Social Semiotics, Vol. 12, No. 2, 2002

The Dao of Communication Criticism:Insects, Individuals, and Mass Society1

STEVEN C. COMBS

Daoist (Taoist) rhetoric offers the potential to provide a valuable and unique vantage pointfor communication criticism. This claim is justi!ed using principles of Daoist rhetoric toanalyze the !lms A Bug’s Life and Antz. The analysis demonstrates that, while they aresuper!cially very similar, the !lms differ signi!cantly. A Bug’s Life views the mostsigni!cant threats to society to be external, praises the use of technology, and celebratesWestern values of individual cunning and bravery. Antz, on the contrary, sees the mostsigni!cant social threats to be internal, resolves problems through consciousness raising andteamwork, and promotes Eastern values of community and cooperation. The paperconcludes by discussing the implications of Daoist criticism for communication theory andpractice. In so doing, the present paper illustrates important differences in the !lms,indicates central differences in Eastern and Western cultural values, and demonstrates theviability of Daoist rhetoric as a basis for communication criticism.

Like genetic manipulation of plants and animals, the technology of our digitalculture has developed much more rapidly than our ability to assess and critique thattechnology. Animated !lms, for example, typically communicate signi!cant mes-sages through visual images rather than verbal texts, their ‘logic’ is often a functionof their narrativity rather than systems of formal and informal reasoning, and theymay re"ect values from non-Western cultures that are dif!cult for Westerners toappreciate. Consequently, non-traditional methods of communication criticism maybe useful in analyzing animated !lms.

Daoist (Taoist) thought has received attention from communication scholarsbecause it reveals vast differences in Eastern and Western communication principles(Oliver 1961, 1971; Jensen 1987, 1992; Crawford 1996; Lu 1998; Combs 2000,2002b). Recent studies have identi!ed the foundations for a genre of communi-cation, referred to as Daoist rhetoric, that offers precepts and principles for appro-priate communication from a Daoist perspective (Combs 2000, 2002b). Daoistrhetoric has since been used to critique a !lm that purports to express a Daoistperspective (Combs 2002a).

While Combs (2002a) points to the utility and viability of Daoist rhetoric inassessing a !lm that claims to be Daoistic, what remains to be considered is whetherDaoist rhetoric is limited to testing the internal consistency of communication actsthat claim to be Daoist, or whether it has more general utility in the analysis of

ISSN 1035-0330 print; 1470-1219 online/02/020183-17 Ó 2002 Taylor & Francis LtdDOI: 10.1080/1035033022000002568

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non-Daoist communication acts. That is, does Daoist rhetoric offer a perspectivethat allows one to assess the phenomenon of human communication? The answer tothis question, and the central claim of this study, is that Daoist rhetoric offers aunique and useful vantage point for communication criticism because it offersinsightful perspectives for assessing the human condition. This claim is justi!edusing principles of Daoist rhetoric to analyze the !lms A Bug’s Life (Lasseter &Stanton 1998) and Antz (Darnell & Johnson 1998). The Daoist lens will illuminatekey differences in the !lms that have escaped the analysis of cinema critics (Corliss1998; Ebert 1998; Major 1998; McDonagh 1998; Ryerson 1998; Stack 1998; Stone1998; Lehmkuhl 1999) and would probably go unnoticed in other methods ofcriticism.

Before further delineating the approach to be taken here, it is important to notethat A Bug’s Life and Antz are appropriate subjects for this analysis because theyappear compatible with Daoism and are similar to each other in several importantways. Both !lms use insects to metaphorically address issues of humans and society.Metaphor is a central strategy in Daoist rhetoric (Combs 2002b), as is the use ofseemingly insigni!cant creatures. The Daoist sage Zhuangzi (Chuang tzu) believedthat all creatures are part of the oneness of nature and are capable of providinglessons on life:

Zhuangzi not only directed the reader to observe the insigni!cant, theneglected, and the negative, but also empowered them by glorifying theirinner strengths and inner completeness. For him, the ability to see and notforget the unobvious rather than paying attention to the obvious was anindication of having attained the Dao. (Lu 1998: 256)

Zhuangzi points out that great wisdom ‘recognizes small without considering itpaltry …’ (Watson 1964: 98), and the personi!cation of ants, which to many of usare the most mundane of all life forms, would be an appropriate move for a Daoist.Finally, ants are an excellent metaphor for framing issues of individuality in masssociety. As Gordon notes, ‘because ants are separate beings that move around freely,they attract attention as individuals . But nothing ants do makes sense except in thecontext of the colony’ (1999: viii).

The !lms also share similar subject matter. The stories center on an ant that issearching for meaning; in a larger sense, the !lms consider an individual’s properplace in a collective society. Flik, the hero in A Bug’s Life, wants ‘to make adifference’, while Z from Antz wants to feel ‘signi!cant’. The central !gures alsomust seek the outside world to resolve their con"ict. Finally, they both want to winthe heart of the Princess, who will someday be the Queen.

Despite these similarities, the Daoist perspective will reveal that the !lms aremarkedly different in their key themes. A Bug’s Life views the most signi!cant threatsto society to be external, praises the use of technology, and celebrates Westernvalues of individual cunning and bravery. Antz, on the contrary, sees the mostsigni!cant social threats to be internal, resolves problems through consciousnessraising and teamwork, and promotes Eastern values of community and cooperation.The !lms also suggest different answers to the question of how an individual’s life

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can be meaningful in a mass society. A Bug’s Life is consistent with Western culturalvalues: one makes a difference when one overcomes tradition, fear, and the opinionsof others to accomplish great things. The answer in Antz is consistent with Daoistvalues: an individual is signi!cant when that person is able to discover and enact hisor her own destiny.

These themes will be explored, !rst, by delineating elements of Daoist rhetoric,thus establishing standards for criticism. Second, the !lms will be examined in termsof the treatment of the tension between the individual and the social, as well as howthis tension plays out in the onset, development, and resolution of the centralcon"icts of the !lms. Third, the themes of nature and effortlessness (wu-wei), andbalance and harmony, derived from the delineation of elements of Daoist rhetoric,will be applied to the !lms. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implica-tions of Daoist criticism for communication theory and practice. In so doing, thispaper illustrates important differences in the !lms, indicates central differences inEastern and Western cultural values, and demonstrates the viability of Daoistrhetoric as a basis for communication criticism.

Elements of Daoist Rhetoric

Daoist philosophy offers a comprehensive worldview that applies to the practicalissues of everyday life. Not surprisingly, its principles can be readily extended tocommunication behaviors, especially purposeful communication or rhetoric. Thissection outlines key Daoist principles in order to suggest how these principlesconstitute a rhetorical genre. Note, however, that Daoist rhetoric is a philosophicalrather than technical system. In this sense it is more similar to Platonic as opposedto Aristotelian rhetoric. Daoist rhetoric would focus less on ef!cient and successfulpresentation (the art of persuasion) as it would on the message and the effect on theaudience (the promotion of Daoist ideals).

Campbell & Jamieson (1978) maintain that rhetorical forms recur that, arguably,typify a distinct category of discourse. Thus, ‘when the term genre is assigned to agrouping of speech or writing, it suggests a distinct, distinguishable category ofspeech or literature’ (Cali 1996: 5). The category, or genre, is formed by ‘aconstellation of recognizable forms bound together by an internal dynamic’ (Camp-bell & Jamieson 1978: 21).

The internal dynamic that distinguishes Daoist rhetoric from other categories ofdiscourse, and the touchstone for appropriate communication, is the dao itself.Daoist rhetoric makes the dao the centerpiece of communication. Invoking the daothrough language is a ‘rhetorical strategy’ (Lu 1998: 233) because it enacts acommitment to communicate in a manner that is internally consistent with Daoism.Analyzing the nature of Daoism reveals the internal dynamic for Daoist rhetoric aswell as forms, or elements, that typify Daoist communication. These elements formthe basis for standards for communication criticism from a Daoist perspective.

The dao (way) refers to and encompasses the essential nature of reality. Reality isa constant correlation of interaction that is represented by the concepts of yin andyang. Yin is likened to female energy—like the earth it is motionless and still. Yang

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is described as male energy—!ery, vigorous. There is a passage from Zhuangzi whereLaozi says ‘the motionless grandeur came up out of the earth; the !ery vigour burstout from heaven. The two penetrated one another, were inextricably blended andfrom their union the things of the world were born’ (Waley 1982: 16). The blendingof these elements creates the universe. Thus, ‘all things are varying and unequalcombinations of yin and yang in unceasing motion without beginning or end’ (Nagel1994: 7). The constant "ux and transformation of nature signi!es the universalprocess that makes everything as one.

Because reality is constituted by the uni!cation of all things, the dao, too, is allthings. It may be thought of as the ultimate state of being; the realm where theongoing process of change is both initiated and completed (Watts 1975; Blofeld1985). It is where ‘all things are relative, all opposites blend, all contrasts areharmonized’ (Parrinder 1983: 333). The dao can be thought of as an undifferenti-ated void, where everything exists as pure potential, at the same time that it is anon-void that contains the completion of all things (Blofeld 1985).

Consider the color ‘black’. It is an undifferentiated void in the sense thatit can be de!ned as the absence of light. At the same time, black is anon-void containing and sustaining all things because when all colors arecombined together they become black. Hence, black can be seen as auni!cation of all things—the result of blending everything together. Fur-thermore, black does everything by doing nothing because it is the com-pletion of all things, the combination of all colors; and it is the potential forall things because it takes no particular form. It has the boundless potentialto be anything if light is introduced. (Combs 2002b: unpublished mss.,9–10)

In Daoism, ‘there is only one continuous concrete world that is the source and locusof all of our experience’ (Ames 1993: 49). There is no independent agent, such asa god, to provide order and life. The world’s order simply ‘inheres in the world’(Ames 1993: 50). Order is the natural consequence of the dynamic interaction of alllife forms. The world’s coherence is the result of the ‘many making one’ (Jensen1992: 155). And everything in the universe is constantly changing, developing, andinteracting (Sun 1995). Thus, the inherent nature of reality is change (Ames 1993).

Principles of right action stem from the Daoist belief that one must adapt tonature and avoid imposing human ways, thereby remaining within the dao (Chan1963; Blofeld 1985; Nagel 1994).

Attempts to change the world, to act upon it with ego or a given end inmind, are unnatural and therefore to be shunned. Followers of the way areattempting to rediscover that which is our inherently proper nature, theappropriate relationship between human and supernatural, soul and body,insight and power. (Combs 2002b: 12)

Acting within nature requires that one discover and act in accordance with what isfated or destined to be. Fate is as inevitable and natural as the changing seasons andthe rise and fall of the tides: ‘To know what you can’t do anything about, and to be

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content with it as you would with fate—only a man of virtue can do that’ (Zhuangzi,in Watson 1964: 66).

To act appropriately, one must be consonant with nature and what it destines forus. A key term that embodies these concepts is wu-wei, or non-action. Wu-wei is thenatural, spontaneous movement that harmonizes everything (Lu 1998). To be withthe dao, one must surrender having an effortful life ‘by engaging in the activitieswhich are actionless’ (Parrinder 1983: 333). The key to effortless action is to avoidacting with conscious intent, but instead to move with the dao. When one is alignedwith the dao, it is possible to move like a leaf on a stream of water. When one knowswell ‘the principles, structures, and trends of human and natural affairs’, then ‘oneuses the least amount of energy in dealing with them’ (Watts 1975: 76). Hence,wu-wei combines comprehensive and innate intelligence ‘with taking the line of leastresistance in all one’s actions’ (Watts 1975: 76). The result is that one’s actions areeffortless yet perfect:

To live by the Tao is to function like the Tao, to conform with thatmarvelously effortless way of getting all things done, and to produce whatis of use to others as the Tao produces bene!cial rains and dews with nevera thought of praise or thanks, still less reward. (Blofeld 1985: 44)

Hence, one abandons the Western sense of being goal oriented (i.e. driven toachieve something external) and instead attempts to enact one’s internal nature. Tobe moved by one’s destiny requires no effort. A tree does not try to be a tree; itsimply is one. Similarly, a Daoist does not strategize and strive to achieve objectives,but simply moves in accordance with the natural coherence of the world.

A !nal key aspect of Daoist thought is the values of balance and harmony. The‘one world’ view assumes that reality consists of everything, and that all things arein constant interactional relationships with everything else. Hence, one is completedby all others and, to be a balanced person, the universe must also be balanced.Zhuangzi advised people ‘to live harmoniously and in acceptance of one’s lot in life’(Combs 2002b: mss., 15). Harmony is a paramount goal for human activity (Sun1995), and the central goal of all relationships (Ames 1993).

Harmony is also the result of right action. When one moves in accordance withnature, one’s effortlessness contributes to the well-being of the universe. Striving toimprove the world disrupts harmony and is considered pointless (Watts 1975).Wu-wei suggests ‘only trouble is made by those who strive to improve themselvesand the world by forceful means’ (Watts 1975: 81). Additionally, knowledge is theability to see the connections between all things and interact with them so as topromote coherence, or harmony. In sum, balance and harmony are central values ofclassical Chinese culture because they conform to the nature of things, therebypromoting the interests of everyone and everything. Their importance stems fromthe monistic view and the concept of yin/yang. They are promoted by havingknowledge and moving effortlessly.

In summary, the preceding analysis points to principles that determine appropri-ate elements of Daoist rhetoric. Daoist rhetoric has a clear internal dynamic—Daoism—that fuses its substantive and strategic elements. Daoist rhetoric must

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make the dao central to the message, promoting a uni!ed single-world that is theresult of the mingling of contrary or opposite forces or elements (i.e. yin/yang).Rhetoric must avoid useless distinctions and attempt to embrace unity withoutsacri!cing the multiplicity that constitutes the oneness of reality.

The substance of rhetorical acts must also conform to the natural ways of things,recognizing the underlying perfection of the natural world and subscribing to one’sfate or destiny because acting within oneself is the most natural way for a self to act.Furthermore, one must uphold the values of balance and harmony, which resultsfrom the inherent order of the natural way. Rhetorical strategies associated withDaoist rhetoric must also "ow effortlessly and seamlessly, embodying the principleof wu-wei. Rhetors must not strive to achieve external goals, but must move inaccordance with their true nature.

The discussion thus far provides an overview of the internal dynamic of Daoistrhetoric, along with its substantive and strategic principles. This overview will beampli!ed in the third section of the paper when speci!c applications of Daoism areanalyzed in light of the !lm texts.

Analysis of the Films

The portrayal of con"ict is an important starting point in understanding how the!lms differ in their treatment of the theme of the individual’s search for meaning inthe midst of a collectivist society. The onset and framing of these con"icts is revealedin the opening scenes of the !lms. The opening scene of A Bug’s Life shows theworker ants in the colony on Ant Island carrying grain to a large leaf that is bracedby rocks to form a giant altar, on which the grain is placed as an offering for a gangof grasshoppers. The process is highly labor-intensive, involving climbing up thestalk, separating each kernel of grain, toting the grain to the offering leaf, and placingthe grain on the leaf. One ant, Flik, is using a threshing machine that he hasinvented. The machine cuts the entire grain stalk, which includes several kernels atonce. The stalk is dropped into a holding bay and then catapulted into the offeringpile.

Princess Atta, who is training to take over when the Queen retires, is supervisingthe operation. Atta is very concerned about the process of gathering the grain,poring needlessly over details and fretting about minor setbacks like gaps in the lineof ants carrying grain. The Queen tells the Princess not to fear the impending arrivalof the fearsome grasshoppers. ‘They come. They eat. They leave. It’s our lot in life.It’s not a lot, but it’s our life’.

Flik has an accident with his machine. Instead of "ying into the offering pile, astalk of grain hits an ant. He is scolded after the accident and told to just pick thegrain like everyone else. A horn sounds signaling the arrival of the grasshoppers.Everyone throws their last kernel onto the pile and then heads into the anthill.

Flik is ‘a young freethinker in a closed society’ (Stack 1998: D1). ‘Deeplyindividualistic, inventive and clever’, Flik is, to some, a ‘mis!t with big ideas’ and,to others, a ‘courageous visionary’ (Major 1998: 1). Flik is described as having aproblem with his self-esteem (Stone 1998: 3). He desperately wants ‘to make a

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difference’. Unfortunately, Flik begins to stand out in a disastrous way. Encumberedby his machine, Flik lags behind everyone else. The machine goes out of control andknocks out a key rock that is supporting the offering leaf. The leaf is dislodged andthe grain slips into a pool of water below, losing the entire offering. Flik goes intothe anthill to join the others, tries to explain what happened to Princess Atta, but isrebuked and told to keep quiet so that Atta can hear what is going on with thegrasshoppers above.

The grasshoppers arrive at Ant Island and, seeing that there is no food for them,become enraged, smash through the ground, and "y down into the anthill. Theyconfront the frightened ants, who do not understand why the grasshoppers did notjust eat and leave. The head of the gang, Hopper, demands that the ants doubletheir offering and have it ready at the end of the harvest season, ‘when the last leaffalls’. The ants protest that there is not enough time to meet the grasshoppers’demands. The ants would not be able to gather food for themselves and wouldstarve if they met Hopper’s demands. Hopper menaces and threatens the ants, andno one will stand up to him. The grasshoppers "y off leaving the frightened ants.

Antz opens with Z, a seemingly neurotic ant, talking to his therapist about hisfeelings of alienation. Z is concerned about !nding his true nature, believing ‘there’sgot to be something better out there’ than his assigned role as a worker. Psycholog-ically, he rejects this role, feeling insigni!cant and complaining that he has acomplex about his physical adequacy because he is unable to lift more than 10 timeshis own body weight. Furthermore, he !nds handling dirt to be unrewarding. He hastrouble getting behind ‘this whole gung ho super organism thing’, because it doesnot meet his needs. It might work well for the colony, but ‘what about my needs?What about me?’. Z complains: ‘this whole thing makes me feel so insigni!cant’.‘Excellent’, says the therapist. ‘You’ve made a real breakthrough’. ‘I have?’. ‘Yes Z,you are insigni!cant’.

The next scene reinforces Z’s insigni!cance, where the camera pans back to reveala fantastic underground city, an incredible metropolis of sophisticated structuresand passageways. There is a scene where maggots are born and instantly assigned tobe either a worker or soldier. We also see aspects of the organization of hordes ofants that are building a ‘Mega Tunnel’. Z is working on the tunnel, digging next tohis friend Azteca. Z is lamenting his unappealing lot in life, but Azteca, who lovesher work, is unsympathetic because she thinks, ‘it’s not about you. It’s about us. Theteam. It’s about this [the mega tunnel]’.

Z is assigned to be a part of the wrecking ball crew. The wrecking ball is composedof a giant mass of ants that cling together and, with their bodies, form the mass andchain of the ball. The ball is swung pendulum-like from the ceiling of their dwellingand then smashed into rock to help dig the tunnel. The ants have thus devised a way‘that millions of individuals can become one collective tool’ (Ebert 1998: 2), a pieceof heavy construction equipment. The problem is that Z, who is assigned to thechain, loses his grip and ‘drops the ball’, causing it to careen wildly below.

General Mandible, the leader of the ant’s army, laments that workers are weakand lack commitment and discipline. He opines that this is the nature of workers,thus they cannot help it that they are inferior to the soldiers. Mandible is outlining

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a plan to his top of!cer, Colonel Cutter. Mandible wants to take over the colony anddestroy the workers. He decides to send military troops who are loyal to the Queen,who is the ruler of the colony, on a suicide mission; an attack on a termite colony.His plan is to eliminate the loyal troops, to marry the Queen’s daughter, PrincessBala, to kill the workers and the Queen, and to start a new colony of his own withoutthe inferior workers. He plans to kill the workers by having them build the MegaTunnel, which winds up to a lake on the surface. Once the tunnelers break throughto the surface, they will unwittingly unleash a torrent of water that will !ll the lowerchamber of the colony. Mandible will assemble all the workers in the chamber fora ceremony and then seal the exits. When the water !lls, the ants will drown in thetomb they dug for themselves.

There is a saying in psychotherapy that the de!nition of insanity is doing the samething over and over and expecting different results. The fact that both heroes areportrayed initially as disaffected or counterproductive to themselves and othersforeshadows the need for change in order for Flik and Z to feel good aboutthemselves, to maintain an identity, and to make a contribution to society. Theissues developed in the rest of the !lm concern the extent and ways the individualmust transform, and the extent and ways that society must transform.

In addition to the personal con"ict of Flik and Z regarding the meaning in theirlives, the !lms portray a con"ict that will threaten the well-being of the entirecolony. What is most interesting about the depiction of con"ict is that, in A Bug’sLife, the greatest threat to the group is an external threat posed by the grasshoppers.In Antz, the most signi!cant threat is internal—a military coup by GeneralMandible. These contrasting views point, metaphorically, to a clear distinction inthe way the !lms address their common theme. In A Bug’s Life, the individual’squest for meaning in mass society entails responding to con"ict caused by agentsoutside of the individual and that individual’s af!liated group. In Antz, the mostimportant con"icts take place within the individual and the group with which one isaf!liated.

Flik responds to the con"ict with the grasshoppers by bravely venturing into theoutside world to !nd some bigger bugs that can help the ants by !ghting thegrasshoppers on their behalf. Unfortunately, Flik believes he has found a band offerocious warrior bugs when, in fact, they are merely unemployed circus performers.The circus bugs think that Flik is organizing a party for the grasshoppers and thebugs are being hired to be the entertainment. They all "y back to the colony wherethe bugs promise the colony a performance that will ‘knock the grasshoppers dead’.

Flik eventually realizes that the bugs are not going to be able to save the colony.He asks the circus bugs not to let anyone know their true identities so that he canmaintain his credibility and implement a new plan. Flik proposes to build amechanical bird that the ants can operate from the inside. They will place it in a tree,attached to a tether, and release it when the grasshoppers come for their offering.The bird will ‘"y’ about and scare off the grasshoppers.

In A Bug’s Life, the external con"ict is given primary consideration in the storywhile Flik’s inner struggle for meaning is given little direct attention. Antz looksmore carefully at the personal con"ict plaguing its hero as well as the military threat.

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The personal con"ict stems from the fact that everyone in the colony has a roleassigned for him or her. Princess Bala, for example, must marry General Mandiblebecause it is ‘her place’ to take over for the Queen. ‘What if I don’t like my place’,asks Bala. The Queen replies, ‘everyone has their place Bala’. The theme is echoedin the next scene, a bar, where ants relax after a busy day. Z is there with his giganticant friend Weaver. Weaver is a kind-hearted and simple soldier who would rather bea worker so he can meet ‘those beautiful worker girls’.

The bar scene also hints at the process of resolving this con"ict. Princess Bala,tired of the pampered and boring life of the royalty, sneaks down to the barincognito with two of her escorts. There, ant musicians play a somber version ofPete Seeger’s Guantanamera while thousands of ants assemble themselves intoseveral long lines and begin to dance in the same robotic way. Bala wants to dancewith a worker and ends up with Z. They follow the monotonous horde, but soon Zpulls Bala out of the line to dance a different way. They use their creativity toconjure up new steps that are obviously much more fun than the old style ofdancing. This illustrates that one can be happy by rejecting one’s assigned lot in life,which Bala did by coming to a bar of commoners and both Bala and Z did byrejecting the dance line and dancing on their own. The scene ends when Zaccidentally touches off a gigantic, dance-ending brawl. Z learns that Bala is aprincess as she is leaving.

To meet Bala again, Z convinces Weaver to trade places with him for one day sothat he can march in a royal military review. The next day Weaver reports to thetunnel for work and Z masquerades as a soldier. Z and Weaver are both happy aboutchoosing their roles, if only for a day. The royal review takes a tragic turn, however,as Z learns that the ceremony is actually a pep rally for the suicide strike against thetermites. Mandible reinforces the con"ict regarding individuality, telling his soldiersthat ‘the life of an individual ant does not matter’ because the colony is all thatmatters. As Z marches to battle against the fearsome termites, Weaver is digging inthe tunnel. Weaver loves the work of digging and hauling away the dirt.

The ants vanquish the ferocious termites but lose their entire army, except for Z,who missed the battle by hiding in a crevice. As Z surveys the horrible massacre he!nds the still animated head of Barbados, a soldier who saved Z’s life and died!ghting an absurd battle that was nominally for the sake of the colony. Barbardosgives Z the lesson of a lifetime: ‘Don’t make my mistake kid. Don’t follow ordersyour whole life. Think for yourself’.

Z returns to the colony and is hailed as a hero by virtue of his being the solesurvivor of the battle. The General publicly congratulates Z and brings him beforethe Queen and Princess to receive their congratulations. Bala reveals to everyonethat Z is only a worker, not a soldier. Mandible realizes that lionizing a worker whosuccessfully violated the assigned social order threatens the foundations of his fascistplans. Mandible orders his men to arrest Z. Z grabs the Princess as a hostage andthey inadvertently fall down the trash chute before being catapulted outside. Beforethe guards can capture him, however, a giant magnifying glass appears and inciner-ates the guards one by one. Z and Bala hide under a plant and the menace leavesthe scene. Z realizes that he cannot return to the colony and face Mandible’s goons.

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He decides to try to !nd Insectopia, a mythical place where food is plentiful and lifeis easy. Bala decides to accompany Z.

Inside the colony, the workers are spreading tales of Z. He is characterized as ahero for killing scores of termites, receiving medals, running off with the Princess,and causing the guards who chase him to burst into "ames. When Weaver tells theworkers that Z was a worker who wanted to be a soldier and that Weaver was asoldier who wanted to be a worker, this causes the workers to question their socialorder. The heroic Z and titanic Weaver dispel the myth that workers cannot doanything but work. They exemplify the value of ants thinking for themselves.

Mandible is desperate to !nd the Princess, because she is a crucial element to hisbuilding a new colony. He learns Z may have set out for Insectopia and ordersColonel Cutter, who can "y, to bring back the Princess and to kill Z, who Mandiblesays is a danger to the colony: ‘Individualism makes us vulnerable’. The irony is thatMandible individually decided to re-shape the colony.

Back at Insectopia, which is actually a garbage pile, Z and Bala are falling in love.Z goes off on an errand at the exact moment when Cutter arrives. Cutter grabs Bala,saying he is under orders to bring her back to the colony. ‘Orders’, she says, ‘can’tyou think for yourself?’. Cutter asks about Z and Bala, thinking for herself, lies andsays Z is dead. Cutter remarks that Z is dangerous because ‘he is an ant with ideas’.Nearby, Z looks up to see Cutter "ying Bala back to the colony. Z decides to saveher and hitches a ride to the colony with a drunk and melancholy wasp.

Issues surrounding the appropriate nature and relationship of the individual andsociety are developed in the stories through the con"icts that threaten Flik and Z aswell as their entire colonies. The con"icts foreshadow the key values that areembedded in the !lms and set the stage for the resolution of the con"ict, whichultimately transforms Flik, Z, and their respective colonies.

In A Bug’s Life, the grasshoppers return to Ant Island and are ready to squash theQueen when, suddenly, the bird is launched from its perch in the tree. It swoopsdown out of the near darkness screeching loudly, panicking the grasshoppers. Thecircus bugs pretend to be victims, covering themselves with berries and juice to makeit appear that they have sustained wounds as the bird makes several terrifying passesat the insects.

The plan takes a disastrous turn when the bird is accidentally set on !re and theants inside are forced to crash land and abandon the bird, unmasking their plan.Hopper is enraged, corners Flik, and begins to pound his tiny body into submission.But Flik stands up to the ferocious Hopper and tells everyone about the plan tokill the Queen. He stresses the independence of the ants from the grasshoppers,arguing that the grasshoppers depend on the ants for food but the ants receivenothing from the grasshoppers. Hence, the two species are independent of oneanother; in fact, the ants are superior because they ful!ll an important role while thegrasshoppers are useless criminals. The ants, which badly outnumber the grasshop-pers, are stirred by Flik’s martyrdom and rousing words and attack the grasshoppers.The grasshoppers "y off in a panic; except for Hopper, who wants revenge on Flikbefore he leaves. Princess Atta grabs Flik and "ies off with him, with Hopper in hotpursuit.

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It is clear that Hopper is faster and stronger and will eventually catch Atta andFlik. Flik directs Atta to "y toward the nest of a bird that nearly ate several of Flik’sfriends on an earlier occasion. Hopper catches up to Atta and corners Flik below thebird’s nest. Just as Hopper is about to do in Flik, the bird pops up and looks downon the scene. Hopper thinks this is another one of Flik’s trick birds, and refuses tobe intimidated, until the bird opens its enormous and obviously real beak. In notime, the bird corners Hopper and grabs him. The bird returns to the nest to feeda screaming Hopper to its hungry babies. Hopper is gone, and there is hope for abetter life.

A Bug’s Life ends with shots of a much-improved colony. Atta has become Queen,and she is a con!dent and capable leader. Scores of ants are using Flik’s threshingmachine, and they are able to harvest plenty of food without toiling laboriously forhours on end. The heroism of individual ants and the perfection of technology bodewell for the future of Ant Island.

In Antz, Z returns to the colony and !nds his way to the Princess. Reunited, theyspot a copy of the plans for the tunnel and !gure out Mandible’s evil scheme. Theyrun down to the lower chamber, where the workers are assembled for the ceremonyopening the Mega Tunnel, to warn everyone of the impending disaster. Z explainsthe danger to the tunnelers and asks them to stop. The ant foreman asks, ‘on whoseauthority?’. Z replies, ‘on your own authority. Can’t you think for yourselves?’. Theworkers stop, except the foreman, who replies, ‘My orders say “dig”’. The foremanthrows a pick into the rock saying, ‘Get back to work’. The pick strikes a fatal blow,creating just enough of a crack to allow some water to seep through. The workersrealize that Z was right and run for their lives.

The tunnelers run to the rest of the workers in the lower chamber only to learnthat they have been locked inside. The water rushes in, forcing the ants to gather onhigher ground in the middle of the chamber. Z gets an idea when he notices someants climbing up to a ledge. He and Weaver begin organizing everyone to create agigantic ant ladder. The ants form a foundation with their bodies and lock their armsand legs together to create a structure that begins to tower up toward the groundabove. Finally, Z begins to climb to the top of the heap.

Above all of this, on the outside, the General has assembled the soldiers and haslaunched into a speech about his grand vision and the superiority of the soldiers:‘The weak elements’ below are about to be ‘washed away’, ridding the colony of !lthand inferiority. ‘Our glorious future is at hand. It is time for a new beginning’.Suddenly, a !st breaks through the ground from below. It is Z! ‘What the hell isthat?’ asks the General. Cutter replies, ‘I think it is the weak element sir’. Z askssomeone to pull him out. Mandible refuses, ‘for the good of the colony’. Z replies‘we are the colony’. Colonel Cutter fully realizes that the General’s idea that theworkers are inferior is non-sensical given the splendid tunnel the workers built. Heturns against the General and offers Z a hand saying, ‘This is for the good of thecolony’. He then orders his men to help pull up the ant ladder. The General isenraged and says, ‘I am the colony’. He tackles Z, pushing both him and Cutter intoa hole that has been created above the chamber. Mandible falls onto solid groundand is killed. Z falls into the water, but Cutter quickly "ies down and rescues Z.

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When Z is revived by a breath of air from Bala, she exclaims ‘You did it!’ Hemodestly replies, ‘We did it’.

In Antz, Z saves the colony, marries Princess Bala, and discovers how to feelsigni!cant in a mass society. As Z puts it, it is a simple story: ‘Boy meets girl. Boylikes girl. Boy changes underlying social order’. The movie ends with Z describinghow the colony has been rebuilt better than before ‘because now there’s an indoorpool’. Z is going to start a family with Bala, and he is ‘working with a new therapist’who is ‘putting me in touch with my inner maggot’. Most importantly, says Z, ‘Ifound my place’ and ‘it’s right back where I started’. The key to his new life is that‘this time I chose it’.

Analysis of the resolution of the central con"icts in the !lms indicates thetransformation that has taken place over the course of the !lms. A Bug’s Life focuseson the hero’s response to the con"ict posed by the grasshoppers. Flik responds tothe con"ict by attempting to !nd stronger weapons to intervene on behalf of hiscolony, using technology to build a mechanical bird to save the ants, and heroicallyand ingeniously facing the threat. The inner struggle for a meaningful existence isalso resolved in the process of resolving the external con"ict. Flik makes a differencebecause he advocates independence and unbridled individualism.

Antz centers on internal con"icts, balancing the personal con"ict of an individ-ual’s meaning with the social threat to the colony. Z !nds meaning in a mass societyby thinking and deciding for himself. He resolves the social threat by raising theconsciousness of the group about the dangers of having others decide our place andorganizing group efforts to solve problems. At the same time, individualism is notabsolute. While the personal con"ict exists because of a denial of individual free-dom, the social con"ict exists because of Mandible’s sel!sh individualism. Thus, Zadvocates interdependence, balancing the needs of the individual and of the group.

Critical Assessment and Implications

Applying Daoist rhetorical principles to the analysis of the con"ict in A Bug’s Lifeand Antz allows for a critical assessment from a Daoist perspective. Speci!cally, inthis case, the analysis reveals that A Bug’s Life offers a typically Western orientationto issues of self and society, while Antz upholds Daoist views. This claim is justi!ed,!rst, by considering the extent to which the !lms express consonance with thenatural way of the universe and the concept of effortless action (wu-wei).

A Bug’s Life presents the view that one should attempt to overcome naturethrough the use of technology. The opening scenes of the !lm show Flik using histhreshing machine with great zeal. The machine has problems only because the restof the colony refuses to acknowledge Flik’s ingenious idea and offers no support. Inthe closing scenes of the movie scores of ants are successfully using the machine toimprove the quantity of food harvested and to reduce the amount of time and laborexpended in the enterprise. The clear message is that the labor-intensive way thatants traditionally gather food is inferior to a technological solution. Similarly, themechanical bird is highly successful at scaring away the grasshoppers until a naõveindividual unwittingly sets the bird on !re. The use of technology per se is validated.

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The failure of technology stems from the inability of some individuals to use itproperly or to grasp its signi!cance and advantages. Hence, the !lm values thelarge-scale use of technology to overcome the natural limitations of the creatures ofthe universe.

In contrast, Antz advocates the natural way; in fact, it is a story about restoringthe harmony of nature. The major con"icts in the !lm occur because particularindividuals attempt to decide the role or fate of others without considering theindividual’s inner self. Ants are assigned at birth to be either soldiers or workersbased solely on random sequencing. This process miscategorized Weaver and Z.Furthermore, Mandible wants to enforce unnatural distinctions between equals. Heplots to exterminate the workers and honor the soldiers because of his mistakenbeliefs regarding their respective abilities. Similarly, Bala is forced to replace hermother because of a notion established within the colony regarding her rightfulplace. These approaches are unnatural because they attempt to plug individuals intopre-designed categories that have been established by other individuals in an attemptto make discriminations. A more natural approach is to allow individuals to discoverand enact their nature for themselves. This is precisely Z’s goal, and the ultimaterealization he makes in the closing scene is that he is happy being what he was allalong because he got to choose for himself.

Given the dichotomy regarding adherence to nature, it is not surprising that the!lms differ greatly in the extent to which the heroes act effortlessly, in accordancewith the concept of wu-wei. Zhuangzi advises us to ‘not attempt to control things orgo beyond what one can know’. Instead, one should be resigned ‘to what cannot beavoided and nourish what is within you—this is best’ (Watson 1964: 57–58). Flik,on the contrary, struggles every step of the way. His various schemes require atremendous amount of effort and usually fail because they are so antagonistic to thenatural "ow around him. His journey in search of vigilantes, for example, beginswith ‘a spectacular aerial sequence’, where ‘Flik plucks a dandelion spore and "oatsinto the great unknown …’ (Stack 1998: D1). Attempting to mold his ‘ragtag bandof mis!ts’ to ‘outwit the grasshopper gang’ becomes ‘the main question’ of the !lm(Lehmkuhl 1999: 1).

Flik’s efforts are not simply the result of individuality, but the result of theparticular way he expresses his individuality. Flik, for instance, ‘is forever urging therest of the ants to think progressively, with overzealous admonishments that serve toannoy more than inspire’ (Major 1998: 1). Daoism appreciates individuality, butwhile ‘individualism is its hallmark … a wise individual is unassuming, simple, andartless, certainly not egotistical’ (Nagel 1994: 7). Thus, the characters in A Bug’sLife are striving with great effort to achieve their objectives. The grasshoppers areloud, noisy, bullies who will stop at nothing to get their way. Flik invents machines,makes heroic journeys, and develops sophisticated plans involving numerous allies inhis quest for respect and redemption. The bugs engage in daring rescues andcomplicated deceptions.

In Antz, Z is virtually the opposite in his actions. Note how he does nothing butaccomplishes everything in virtually every signi!cant incident. Z accidentally ‘!ndshimself shipped off to battle against a termite colony’ (McDonagh 1998: 1). Z never

196 S. C. Combs

raises a weapon in the battle, but is the sole survivor because he fell into a crevice.On his return, ‘he’s suddenly hailed as a war hero. More wacky happenstance later,Z accidentally kidnaps Bala …’ (McDonagh 1998: 1). He inspires a revolution thatis based solely on a mischaracterization of his reputed acts ‘and stumbles onto anevil plot by General Mandible to betray the Queen …’ (McDonagh 1998: 1). Evenwhen he saves the day, by raising the consciousness of the group and inspiring themto work together, he does so spontaneously and effortlessly. When Bala tries to thankZ for what he has done, he modestly says that he did nothing; the group dideverything. This is consistent with Daoism, as Nagel (1994: 8) points out: ‘Thepursuit of gain and fame is not a proper human course, according to the Way’.Obviously, actions that are valorized in A Bug’s Life go against the Daoist values ofnature and effortlessness, while Antz demonstrates consonance with nature and thevalue of non-action.

A second area for analysis is the extent to which the !lms uphold the values ofbalance and harmony. Consideration should be given to the overall well-being of allentities in the universe and the ease with which everyone lives together. Nagel (1994:71) admonishes us to ‘remember, you are one of many’. In these respects, A Bug’sLife fails to promote balance and harmony because the desires of the individual areheld to be superior to those of the group.

A Bug’s Life creates a vision of how an individual can be signi!cant. Insects arerewarded for their independence from others when they overcome mindless tradi-tions, fear, and the opinions of others to accomplish great things. Technology is usedsuccessfully to overcome the need for collective efforts. The threshing machineallows individuals to gather enormous amounts of food by themselves. At the sametime, Flik risks his life, the lives of the circus bugs, the well-being of the colony, andlies to his group for the sake of his plans. A Bug’s Life makes the statement that anindividual’s meaning derives from the ability to be ingenious and brave, despite thesize of one’s enemies or the assumptions of society. In this sense, enemies andsociety have the same role. They are obstacles that individuals must overcome todiscover their signi!cance. Hence, the ultimate answer is that society must accom-modate the individual, not the reverse. There is no attempt at balance and harmonyas Daoism contextualizes them.

Antz also focuses on the question of the appropriate relationship between theindividual and society, but it provides a very different answer. Individuals rely on thecollective for their well-being. There is no doubt that teamwork can providetremendous bene!ts to everyone. At the same time, the needs of the individual mustbe balanced by allowing individuals to determine their roles within the society.Mindless conformity allows for exploitation while unbridled individualism, as exem-pli!ed by Mandible, can lead to genocide or slavery. Hence, an individual’s attemptto live a meaningful life must be mediated by or undertaken in light of one’sconnection and responsibility to the group.

Balance and harmony between the individual and the group stem from theappropriate mix of certain instrumental and terminal values. Organizability is theparamount instrumental value, or means to achieve an end. Mass society is necess-ary because it allows for the ef!cient production and delivery of goods and services.

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All creatures have material needs that must be met—food water, shelter, etc.—andthese needs must be met by working. Because a collective can produce and deliverthe materials we need, it provides the optimal method of increasing the quality ofgoods and services and/or minimizing the time and effort required to acquire them.The !lm reinforces the notion that no individual is capable of prospering alone. Themetropolis, tunnel, and escape ladder are built through collective action. There arealso other moments when ants are shown to need others, although not necessarily acollectivity. When Cutter rescues Z from the water, it illustrates the importance ofa social world.

The good society must also be guided by appropriate terminal values, or visionsof appropriate ends. In Antz, that value is the well-being of all individuals. We aretold this in several ways. First, Mandible uses the ability to organize the efforts of theworkers to try to enact his evil plan of genocide. He uses the workers to build atunnel that will eventually "ood the lower level of the colony where the workers havebeen trapped and will soon drown. He represents the "aw of a society that has aninstrumental value of ef!cacy and organizability, but a terminal value of favoring aparticular class in society. By considering the well-being of some individuals , at theexpense of the rest, Mandible’s value allows for hatred and prejudice. Organizabilityhas the potential to do great good or evil, depending on the terminal vision. Thesame is seen in the various snipes about the royalty and their privileges, and theclassism that elevates the soldiers above the workers.

Considering the well-being of all individuals, operationally, means allowing forindividual choice. Choice is ful!lling and fosters creativity. The value of creativity isseen in the dance scene, where Z innovates and has much more fun, the wreckingball that allows much work to be done, the ladder that saves everyone, and the useof the water to rebuild a better colony—one that includes a lake.

Freedom of choice is also celebrated throughout the !lm—the negative image ofbabies being born and immediately assigned a pickaxe, for workers, or a combathelmet, for soldiers, the fact that Weaver is so happy being a worker once heswitches places with Z, and the transformation of Z from an alienated, unhappy soulwho begins the !lm in therapy to one who has chosen a destiny he looks forward to.At the same time, creativity and freedom are not entirely unbounded. They areregulated by adherence to one’s nature or fate. One is not free to choose any solutionor path. One is free to discover his or her nature and to attempt to enact what theuniverse destines. In so doing, one balances the needs of the one and the many, andharmonizes the universe.

Daoist analysis demonstrates that A Bug’s Life and Antz are not merely animated!lms, but important statements about the appropriate role of the individual in amass society. The !lms re"ect clear value orientations of Western and Easterncultures, respectively, providing very different answers to key questions. Theythereby offer two clear alternatives in the orientation of self and society. Perhaps theview of society offered in Antz represents a long overdue and necessary shift inconsciousness. Stalwart independence, a treasured hallmark of Western societies,may need to be re-thought with a greater sensitivity toward the fact that our worldis increasingly interdependent. Antz also admonishes us that the greatest threats to

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society can come from within. While external threats to peace and security cannotbe ignored, they are sometimes manufactured and manipulated, as in the case of thetermites, to justify and bolster dangerous military power.

This analysis also demonstrates the viability of Daoist rhetoric to contribute to ourunderstanding of human communication. It thus propels Daoist rhetoric beyond itsprevious role of pure theory and toward more practical applications. Further studiessuch as this may point to a clear methodology for Daoist communication criticism.

Loyola Marymount University

Note

[1] An earlier version of this paper, ‘Explorations in Daoist Rhetorical Criticism: DeeperMeanings in A Bug’s Life and Antz’, was presented at the 1st Tokyo Conference onArgumentation, August 2000, Tokyo, Japan.

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