The besteiros do conto (crossbowmen)

in Medieval Portugal (1299-1498):

From common men to elite force

Leandro Ferreira

Common Men and Women at War

2 June, 2014

Introduction

• Creation, organization, expansion and originality ofthis militia in the Portuguese medieval militaryorganization.

• Recruitment and training of these warriors, trying tounderstand how these ordinary men became acentral part of the Portuguese military organization.

1. Creation, organization and expansion of

the besteiros do conto

• Crossbowmen corps established, since the twelfthcentury, within the municipal forces before thecreation of the besteiros do conto.

• Creation of an autonomous command structure,headed by anadéis.

1. Creation, organization and expansion of

the besteiros do conto

• King Dinis (1279-1325) was the first Portuguese kingto understand the importance of these fighters.

• This King established a conto, or a number, whichconsisted in the attribution of a certain number ofcrossbowmen to each recruitment unit (it coincided,generally, with a city or a village).

1. Creation, organization

and expansion of the

besteiros do conto

• The first references to thebesteiros do conto were givenat the end of the siege of thePortuguese city Portalegre, inthe context of the conflictsbetween King Dinis and hisbrother Afonso (1299).

1. Creation, organization

and expansion of the

besteiros do conto

• The first stage of thegranting privileges to thenew militia (1299-1322) isdistributed, in a geographicpoint of view, exclusively bythe region south of the TejoRiver.

• In the beginning of thefourteenth century (1322)this militia should havefinally expanded to thenorth of Portugal(Guimarães).

• During the reigns of thesuccessors of King Dinis,this militia has expandedpractically through theentire Portugueseterritory.

• In 1421, during thereign of King João I,the number ofrecruitment unitsincreased to 300; theyalready totaled about5,000 fighters,scattered practicallythroughout theterritory of thekingdom.

• The militiageographicaldistribution wasimplemented withbasis on theadministrativedivisions of thereign, designatedas Comarcas.

1. Creation, organization and expansion of

the besteiros do conto

• Creation of a superior autonomous structure ofcommand during the reign of Pedro I (1357-1367), represented by the official of anadel-mor.

• Further down in the chain of command, thesources indicate the existence of other type ofofficials, at least within the more numerouscontingent.

2. Recruitment and training: From

common men to elite force

• The recruitment of besteiros do conto was divided into twophases.

Fig. 1 – Detail of a crossbowmanin the Portuguese Pastrana

Tapestries

• Firstly, the municipal authorities(judges and councilors) had theobligation to inform therespective anadel of their cityabout the men who were eligibleto integrate this militia, withpreference for those who belongto the popular group of craftsmen.

2. Recruitment and training: From

common men to elite force

Fig. 2 – Detail of a crossbowman in the

Portuguese Pastrana Tapestries

• Secondly, the local anadel – or theanadel-mor, if he were present –should order that the enlisted menpresented themselves in front ofhim, so they could be inspectedaccording of their physical abilitiesand their skill in handling andshooting the crossbow.

2. Recruitment and training: From

common men to elite force

Fig. 3 – Detail of a crossbowman in the

Portuguese Pastrana Tapestries

• After they were recruited, the newmilitiamen had the obligation to keeptheir crossbows in good conditions,which involved a regular use.

• Then, the newly recruited fightersshould join the older militiamen inregular military trainings.

2. Recruitment and training: From

common men to elite force

Fig. 4 – Detail of a crossbowman in the

Portuguese Pastrana Tapestries

• The members of this military force hada special payment system and enjoyedan attractive set of privileges.

• But beyond that, the besteiros do contowere also subject to a set of specificduties.

Conclusions

• The besteiros do conto quickly became a central part of thePortuguese military organization.

• They were an authentic elite force, and, as José Mattoso

observed, they were one of the first military forces that

have revealed a «minimum of professionalization»; or, at

least, as was noticed by João Gouveia Monteiro, they

reveal a «specialization in a particular weapon (whoseutilization, by the way, required a regular training)».

• On the other hand, A. H. de Oliveira Marques introduced thethesis that the creation and organization, promoted andstreamlined by the Portuguese Crown, of their autonomouscommand structure resulted «in a first step towards thestructuring of a State with modern characteristics»