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published online 1 December 2014Journal of Intellectual DisabilitiesNarges Adibsereshki, Somaye Jalil Abkenar, Mohammad Ashoori and Mahmood Mirzamani

achievement of students with intellectual disabilitiesThe effectiveness of using reinforcements in the classroom on the academic

  

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Article

The effectiveness of usingreinforcements in the classroom onthe academic achievement of studentswith intellectual disabilities

Narges AdibsereshkiUniversity of Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences and Pediatric

Neurorehabilitation center, Islamic Republic of Iran

Somaye Jalil AbkenarSpecial Education Teacher, Islamic Republic of Iran

Mohammad AshooriSpecial Education Teacher, Islamic Republic of Iran

Mahmood MirzamaniAzad University, Islamic Republic of Iran

Date accepted: 20 October 2014

AbstractThe purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of two kinds of reinforcements, tangiblereinforcements and social reinforcements, on the academic achievement of eighth-grade female stu-dents with intellectual disabilities in the science subject. The study was an experimental method bypretest, with a control group. The participants of the study comprised 45 female students with intel-lectual disabilities from three differentmiddle schools in the province of Tehran. The multistage clustermethod was chosen to determine the sample. The Wechsler intelligence test for matching the groupsin terms of IQ and teacher-applied tests were used for all students to measure the progress of studentsin science. Data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance. The results showed that (a) there was asignificant difference in the academic achievement scores of the groups after applying the interventionand (b) the mean difference in achievement scores for the tangible reinforcements group was signifi-cantly higher than the social reinforcement group and the control group. Also the mean scores for thesocial reinforcement group were significantly higher than the control group.

Keywordsintellectual disability, token economy, social reinforcements

Corresponding author:

Narges Adibsereshki, Pediatric Neurorehabilitation Center, University of Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences, Tehran

1985713834, Islamic Republic of Iran.

Email: n.adib@hotmail.com

Journal of Intellectual Disabilities1–11

ª The Author(s) 2014Reprints and permission:

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Introduction

For years, it is believed that people with intellectual disabilities could not learn and they lived

isolated in the community or segregated in institutions. Fortunately societal attitudes have chan-

ged, and now it is recognized that they can learn if taught in the right way. Learning is the process

of making sense of new information. It is personal and the pace at which people learn varies, but

there is evidence that some factors such as motivation can facilitate the process of learning.

Positive reinforcements, especially rewards, can motivate students to learn.

Intellectual disability

Intellectual disability is characterized by significant limitations in intellectual functioning, reasoning,

learning, problem solving, and in adaptive behavior ranging from everyday social and practical skills.

This disability originates before the age of 18 (American Association of Mental Retardation, 2002). In

most communities, people with intellectual disabilities (like nondisabled people) are able to access

education but they do not learn at the same pace. For example, children with mild intellectual dis-

abilities attend school, their social adjustment and adaptive behaviors vary, and so schools and teachers

need to provide special programs and appropriate teaching strategies. This might include strategies

such as breaking down learning tasks into smaller steps and introducing each learning task, one step at a

time, to avoid overwhelming the student. Once the student has mastered one step, the next step is

introduced. They learn best by performing a task with ‘‘hands-on’’ experiences which involve con-

crete, observable information rather than abstract instructional lectures (Reynolds et al., 2011).

For individuals with intellectual disabilities immediate feedback is required so that they will be

able to make a connection between their answers, behaviors, or questions and the teacher’s

responses. A delay in giving immediate feedback may not result in the formation of a connection

between cause and effect in the student’s mind, and therefore, missing the learning point (Reynolds

et al., 2011). These students may attend regular schools (inclusion), but in Iran, they mostly go to

special schools that provide special classes and programs with special teachers.

Behavior modification and positive behavioural support

Behavior modification is viewed as a way to teach someone to behave in a new way, or change a

behavior, using positive or negative reinforcements (Kappel et al., 2012). Originating in the work

of Pavlov regarding positive and negative behavioral reinforcement, Skinner built on this

knowledge in the 1950s and began to apply it to human behavior through applied behavioral

analysis (ABA); ABA is a strategy for teaching people with disabilities to learn new behaviors. By

1970, ABA was used for improving social behaviors including the use of tokens to reinforce

appropriate behavior and reduce the problem behavior.

In mid-1980s, the concept of positive behavioral approaches such as positive behavior supports

(PBS) began to emerge. PBS uses educational approaches to develop an individual’s behavioral

repertoire while also redesigning the support provided for them via systems change (Carr et al.,

2002). Positive behaviors are those skills that increase success in academic, work, social, and fam-

ily settings, and supports are those educational methods that can be used to teach, strengthen, and

expand positive behaviors. PBS emerged from ABA, the inclusion movement and person-centered

values (Carr et al., 2002). PBS, however, differs from ABA in areas such as building relationships,

and believes we cannot help others without forming a good working relationship with them. Both

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approaches, however, recognize that a behavior may be caused by the function it serves and there-

fore to change a behavior one must first understand the function the behavior serves for the indi-

vidual. It is also important to look at a behavior from different perspectives to see why it happens

more often in certain situations. Functional analysis is one aspect of positive approaches that were

rooted in ABA; its methods assess the behavior and its use in individuals with intellectual disabil-

ity. PBS has influenced the education and inclusion of students with behavioral difficulties.

School-wide PBS focuses on prevention, skills building, and environmental modification. It

involves three levels of interventions, namely, primary, secondary, and tertiary (Horner et al.,

1990).

Views differ as to whether ABA and PBS are different approaches, and some experts think both

are different forms of ABA, PBS being rooted in the soil of ABA. More recently, PBS supporters

have suggested that while definitions and emphasis differ, in practice PBS and ABA can be

indistinguishable (Dunlap et al., 2008).

Reinforcements

Skinner’s work on operant conditioning involves developing relationships between various con-

sequences and behaviors in order to achieve the desired outcome (Zirpoli, 2005). Skinner believed

that positive reinforcement is more effective than punishment when seeking to change or establish

a behavior. Teachers often use reinforcements as a form of discipline in the classroom, and these

reinforcements allow students to learn new ideas, skills, and rules (Charles and Senter, 2004).

There are primary reinforcers such as food and water, which require no special training to be

effective. Secondary reinforcers can be acquired through second-order conditioning, and many

teachers use extrinsic rewards like stickers and tokens to reinforce behavior. Finally, there are

social reinforcers such as praise, affection, and attention (Liberman, 2000). Reinforcement is

something that happens after a behavior that makes it more likely to occur again. Different types

of reinforcers may be used to motivate different students (Laura and Peters, 2010), but it is impor-

tant to make clear to the student under what conditions a reward can be acquired (Ormrod, 2000).

The techniques of behavior modification are based on operant conditioning; the focus is on rein-

forcing desirable behaviors and ignoring undesirable ones. This approach has a major role in special

education being used both to create effective teaching methods and to control behavioral problems. It is

also used to improve functional skills deficits, promote self-management, and train teachers (Milten-

berger, 2008). According to Chitiyo and Wheeler (2009), educators can teach appropriate behavior and

improve the classroom environment by the use of positive reinforcement, but Lannie and McCurdy

(2007) suggest that many educators don’t have the skills to manage their classrooms. Strong classroom

management skills are essential for effective teaching (Lannie and McCurdy, 2007).

Moore Partin et al. (2010) showed that using praise and positive reinforcement can decrease

students’ inappropriate behavior as well as increase appropriate behavior and response to teachers’

demands. Through the use of positive reinforcement, teachers can improve their students’ moti-

vation to behave appropriately (Lepper et al., 2005).

Social reinforcements, such as attention, appreciation, and appropriate praises, are often more

rewarding than toys or food for students. Putting a hand on a student’s shoulder, using encouraging

words in front of others, a nod, or an approving smile can be very meaningful (Michigan Team

Nutrition, 2004). Students with additional learning needs require encouragement and attention

more than their nondisabled peers, hence giving more attention in the classroom while completing

assignments will help their progression (Zecker, 2006).

Adibsereshki et al. 3

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In recent years, educational professionals have been interested in the relationship between the

use of reinforcements in the classroom and the academic achievement of students. Hardman et al

(1990) researched the effectiveness of using a token economy for students with intellectual dis-

ability and found that the use of reinforcements had positive effects on the improvement of stu-

dents’ academic skills. Kord (2003) studied the effectiveness of feedback to 140 fifth-grade

students who were evaluated in a science course and showed that providing feedback (verbal, writ-

ten, or both) is effective for the academic development of students and that the written feedback

was more effective than verbal.

Cameron et al. (2001) conducted a meta-analysis of research published over the past 30 years to

determine the overall effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation. Their results indicated that

rewards produced positive effects on intrinsic motivation during low-interest tasks and during

high-interest tasks when they were explicitly tied to behavior and success. Many studies have

shown that when classroom management is a struggle, some form of tokens can be effective for

achieving control (Bafile, 2005).

Most research has shown that using positive reinforcements in the classroom is effective both for

managing behaviors and for promoting academic achievement of nondisabled students, but fewer

studies have been concerned about their impact on children with intellectual disabilities. The study

reported here examined the effectiveness of tangible reinforcements and social reinforcements on

the academic achievement of female students with intellectual disabilities. It was guided by the

following research questions: (a) Is there a difference between the academic achievement of students

in three groups (the group with tangible reinforcement, the group with social reinforcements, and the

control group)? (b) Which reinforcement (tangible reinforcements or social reinforcements) is more

effective on promoting the academic achievement of students with intellectual disabilities?

Method

The method used for this study was an experimental method by pretest–posttest with a control group.

Participants

A sample of 45 female students with intellectual disability aged 13–17 years participated in this

study. They were studying eighth grade in special middle schools in Tehran province in the

academic year 2010–2011. There are 14 special middle schools in Tehran province. Subjects were

selected by multistage cluster sampling technique in which (at the first stage) three schools were

selected randomly from the list of schools, and (in second stage) 15 students who met the inclusion

criteria (13–17 years old, IQ of 60–70, having intellectual disability and no other disabilities) were

recruited. It was decided that the appropriate sample size in the experimental design would be 15 in

each group (Gall et al., 2003). In this research, there were two experimental groups in which one

received tangible reinforcements and the other one social reinforcements, while the control group

had the usual class sessions and did not have any of the reinforcements.

Data collection tools

A number of different tools were used as follows:

A) Wechsler Intelligence test–revised for children:

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This includes subtests, which can be conducted individually and offers three IQ scores, namely,

verbal IQ, nonverbal IQ, and general IQ. The new Persian version of IQ test is standardized for

children aged 6–17 years. The reliability coefficient was calculated by two half Spearman–Brown

correlation coefficients for nonverbal IQ and verbal IQ subtests (except numerical memory, which

is made up of two different parts and encoding which is a speed test), which fluctuated between

0.42 and 0.98 and median of 0.69. The test reliability coefficient was also calculated through a

test–retest, which ranges from 0.44 to 0.94. In two other cases, the counting and encoding subtest

is less than these values, and the reliability coefficient is 0.73 (Shahim, 1994).

Shahim (1994) assessed the validity of this tool by comparing the scale with the Wechsler

Preschool and Primary School scale and obtained the correlation coefficients for verbal IQ,

nonverbal, and global that were 0.84, 0.74, and 0.85, respectively.

B) Achievement test in the science subject:

Chapter 3 of the science book for eighth-grade students (which contains eight lessons) was

selected for the study. A pretest was designed from the previous materials (chapters 1 and 2).

On completion of chapter 3, a posttest was applied.

C) For determining which reinforcement (social or tangible) is more effective, the Scheffe’s

post hoc (1954) test was used.

Procedure

The names of the special schools and the permission letter to enter the schools and undertake the

study were provided by Tehran’s city special education organization. The importance of inter-

ventional studies and our research was explained to the principal, counselors, and parents. They

were assured that the project would be beneficial and that no harm would come to participants.

Consent to participate was obtained from school principals and parents of participants.

After the initial sampling procedure, schools were randomly assigned to the three groups. The

third chapter of the science book containing eight lessons was taught by three female teachers who

had 20 h of training for teaching this course. The teachers were of a similar age and with similar

years of teaching experience. Teachers in the two experimental groups also received additional

training regarding the use of reinforcements.

Based on the instructional goals, in every session, the short answer questions (asked orally)

were designed to see whether the students understood the materials. Teachers explained to students

how and for what they could receive tokens or other reinforcements such as social reinforcements

(Appendix A). The pretest was applied to make sure all participants were almost at the same level

in the science subject.

In this program, individuals begin at an initial level and (depending on their improvement) they

progress to higher levels (Park and Lee, 2012). In this study (depending on their improvement),

students were able to receive simple stickers and then choose a reinforcer from the list (Appendix

B). For example, for three stickers they could choose small box of raisins or peanuts, for four

stickers they could have cookies or cupcakes, and so on. The list of reinforcers was selected

according to participants’ interests, and the number of stickers required for each reinforcer was

decided by teaching staff.

A posttest was taken after finishing the sessions. The pretest, posttest, and the oral questions

were designed by a teacher not involved in delivering the teaching.

Adibsereshki et al. 5

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Data analysis

Data analyses were conducted using descriptive and inferential statistics. For comparison of the

effect of the different conditions (tangible reinforcements group, social reinforcement group, and

control group) on the academic achievement, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used.

Also the Scheffe’s post hoc test was used to determine which reinforcement is more effective.

Results

Age and IQ scores of the three groups (tangible reinforcements, social reinforcement, and control)

were compared using one-way ANOVA. As shown in Table 1, the mean ages in three groups were

14.30, 14.60, and 14.80, and the means for their intelligence were 64.13, 63.73, and 64.80. This

indicates that there was no significant difference in age or intelligence between the three groups

(p ¼ 0.880 and p ¼ 0.634).

The first research question focused on comparing the effectiveness of tangible reinforcements,

social reinforcement, and no reinforcement (control group) on the academic achievement of stu-

dents with intellectual disabilities. To answer this question, the scores in the pretest and posttest of

the three groups were compared.

Table 2 shows that in the pretest, there was no significant difference in the achievement scores

for the three groups, F(2, 42) ¼ 0.067, p ¼ 0.936.

As shown in Table 3, there was a significant difference in the academic achievement scores of

the three groups in the posttests, F(2, 42) ¼ 57.03, p < 0.001. In addition, eta square indicates that

73% of the achievement variance is because of the interventions (η2 ¼ 0.731).

The second research question focused on which of the reinforcements is most effective in

promoting the academic achievements of students with intellectual disability. According to

Table 4, Scheffe’s post hoc test results indicate that the mean difference (MD) of achievement

scores for the tangible reinforcements group was significantly higher than the social reinfor-

cement group (MD ¼ 3.05, p < 0.001) and the control group (MD ¼ 4.10, p < 0.001). Addi-

tionally, the mean scores for the social reinforcement group were significantly higher than the

control group (MD ¼ 1.05, p < 0.04).

Discussion

Different reinforcement programs are established by schools designed to encourage students to

increase their performance and to progress in their education. According to the results of this study,

the academic achievement scores for the groups receiving tangible reinforcements and social

Table 1. Comparison of the age and intelligence in three groups (tangible reinforcement, social reinforcement,and control).

Range M SD f p

n Age IQ Age IQ Age IQ Age IQ Age IQ

Tangible reinforcement 15 13–16 61–69 14.30 64.13 1.40 2.64Social reinforcement 15 13–17 60–70 14.60 63.73 1.24 3.10 0.128 0.461 0.880 0.634Control 15 13–16 61–70 14.80 64.80 1.08 3.34

6 Journal of Intellectual Disabilities

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reinforcements were greater than the control group. This is in keeping with Porter’s (2007) study

about the effect of using tokens with 750 students that led to an increase in academic achievements

and attendance of students. Porter stated that people like getting rewards or tokens for doing tasks,

whether they are bonus points for buying certain objects or just the fact of getting something for

doing a good job. Newcomer (2009) and Simonsen et al. (2008) also believe that using reinfor-

cement strategies to address specific behaviors or to motivate students can be a simple and

effective way to reenergize students.

Another finding of the current study was that the group that received tangible reinforcements

achieved more than the group that received social reinforcements. This supports the literature

reviewed, which indicates that using a reward system can be more effective in controlling beha-

viors than the traditional method of social praise (Mathur, 1996). Maccini and Gagnon (2000, p19)

suggested implementing some positive pro-active, and consistent behavioral management stra-

tegies such as praise and feedback, timeout, token economies and contracts, could motivate stu-

dents and encourage appropriate behavior. As students become familiar with the instruction and

reward process, the token reward system can be introduced.

The results of this study differ from the study by Waggy (2002) regarding the effects of a token

system compared to social praise on the behaviors of elementary learning-disabled students. That study

indicated there was no significant statistical difference between the two kinds of reinforcements on the

Table 2. Pretest of the three groups (tangible reinforcement, social reinforcement, and control).

SS df MS f p η2

Between the groups 0.211 2 0.106Inside the groups 66.60 42 1.58 0.067 0.936 0.003Total 66.81 44

SS: sum of squares; df: degrees of freedom; MS: mean of squares.

Table 3. Posttest of the three groups (tangible reinforcements, social reinforcement, and control).

SS df MS f p η2

Between the groups 136.07 2 68.038Inside the groups 50.10 42 1.193 57.03 <0.001 0.731Total 186.17 44

SS: sum of squares; df: degrees of freedom; MS: mean of squares.

Table 4. The comparison of the achievement mean scores in three groups by Schffe test.

Comparison groups MD SEM p

Social reinforcement 3.02 0.398 <0.001Tangible reinforcement

Control 4.10 0.398 <0.001Social reinforcement

Control 1.08 0.398 <0.04

MD: mean difference.

Adibsereshki et al. 7

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manifest behaviors of learning-disabled students. Social praise was found to be most effective when

used with another method of behavior management. Liberman (2000) states that one of the character-

istics of reinforcers is their saliency or the degree to which an individual prefers the reinforcement;

hence, teachers should look for activities their students prefer. The current study indicated that children

with intellectual disability seem to prefer the tangible reinforcements rather than social reinforce-

ments, that is, they prefer actual items for rewards rather than verbal praise.

Using the reinforcements and rewards in the classroom may not reinforce a behavior or attain

the desired result. As teachers seek to reinforce a behavior, they should consider three important

characteristics of operant conditioning, namely, the reinforcer (what kinds of reinforcer they plan

to use), the reinforcement schedule (continuous or partial reinforcement schedule), and the timing

of the reinforcement (the time between operant behavior and the reinforcer). Modifying the

environment will also help students to modify their behavior and learning.

Limitations

The study has some limitations. It only encompassed a small fraction of female students and

schools in our system and only included students with intellectual disability in one grade’s science

class. The results of this study demonstrate the relationship between predictors and contingent

variables but cannot illustrate what is happening in terms of student satisfaction. In addition, lit-

erature regarding social reinforcements and our resources in this area were limited.

Conclusion

Using reinforcement strategies could be an effective way to both address specific behavioral issues

and motivate the students in the classroom. The current study showed that using positive rein-

forcement (tangible and social reinforcements) in the classrooms for students with intellectual

disability had a positive effect on their academic progress (in science subject) and that the tangible

reinforcements were most effective. These findings can be used by teachers to promote more

effective learning for their students with intellectual disabilities.

Future research

This study extends the current literature regarding the effectiveness of token economy and social

reinforcements on the academic achievement of students with intellectual disabilities. However,

there should be further studies of different kinds of reinforcements to extend the knowledge in this

area and also to investigate the application and use of these methods. Hopefully, future research

can respond to questions regarding using various reinforcements and their effectiveness on aca-

demic achievement, with a different population of students in different age and grades.

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for profit

sectors.

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Appendix A

Table A1. List of social reinforcements.

Showing appreciation byinstalling photo in the bulletinboard

Appreciation by writing the nameon the board

Giving the responsibility of collectingstudents’ work

Appreciation by school Web site In charge of designing the bulletinboard

In charge of checking the attendanceof students

Appreciation in the morningprogram

Applaud in the class In charge of checking assignments

Appreciation in the parents’meeting

Teaching in class In charge of bringing the attendancebook

Appreciation by sending a letterhome

Performing enjoyable activities inclass

Going out earlier than other studentsand do other activities

Member of music group in school Performing a play in class Being the first one to perform in classMember of the sport team in

schoolPlay a computer game in class Reading books for students

Helping in the school store Helping the teacher Sitting at the teacher’s desksometimes

Working at the library Helping the teacher of anotherclassroom

Writing or drawing on the board

Helping the school nurse Doing the morningannouncements

Using the library facilities more often

Being sport team assistant Being class monitor Have an extra time outIn charge of some school

activitiesBecome a group leader Appreciation by calling home and

informing other members of familyWritten encouragement Allow an extra activity in class in

some occasions like a birthdayVerbal praise and encouragements

A merit Take care of the class plants

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Appendix B

Table B1. List of reinforcers.

ReinforcersNo. of stickers(as a token) Reinforcers

No. of stickers(as a token) Reinforcers

No. of stickers(as a token)

Raisins 3 Special stickers 9 Pencil chains 16Peanuts 3 Notebooks 10 Gloves 16Hazelnut 4 Comb 1 Individual 17Pistachio 5 Toothbrush 11 Jump rope 17Cup cake 5 Toothpaste 11 Cinema tickets 18Cookies 5 Puzzles 11 Sunglasses 18Biscuits 5 Socks 12 Wristwatch 19Milk 5 Bubble pipe 12 Balls (football, basketball,

volleyball, and soccerballs)

19

Fruits 6 Key chains 12 T-shirts 20Juice 6 Yo-yo 13 Sneakers 20Stickers 6 Notepads 13 Tennis racket 20Whistle 6 Novel books 13 Badminton racket 21Pencil 7 Spray 14 Light reading 21Lathe 7 Movies 14 Sports clothing 22Eraser 7 Wallet 14 White board 22Pens 8 Belt 15 Travel blanket 23Ruler 8 Color pencils 15 Field trip 23Tennis ball 9 Crayons 16 Camera 24

Adibsereshki et al. 11

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