________________


1. You were h y p n o t i z e d d u r i n g e a c h s e s s i o n . D ur ing t h i s l a s t s e s s i o n , how w ou ld you r a t e t h e " d e p t h " o f y o u r t r a n c e ?

1 2 3 4 5

v e r y v e r yl i g h t deep

2. Do y ou b e l i e v e t h a t t h e h y p n o s i s h e l p e d o r h i n d e r e d y o u ra b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m t h e P u r s u i t R o to r Task?

1 2 3 4 5


3. I f yo u hav e any comments r e g a r d i n g t h i s r e s e a r c h e x p e r i m e n t , p l e a s e w r i t e t h e s e comments be lo w .


60

QUESTIONNAIRE C

Name:______________________

D a t e :______________________


1. D ur in g t h i s l a s t s e s s i o n , how " r e a l " was t h e t a p e - r e c o r d e d , m a s t e r y i m a g e r y n a r r a t i v e o f p e r f o r m i n g t h e P u r s u i t R o to r Task?

1 2 3 4 5

n o t ' v e r yr e a l r e a l

2 . Was y o u r own p r i v a t e im ag er y t h e same as t h e t a p e r e c o r d e di m a g e r y o r was i t d i f f e r e n t ?

1 2 3 4 5

d i f f e r e n t same

3 . Do y ou b e l i e v e t h a t t h e m a s t e r y im a g e r y h e l p e d o r h i n d e r e dy o u r a b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m t h e P u r s u i t R o to r Task?

1 2 3 4 5


4 . Some tim es i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r some p e o p l e t o s p o n t a n e o u s l y e n t e r a t r a n c e s t a t e w h i l e c o n c e n t r a t i n g on i m a g e r y . Do y ou t h i n k t h a t yo u e n t e r e d a t r a n c e s t a t e w h i l e l i s t e n i n g t o t h e t a p e r e c o r d e d im ag er y n a r r a t i v e ?

1 2 3 4 5

n o t i n a v e r y mucht r a n c e i n a t r a n c e

5 . I f y ou h av e any comments r e g a r d i n g t h i s r e s e a r c h e x p e r i m e n t , p l e a s e make t h e s e comments b el ow .


61

APPENDIX H

P i l o t S tudy R e s u l t s

T a b le H. l

Mean P r e t e s t , P o s t t e s t and Gain S c o r e ( i n s e c )

Group

h y p n o s i s & m a s t e r y im ag er y

h y p n o s i s

m a s t e r y im ag er y (H)

n o - t r e a t m e n tc o n t r o l

m a s t e r y im a g e r y (L)


P r e t e s t GainS co re

1 0. 82 5 1 7 .2 7 2 6 . 4 4 7

8 . 2 6 8 13.9 81 5 .7 1 4

3 .1 5 5 1 1 . 0 4 0 7 .8 8 5

1 3 .0 4 9 1 8. 41 6 5 . 3 6 7

15 .5 0 0 2 2 . 2 8 4 6 .7 8 5

Pilo

t St

udy

Raw

Dat

a

> r-^oo> co LT)

r— r— ID C

CM CO IT) CVJ CM r - r-LT) LO LO CM LOLO >3- LO 03

LO CM O ro LO *d-CO C) CM CM LO LO

CM CO COco co o i— co oco ix) Ln

CO 0.1 CO OCM >cf O CD CM

CO CM CO r— r— cCO CO r— r-

CO LO CM r— U CM O0 00 i— c LO CO CO CM r

r̂ .co co o cmCM CO i— o LO

CO CM CO 00 CM CO LO I— O CM L O C D C O O L t

■vT LO LO CM LO CM N O CO U) CM CM LO <0- CM

O UD <0- CM 00 CM 00 CO O LO LO LO LO LO CO

CO CM 00 LO CMCM N N in LOO) LO C- CO LO

CTl O) N i— O O I— CO 00 CM LO O LO00 00 CM CM CM

LO LO ID LO LO CO I— CI— L O O ^ I— CM I— r-r— LOCM CM CO <0- i— C

I— CM CO , - CM CO «=J- LO

R e p ro d u c e d w ith p e rm is s io n o f th e co p y rig h t ow ner. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ited w ithou t p erm iss io n .

1.65

9 3.

308

1.79

1 5.

756

5.54

1 5.

722

6.75

8 17

.019

10

.261

6.16

0 11

.202

11

.267

8.

539

10.8

86

11.8

77

28.6

29

31.3

02

2.6

73

3.57

1 4.

541

3.00

0 6.

378

6.61

1 5.

542

11.1

12

18.5

31

7.41

9

cn co o oo rv. io ud cm n n oo

CO CD I - CO r -

63O co lo ex)C O O c Jr - O N N

-O C M in O C n fO C v J C O ':

< t c o ( H a i N w o o m n n^r—<ocncocnr'vCMLO'3‘ o ic M r-o iM CM i- ' d -^ • L n c M M x i r o ^ o c o co

r-v cn i— «=j- ooCD O i— CO LO

N N CO i— •cj" «;_ cm *3- lo >— Lv. u C0CTI03 0 C C 0 O C

cn co cn co co i— un cm «yi— r o m c D N c o n c o n c D OL n ^ l D O N < t W i - r - « d -

lo co cn co cm r— id oo cn

n o to o co

QJ to c s- aj cQ. +J t

o cn CO CO CO I—J C f iM N N C O C- O N C O r - C O r

LO CM r— N i o c n u i CM to 00 id ^ to tv cd co (— r— cn lo lo cm in o cn i— i— n c o coco oo cm r— i— o o c o ,M-cncM

cn o co co co co r— cn o r—

CO CD CO r O CM CO CO 00 CO C n c O O O O L O C M L O <=1-CM C O O M tO CO cnM -COLDCMO M -C C J C O iM N in tf) CDtD

' t o i o c o m o i — c n o CO N ID to to N CO CO CM

f- ro cm rv J O t n o i- CO CM CO CO <3- LO

lo co to r -cno oo lo cn cm lo

N O LO LO CO

v cn lo cnco cn lo co c cm to *3- co c

t n c o o i — cn lo co co crv cn rv u cn o co r lo co cm c

- CO M" tD IV CO C-CM CM CO r— CM r— «cf* CO i— O

LO LO O CM f

cm cn cm cn o - * o o o ^ i n s c- O CM N C

o o cn n . ld t o cm o i i— cm co cmv O M- C0 i— CO IV ID o t o ^ 1 —3 to N r - r v O l D C M C n S C O W

- r - < J C M ^ O C

co o o cn oCO to CO CM N CM r— o ^ cn

f - c n c n c n r v , — rv u ' - J C O C O r - t v f

~ -cj CM O O Cf- CM CO 0 - CO O r- O CM CM O O O

IV r - CM r - CO r - in C CO LO tD t o CO IV CD C O O i n f O C M ' 3 - < t Or~~ C'J O CM O I—■ i—* r*

u_ s. s : u - u

c o c n o o c n c o r — o c n c n c o

CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM COCOCOCOCO

R e p ro d u c e d w ith p e rm iss io n of th e co p y rig h t ow ner. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ited w ithou t p e rm iss io n .

Exp

erim

enta

l Ra

w Da

ta

(co

nt'

d)

64c C

•I- o

0 0) 1- C L> ; CL in J

<U <Us - i

CO IT) CO CD r-CM O OO N r r - ^ l — CMU

CD CD i— 00 CO CM CO CO LO CO CDPOr—r— cr

co r— cn oo cd o c o d - m r - un cd o i— <d

CD CD oo CD CO d-CMCMI^Cnoo o cn co oCO to N O CD

CD 00 CD O O

COO ctO O cnCDM NCi (O cf CO OO CM I— OOCDc COi— CD CD o cn CO o c•sfCOtfCMOOCOCDCnu

oo cm co co i— c f co oo lo r - O l f ) r - O C n < t M N c n 0 "^CMi— CD CO CO CM O CO

COr-CMOOcf- CO CO OO o ^ NCMlOCOCO

■) o co co co cm c n i n o c o c o

Ji— CO CD - oo CM I— J i-C O Oj co cm cn

CDOCD*cTCMCOCMC"C fcrO 'C -O O r-r-C CO CM cn CD CO DC CD LCncO<^-OOCD<^CM':

CONCMlONCDinC' COr— CD CO "Ft CD CM l(cococD'a-ooooM-c'

CD I— CO O N COrr— CO CD CM 00 CO CCM CO CM 00 CO *sf Ucm oo cn o co co cj

CO N CM N

r- O O CM 0O OO D- "d- r— cn O O M" OO l"~.CM CM O i—-

“ CD CD CD O O CO CD O 0

OO OO OO OO 00 «=f-

CM CM CM CM 0

co o o oo in cn cn cn co

CD CD 0̂ CD I— O CD - - O W N O CD

cm 'cj- cn

O t O c T N N r - n N O Or - D r - c f W O r - r - l O C to o c n o o o o r ~ - .c M c n c o o o i— co cm oo cm <a-r - o cm -ct cm’

1— cnCDD̂ UOCOOOCDCDCD OWcOWCMWCMCOCOct I— NCnaiCDNCOlONCO

0O CM i— rOOOCM «d-i—

COcncnCDCDCDCDLO': COCOOOCDCDCDr^CMC cdcdcdoO i— oo >d - r̂ - r

CO CO oo CM o COCONCOU cn OO cn r— r■ a -W i-c n o

CM CM i— M- i—

i— co cn cd r-- co cd oo co inin CD *3- CO CD

c n c n in t n in c n in in c n c n

r— CMOOrfcncON-OOCDO

R e p ro d u c e d w ith p e rm is s io n of th e c o p y rig h t ow n e r. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ited w ithou t p e rm iss io n .

3.28

3 2.

585

4.59

3 4.

974

6.19

7 6.

437

10.4

61

17.6

08

7.14

70.

046

0.35

1 0.

480

1.15

7 2.

017

1.89

9 0.

877

5.07

3 4.

19

83.

205

4.87

5 3.

517

3.95

8 6.

392

7.84

6 11

.597

18

.196

6.

599

0.52

6 3.

240

3.43

7 5.

525

6.59

9 7.

662

7.20

3 19

.786

12

.583

0.44

8 0.

490

0.55

4 2.

187

2.66

2 1.

101

1.49

2 5.

950

4.4

58

65

APPENDIX J

A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e : Sex

S ourc eD e g re e o f Freedom

Sum o f S q u a r e s

MeanS q u ar e s F -Va lue

P r o b a b i l i t y

Group 3 2. 0 7 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 .6 91666667 3 . 1 5 1 9 0 0. 0 3 5 9

R e s i d u a l 36 7 .9 0 00000 0 0 .2 19 4 4 4 4 4 4

C o r r e c t e dT o ta l 36 9 .9 7 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 .25 57692 31


66

APPENDIX K

R e g r e s s i o n A n a l y s i s : Sex by Group

S o u rc eD e g re e s o f Freedom

S e q u e n t i a l Sum o f S q u a r e s F -Va lue

P r o b a - bi 1 i t y

Sex 1 4. 53 4 6 0 5 1 7 0 . 2 1 2 6 0 0 .6 5 2 4

Group 3 72 .60 49273 1 1 .1 3466 0.35 01

Sex by Group 3 22 .5 5 7 0 9 9 6 8 0 .3 5 2 5 2 0.7901

R e p ro d u c e d w ith p e rm iss io n of th e c o p y rig h t ow ner. F u rth e r re p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ited w ithou t p erm iss io n .

67

APPENDIX L

A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r i a n c e : P o s t t e s t as D e p en d en t M e a su re ,P r e t e s t as C o v a r i a t e

D e gr ee s o f S e q u e n t i a l P r o b a -S o u rc e Freedom Sum o f S q u a r e s F-Va lue b i l i t y

P r e t e s t 1 55 4. 694 27961 2 7 . 5 7 1 9 8 0.00 01


68

QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS

T a b l e M.l

P e r c e i v e d Depth o f T ra n c e

Group

Veryl i g h t1 2 3 4

VeryDeep

5 Mean

h y p n o s i s & m a s t e r y im ag er y 0 0 3 6 1 3 . 8

h y p n o s i s 0 1 6 2 1 3 . 3

T a b l e M.2

H y p n o s i s a s Aid t o P e r f o r m a n c e

GroupH i n d e r e d

1 2 3 4H elp ed

5 Mean


h y p n o s i s 0 0 2 5 4 4 . 2

T a b l e M. 3

" R e a l n e s s " o f M a s t e r y Imagery

Group

Notr e a l1 2 3 4

same5 Mean


m a s t e r y im ag er y (H) 0 0 2 5 3 4.1

m a s t e r y imag ery (L) 0 0 3 5 2 3 . 9


69

P r i v a t e Im age ry Same as Image ry N a r r a t i v e

GroupDi f f e r e n t 1 2 3 4

Same5 Mean

h y p n o s i s & m a s t e r y im ag er y 0 1 0 6 3 4.1

m a s t e r y im ag er y (H) 0 0 0 5 5 4 . 5

m a s t e r y im ag er y (L) 0 0 2 7 1 3 . 9

T a b le M.5

M a s te r y Im age ry a s Aid t o P e r f o r m a n c e

Grouph i n d e r e d 1 2 3 4

Same5 Mean

h y p n o s i s & m a s t e r y i m a g e r y 0 0 2 3 5 4 . 3

m a s t e r y im ag er y (H) 0 0 2 5 3 4.1


T a b le M.6

S p o n t a n e o u s l y E n t e r i n g a T ra n c e

Group

Not i n a t r a n c e 1 2 3 4

Very much i n a t r a n c e

5 Mean

m a s t e r y i m ag er y (H) 1 2 4 2 1 3 . 0



70

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E r i c k s o n , M. H . , R o s s i , R. L . , & R o s s i , S . I . H y p n o t i c R e a l i t i e s .New York: I r v i n g t o n P u b l i s h e r s , 1976.

Gawain, S. C r e a t i v e V i s u a l i z a t i o n . B e r k e l e y : W ha te ve r P u b l i s h i n g ,1978.

K r o g e r , W. S . , & F e z l e r , W. D. H yp n o s i s and B e h a v i o r M o d i f i c a t i o n : Imagery C o n d i t i o n i n g . P h i l a d e l p h i a : J . B. L i p p i n c o t t C o . , 1976.


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