The Distinctivedess P.inciple:Id€ntity, M€aning, and th€ Bounds of Culhrsl Relaaivity

Vivian L. Vignoles, Xenia Chryssoch@u, and Gtyois M, BMkeellsa&|P,.1v1,3'fu,rp,MR.yarchl'tr|i!u.

u ra:it, aIs'i.y, critdfo'A b3t@d

E eniin| thnrns rl dini^.tir.^.s ndbalia^ a id4titr (Rt.dk .u, tcaT:Bn*e. lee t; satd,t & Fh^ki^ 1e3o), ee di:rc4t ttu p,e|. .btr t^!tuti'.-n4: iaentitt p.@6rts and ttt (ds ett!tut 8."qoLitt al ttu dBlhrnr.natpti\eipb ||. ar.ft thsqa)|'tuht^ tr4kn tuttuB, dikrchvt.s t a..anrtI.ithe c'narudan 4

^.al]rt wrhir ia.ntny, ana I b) th. d$'inetive..s rir.id. i:

Mans r||u tuu.'t:4 dstildlrtn^:: tu:iti\, diteGna, ar't n!'.rutks, rth.lwn i^?tndti!,4: lu iasrny qna

a' tktlttqQvrbttu, bd ttr, ndtbe.nphclil?d aJI?adt! a.qt.r!^s k,tr

"n u.t u4d

A...nling to snyder ad Frcnrio ( 1930), 'n1. ned@sem.slf auniqucirPobdandconnruotrsrorc.inou'si.ry (p.3) This vi.w apr€m {ithLn psychoea\aic ad d.vclopmMr$ons ofelfsd idEnLiy(Enlcon, r959iFDmm,I9a2: M*hd, r97a, zler.1964) ,id is anel.d ii EuDpB. hJ Nodn Aitnc?ilireraor (Euewd b, siyde' & fromkin. 1950)

h,y. lhoM thd rrormaiion n beGr mcmoiz.d 'rsel{ Irom o$.rt (L.Yci3,

Yz$yq & Rogicr,1997)r srcupr dc oil.i nred a

(Br.{.r, 1993b:Pdk&Rothban. r932):rerinssor

*iv. rfidr (Fffikitr. 1972), polliv. ariiuatim orscan. d!.n.ncs (Fromtin, lr0), aid gr.derid.n'ilicatiotr with didndive ercups (Brew* &Pick t, leee), od p.ople senerally d5cnb. Lh.n.

ft4. Iindhss cd b. in@ir.td I evid.E tu

q,rhin idad'ity p$hing bwd aEblirbins ad mdn-doins ! sie or diffedtution r6h otno! (dc.larrwell. 1936a BErys, r99 r ) ftn tudve ba inplicdDn! for.ogdiriod rnd bclnvior. otr r osnidv.bv.l, p6ple will emphdE th. dndn.dsns or a

lar 6 id.ftiry $Gc rpcct pmv'drns a tuE o.

wh.E disdn.rivdas n .d' m d'@.d or rto!hred, p@plc will.n8as. in osdrivc or b.haviddcopirg *e.sia io s@ r &Nc of dbbcdvfts{Bm$omb€, Etlcn6, spaE, & Doorj., l999iBad*cll. l93q BEw, l99l )

n$s nay b. cdsdcrcd in mey *ayi A ental 4-

coi$ructed on borh iidvidual ind srouP l.vcls or

nor Guicbd ro, $os s.nss in whid dE r.m tadidomny hI bei undssbod vitnin uniqu.n s dnry(snyd( & Fronlir 1930). iEirl iddtity rhory(Tartcl & Tur.r, 1936), cf{dastrtarion rhory(Tm.r, r93?), md oFml distiidiwn$ $dry

In. pdrcipl. ir trod.sood b pub rdrid disritrc.nv.ne$ on bod individurl sd eoup levcls or id@.

uFtur ftorcric, rml in m{y ciflms@es (rljfet,19$iT,inq. 1937)ad,rp.s.rohav.$rpsychordg,car rcdity (Btuk*c , l93li TEimov rdsd6.& G.b, 199D, fcuins on orc lcv.l rr 6. sxp.R ofe d64 mly Lid E..*dh"u b mns b.d dE sinirr.

'u4 4d rhs in dn&dons b.rwd dem

(Brc&rcn, 1937: Dsu! 1992: bqzi Cioldi 1995;Rqd & D4r, r996j Tun(, 1999) lasroup id.nriti*d shlpd p.ldy by iidividurl p@!c. rid mrivsod individu,l idqdds c tup.d pady by s6!ppi@ss (BE,lN.ll, 19354 BEwq r99lr Hoss &emi 1993; Mznov4 193?; R.ich.r,195; B sim\ 1997; T.jfcl & fthu, t936i Tlrer, 1937). 0r.n

d m'ivalmzi pdrcipLs qill apply b idiidul ft

rhe disriicriEn4s enmiira h8 beer Md.{rd

wi6 morivcs ror .ondnuiry, .fi]c&J,, and etas@m@er*11 lee3: vignol6. chry$chm. &Br:rw.rr, ?000) 5 w.ll ( b.ro,siog, iddusidiw1din smps, 8nd 3ifil{iry b o$ds (B,trh.isEr &

l993ii Siyder & Fofrrii,r 930) rtr facusjns hn on dis rincriv.nK, w hEd inm way ro damls !\e vitd sigiifi.4e of rh.s orh6

Brc:r}.u (1937. r99r) idciriti.d drc FEmintEcflfuds.bdtdrdjsdEiEnsFii.ipl.66'.d'erndebapFsbed'bwfdhodgfuGd*r&f qlluc Lv.li or disincdveK. sddod, disrm

6 ndF( tno ! b6ic horis, inpti.idy EdEins rhaprimipL b

' $bordii& sbs *irhin idq iy Enn

id. Tnid. rIE pdrciplc nisht b. lp4irr b w6h rhdividu,bric curtuB. cib rrrc sNd@ it5a6 dilf'culi ro $ppo'r rh. cdid of r diiimdFc! p'incipL virhour cfttut .min'dotr or M k yi!.@: (') rhc ida otdErclc ofdisdmriktrK vi!\iniddriry pI@,nd {b) .r}.r{d, if m, io *nd

by curM. ri rhi! Micte. w Evi.w crclr is$c in u,n

Tne Rore ot Disris|v.n6s in rd.,rity

r@ or distiquirhing om.lf rrcm orr4 oi borh in-dividsl dd srup ravcts or .etr-cpE$nbrion

(BE:Iw.ll, r935ri tr@, r99t ! Bt!€ & aud..i1996; Codol r93r: F.rrinss. r93i r4:jE, 1974:snydd & Frcnjrir re30; T.jr.t & Tud.i 1936). b,aonpdvdy ftrh cnd hu 3m. inb *_ii.bc d_pri.irry,hy didrcdvdas i! imlotur f, id;dv.yq s q0 d'. rmsqs dmujed ps@rry, ,rx;-p'n€ r di!rindna.s Findph p dnr s tumoawhy dndn.tiv4s $ould be ! sod driq setu utrwis.,Ioftbdion'uEviewdrcA'unfljosudd.I.lying disritrs d@n* or di'incriv.tr s mdivnioo.phbh harc Frhyd disrincriEnd s r sri,l nlua.4 Apet of $lf.nnstuq r tuir.enrd humm!.di 3trd ! baid prcp.ny oI rh. consecdon ofNa

Diii*riv.ms s r socid vrhe

soft di@irb sussen rhd disrin.riv.fts ha aoh in sh,ping idnrny b.eccofiB ssial viluc. Tnisrgutud is inpllcir io qniqEns rh@ry (snyder &FDmldn. t930) rd is had..igtL.ir in id.ndry Fsss

uiiqucEs rh6ry (siyd{ & Fbhr-ii. t930) r!,pdi4d'atdiftdddegesolsinilditybothdft.ncdd n ditfmnr Lvds or eephbiriry. moddEsimirdry bcing !5. m$ erpbble rd v..y hign or\..y low similsiry-rcry tow or v.ry hish disrircdver€s*cins rh. Lsr d.pEbk dromdr h . $iesof studia. soyd.r 4d Fs.*in idu€d f..ling5 orho&EEbdb.similrilyioFrdcipeB.fddiogoovlrsenr.viddft fo, rh. pGiriv. vrlF ofnod(nc

dprdn diEdy why dis.irciiwtras .hotrld bc vrtucdeoding6ft iscwi l i i {p lEfr ,s iyddindFrcmtid3u33scdturd.ptunirnoddt dbynld,vidud difr.ctr@ in nei for hh@Eq but 6cnc.mh did bt add6s thc qurion of qty p.orL

In rh.orizing i cbrioi bdk disdnctivaas hdrcpbbiliry, udquads dFo.y diShr b. !trd.Bro.do te disrindiv.B mriwdd o &lf.*@m hridr.,nmc, drhoush d r ! oor madc .r!ll.iL on. sudy ap

rhis n..'!€Erion. c6rr.Mccuddy. Dd F@nkin o97, ciEd in snydd &Frcmkn l9a0) sar false redbrck ro pdicipshabul d'?n simi|&ily b odtE, Tky i.pofud dd[..dbrk or fodlne simild!] tld b highd Lv.k orcrqlem lha did iishd d tov.r simikiry. th. oL$dd Elarion bdwn disriidvciss ed s.lf.st.m ftghr h. utrdd:@d in Ms or db dnhlal yllEoi distindirr.$. sny*r ,nd Fmbrin dcsib.dhiqud.s a "p4brbly rn intgnl Id ncsx.y pM

!a rh. iodividusl," ddoush rh.y rlso nokj $ar',id

n$ysiM'jds'p<,pl"*dlmrbb.hi{wbltbbesimila ro od'd" (pp 215 216)

Bi.,rndl ( 1937. 19s3, r993) potury.d $. distiictiv.6spnrcipledPlicidydsolfunLw]u..whdis rei6.d rnhin individuds Bmrwdl dsrib"d fotrrid.ndty pnrcipl6 (distindiED6!, codtnuiy, .lri-cey. dd clr-sc.m) dlar suid. !5. i d individu:l

.i,uy<*abli$.d et of aEria 4aid$ *hich 'd.nu!yis m6ucd (,93?,p 107). T]'us. jnerd I rhe dF

dbtidiveHs vil b. curua 3p..ili. UnLik.siydermd Frcnlh ( 1930), who teused erdNiv.ly on ft!

dividul md smup disitrdici.$ nry bc !3luedsi$id$.id.rtityof uEiodiyidurl Hoqev{,ihcc!i

rincriEBr in ..lt cihm.me prearcs lhi m rh.

nas md irs foN a i pdncipL und{rybg d.tutyFcs l@i6 b b. demonshan.mpiri.a[Y

Po6iri€ DisrldintK Ind

11r distinctiv.nc$ prii.iph h{ rlso bei rchdio pmsss ofscf{rdftmnr, in vhEh *ri..{khis rcbiev.d by crbntshiis posriv. distindiveies(Brrkrell t937i se ds AbGh! & Hoss, 1933;wi[s, r99l). studi6 condtr.bd ii Nonh Amndlh3v. show rhd pclple di3phy morc confid.B !bo[rh. &cotry ol sial orpdtons ii whicb d.y d.posinEly didngushcd rrcm orhc6 (J M Schwdz &smith, 1976), papL ovmrimac e uniqcns ol&cn pdirivc nribur* (cupbcl| 1936i T3yb. aBwa lesa), 4 .spc.blly in thrcaE ns 5 atioff, pcopl. pEtu b ohpe ln.o$rks w16 dhdsnod wnom lhcy e posinvely distirctish.d (cckq.Il1ompsod, McGr*, &1977i Hzrniud, 1966), rhhoush simil{ity wnh pGinYalyv3]! .ddhda|s.hdbes63@ided*i lherl€nian..ftnr ($,hed{. r%6) mc akrio. or

i! lunhd sup9or&n by linddss $:r, *hee p6it'Ednddivcnes n d ayljlable, t ople sek o' cucsltmaivc dimmndm or.mpsison (Lemahe. r97a,Lmaine, Kaa6zt in, & Penoin4, r9rs) or try toavoid .did omp{non 4tsly (c.s, Brcekvel.l936bi Bdcknan & Bllnan, 19??)

Ti. qct for p.3iriv. sroup disdidieo.s ha e

*tu thd nay Latu6 or itrblgnp bchrYior e diEEd rory&d 66Dlishing

*idrin inEryoup conpnlo6 (rijf.L t93ri'fajfd &Tumq. 1936, Ttrffi, l97s). r',rlhNsh L\. l}ory isnol.rplicnotrlhispoincomilttpldrdddfwhyP.lnitg6updisti.dircnsisimpofurisih{il

Fllsl.m (AbId & Hosg,1933), md riis inErlEbrion hs b.a doptd *h.sively in rh. $.i,1 idmiity lird,M (c Lons &speas. 199?; Rubin & Hcu$orc, 1993).

Sdirl.dp&ison pr€ssa e undmtood to b.

*lI BE.m ir !5c ds.r i doddr.ly .inilu b on.sll on it. dietuion or omp&ison (Paridsr, 1954,Hrpo66is 3i wills, l99l). n'is mi3lrr help.rplriorhe pr.surc obscfl.d b*&d modcd? Ly.k ofdn.riidiEm: (srydd & Fmmkiq 1930), which Fovidca balan.c b.rvdn difidna and similadry

run*onal for *lr'sten Inc M uounc invoe.vdy difi.nt *lys in which dsiin dvad my cM

valuc of d$riE ircna: iell ti4 disnncnyen* bslf4En; hft, $f . em d ddinn fm p.driv.disriidivem$ on orhq dihdsioN or wluc. Nev6-

An rlten.riye vi.r is di disdmtivass is r turdmcdar ncd jo i6 owi nshL This is asum€d virhdoprim distdivctrds lnory @Fw!r, I99r, r993rlvlrich d.rrs *Fcirlly virh grcup disiicdvms. Op.im,l di!!i!.riv.n*s th..ry prpor6 m mrivdiodalptu.ipl6, 3 i..d ror ".iiiTaadndon or

'h. sdr rom

olh.^.'rndanclnfdr''fuld-'ofn\.s.llinblryIsial collerivd, which re und@@d 6 rcr in oppdirim 6 ach o Er(1993a, p. 3l Oprihd dbdne

r*o n.als. whi.h nomany will be I su@ of modctudNuiclvcids Tnis .xrlriN th. odiliad oktionbdr€n disdi.tiv.'.s and repbbiliry ddcdbcd itr

pendy runcdoN *irh dly nFddd. rm. iot ror in-

d.ory i€ similar to $o!? ol uniqu.i.s rh.ory but

id!d,ri6tion, fr ddinssupponacFs a {id.dg.oraPPIi.d conlqts (B'ew.r &

Pickc(, 1999; Br.w* &Hons, l99q H.nd6(.Kins, H.idcnoo-Kins,

Ho8:s. l999iLE & OGri, t995i L Smoi d,r.

A..odbs b Brcwd ad pi.rtctr ( r9!9), dre neds

no!v6" nrba rl& culual v u.s(p et Brw(1991) d€scdb€d n\. n.g ivd inpticdior. off.iting roecfy$dirrc{uilltMr:'B.inshthlyindividuaredrav6 di. hln{$lc b nohdo! dd stismt'4ion. . . Howu. br,l d.individudion provids b brsi.for .onpmljv. appnnal q eltd.finirion" (p !73).

*!r artut rhc poim drcquilibnunB@Er (leet) cplicidy sp{ared $e n4ds

'Oplimat dNindiv..n4s is ind.p.id.d or !\. evatuarire idprLcr$m org.oqembcBhip',rlnough'dsgd'mgsbcjry4mL

rivc 'deDuries

tr. 473) slpFdins $is. Bcrc.M@i, lnd shaw (leer) elimii&d .ff..6 or srcupsds oi insrcup rrdidsn ror najonry rnd nimarymiiinal sidup! *h.n d).y eusd th.ir pdcipdr.

PdciP.nbshowdnochvoldn for m'nonry $ai najo,i'y iosroups, rsad-

sdch by \llilrii End Encm$ {1996) iob nxioujid.n!n6 noig PolLh ud hrh soden6. Pot.s d+dddgim' ion'r idedi 'y in i .e,dwEruhut

'den!fied$onglyidl@s*i'hcnrcgalivcmriom|dillndiv.nss. Mlicki and ErLm.n neDdd dn as

roudin c.reh inh ide0rry pmcssa atuns Angti.cm pdsh pddb (visnor€ n .r.. 20m) de $e t.ver

rnpdon is r stniticmr pFidor or dcn p.rc.iv.nsnuari'y *i'hin !ubj-d* dentiry sh.hq ark

tod'edigu$ionofdisdndivenssoidE|evelofgmupmcmbenhips, B@ryerandcardm.(r996)dbrded rh.srm logic ro individtrd rd mrelFmid levds of

Io'djfl.cnturioi ad Ninilarioi e. phy.d ouhr se

inrimacy. 'lri.y rsrd addirimely rhd tru6hiion orcilnd od 4otre L$l Eishrled roashifi bdwEn tev

shi8rt rh@el a'd dpiri..t @md !\ad dc sedlu r.fub rs dr disdrcdv.0ds prii.ipte. Diiioc.

dn.s is rmid a r tun'Md r.d hiY.nd hu,nfr d, Esry ior

-[defdiiotr ad d jun r(

ef-ind*fti( ad $. modye ad disincdv.G! ie!&ikd .hpli.dly 6.m 6. @iw td df€b

Diiidi@s .nd Mlrnins

Eldding Brcw4r 091) &counr of dLihcdy+trds s 3 tud@nEl humtr n(n, 3 d.odical r4n.o{! cs b dvd.d rhar disdrcdv.ns ns aBmrial 6L ii $..oBncnon ot r Mirstul id.[.lry ndd 6a b.'ns I speili. propcry of djslr

/reatr,- roy b. defin.d s dE subjerik cnep, oroHdr a r p{son (adlpbd noo Rebd, t935) ed ir,rlr€cforq a fom dr cpEenbrion A trMbt. f.rtuE

prad ro so@E L\e Euing dird' I bun dl him

sl.b aDd '

dslet, e'..'kikd in cun.i r 975, p 24)

'denuty s,@qr '.t m r nusidia." cledly. rhis

nd$cn( npris $d r hzv. somdhins in commiM'n o rc. pcopre who uc. q d*cnbc d.ms.lv* s.nuriciE But.qualy ir implis s distn.lioo fEn

n(i.irm wi$od iu.h I disrhcrian, h rhar 'en$thc na.Ecd would bc maiiigld n d ded.: Mtr

gencrrry, r cbno. hav. 2 sdse df who I n wiihoo asn$ of qho Ld mr, which .nr,ib diriidiy.IK.

ln $s sm. Eii, codor 093r ) 's!cd

tor lh. in,potuG d indiyidual di!'imriv.Es !: i b6i. prcp

'rt r edb obrd $ dfuq bdEu nn 6ff1

iiF*rarPLdcobj4"dm@dturdbe.

isl!]:cd.Gogii@6yIdiiudoIcsir\ddd,ttuttu tr d$.44a4 dt dr| rttd J d

N.ddfu"dB"b0sadtd".adqi""t 'afu-

,E!! u!, {o @d4 @'d6bdrrtur

d!di!l 'snb*diddlrmddEFj6coh prcrdna! s.rt{aqoridioi va noE prdoutrc.d

h' d'is *a mly rh. .ee ir dE .d€drad{ va rFpftndy ftb{stur sFrs md rch o9q ciEd inBrucon$..r ,1., 199) crbin.n d..rfdr od inb-glqll disimidion oa @ipul{itrs rttjt&in3tuli6. df

'niim.rsMp.rbsorizdon. P'r,

ricirts disphy.d idbrs@p disiniDdim dnry LrdE lo* ngningtuin$ mndition, inptyios 6d lnctw.as&ngpolirivcdnrircrivffi . beiv.lroins rorh.8iuF. sog8ed.ouc.su6(c'icEa Ho33. r99;Hogs & Abntr, r993i Mnlrin & Ho8s, 1993, 1999)rl$ drhaizr rhc inptunc of ftmi4 for silri4trdr.

'u336'ins did uncdtin'yftdE iod ftthrb

I .drd dvc turying sLr idendry ptcsssrnsumfr,rr,!*[g'm d.v.lop.!h.EprcpoFs

lenual Dls rd disdncdv{*s itrddblishihg addF.'jarin8 a m.hinstur ssc of id.dty. niis iuuinrsBFftas ( r9l r ) ascniod ihli din@ri,tioi is l@$ery for !.l k ftrinon bur <io* nor conddict rba pft-eding ecounr or in .ci:l v,re of disrincdv.nesad rh. bla of disrircriv.n6 io elr.ohd@d.

com|us|oEAboull|i.Rol.o|Disrinc.ircnds in lddrity Pre

w. hiv. din$.n 6sDhprios !\ar disdndiven*sisin!.furfolideo{rybeswol$.ci,]!rlu.of,risdncrivcEs iBclf, a r nas or sll..ihrcdddeugh sd Mpdisa d a fundamftal hunaicd, rnd * r bsic piopcrty of &lfi.finirion Non?

odrmrins rhe crdor or disrdivrus b pdicul{i{hnrity sdB. 1]16. usxndr h'E ben invo*.d a

Trc hypod4n rhd dis.ircdv.m il inwtud rorid.ndry be,$e or iG bci,l vrre h{ n4 ben ad-

n .n b ,nos lhd difialE* in djc sEurh ordndrctiv.@ horivdion ec aeouotd lor by c ring or.4.dmdhlly indo..d diflft@r in rhe v.lu. ofdstindirids. To rh. b.i or or krowtedsq no sEh re.

bc Erdjvcry s[ sppotundpin.aly *irhinw6€m

pendy k iot.ntiEly &6unbd for by lclf.semmdftnee.ercvidinginelcirseldlfid[6-$mpl iond'atdis l iedvad: isrb6i .pbpdyofnmiogful dIn ndrion, irlFush rhis a$n'tionhs trotb.d 6Gd diddy. Thch@eounrba r rheoEric,l rdvrhs. in @3 of p.ainoi, Tna rcb ordisrif,dircEs ir iddriry Flcds ir crpr,ien i!

coNisEnt wiin ilis, d.v.rdpnsdl *ud6 haE sug

rc. Ery..n/ in Iif. in ssirdotr sirh orh.rdiMsioE of i,cidq @|mn & sd. r$a: kwn &Bmb cin4l99rSh, t935) Fur&mq

'h.rb-&n€ orrhis distincrim is .rpdi.nced s , rd$ dr ntftu Fn. r(mr or psychsii (Apkr. 1933)

^@rdi13 6 codol (l eal ), i' is rlso inponrnr

'llddnddiv.Es b. dsnizd rd.lly l&nrity. inroms of €pafnbdoi

(Mosovici l9s4i Ronftrvcit, 1990), k ior .on

&otrgh rn ns@don of pces{ of p.reprion, cogiitim, dd .dmhuiicdifr, iovorvios e ioerrid! ot$e irdividorl widrin a sshl .nvircrme (Lwis &Bnk.Cib, 1979; M'!dv4 1937: R.itu, r99trrB, pbj€rinc

' snse of dis'rmi€iBi o o'hcA,

Iti. 4h.nr,l$ ctruik 'hicin

diry *ill b. id.Poeditrffihc'ing,mgsitrstrls.is.ofiden'ilyIn

inemrof itsdiiiicriv{6! nomoiep6of fiur{d

compdi$n {irh alEm ve onccpB ol so.ilL adrrd?Mip {old b. l.s s.rur sinirfly, itr dcfiiiison.tid.nlily'u.cm.rpklthsnoidndrcdveiBs*

*ill b. inponar lcodolr93ab) wirhoutdy p.E.iv.d.diiado. bsai srr

N@ 6a( diitimiiv.i.s {ill b! mpotur not onlyd in idiridu, tcv.l of €mpqilon ecodiqs b rik

M$c6'Fns!ltjll.goupidcn'ifua'roNnish'b.@mbinld d r mE b individual disdnc'iyds (8.simon, t99?isdyde&F6mlji, 1930) Seond,id.d.lfiddotrwilhsgstrp*illtrdb.ftfiigftrlifli.group is nd disrinsuirh.d d lll fmm o'bds Orn.ir937) Ev.ndennn4.pFriisrobe.xueftryfclu!kofhh&ddircuYcm.ns.'-{olcrmp]..a

dospdlybdatdsudhharclffomolh**bodo

Aurddhcidc ( 197) 'Mipuhcd

rhe rppdii iutrricaldisdrc'iv.nAsmdngirylulngsolpddcipab.

selr<iEg.ri2dion h 6! of gFup, bs.d otr rh.s.

l€m ar morc g.mnt rnncipl* of huron cprcsnir

LTpofbr. b, ir rhr 'I

d lhe nFrcdel paw!B oudincd h@foE hd ,lmon dl of lhe empincalMK henoEd e of wdh orisin Atdowh rhe

8!ftn! for rh. br. ofdkrintire0Gs id *lfn tuiridn

id.nrity.6rcnr w. disn$ rh. Eciaslidio of ded,$nav.es p'jncior. b non w6&m orrm in de

adinpknor.'pticirrerMof :nof iheecounBisrh{in di&incriv.id! pdncipl. is brl.n.ed vi6 p€s

(siydq & Fbflin, r 93o), i.d4ioi in *d soups(Brcwq r99r), d bctorsins (BumcisEr & 16ry.reer. nide opsinc for.s havc bes undKmn b

$e i$u. al hdv lhe disrii.rivcns piiocipte imdktswit\ odre.ddivrdonsin rh.6!d sdiondrds {rd.

curruE rnd $! DkriDdi!.o6

edLdndivcHsFircip|efightb.nod.ndbycul@,8nd rso. in lhr scne? Br.,**c[ (1937) cr.

6p<'ruy de inp.tu& ftr idh'rly of ;di ddisbd'Er6if rfi rb.sFi6crow.kmdiidividual.

brh@losi$crfi odacsat ( 1975) rmou$av.di

qd{ i dlr rd otud h*g@d ( re!4ub-

edi tr @iqr oi 6c rcddr arrrci (o 13)

'I1. Warh oiapr of pnsoih@d is *bnr.d {i$individu,ldbritrcriv.Bs rnepssoiis,bo!odd.aid'uoquci oor4Ed wi'n o$ds sd !\. soci,l sd

pistr.d in coi.+6 of pqsonhoad obsa.d wirnji1a.d, re75i Mlks &

Kbyzd, 199 L Sh*.d4 & Boum. t934)

Ti. w..&m conapr of!.nor md i ri.! b polni:

(Dmkh.im. t!c3/le6eiLur6. reTr; Mekovr .r ,l..re93r Trilndn, 1991, r e95r Tiiandis, cb{, lha*rkrws. & sinh!, 199t. D.turioB ot indiridu,ji.r

ucmo. rh. o0€pridn otindividurt 6 rubnmoustrtm smpg Gnadk d il., 1995, p.462). Ttr dq3.nc. rd d.y.lop,,4r of idivid!,li,n bs b.o

ue 6 y d.v.ropm ofchrr'i$rryi d.qt@h4r ofdivLdud ptupcry nsht, Rcmk|e nvndon orrhe ptu'in8 pa*, R.fofuiotr rd dle of rib.rd s.cirl prrilosophy (Dunonq 1936: Fd. t9t.Merursq t 9?3i Mrkov{ et,t , 1993). bur individu,rli$ nie ia b(om ! po{srul !trd p6dir. cut_

suEiv.d Ero rhe 1990! wirhin .qhl Ea6pq d4pir

(Mrko!r. r 997i M&lrcvd d 't

. r993)

w*En psy.holqy. shapins borh rh! onE edrtureof meyrh.fts(Fm, r996isDp.{,197?)Forexuplc, ft 'trrn&@nbt auiburioncdbl (Ros.re?7)h{bai,cc.pEda,uaiEBarr.aturcor@oop.r..prion, burin rad iris ricd.l6..ty 64lnpdons dr

.urtuEs (r choi Nisbd! & Nd(E3yan, r999ilchhrisd.lgls Mruer 1934, Mords &p$g.1994)Here'son.hlkd! !d$! lq$lFy.ho|qi lE

oM as r m.hs oaEducins iidividulti3ric bia (Kin &Bdy, r993i Sbph. 1973) Giyo ln. srli.ieordis

ddhd'sircIrvdsrircipl.milhrbcdDddEdbycdEE kms Gembr. tu dr. followins dis.u$ion.ve fdr Bp4ially oi rhc

'4rMr fn Ebriyi,

T,i,.dd 095) advuc.d ii lir d,q ofindividu,ji!6ad @rr*rivhm. vhrch suss56 rhd individud dtsunc!v.B3 pill b.l.s imponMt ed inclBid ejritrsmupsmoanpotutr!tr.onedvjsrdlMdrm jnin.

Tnandk\ orcep| ol@i/.dryAm is daircd mid'tor psychob.hc sudiq compulng Nonh Andi.sand south.sr Aua p.ptrlauons GnandB. t939.r993, r95i Timds d at , 1995, Trisd4 M.cusk.i& Hui, t9m) cou&livisn is efined in oppGidon bindividuatim.rn c.trhl rh.ft ol individustbd i!rh. conc.podn or individusrs s ubnolns fbnsbupq rh. &iu.l tum. ofcouedvijm ir rhe coma,

n.* rh.R! rftounr

epc v.lu.!. hrlivid'. ed ci,l shde Gnbdk cr,1. ls90). According b Triudn (1993). rhe slr isodhedlind.P4dd,nddif.dIf6ndlhd!Ui.dd individu.rism. btrt inEd.p.iddr and $e s,tr {

Triudis (199s) inbgftd rhe corcepts ot iidividurli.n md collsrivism vith oprimal disriicri!.ne$

l4r rhe bri.E bdwcn rh. opposiis ie.Js ror diff.r

ind,viduiisdc dlMs.r This implies L\at cmp 'denini* (hddrmd to b. les dirrer.nriadns ind nqc

includiDs) vill bc mrc ifrpnrdq vhrff individu,lidentiri.s wiu b. l$ ioptu( in collarivisr $an r

imPtu c. or individoal disrincriv€i6s ror ErLdcn.iniotr c- dso smid, & B.nd. 1993)

Evid.nc!torCmscrlruralvsrisrioD

N.iinn Triandis (1995) nor Sni6 rd Boid ( I99:r)

!.njon'Ind.d'c$mh6hlwpnidftd.,d.dloi

rlr znd iden'iry. lhhoush dis rtrd in i$la m'sh' bcuidc6.6dosr.a[]gdNcms{uxmlg$s!|iy(Hein", rihma, Mnkus, & Kibyma r99, anndlr similfdgm.nr abNr sclf-sto ) N.wdrelss.

ald lhe uiibd shrsYlnwlchi, Kuhlm', and strsimod ( 1991) {ouid didallcnrnm, an individtr,ldiff ercrc4 vriabkconc.P.Mlly .4uivrLtri bcolletivisn, vil resa'i*! ortld.d vid' "8.! ror hiqMBs " A[r'dsh rh. d6e

lfu6dsGsoftdoublonlh.authoc'inbPldDnol!\c nldtd oftlations, rlt fi.diig! indist rh. prcsre or sysh*ic diff.Etrc* io $e.odoeded or

accounEd fs by aspoid.trts oltunl brkgdtrndsMranwhir.. Trisdis cr al. (1990) fo!nd 6d cp!.d.o6ftomchinsadAsa6[l69[H,{'ipdclcdm.mb.B of $w qroup ro bc m( similr ro errroEnhlmcmbdoiaimgco|oulgloupsznrPpff.n'

rcvdrloln\.Nlguphomog.eitycfie|wnidhsb-n comcctld dr!@,tc,(y b dE mrivdon fd individual disdndiv.ns (BEwer, leelb). HN.v6. in$cn 3odr. pdi.ipd6 nrd iigolps ad ou.gsursbs.tn.r, r ondidon h whi.n d. dfc. hd betr ot$a.d dsc*h* bbe.ndiclEdd,iqh rhcdivrdonof.o inrersnp compddrc cmExt (Hard, orl4.Tomq. & Mccdy, 1995) FuiletmE ludgn nc

hrshr impry a judsmmr of sep ohGircd*. rad)4rh.n simildry in k'its d,uirud6 s in m$ Ndia ofp.ftiv.diomgtr.iry(..g., rud4 Rym,& Pd*, reer:Pa* & Rollibd, le32) Bod or d6. sNdi.3 mishr be

individual distindivends (( its opp6i'., insnup ho-moscEity). vhich k no. re*Iily Fhid b d. h'pocrce of dislimrivrBs fd idcdiry. the* Bds

v:luc rsumcft dcsnb.d cdi.r, bur dEy havc d

or posidv. disrindivdcs 6 a sr&s, or &lr-.n.henanenr Rsuch .ondrcbd ii ,:!m s.tredlly haf'ild b cpli.t rh. Bulb ot w.:h sNdies orslr.nh3n€n.nr (H.in .. rr.I99) T,r:b (1937)foudln{.'aPsd.pMicipbBfttrmoFr:dyba.cfl riiluA rnan succcses h stul conpuison.

'vhire Mdas and Kibyma ( l eel ) rcporud a $udy Li

vhich rh.y Ednad dE rd*$iqkis biss(c.mpb.ll. 1936) found i@ig U S, bur iot motre

oisbr.ntwirhriiadis\(1ee5)disd$ionof distincriv.rcs. Hovdd, Hcinc and r.hmm (ree7) EpotudDnllel sos{ultu$l difld.ica b.tued ctdMmd ilpms pdicipa0b jn bo$ self-&flinc ,id

ad $e; sMp! r 3igniacddy tlft Fsirircly diJ3pre pdiciputs TtN,

crc${uloral dificafd in slr.nhreftnt cMdb. rccouded forby i shiirin dphais liob individtr'lro sEup id.n'idd *h.n navins rm idividur.list bcollativi* .ultud n* rmdings qrccion L\edcs.ultunl g.mality or rhe tunction ol dttin.dv.

egurcnr .bour di$inciiv.Es ed @nins, whichspmincally rbc dar disincriv.ms is impona! fqidctrLiry iidcp..dddy or :.lr.sen

Indig.nous P.dP.divB otr

Tnmdkt 09!3, 1995) potuFl or.o[erivbmhc nor al*&ys b..n eboed wirhin d'c

'.digcmB psy.

chologies ormotunshs clssirk! s .o{.crii. T!.'

d6.dbe!dEnovnorM.in€rmsof mo .ididnmphGizingEblidlhlpsb.l*qdislindndividu

rugi!9ibdi, 1994: i(im, I994i Yuki a 8awcr, t999).Kib (1994) disriicri,h.d udig rhe ndds of

cdrLdivism, iirclving dir'rdcnr Epa*Mnms or ln.d'iim bes.o i.divd$l bd sroup ne kdrional

dwnanund noa., entftnz.d ht . 6n znd .r.

su 8btrp bddei*'(p. rr) rne zhri,rqt aod. i5.h:rc6ri2.d by "poro$ budad4b.N..n in gnuptumb€( lnd .llov $ouah6, id4, ad doiors ofiov aely,' sd ,{Ess oi . cklonship shar.dry sc n,soup mnb6" (p. t4) rnc .,?ntrztr4

Kim (t994) qucd rhd rtrc etariooat and .odn.rene bodd e geierlly e!rc$dhrivc ot sou$.Nasim dltuB (€ also chds & re, 2000; s c.choi, xin. & choi, l99li H,masu.hi 1935: Ho,i9931 L.bra, I992i silna & Tdprdi. 199.1). bd 6ssr'odes fEqudny c nisbrd for rh. utrdifrfttu{cd

(rnmnz. 197611977) rxdnioid Af,ic,i (3c €.l930iMr A Scha.mne, 199?). x pdfic tsknd(whiE & Knkpad.k, 193s).ulsrs, md roros otuhe

(Abu.Lu3hod. 1935) ad MorR!! (cestr. r97t

Id66rinsry. Yuki md Brcw.as (t999r rcs.Kh

m'ia.d biglrrbe nu..hdeeis'i. dfNonh and.

onb4kd d s rpa!.dnioi wid a mod.lor ue

,pp.*8 b b morc .h{4dcri. dfhpan. as w.[ d

shks.This ifr pri.s rhd rlihdi5t (19s5)predicuoN

nLsppl'atioi ofa Nonh Amftilu mrcefl otsrcup

R.l..ioml rorns or Dis.incriyends

Mhyl'digdNsddT$bp.losLalpofulyd5of

try oi dEnariv. f(,B of disriodi.iBs ro w6tr{

rdi s 'nrad.Fod4r

wirh oih{s ard pfr of a srcacr

{hoL'butfindce'involv.d€nyingdtvrl'EddE

disdidilcrcs tuy b. daiv.d .x/r.idy rmb I ;bn r re,iion uid'ii!.6d d d6Gidvn nDc;r

cru ( 1996) dodb.d a Confucie \&Ehdiru orFlmdod:,self .. ndefincdbyip.Mn 5ffiDnd;rehioq *hich orM m deriv.d Eon tituhip h4

p'cry, iorrrry, dEniry,4d inbsnry" (p. 33). Trti: d.n

\@nd.d" hdivdtrat. Accodins ro cs. $e chin4.$n 'id: ro bc ErydEd, d.ruEd, rnd omDtddby od'c" (p. 34). Ho*.v.i undd confuciuisb, peosdry drcush al'doNhips *idr odt6 do @DL d.-finc d.mElvd as irdridu,lr: "widod;dEs. dE

*ds rctd'u ro *[ and idedny su@d rhis und{lb0dfg Ttre chires vo'd for .p.M. u4 n pn.fr{(y rsdrd wid' .lne pte ot rh. iidivrduat in iweb or inEad.dnrlEkriotrsbip. (Hsu,1935,p rj).a0d ieil.,, or 'jd$o'y, is ,ko esiard *id \p.noit .er.t .pt*- (Ho, lee3, p 256). M.e.ehiL. tie ,rpan* Eft ld !ell.,./n;4, is a com,

rrurion" (rrbra. t976, p 6?).Tr. coch.tio' or disrtncriy4Bs ii l.m of s

cd ponrion is nor speific b souln.a! Asian cultuqvedondd ( r997) de$.ihd urc sisnmsrcc of to.d

PDqda bod b.hsidg 4d dGri'd€r6 h cmoi *rroissidqho Btro ' pMorrhepr&c rp.Dt)afupph'lg||dd'dundd[g!(|umuyonoGd

rar r 1 pedcura smsnphy. but in r e. of kh adi4nbou*'(p r4)

an .rM. .rbple or Ekriod,r orid4ion n inG.et 0 97t ddftiprid or Bdin* cultuq sh.rrhe p.notr n .mshd s rhe Empo6'y dupcnr ofa

c4ion or idiyidud disridircEs, n ir puiEly dr@Ffurc. 0icial psitim rddif|ffiIilh oE indkidur ftom adncr As,in, dkrincriv.ms @eshom dE\ pLc wirhii sbt rcldiom ndj6 lnmfrom bound.dres or uniqlen*:

Arrldsh $e pEviody rcviavcd .vidlE is con,sncnr*irh rhc iEpotuccof indiyidu,ldilnrcdvenssior dcdiry *idriilhourd dd6s posibL.iepdoft ro rhis nL. w. dk.cu$ h@ Hot o99t dptddrjon ot kf bd id.trriBwid'ii dr phitsophhal [d rctci.s rysbffi ofT;

srch in'o dtr dndE ion bd@n sarFc and horisricfoms of

'ndelr (1. Choi, Nnbc( & Smi$. r 99?)

aeo'diis b Ho ocet, rmis, Buddhism. ad

rcgdqdE&ll{fuerrb.uliary,wi'hiiT,oif.lhlsodijh3lnny*i'hmM*id]ol"n:ldngdistin}tionr'(p I2l ). asordins b tsrenm, de ruton orindividuaEd e(hod md e oydo@ b E,li& tNhe s.lt Ahd (hrtspinaqblo3icrre[ty ofde s|f albsedH Trrae d'e ta

n4, 3I ol *hd ft +Posd 6 d fu8atrd sndistincdvaG i5 o4s'.y b khicr Ming ji id.n

'LyHowdd'ln.Fychologi:alEdradonofd's.loms or ceh radLrion bu rcEn ${ rcrl lilc i som..*hddffcg'sci@nli.*.mhiire'JIcely.blogici ihpl.itio6 or dopting ln*. philosph,es d Ln its

*nsdss 6n only b< &htd drdgh tu mis.rtl.ne orFdiinry co@p6 oa self ed iidi!idud dn

&lnyofll.sfimplicidyrk'owkdg.s'E[6ycbo.bsicar Elny Buddhili and V.di. n.dirdion @hniqu6. wnich involv.boun&i* o.lihind. $|f-s$idsi4s (de silv4l99li Otr Johnson. Zmmsmu, a Hslkiq rger).

cd.d by ries. ulnidoro 4ighl e aon.d.d *irh the

doniddcd'f,lydchod6oldEughI{phsiz-ing ctusdisl distudions bevq .ledra (tu*..Kihybq Malos, & Nnbdr 1993: P.ns & NGbctr1999) Rsdch cdddbd by I O'oi.r d. (l c9?) sug

s6b rhd An*iaB uc cdesdiel dGdtrrions in in

doubr on d. senediV ol d? inPtuc. of dkdoc

If m?mbcB or ed Asid clltuc ecMally lre k$

riva.s, $a d'is mishr bc crp<cd b apPry m deucpaardions of d€ffd!6 Hoecv& wbci dreirHonins 6k conmcd .!r.gon* or p.opl., L cboiet rl fdnd rh. opporit .lfd: Kdrcris isd cr.sori

should not 'nd

rht ondirioi is dor rclevanr ro iden

6i! ?ffd *a inder.r.d spc.ilidlly ii l.ms or th.

6'r rrdoMuy on4Ed prniciprB xdld b. fdrensiriv. rhd individu,rkdc pdicipd6 b di'dnc-

D.nniog rh. Bourdri6 ol Curto.d

specifi.ity pdid3ry.4rs.d by Brcrkadt o93?)a0d enpli6.din rfiewo . orTdsddi! ( r99r. t995),rh.

tur sea. ofid.rtiry wi$in ionindividurtbdc {Itutr.

rhrcqh a&mp6 b ehicv. snsnes, bur .v.n rhis

ri otr uiiquo6! ird hnd.di& sinin ln. warhoep( otp-.m" (c€.€, le75). under rclational ori.iEtion'distincdYossaPPctsbhav.froEtodoryid, oocs posriotr wirhio *i,r ahdonshipc afldciiclh.signifi.scolsialplecwidiith.chircs.orccprorkr(Ho leer) Hcrq a po$'hlc apprc(h

ncd dirfercrrry rrcs curo!6 (FBkc .r ar, 1993)

Miv.fi5rlriiciplcguiditrgiddirypffisA.b$'b.

beinh* y edi:bl. lcrc$.ulr'B.

NcdrggmdngfrciJyitrgdlfunlditr.Mc6'Aconmon n\.m in scNn6 iEplicidy or *plicitlydslins wirh cuxural .onc.?iion. of ..ll b rhc a.d-ion $d rhd! o6hc6 @risr bd vary @nridarbly

rwn gopd (Hiiue & Bsu. I90; r.ftdiaioldi,1995) md b.oen hdividuah (audyku$ .r al..1996r Tiilnds d :l . 1995) wi'nin cdLu!6 vddrcoirlso baye b*n obserlld vi$ir iodividusk io dr

mdiog io sisl o .xt (chahm & Bsadq lee5;leea), physicd slmundirys

(sp.u.r, Lyons, &-rwigsetsPs] Ieee), Lvel or$lr-lac.ndiotr (crd&r, GabftL & lu, leee),dinercnt idenrirrarims (Rqlo, Allik, & vadi leeT).md the cueins of culbral tm.s (Hdns, chiu, &Ktrog. t997: Hoi8, Mortt. o'iu, & B.n.!Mdlne,lee). Fuihcdrc, si€i th. srcn! h.ds bwndslobeliadonorcommunic.nonrcrworksandin a.

lod nstuon (Hm3ns & xempcn, 193). Erddns b _curMc a disfl.E.ndd.! in rhe hdniond

ad rtuiciry & nor $. onry yays b oFnrion&tn.

rtr rhk Mi.te, we sct otr! ro .xeine red issu6: (r)rhe peik 61" of disrii.tivdc$ *ihin id.diry prccus, and (b) vh.rhd dd. 1r so, b whd

sw.ftd (a) dar, { 16r $rhin wesrflr culturcs. dis..nd'reies aptsm ro h!v. ! fund.nan'l 6k itr $cq$ructiotr or n€nms *i$in i& ry, aid (b) rhdd. dstrcriys0csptuoph. ftus rhconrd, is nor h.

vid.d drd drrtuavn$J n undsbod suffl.n;rybrudly o ii.lud. Elnionatry onendl s *.ll a Lndi

H&vilE dclhvirh rhcaa n$*, *s nor tun b a ror

Pr a psvsivc human nolldioi erisr ro *c

pre *ayr, uansdiftisioi! of posirioi, dirfer.ft., ed apdcrcs oi bdd mdiridurt aid

Pr a soucs of disdn.dy.nes, p.sidon. ditrd

bur yuy ii rh.ir .v,itabifiy. rc.sibitiry, sd

fic P6.ft! orr Morir tor

h jdddry favu.d rh. inElpEhrion rhd distid.r(i6sisrbsi.ncsi|yio|lheconshdionofms-

Brwr ( r99l ) aid codol ( l93l ) rhar r 244qv. /t,

run tunvh q$t ta w. turtt a dijrtu,||hith dt,iv lhh thz hpadarc. ol dktirttiwstn m.Mdtfqt y4 d.r1aiion

tna|'ungdistiidiveHstogfd.linition*iihinrrr prcpciridn, *a e di.@iD[ Nelv* .rpLiddvfton d'. posirim d{ dhdn dv ds k id6dn dr;d asucor$ll3r-m thisi.idbd;yd di'.

cuhs6c* (Brcartrn, le37i cfrd€f, lr7:.ivi[s.r99D Hokvri w ru3s6r lhd dE p,ibry turcrj.nor tr disrircriv.c! pnncipr. ir ar r m@ bsi. r.vd

*e do @ 3uss6r rhd disdmdu* is dE dly impotut dftdon of fehs widii id4rig on 6.conu{y, sihirdry is cldly inpotb h rhB cpcd(c-dor 1934h; F6nq.r, tqs), 5 is $tu fom of

Momyd k do rcr ak 64 rbc ditiocnYen4sefu. ie|c i5G*sddyuiv 'sar 'dd gh*.cq.bfLy*pdrnbbepflaiYalilinldtrglh.Pitrciphro pddss of ser.d.tinirion, i i3 posjbh ro .p4iryrh:r rh. pnrciple lill be in oFndm{d drc En ot

lods bRei com.pb ro rcpEbr *irl ddii4 (sl cnoi .r .t . 1997). atrh@o ihicioiig such a ft.curcm. is diaarcolr, b $. unrik.ty.v.d 6r rlis s

rn6, ir ispdiced rh&hmbe6otbo$ individual-Bdc andGtariodaly fr;nEd culdn* yillbenotivfud

rhn odd 8strF borh osiiiidy .d beblviq'tyTbis mdve c nar.quaEd vilh clf{Em mj.r,

ircn* c d!!aE&d tr roshEn ]hs pdicrimshe. @r .upp.d by Fsfth @ddu.cd itr E@p.

(Bu:coob. er sl.. r99,BEark , t9364 Br*s at ,t. t99r; Brcw &P'ckc[ 1999; Codol, 19344 l93?isdmry a Hoss,r999r Jdri. Stsu, & M@r.:n. l99i r.y6s d rt.,r99?, Mricki &E[.m.B, t996, L Simoier,l, 1997;siyd( & Frchrir, re30r vignotd er d.. 2!r.o. Hdw-cver, rir'ncr Esdh is o..dd b Ln$.,c pr.dicriors

rEn disriidiveG$ ad ro.itrs itr elr-d.linition.whch 6 . endl armprion ofu rdir

11,cpl€.lrsdis.udonof id4riryaddnrim[ven 5 scms .utdrcs hs hishlishr.d rh. mpotu@ of

pre uys i. *hch psc. a abL bdiff.MtuE !\.mldlvd fFd .ach oln.r wirhin a Ei!.o codqr H.n€. P2

*cts, uh1dircNiM.ho:i'iar, din |ru,ar.tkpoMt u bath i^dirt4eL ana yry kwk. tt .rNd:of dndn.iiva.*rpc.,rpcBol&.(k.ionrhip h.Men $lr rnd cthds d nry bc cmph!

Df?zE cf<s b dndm'iEns in wha' re p3r€iv.d b b. iorin.ic qu'lni6 or

'n" individuar. sh a

for ndb.BhiFrfr eimpL, mo( d.up,iiofi E-quiE som. ddmshdd or kndwh4. o, lbiliry bcfoc ndb.rship is gtut J< tbnugb pJc$d orsirl ctusdiztim (oarB, Hdlm. & Turcs. l99airutr, le37) P.ap'ims or diff.Ene ha. b-nn.asur.!difuiejld'bdnvdafrsod*fd

no!ftity, dfuotu*q ed * d Gg. F6nljn,r97?; g'rhiu.q l966iHslm.t al.. l99si H.ine &

kyds d d , 1997, tur & Rde( 1931 Tdm.

bound.d iidividsl (Garu. r9'rl) scprMn*s d'

d ' .msipdidmofphysi .d

vry (spcller er rl.. 1999), or rhFlgh dre urc of sym-bolic boutrd{ica' ,Uch 6 , ehgbs t.dd ganng

.ic'td,ndprctan.(artdDukh.in, lel?rlels) seF

rion s d6Ed @omdlid. rrcidios 6trMr eirh trddutidc qadd rnd $us codbining bodi physicd sd

itrb id.nd,y Howdd. n ms ffcmn3 'o

d. $bi.$tile vduc or individudl sdps*c*$ dn b. touod in

rivism (e s., rn.0dis. lee5r rdandn d al lee5)

orieobion w]lft .cp{arco6, upriiiy iovo!.sInc i.3rdoi ol rclarioiships. ln. .oicpr or posirion

shcEd'ntmlofpdiuon

c. d6 ior enru rh"r I E€sdry feel dilldnr or

c4s ru*m individu,l vidil ft inEQenonzr Fi,kd ofEy fioiy riE4Dup diiilctio$ aho my b.o6hcd in r@ of Fsrim Mhy snup idcndndsrril peidlr rckijmsniF widr odd sbup6 ks.,krch.B ed stud.dE {h.bs 4d pari.Db, strp?od3of orpGins too'b.rr Em). In o!4riodl m, pci-rioi r

' .dnpLr .on.tu4 which bay inFrporE

odcepB or rcL (Hodrd, 1933, sryk4, t937), mi,l

"dus c,cnzi cioldi, lees), hd p6id.$ wihid nr

dgbup rckdoB, vhid hay. be{ hddrdd clE.yhft a rhc ourcdtr of id.trdry prccqs but mryaho contibute ro tie psycholosisl n hiig or gb$ldeGdEs (rajr.r & rh.i re36).

Poiirior, ,rilfeMc?, dd s?praEn$ may nor b.rrDcrionant ind+codcdrof@h o$.r, bur !\.y e ind.p.!dc .oi..pb ii d. stu. rha! rh.y .d b. d?

tu .odh.tidi ol disridikld :ftog p{ihpd.*s (vismLs, r00q vigml4, chryschm, &Brc.k*dl 1999) E&h Fricipmr go.mEd a Fncs

"\1ro an I? lard Kuhtr & McPdhnd, re54). d'..

rd vnh pdsi'bo. dircr.R.. and $p&abrc* in pu

sub*uti.l ooEiburiotr b nE disnnclivd.anriosisosvd, $. impdddc. or di.tiis*hirs bong

dirrffir inpliceions tu idciriry ud behryior. Tncconshdio0 ad prcjerion of . IMningtul sns oIidennty h rms of po5irion, difi*ne, or .auEn4! will bc *so.irn wih u dphai. on difffttrtapabdlid.nlilywilhin.dnc.fitidmddiff.En'

bL o. hd di3ridiv. pdirid by conroming b rcl.

conromiryi : pem0 frod on scpqra&i?* tnmodd r . siv.i rioarioi hey imply *itndnw rrcmdrc:ifunioiciliuFychologic,lyeph}siglly'

bul abo pctuin ro 3rcup

b€itrg noE disdocn{ (BEw-, teelr Drwd &Fnkca, 1999! B. Sibor & Brcwn, r93?, B shoi drr., IeeT) Th. distiicrirEs pin.ipt. may Frsh bvd ertrp darimdvss fo! sv.nt Eaon. Mcrep6pr. c&goriz. rh.nsrEs in

'cms of , sli.nt

srcup mcmh.rship, d! n.dnsfutoAs or idendry wilt

which rcss in pd on gotrP dBri0ctiv.iss (orks dd., re94: Thq, 1937). rb*ey.r, ..tf dr.soriz{bn

poritirly lom dE bsi to' sr@p m.mbashios (tsim( 1997) 'r s, ?vfl *herc rhe srcuf l€rct ot!.|k.prc9nhlion k iot ldjcd' 3rcW dnndi!.ng$mysdidpqtsntdih.nsioniirhgconshcdonof a

we shold s6s 6i!a sinsle dp.d of id{ury mnybe dndncri€ in r.ms 0f moE rhrn on. sDkc ind on

icis in rms or individr,t drf.rcre (e g . o6q pco

pGirifl (e s , I havc I pmcuhr rlarioi3hip *idr myrudi@e 6 I F.om.4. Mor.ow!, p.optc my d*ivecistindiv.n4s ii diirdhhlays f'on d.em id{r irMillrdkll99t$trdyof hov irs rcprndrdb..

sioml di:riidivci.*. sa6ms srcup lelct diffecice,

ins ln.n iodtridmr positid {nhin itue|psoial ah.

id.nrid{ cf D.au, tu4 Miznhi. & Dnicr, r99taddSh difr.Enr id€trridB nry r*id. dirrcEd op.pomnidB fdi ehi.ving disriidivcB!, oram is norb ea.go+c id.itiria bu @ demonsrak d.! muxipt.elys .rar in *hich a s.k of drdmivcms nay bc

vidB.ltcosh.rddf ht orbsrdisrimrivd.s. ddr(da teritrg rh* diroBiod 6 iirinsi. pro!.nis of

tunponernpL.arionof disdngunhinsbdwenmurripre ways or.o.j'ruc'jn,! r snsd ofdisdncrirc

rion (BEv?r & Gard0sr, 1996) o! brv.ei soocs of

nsht b. d@nu{.d dircdly by .mphai,iog di$imi-r&ity ftom orh.i! (€rcnkin, 1972r L simon er rr,

1997) or idddy by.dFhatins individ@l $prn1...*fmolh6.b'ilcl6iigid4dliotidnsilhiumsicdry dbrircuys grcu!6 (cr Brwq & pi.kd!199), or by ssasins ir rrssnup dierimiddoo ct!kn.r:1., t999).AnincGdnsillusrarionof rh.incryhy er@ con:hcdon. ot dilrircrivdBs isspdl4 4

'r.t ( r99) B.rb inb dE .nl@.d ftlo_

ddon dra uadLrionsl Ensti$.orj.iioiDs mudio.Bdm rl6aim, a shns a6.otb.lo,!i4 h .vid.nr in whi.h Eoup disrircdrns ws ddiv.d frcmtu uniqud& of rh. comduniry (srcup diff.dc)

rionships *ilhi dE .o6nhiry (individut psidm).aoecy4 rh. n.e .nyiE0nsd uid.mired b.d1 dreuilqucod of rh. .omuiny .nd rhe ,slarionships in

ras, rcw sisN Dr difi?rcnriarion b.gro b endsc inrh. nw $uir8 a nay vrrrlds inc.*d 6.r pdysy (itrdividd sp{ah6t ed pcnomrizd d'.nhous *irh.olofful ?rEmrl ddfrdoN (itrdividu:r

Disringuishins uong p6i!ion, dififttrc. sd *p.

and opcndoor de.midon ot dGrindiv.rc $a pft.v,ouiy {s :yairabk Md hishrEhNha wa. rin8. orcognitivebdblhivjonlotond'idmigbtb.:l-|edby!\gdis'indivsGp'jrcie|.dce4dm!m

n*dedbi iva' jga. ingeddePdldEabt6whi.h diflcrcdr ois@dions ol dkrii.rivdBs recomphn4wy in sldsrying ft disrimdvfts pdnci

a! disriidioi hds sm* of dltin.ri€Hs isrcbd d.odicrlly b cuttunl v&iarions ib iidividu.aldic md rrdiooal onenhtiotr!, bur $e disriburiondi rhd. odetrhrios rrc$ dlbc i fr rtun ckacr, wid oaidenbl. vridim wilnin.uldcs u rctasfud3'o{adglobalrzdionblfiitrg'r'.bdiddi.3bdwen .l|!res H.f,c., P3 L rn4. ar u A ddr.tind'y,tu*, Ninan a$,44q ad :.t ud.Es a-4tr twikhryt lE'bdvcrynth.nowi lab|Li l , 'a<]Nibitiry u'ttatu qu)rdins4 clLt!,. a,a nn.

we arnady h&. Eknowt.ds.d sc availrbihy orp.sirioi as a souc ol dilqncnv.Es vnnin wdrm

{dmmyfurgrupElaioisliP''sinilaiy'v.*.

$uiss or disrirlcriv.m* in rclado.5ly on.nld cutMs sodi.s inb $rf.p.cprion (c.!rin3, 1939),

cusl ituibution (L choi a d. lee). rolk psycholo8y(s.c. orci. Kim. &choi. l99l;Eonqucz. I993),md indisenou. d@n6 dr pdson'liry (Y'ig. 1997)show Er ffibs ol sNih.ar Asia0 cuxuA malcdi.positionrr inftrcncd abouihemelG bd oheB,.ndilins dE avd$ilig dr ditrftic s a ffia ordLiiftiv.n*, d'noqh inrftncs &. ofr.0 ried b

sour€ ofdhtiicriEn*s is hader b Acnain lndivd.

of aldiond ori{E ion (Ho. r99rl o. se o$d h3nd

mighr bc unds$md a a &pud. gbup r hpxi.*hiL *Fcb of $. cdr !y!bd mishr bc sei a r

'?uch is ned.d b dcEmiE rhcdd 6.* and ods

bouideL.s re Frc.iv?d in th. or spaatiesA sigDilEfl rc$lr or deolnins disrincdvenes b

!5{ rh. 4uneds or Triadk ( 1995) sd Smirh sdBdid ( 193) m1y b. Ec!alu!'.d. Rsd's $an hypoth.sinng. shift lmm iidividml6 srcup idcnuty whcnmviog rrcm we$.m to ENEn cd'trc5. troNLig r

nss ftr slf.d.liiiridi, wc susgdr rh{ indMdud dB.

achnv.d in difldnr w.y! &@dDg to bod cfirc

Eycn if pdidon. dift.r.ia, rnd spd*sies {c

.nc.s if, scial oq.oizarioi. cultunl vdidions ii

ins pa(m. *o*, ed rcltioi G& F skc d 'r

.lees; r;mdis, lee5) ,lt nay be.rpecd e aile,

Avrikbilny or ln. sdu(* will .ls Bry wirhin .DLtud kcording to coftrl Io 5om coocrc (c g.,fsily neeringt, po,niod will b. noa a*ilabL.*h.rca in 06?6 G s . public .rdinarioot. d1ff..4c. and cpant ncs will b. .mdN-d Also

ctuoni. .isng.s in $e avail.bilny of diflErcri loft(ot dtriicnv.n.s (spcllc. d ,! . r999)

s.cond. culunl asumptio6 ibour pdsonhood andselfiood (Fsk..t rl , t993rMaJ*N & Kibyama, 199l)virl rff.d rh. dgnirilc a(,*irir;r, or ihc rhcsuc. when conshcrins a $nE of dsdnclycons

id.Fnd.d s.lf oNh{ pEBled in indNidudllc

rcrdcFndenr &lfsnlhrl prddcd ii ahdonarly

ofFconhood,l& h,r b.d ihovn to v3rr widin cul.rm3 rco'diig roconcxq borh in naMsl erli43 (Hor.rmd & xipnis, 1994) dd u3iig rubrr. .xpdi'MklmeiptrrriG (G,idnn d,1., 1999i Hongetrl., 1999)PrclimimJy $ppd ror rl'. impmn€ orslf<{shr! coru. 6om @ Es.eh *irh prishpdlss. DelPir pdi.irdinc in ! elNE ffiillyd!*d a individtr,listic(unibd Kjnsdoh), rhe pdes6show.d sroasly idterdependdt dr{ois@b. oldre

.dphdid6p..i y dndmdvods in l.mr of rhcir

idenriria (vignor6 cr :r., reee).Irlld, css cdudl difidn.d id vrltr* (s ts

s chwdz. 1994) will ilLd $. subj..riva kr!. oI p.

ldiwncs For crmplq .u1tu6 empbaizids d.!alu? of rchlidlrip. si[ b. lds likely b vrlu. scpr

sizingdt.wlueofindiidljdbnonynichtb.leslik ly ro value Fsitiod, idd .trxurcs .mph*izif,s soci.]olddmightb.l.slj*elybv:lwdjfffti€.Fol-lowitrg rhe E.ou oldilnodisnBs a r sirr $rue,on. ddonrbly nighr sum. d'ar rh. sid valuc of

rd sp.en.s, d?n subjariv. vrlu. a sdrc6 ordiinncnw!.$ hos lrely llso will v,ry subsenri.llywi,hio .ulturs. s. H. schldz and Billky 0990)

isric d rcleioial valus i! *tritivc b rudipuhrionsol $rf..o*hrl. (Gaidw a

'1, 1999) ed olbrd

Fohll of rh* rcMN w nor only ep... lll{dif

$r.dcliniri( in individqrlisric cultua, shcs Po.si,ion willb. moE inpdd in ElrnmUy ona6doltus, but ws:ls prdid rhd ln. clniv..mphri3on posidon. diff.arc., d cpmi.Dds in shaPidgE(n.finition *itl ury systndi4lly *i$itr or@3egoldiogb$cconrexfua|3vai|ability.{!.$ibiliry.$d$]tr.ol.ebsorc. nr6. d. usc ofdLtiisuish

to rhe crpkiaiotr olcueculNdl diff.rciA

An impo@r i.$. rd ruind d.velopen( i3 inedi*incdvm.* primiplc ed*i 'nhid. i t i lydynDics

(Brcrly.rr. r93?i Vigiola d il , 2000). Tne dlc of

d.onzins Ehrioc bcM.n m$ipl. mdivdids hbb..i .@pririd by oprimat dndrcivercs $6ry(Brcwci 19l) P4n 6drr4' tra.ta'lErPus tuv at t tu inpLtatn,L, tu, th. ,tusdp\ or

'IIc rltr . soucs rpp.& b hdd ysy diff..nr im-pri.rrions for rh. Ehrion b.r*&i dillcndarion ,ndiid$ion nad!, tr rheoried wirhin opdtul dsrincdv.nd rhcory wid,h Brtrrs (199t) hd"t,dis

:€ a ck{ opposiriotr bcw..n rh. i.ds rordifi.rnri

3bup, ft ffi diffEdi:rion. wi$i! ou Fspcdir.oi rhe individud levd or Erf.Ep€&ihrion. rh. o$o.

tuence ed sepricnc$. Dift4rcc r opposd {$

'my or bbigii€ (corBpotrdi03 b d. idMdurl

ad inldp:Mdal levekcudner lee6) HoyeEr, pcirioi roy slsry notivB fdr d,ft.tutilnon and inctusion simrtan@dy

srk rrcm ou study of prnh pdcar(vjgiolci ?omlvisnorca ct 3r. 1999)."rr'nomI?'6k.lhoaibfu'hdd)epdes5sso.i.

wlErc dislinc,iv.K wa onshcrd ii Ims orpar

wh gEup id.iuud 1€ Fprc$ibd 6 ioE pem0alddimsnips Ga M l{!d, 1995), rhe situldon ir Fychoroddry dE 58. a roi e idividk .rcr, ddd. !4 p'rdicdo$ c b€ srlfbd ro iotd. on ri.orhr hand, wh.a $. sroup ietr b srtieor. prcdi.rims my b. coNidd,b,y moE cohptd. d.pcdinso! bdh rhe rl.rimship bd*on insroup rnd oursmuped rh. Ehriddrrio berwen ncnba wtrhi rhe

mdt L ma bo'h lirhr $. siNp ed vrhm 'h.

in

subjediv. uDdd$idi@ of bo'h vidii.gmup and

s&h a sirudion wirr bc complicai.d furd.r by rh.

for conritruiry, efficry. ed s?tf<*en (Ei.*wdl,1993: visnol6.r ar.,20m) Tnc itu.n krioiships b!.

twen tusc pnmDls nishr wdl bc. tutrcdd ofcm-Extual6mhinr. ro$d rha n.Gs y bciis inrin-sc b s. pm.iplas rhmalc. For .rmpr4 *. c&

ld|tsEn pnrcipks *in d.p.nd o d* wlirebilirvofFiriv. diNdncdv.ns of *h ffio e ed s 6c

rhems.rv6 ftis is illusElEd by Brc*ecltr o936b).xplmdionftrd.,PPentabkEcoldilidiyerc$ndl iummoi8rgdPolmDployldyomglobcn oo a go€mmnr rdiins pmstu. Flr lb&won.i, sh. tusrd. disuncriv.es skitrs *duu in

{ou|dcE4.anoppositiodgilhih.drcsbEFitrci.

rddr molv3toB (d de[ in&lniood+s videach o'hn) b dr. sh.ping or deon.y pc*s sM s.ciar bchrvior wibi ! srvetr onbi! rh. subjadv.men4 or idenriiies, smF. dd inr.qoup rlrrjotr

&ki|'fodsingddrryeihbili'yof$ureofdisrinc'ir!6s nd $. opp.ndins :fford.d fd sdsfy.

Con r6ioc

h $mdq, w esue h.Ein 6d rh. diiincrivcrcs Fnflpr hs r ruidamenEl rct. in qhblishinsMing in idodry. viridh ds nor appar b b. sF-cific ro idiyiduarisric cutoas An mrotur Ftrddof $is 4rmn h4 b€n rhe rdiotr $r disdncrivenB! cr b. achi.kJ b rm oI lositioi. dill.aio.

rur.s bd iidividul!, bur $.y wilt bc .nphsiz.d dira.rcdry &co'dins b cutturc &d cmdr, dd 6.yhediffmlinp|i.rtim3ldidfltityp'lgsfd

tr.. dp@ially lh.rc 6uldpl. mriE ud sorl:

recb condud.d virhin rd raos r vd'ry of oL

pri.diom of 66D pcdsd rdr 064 moriranonrlpni.ipr6 wi$in idcnury, md $. wrys ii whi.h ndri.pb prircipLs my inrder ry h c&h orhs b guidc

Aur4hdL(|q,H@ld'MEdi@d9lhhl&d'

BedrG!.),tu,udd!{&r(D7!s) N!,Ydr

&tc*tdd'e(!ofud6d[@dn!

R.ss&B.b5r!le! !4dldir:cd(rd,ei

torofci '1441d..' i '- ' ' , |+rg

Mev. ' '&u..L|1M,|dl l ] rad.164t[ fohl

idced.&F*iE!d4fuorbj&$!fuq'

4B4hErv'!eft !dtod'.P*dqhl&l

cbo'sc.KD'U.6oi 'sHosr 'bdiF@!!11' ! !d

'4?d.tr ld4dl ' |d6Fa!10)lqbqFd'c^

cd'Jro9e'bF@ia&b'ni[db@6@|bhfultdl |4Fl lu@.d. 'qn&ddFni4eK

b a tr)ct @ r. tu dd tw\w tu6q &Ybi.

cddj,.( |q?)ofl 'qd[rydi@iPd!9bc!@.

cwDorbfunrqhw|atc4efuPtcutrl '

bih'*.&8d'D(lm)sd'! ' .Ed4n@dd

fu.{09)l!!sd'4lddi'{dtFiddgstrucM BE&aCn ). set Ntuw 4etub e

'tu 4n

q44lP9l3)bdq$qUliyq'vfus'

s*! i ' f tu lhdoqe&Uvh(o4bJdn'

ftel)Pdtblse&irzk[(eliniqlFi[|k

6q4rvao$3)'&tbdqlF['LeFrbbabuKd

Fq,e M t1w) ru.d,,ttu&dt rBd wha4r o.dt.

cdrhiw 3 MlhlFqq y. r4 ri idr s, Nsidr. r,

i . rad a4 .w@. 6 -, tutu|

@tu @ tu ;el

H€'M^.!^ 'm.D0s]I6rd!r loc., l l t l ryqel.

Hdhtr.D'&(Fnr|94furblqlnbla' lgd

Hdl.YY'ch!.cY' l( !q.aM.9)' i ry{a|ta4'

h dgdnr@td etuq tatu 4stuba e tl.

I tui @r,sebt ttutr:.tu4 qMt tu

xd!.MH'&M.Pdhd.Ts(l!r)&!ryIfu|hEoFtd

Ld'co'+)scLJddddtr'b|d,dJ.q{n0E.

",-; h'*I 'ttu-|,^.tut.

n t

roF. hr re( f, r i H4q,jL a Pb46i &c

M{b.Io$4rEfdLtdi@&uahruli '^tsIe'r\da'@fuJd6dtc@66e^Pfud'\ld

ftl{@dqtsnFnE&4F',(@l'si!elPd

.4ttu6. t@r4 P4@ttr 6dtttd P4'b!\\ 16

Mqnd.s q4) tucd@dd@d@qDi4 b

cndn^rr3fulNfur!3d,*dr?'''113365

ianl@['ofqdb'hBLedL

Mdd4j 'vktBdoh'fu{iq*decMcp}

tubq.^ s oes) D.d@ry 4td*,$ bds equo

! lssddibt f f i !KF4ts@(l f ta

3j@'EE(l90$[dfuFdigIDdsdfu!

di,e* h4d *^d .tu@kd@$p { re)

@ !ry d6r{rioLt" h c ^

$dqeR ^

Lv4

sllu'L.oi@0j'ee'J.PF44t!'T.cth4|R.&

Dddi.c (| l i( i tui.s c ch & o !@. @i !r/,/

fuNdcd'cE@dt.B|it$r9+dq.i$o.ry!e!|

sa\ D N. tert tu h44tu tu4 e 'ir6!:

a nn

ir)d.H oest tutw\ot,4httus,k !tutd^,4d

Ed.H.&ad6.r c oqo ft irc.6'i&miqturydidri

P4bEdddddinLbqh.furterhtrUs

D,n,turq.il tu6 d tdtur4 @. A41L;^

v!o.b'vL.cry$fu'{ '&3d@6Mce),€kl

44.L9*h4P.|1n4fu4|ah'@sqk4|N

Yidqdis'hblrotrDM&$tif6!s'o'srbqJq

|.,8 ^4tn'r

drbliht ^

.rydd ot .d+b6