' ,,

,' .

Copy No. 24 of 50 No. A-18

STUDIES OF

• MIGRATION AND SETTLEMENT

Administrative Series

....a Subject: The Japanese: Character and Morale ,, -.,

I Date: October 15, 1945

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Jtudy Hoom 115 Library of Congr001J Ann_.x

Washington , D. C.

Tel.Republ i c 5127 Oc I,,.) bol' 15 , 1945

THE JAPANESE : CIURACTER AND MORALE

This St udy , which was prepared by Lad i slas F'arugo fur

the Com:mit:too for National Morale, 9 East 89th Street ,

New York City , is based on data :ml ec ted .from 11r-;~3 books

and art i c l es i n Japanese , GArman, Prench and Engl:is ll .•

The Staff of "M" Project ls grateful to the nuthor

and to Dr . Arthur Uphat:1 Pope , Chairman of cho Committee

for National Morale , for the privilege of .i.nclucling this

un i qu e study and b i bliography in uur Series .

Attention ls call ed to M- 1G3, M·- 176 and U- 3~9 in ou:r•

Series .

I 4f.JJ_ • j -fr-

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THE J;1.PU'IBSE : CFJIRACTER AND MOHALE

- Survoy and Di blioc;rnphy -

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PREF NrORY NOTE

The military phase of the Pacific war having just on,lod ,

we now face the monumental task which Secretary of Stato .Jo.moo

F . Byrnes described as the psychological disarmrunent of the

Japanese . The psycholor:;ical rohnbilitation and lntolloctual

reorientation of the people of Japan., if at o.11 possible ., will

by necessity present us with a host of problems . Optimum re ­

sults will be achieved only by the most careful planning which

takes into account not only the military , geographical , politic­

al, and economic , but primarily the socio- psychological aspects

of the complex problem.

Japanese culture , social organization, and personallty

are widely diffe1;1ent from our own. They are factors of such ma-

jor importance that they will in a large measure determine

- Japanese reactions to our efforts and tho ovontual success of

our entire reorientation program .

Tho present Survey ondoavors to prosont some of tho cb tn

needed for a satisfactory solution of tho bQsic problem . Tho

sour oos of the Survey woro over 1 ., 100 books and articlos by

both Western and native Jnpanoso w1,.,itors . '11ho cliagnosos n.nd con ...

clusions omorging in tho Survey are almost without oxc Jption

those of the authori tios ci tod • Inclopondont com .. mont was kopt at

a minimum . Howovor , their analyses wore coll11tod , 11 orchostrat-

.., i -

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od," and so organiz0d n.s to present a fairly coherent picture

of tho whole, still blurred though it may bo--as composite

pictures usually are.

Evon though no critical approach wns attomptod, and al ­

though somo of tho material included in tho Survey may not en­

dure tho acid tos t of scientific valida t:ton, tho vicrns of tho

numorous koon obsorvors quotod hero may holp us in our apprais ­

al of tho Japanoso pooplo, thuir cho.ra.ctor and morale.

Tho writings of Wos torn and Japanoso a.uthors aro ctbout

ovonly roprosontod in tho text, Most of thorn are whn.t aro known

as secondary sourcos. Tho bulk of tho Wostorn roforoncos quot ­

ed in tho footnotes has boon included in provious bibLtogro.phios

and is, thoroforo, not listed in a soparato bibliography horo .

On tho othor hand, tho majority of tho Jnpnnoso titles o.f tho

Bibliogr aphy is prosontod ho11 0 for tho fir•s t timo • It i s hoped

that this now and complotoly untapped sour co will, v1hon p:t>o­

porly oxploitod, make a r eal contribution toward our stucly of

Japanoso psychology.

Throughout this Survey, Japanoso names afo given as fo l-,

lows: surnruno, followed by tho first name. All JQpanoso sur­

names havo boon capitalized . An oxcoption has boon mudo in tho

cnso of historical porsonngos, rulers, nnd doitios .

Tho titles of Japnnoso publications llr'O givon in thoii~ Eng­

lish translation. A 11 J 11 in pnro.nthosos indi catos that tho origin­

al is only nvo.ilnblo in tho Ja.panoso 1::.mguo.go . Numbers in pQ-

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runthosos, intorsporsod in tho toxt, rofor to tho a.ccompanying

Bibliography• AlJ. other roforonco s a.ppoar in footnotos • Onl~r n.

vory fow a.bbrovia. tions ho.vo boon used :!.n tho biblio0rC'..pldcc.l

do.ta . Thay uro TASJ for Transa.ctions of tho Asiatic Society of

Jo.po.n; TJS for Tro.nso.ctions of tho Japa.n Society of Lon.·1011;

DGNVO for Mittoilungon clor Doutschon Gosollschaft fuor clio Na. ­

tur- und Voolkorkundo Os ta.s ions; n.nd C. J. .for Contompo1,o.ry Ja­

pan, Othorwiso tho a.bbroviation□ of stunda.:r cl bibliogr2.phios

ho.vo boon usod.

I would liko to D.cknowl oclgo my clobt of gra.titudo to Dr . Jo­

soph G. Yoshioka., notod authority on Japo.noso nnd compnratlvo

psychology, whoso invalunblo a i d, o.dvico , and criticism mo.do tho

completion of this Survoy possible. Miss Clara Eo.stlo.ko o.nd Mr .

Francis Royo. l Eastlake aided mo with enthusiasm and skill in

tho translation and intorprotation of tho Jo.pnnoso matorinl on

which most of tho psychological data is bnsod, Cnptnin Elli□ M.

Zn.cho.rias, USN, Captain Co cil H, Coggins (MC) , USN, Lieutenant , .

Commnnclor John Paul Rood., USNR, and Dannis G, McEvoy pormitt~,d

mo to draw on thoir immense knowlodgo of Jo.po.nano pcychology.

Mr, Geoffroy Goror , Dr, Huth Bonodict , and Dr . Stofun T, Pos ­

sony holpocl mo with thoir own invontigo.tions and with invn.lu-, .

n.blo oncourngomont . Lo.st but by no moCl.ns l oo.st , Dr . Borno..rd

Brodie n.nd Mrs. Anno Huxloy ron.d o.nd holpocl mo in oditing tho

manuscript, I am po.rticulnrly indobtod to thom,

Wo.shington, n.c,, Novombor 27 1 1945,

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II.

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TABLE 0}7 CONTENTS

Mobilization of Jo.po.noso Psychology

Tho Probl om of Personality in Japnn

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

III. Tho ''Goo d" Japanoso • •••• , •••••••••• , ••• , ••• , •• • 84-155

IV. Somo Charactor Traits of tho ,uRoo.l II Japo..nos o •. 156-187

V • Chnractor Ii'orma tion o.nd i ti:1 Forces •••••••••••• 188 ... 288

VI. Japo.noso Moro.l o : its Sources and Forces ••••••• 289 - 319

VII . Bibliographi cs •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 321-

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THE JAPANESE: CHARACTER AND MORALE

Part I .

I . Mdbll izat ion of Japanese psycholo.fil

The physician FUJIKAWA , Yu1

described the yeaJ: 17'11 as

the most significant in the medical history of Japan . Early

in that year, two interpreters .from the Dutch conune1,cial

mission at Deshima discovered in a ship captain t s library a

Dutch book with a few anatomy tables . They confided their

secret to a native physician, himself a modernist , vJ110 was

dissatisfied with the dominant Chinese theoretic medical

system of essences, influences , external and internal causes . 2

The doctor obtained permission .from the authorities to dissect

the b-ody of an executed criminn.1--and "made a startling dis­

covery . fl He found that Japanese bodieo and Dutch bodies were

constucted alike.

The date of this discovery, March 4 , 1771 , vms described

by FUJIKAWA as "one of the most memorable dates in the history

of Japan. 11

.A, similar 11 discovery" is overdue in Japanese psychology.

Even today, the most enlightened Japanese psychologist could

---- - ------------------------------1 . Fujikawa , Y. flA brief outline of the historiy of · medicine in Japan, fl Scientific Japan , Past and Present, Kyoto 9 1926 . pp . 229 ,-242 .

2 . Berry , J . S . "Medicine in Japan; its development and present status •" Japan and Japa.Irnse - American Relatior~, New York , 1912, pp . 136 - 160 .

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not state with impunity that the Japanese 11 soul 11 and the l

Wes tern 11 s oul" are constructed alike. Indeed, a tr soul tr

unique in its composition and manifestations, and possessed

only by the people of Japan., is the basic tenant of Japanese

psychology . "There is probably no nation on earth today, "

wrote Haltom, 11more conscious of itself, its psychological

and institutional characteristics, its problems and tensions,

·- than is the Japanese . 112 Japanese writings on all and every

subject abound in lengthy disquisitions on tho possession of

unique and superior racial qualities . 11 To enw110rate these

qualities , " Haltom added, "count them over and over, analyze

and describe them, and p:r'oclaim them as the basis of tmparal­

leled achievement has become almost a national obsession . "

-The focal role that the national character is made to

play in Japan has endowed the psychologist vri th a place of

unusual importance among the forces shaping the nation ' s

destiny, Both charlatans and serious students of the social

sciences were calied upon to design for the nation a "way of -

life . 11 Due to the conditions of science in Japan and to the

people 1 s attitude toward knowledge , the borderline between

objective science and quackery is rather vaguely drawn. Even

a great modern scientist like KIKUCHI , Dairoku occasionally

1.41 See Koura (83) andKido (71) in Bibliography .

2 . · Holtom, D. C. Modern Japan and Shinto Nationalism, Chicago, 1943 , pp . 15 - 16 .

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relapsed into the use of so - called "Japanese mathematics , "

an antiquated system of superstition and ambigui ty ... - in h:i.:::; 1

investigations into modern mathematical problems . - Japaneso

historians are not much interested in objective historicnl

data . They are engaged instead in mixing facts with f'D.ncy,

ideals with ideal i sm , as a falsification which AKriAMA , Konzo2

has described as the true purpose of Japanese historiology.

Influenced by the classical method of Chinese official history,

the Japanese method is frankly subjective and utilitarian.

It is designed to serve the state rather than to enlighten

the people . " It is clear , 11 AKIYAMA wrote 9 " l:;ha t each hifJ torie.n

••• solected his material according to his ideal of history,

adjusting the factual and traditional to the contempora.ry system

of government . This attitude," he added , "may be reg:.::.rcled as

reflecting the national character , ·ahich leans toward tlle

practical rather than the theoretica1 . 11 3

A simi lar approach to objective knowled~e is discornible

in every sphere of scientific research . The physical researches

of YAMAKAWA , Kenj-iro the chemical studies of SAKURAI , Joji the

--- --- ------------ - - ----- --------1_. Cf ~ Smith , D. E . and Mikami, Y. A Hist~£l_of JC:l?.§:~~~se Mathe­ma tics , Chicago , ·1914 . Also Knott , C. G. The Ab0-cus in its historic and scientific aspects , 11 TASJ, 24 , 1,

2 . Akiyama , K. "Orientation in the study of Japanese history .• " Guide to Japan·ese Studios, Tokyo, 1937 , pp . 3 - 54 ., contains a use­ful short bibliography of the most important writings of modern Japanese historians . Akiyama is · professor of histo1,y in Koku­gakuin College . Ho is also author of A History of e1e Middle Ages of Japan,' A His torical Reviow of s-ino - Jupanose Heici.t:i.ons,otc,.

3 . Ibid ., p . 6 . Also see Borton, H. 11 A survey of Japanese histo ­riography_. ·" ~ican Historical Review, 1938, 43., 3, pp . 489-499 .•

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zoology of MITSUKURI, Kakichi and occasionally even the

medicine of NOGUCHI1

are compounds of objective investiza-·2

tions and subjective interpretations, reflecting "the

scholar 1 s conception of what history," or for that matter

physics, mathematics, chemistry, zoology or, of course, psychol­

ogy 11 should be . 11

Consequently two exotic currents, as l'JITOBE3 callod them,

predor.1inate in all Japanese scientific investigations, 11 the

one being inductive and the other deductive, the one placing

emphasis on objective proofs while the other is founded on

abstract principle." And even though Japan has pledged her­

self to the occidentalization of many of her ideas and insti­

tutions, she strives to preserve these indigenous idoas and

institutions as little changed as possible.

11 On the one sido, 11 KANEKO, Umajo wrote in this connection,

11 Japan is today strongly influenced by the intensely positivis-

- tic social sciences. But at the same time the thought-wo11 ld

is imbued with a traditional idealism and with a tendency

toward deeper philosophical and ideal;istic investigations which

enable it to expound the higher meaning of hlunan life and

society,. 114

l. Eeks tein, G,. Noeuchi, Nev1 York, 1931,

2. Kuwaki, A. 11 Development of the study of· science in Japan." Wes teI'.n Influences in Modern Japan, Chicago, 1931, pp . 89 -101 .

3. Nitobe 1 I • .nTwo exotic currents in Japanese civilization~" Ibid., pp. 1•84-. .

4. Kaneko, u. "A survey of philosophy in Japan, 187O-1929,.rr ~-, pp . 56-59.

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t

In the field of psy.chology, Japanese scholars 13 t;rti ve

to reconcile the positivistic findings of Occidental science

with the esoteric, irrational, superstitious and always

"Japanese" psychological '1deology. In this effort an occa­

sional Japanese psychologist, like KURODA (98) with his Kan

psychology, may succeed remarkably well. On the whole, how­

ever, most of such attempts at fusion run dry in a desert of

pure verbalism. Japanese psychologists thus miss a unique

opportunity. Due to the epistemological quagmire, the y are

victims of the peculiar Japanese attitude toward knowledge in

general.

What is the Japanese Attitude Toward Knowledge in Gener a l?

Already in 1695, Ka empfer1 found the average Japanese

rather uninterested in science per se, but not necessarily,

- as Charnberlain2 and Dentng3

later averred, incapable of

' logical thinkibg or of a ppreciating abstract ideas. "If we

proceed to consider the Japanese, with regard to sciences

and the establishments of our mind, philosophy perhaps ~ ill

be found wanting, 11 Kaempfer wrote. 11'The Japanese indeed are

not so far enemies to this science, as to banish the country

1. Kaempfer, E. History of Japan, London, 1727.

2. Chamberlain, B. H. Things Japanese, 5th rev. ed., London, 1905, PP• 250-264.

3. Dening, W. 11 Mental characteristics of the Japanese • 11 TASJ, 1891, 19, PP• 17~36~

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those who cultivate it, but they think it an amusement proper

for monasteries, where the monko leading an idle lazy life,

have little e:kse to trouble their heads about ." He remarked,

however , that this attitude was chiefly toward the speculative

part of science . We may add that it was largely developed by

the deficiencies of the educational system which was monopolized 1

by the Buddhists ror centuries.

Even in the monasteries , erudite sects like the Tendai or 2

Kegon never flouris hed . HARADA calls attention to tho fact

that the Confucian Shushi school was popular because it was

realistic and practical ;3

the Yomei school, on the other hand ,

was philosophical and erudite and had a following only arnong

the e lite . The early philosophers of Japan were "religious

statesmen" in all but name, applying their ideas to practical 4

politics .

This emphasis on a fusion of the esoteric and the

practical , which NITOBE5 never fails to stress , proved a

primary impediment to the development of objective kno7rledgc .

1. Lombard, F . A. Pre-Meiji Education in Japan , Tokyo , 1914.

2 . Harada , T. "Japanese Character ah d Christianity." I. P.R., Honolulu, 1929 .

3 . Lloyd A. "Historical development of the Shushi philosophy in Japan," TASJ, 1903 , 34, 4, pp . 5- 80 .

4 . Sansom, G. B. Japan, a Short Cultural His bory, New York , 1943, pp . 64 -106 .

5 . Nitobe , I. Japanese Traits and Foreign Influences, London , 1927. .

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:r;t was aggrevated by the fact that, as Den:ing pointed out,

the Japanese had the ''J:iabit of endeavorin~ to reach abstract

truth by other than the proper method--a careful study of the

concrete . "

Japan did, indeed, produce an oc ·cas ional scholar oagorly

searching for objective truth . Such a scholar was HIRAGA,

Gennai the universal genius of tho eighteenth century . HIRAGA

11 sold all his possessions to buy a Dutch book on natural his­

tory, made a deep study of medical botany, formed a commercial

company, constructed e lectrical apparatus, wove a fire-proof

cloth by using asbestos, and in the intervals of his researches

threw off extremely popular j~ruri plays and sketches as a means 1

of livelihood . 11 But the charlatans by far predominated and

they rejected systematic investigations with scorn . They were

energetically supported by those authorities who though in terms

of their own perpetuation, scoffed at progress, and feared

science above all else as 11 the harbinger of change . 11

The over - all Japanese attitude toward science vras thus

adversely influenced; first, by what WATANABE (236) called the

"fundamentally unscientific disposition" of the people at large;

and , second, by the negative attitude of the Shogunate toward

all scientific activities not s0rving its aims . Consequently,

s-cientific investigations wore long confined to poll tic al

1 . Sansom, G. B.; op . cit. , pp . 511-513 .

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philosophy (fiDst adapted from the Chinese by Prince Shotoku),

and to those primitive form::i of medicine and astronomy which,

in the words of h.lJWAKI, 1

Ayao "are found in the history of all

races. 11 The first acquaintance with Occidental science was

made when Francis Xavier, a Jesuit missionary, arrived in 2

Japan in 1549. 11 Such phenomena as eclipses of tho sun and

the moon, were now given scientific explanation by the Catholic

missionaries," whose knowledge of religion, medicine, and astron­

omy 11was a source of surprise and later of admiration to the 3

Japanese, to whom these subjects we1~e entirely unknown."

This period of astonished enlightenment, however, was

destined to be of only short duration. By 1597, the mission-

aries were extirpated, and Occidental science in mediaeval

Japan went underground. In 1630, a stringent law prohibited.

the use of Western languages, 11 and the people were strictly

fol'bidden to read European books • 11 The ban was partly lifted

in 1720, and a few Japanese, restless and bewildered as they

were in their intellectual secluslon,- turned their attention

to those branches of Western science which seemed immediately

useful. _____________ ,..,. ____ ----------------,..--1. Kuwaki, op. cit.

2. Haas, H. Geschichte des Christentwns in Jupan, 2 vols., Tokyo, 1902-4 . .Also Cary, o. Histor-y· of Christianity in Japan, 2 vols., Nev; York, 1909 . -----

3. Kuwaki, op. ci t .

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"They encountered at first the most hea;r:11t9;reaki ng diffi­

culties , 11 Sansom wrote, 11 for even the o;f;f ig~al tnterpretors

to the factory at Deshima knew only a few cqrnm9_n phrases ,

which they had noted dovm in kana and learned by heart, while -scholars in Yedo had, aftt 1r many years, painfully acquired

the alphabet and a small \'Ocabulary of words lilce Sun, Iv'Ioon, 1

Earth , Man , Tiger, Dragon, and Bamboo . 11 A Dutch- Japane se

dictionary was laboriously compiled by AOKI, Bunzo in 1745,

but its use was still res~•icted to persons accredited by the

government . . H01TIA, Rimei ( To shiaki) complained in bitter words

that Japanese culture was & t a standstill . It remained so for

yet another century . ·1Nhen Japan at last turned to Europe for

11 the sublimer so1"ts of k.rio\\ l edge , 11 it was , again in the words

of Sansom, 11 the dreary rati :>cinations of Herbert Spencer or

the h omiletic of men like B 3njamin Frankl~n and srunuel Smiles

which seemed best to stay their intellectual pangs ."

These inte l lectual for c,es of the l ate Tokugawa era never ­

theless c ombined with powerful economic trends to break: down

the seclusion policy of 163G , and to lead to the Meiji Restora­

tion of 1 868 which threvr the floodgates wide open to a tide of

Western infl uences . This , t)o , was the beginning of scientific

development in Japan in the : aodern sense of tho wor9- . Around

1877 , British empiricism f ou, 1d its way into the cou,.ntry ,

- ------------------------1 . Sansom, op . ~ • , P • 511,

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'l especially empirical philosophy which, in the words of KA11EKO,

11filled a gap in the Japfu7.ese intellectual outlook, a gap

created by a long- standing deficiency in oriental thought . 11

But even then, it was not Hu.me ' s "empiricism" or Mill ' s Logic ,

but rather the latter ' s Representative Government and his

Pol itical Economy which were most appreciated . Later Spencer ' s

experimental theory of evolution became the dominant philo­

sophical influence in Japan, and "the average Japanese came to

look upon Spencer as the greatest of Western scholars . " 2

As recorded in Scientific ~apan Past and Present , the

entire history of modern scientific research in Japan covers

only a pel"i od of seventy- odd years . It began in 1871, v:rith the

establishment of a hydrographic bureau, and continued in 1874,

when a hygenic laboratory and a meteorological observatory

were organized . Up to 1875, however , no national, prefectural

or municipal scientific societies existed and no private re ­

search institutions were on record . In fact, of the ninety-3

three learned societies and institutions which Gregory listed

in 1927 , more than half were then but fifteen years old .

The beginnings of the Tokyo Imperial University, which

later developed into the outstanding home of psychological

1 . Kaneko , op. cit . , also Inouye, T. Entwicklung der philo ­sophischen Idc~;r:l" lri Japan , Berlin, 1897-;-rr-Japanische Phflosophie;' in Die K:_.lt·u.r d•-::::._lfegenwo.rt, 1913, vol . 1 .

2 . Published by the Japanese National Research Council, Kyoto , 1926 .

3 . Gregory, H. E. "Science in Japan, 11 News Bull ., I. P. R., 7 99.'7 H1Ahrm,ry . pp .. 1-7 .

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research under Professor KUWATA., Yoshizo may be noted briefly.

The new Meiji administration permitted the revival of such

institutions of the Tokugawa regime as the Medical School

(Igaku.sho), the Confucian School (Shoheiko), and the School

for Occidental Learning (Kaiseisho). A few years later these

three institutions were united to form the Tokyo University,

which was later developed into the Tokyo Imperial University, 1

receiving its final charter in 1886.

Scientific institutions are financed by pooling contribu­

tions from the government, the prefectures, municipalities,

and individuals, There is but little du.plication in the

original scientific studies pursued in these institutions.

While religious interference is not tolerated, academic freedom,

which was copied from Western universities in the beginning,

is made illusory through the ironclad control of the state

Ministry of Edu.cation and, since 1930, the military authorities.

'rhe Japanese are extremely proud of their teachers and lavish

exceptional honors upon them. However, as they have always

followed their methods slavishly, scientific research in Japan

was not remarkable for its orie;inality until industrialization

put a premium on initiative and nevi inventions.

1. History of Tokyo nnperial Universityfs 50 Years (J)., 2 vols., Tokyo, l932.

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What were the Origins of rund What Progress was Made in Scientific Psychology?

A historical review of scientific psyclloloc;y in Jal}an 1

may truthf'ully repeat what Jastrow said of psychology in

general: it has a long past , if only a short history . Accord­

ing to WATANABE ' s {237) interesting report to the Eichth

Annual Meeting of the Japanese Psychological Association in

1940,2

Japanese orthodox psychology developed through four

great histological states . The first stage he called "religious

development psychology, 11 based upon Buddhistic philosophy,

covering a period from 616 to 1467 . The second stage extended

from the middle age to tho beginnings of tho Meiji era in 1868 ,

and was an "ethical general psychology," primarily based on

Confucianism. The scientific general psychology of the third

stage was based upon ex~mples provided by the Western countries

and extended up to and including the Manchurian incident of

1931 , after which a "phenomenological general psychology,"

based upon monistic philosophy, predominated . 3

"Practical psychology'' as r'epresented by what Scheucher

described as "treatises containing the precepts of morals , "

is as old as Japan itself . WATSUJI , Tetsuro4 KIYOitARA , Sadao5

1 . Jastrow , J . 2. The Japanese Psychological Association was founded in 1926 . It publishes the Japanese Journal of Psychology since that year .

3 . In his preface to Kaomfer 1 s op . cit . ,

4 . Vlatsuji , T. A History of the Japanese Spirit (J), Tokyo,1937. I

5 . · Kiyohara, s . A History of the Thought - Life of t,he Japanese, f T) 'Pnkvn 19~0~

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and HIRAIZUMI, Kiyosho1

in their "histories of the Japanese

spirit," revealed strong psychological undertones in all

national activities and called attention to the i:m.mense

"formative role" which psychological practices played in the

moulding of the Japanese 11 soul. 11 NAKAYAMA 2 described h<Wl

certain psychological imponderables contributed to the gradual

development of Japanese mores.

VJATSUJI cites Prince Shotoku, the outstanding statesman

of the crucial Nara period, as one whose success was partly

due to an understanding of the psychological problems of the 3 4

nation and a skill in their solution. YUZANKAKU and SAKURAI

described ancient Japanese soul-lore as the source in which

modern students found their richest material for their investi-

gations into national characteristics. ' 5

BUSHIDO, too, the

moral code of the warrior class, was permeated with powerful

psychological elements. And the great moralists of the

eighteenth century, like OGYU, Sorai or SATO, Naokota developed

their systems with a clear appreciation of vital psychological

factors~6

The ideas of these men, as well as the abstract

1. Hiraizuni , K. Spiritual Life in the Middle Ages (J), Tokyo, 1932. The author is professor of history of Tokyo Imperial University ;

2. Nakayama, T. Mores of the Japanese People (J), Tokyo, 1907.

3. Yuzankaku, A course in Japanese Folkways {J), Tokyo, 1909.

4. Sakurai, s. Studies in the History of Customs (J), Tokyo,n.d..

5. Ni tob0, I. 'Bushido-.UThe moral ideas of Japan, 11 in Japan and the Japanese, 1904, pp. 262-281.

6. Sansom, op. cit., pp. 295ff.

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principles on which Bushido rested, developed, in the words

of WATANABE (237) a "strictly native psychology" which seemed

to develop independently into 11 a type and character psychology."

Although all these men were forerunners of scientific

psychology, they nevertheless failed to inspire a discipline

that could be called truly original or adapted specifically

to the "soul" which is so often claimed as peculiar to the

Japanese. Modern Japanese psychology, when it finally blos­

somed out as an independent discipline, unfortunately disre­

garded the immense potentialities of the indigenous foundations

and became almost exclusively patterned after Occidental models.

The comparative success of this adaptation of Western psychol­

ogy to Oriental needs may be by itself a refutation of the pet

Japanese theory, not infrequently advanced by acadenic psycholo­

gists as well, that the Japanese psyche is fundamentally differ-,

ent, not only from the Occidental, but even from the Oriental

psyche. AWAJI, (24), for example was successful in measuring

the a llegedly peerless Japanese character with tests developed

by American psychologists for "American character trait s ,"

and the industrial psycholog:i.cal activities of UENO (228 )

succeeded in improving t he efficiency of Japanese worke:!'.'s with

methods designed by German psychologists for German workers.

It is regrettable that aside from a very few original

investigations, Japanese psychologists lacked tho ingenuity

and originality to study &nd explain the specific problems of

- 15 -

t he Japanese "soul. 11 Undoubtedly a great opportunity was

thus missed and, despite the great number• of s tudont s engaged

in academic psychology, no native scholar emerged to give a

truly satisfactory interpre tation of his people's psychology •

.Among the very few who attempted such orig inal inve s tigations

NOJIMA ( 139), OHWAKI ( 149), WATANABE ( ~-;~4), and TANIKAV/A ( 212)

may be mentioned, but even these students who proved capable

of objective analysis when investigating non-characterological

problems , became abstruse and biased when dealing with the

Nippon jin no kokoro, Japanese psychology.

Psychology as an independent discipline of widespread

popularity vvas somewhat late in coming. According to MATSUMOTO

(117), psychology in Japan ha d to be freed of the dominance

of philosophy, biology, and physiology before it could emerge

as an independent discipline. Even these influences were dis­

tinctly foreign in origin. The Japanese "never had a philosophy

- of their own''; their biologists and physiologists were mere

"expositors of imported ideas . " Thus psychology, the finished

product itself , remained but an Oriental carbon copy of the

Western original, adapting Occidental methods and theories,

but more often only an Occidental terminology, to Oriental

problems.,

Insofar as its philosophical foundations are concerned,

Japanese psychology is anchored to the ethical and political

- 16 -

ideas of the Buddhist1

and Confucian2

classics. Among the

Western influences of the post-1868 period, British empiricism,

French liberalism, and the contemplative German philosophy

of the Marburg school predominated, producing a pseudo-philosophy

in which Buddhist doctrines and Confucian ethics were labor­

iously mixed with Western ideas. INOUYE's, Tetsujiro

Phenomenon as Reality was a representative sample of this

- philosophical hodge-podge. All European philosophical schools

found their imitators in Japan: a nee-Kantian philosophy

flourished between 1910 and 1920; it was followed by American

pragmatism, Bergson's philosophy of life, by various economic

philosophies from Adam Smith to Marx and Lenin, and all the rest.

The latest philosophical school to enjoy a modicum of popularity

-3 was Nazism of the pseudo-scientific Rosenberg brand. In this

sphere, Japan came closest to her own philosophy adapted to the

teachings of the state, somewhat in the form of Hegel's Fichte's

and Nietzsche's relationship to the Nazi state, with Takayama's

neo-Nichirenism which, according to ANES.AKI II combines Buddhist

idealism with .rapanese patriotism. 114 KAMADA, Ho is sometimes

1. Tsuji, z. History of Buddhism in Japan, Tokyo, 1919-1931; Tajima, s. A. History of Buddhism in Japan, (J), 3 · vols., Tokyo, 1884;-ono, T. Philosophy of Japanese · Buddhism, (J), Tokyo, 1903; Shilo, B. Philosophy of Buddhism (JJ, ToKyo, 1929.

I

2. !nouye, o~. cit., pp.·100-115; Dening, w .. "Confu~ian philso­phy in Japan, TASJ, 1906, 34, 4, 5-80, (concise review of Inouye's three volume book).

3. Cf. German Psychological Warfare, New ~ork, 1942, pp.13-33, 65-124\

4. Anesaki, M. Nichiren the Buddhist Prophet, Cambridge , Mass-., 1916. · Also see Momoi, N. (ea.) Complete Wor•ks of Nichiren ( J), Tokyo, 1925,-.,

- 17 -

regarded as the outstanding psychological representative

of such chauvinistic trends in science. WATANABE (236) empha­

sized the predominantly psychologicl implications of his wor-k

and asserted that "the school to which he belonged, his philos­

ophy, religion and ethics all contributed to the development

of scientific psychology in Japan."

It was toward the close of the Meiji era that a chair for

- psychology was created at Tokyo nnperial University and the

discipline became established ln the academic curriculum. Tokyo

is still the leading center of psychological studies, although

certain other universities, especially Tohoku University of

Sendai now contests its leadership. 1

-

Fechner was probably most instrumental in influencing

early Japanese psychological thought, but his dominance was

soon contested by Wundt and others, every psychological school

from Watson's Behaviorism to the Gestalt school of Koehler-

Wertheimer-ICoffka, being represented. NAKAMURA' s Value and

Thinking is an example of the Gestalt school of which SAKUMA.2

is the outstanding representative.

Among the first Japanese scientific psychologists were

MOTORA, Yuji:ro of Tokyo Imperial University, and HAYAMI, Hiroshi

of Seoul Imperial University of Korea. MOTORA is now regarded

1. Cf. the monthly journal of the University's Department of Psychology, the Tohoku Psychologica Folia, which publishes its articles in English and German.

2 • Dr. Sakuma translated Koehler rs Gestalt Psycholorp: into Japanese in 1934. Cf. ~..!_ Psychol., 1935, for review.

- 18 -

as the founder of what NAKAMURA (134) described as the

Japanese school of physiological psychology. MOTORA evaluated

all mental pPocesses on the basis of physiological dynamics,

defined psycnology as "the science design8d to examine the

organs of tho ht1.r,1an body by means of personal observation, 11

and maintained that such self-analysis necessarily leads to

the revelation of overwhelming inner experiences. He acknow­

ledged, however, that a ~erra incognita existed between physical

and mental processes.

HAYAMI had an abstract philosophical orientation. Elabora­

ting on MOTORA1s ideas, he maintained that all psychological

systems must have an epistemological foundation. He tried to

establish direct approach to consciousness, claiming that he

was thus able to provide satisfactory explanation for the prob­

lems of the Ego, volition1 and judgement. His system was sub­

jective-phenomenological-descriptive. He, too, rejected the

method of external observation of subjects for the purpose of

obtaining a pattern of the inner consciousness, since he doubted

that such a method is capable of approaching consciousness in

its purest for!Jl•

Among modern psychologists, SAKUMA, Kanae and KTJWATA,

Yoshizo (105) may be mentioned as outstanding . The former

combined a natural-scientific approach with MOTORA's philosoph­

ical orientation, while the latter ma:i.ntained that "psychology ,

physiology and physics together form one single scientific entityJ'

-

-

- 19 -

Since 1938, the pseudo"scientific German psychology increased . .

in its influence, as attested by WATANABE (237), who was him­

self among the first to accept the non-s~ientific theories of

Nazi-minded psychologists. Accord5.nc -~·,o 11.im, ''a rise in

national consciousness in Japan brou:;1-it on by the present

crisis (of 1940) seems to direct psychological interest to a

study of races, type and personality around the nucleus of

the historical type and character psychology." He added, how­

ever, that the modern phenomenological psychology will be

retained for its monism which 11 postulates no supernatural

being above hum.ans, This fits into the present Japanese social

philosphy ·which aims at organic integration of the whole ( the

State) and the parts (individuals )."

German influence, too, especially that of Ludwig Klages,

led to the use of graphology in character tests conducted by

INUI (52), but the methods used by the overwhelming ma.jority

of Japanese psycho logists conforms to generally accepted tec~­

niques. Thu,s , for example, Mr.lOSHI ( 125), in his inves tiga­

tion of character types used the Rorschach test, Muellerts

interpretation of incomplete figures, the motor image tests of

Exner,s wheel, and others . On the whole , scientific devices

invented by Western students were imported and applied without

change. Among the very few original methods developed in Japan

for specific Japanese needs, those of AWAJI (22, 23) and of mem­

bers of the Tohoku school of psychology, are outstanding .

-

- 20 -

While academic psychology thus followed imported patterns,

a significant original school is represented in Kan which

KURODA defined as 11 a state of consciousness typical of the

01°iental soul . 11

What is Kan?

KURODA (98, 100, 102) provided the following definition

of~ in his fundamental paper on this indigenous psychological

system, said to be the only true expression of the Japanese

soul :

"Kan is a popular expression of comprehension which is an

essential constituent of experience and acts together with or

apart from consciousness. C?mprehension is in its character

akin to intuition, but can never be identified with it; it is

something other than the so-called unconscious , anticipating

scheme of Lindworsky or any other related terminologies found

in Western psychologies. It is, as it were, a state of expe­

rience characterizing the Oriental way of thinking . " ·•

A brief description of one of KURODA's (102) experimental

studies may throw further light on Kan , especially in its prac­

tical application, The problem was t o find out whether it was

possible to verify the hypothesis that anyone can perform

several things at a time . The experiment itself consisted of

a discriminative throwing of steel balls, of discrL~inative

finger reaction of the right hand to visual stimuli, of mental

- 21 -

arithmetic, and of retention of unrelated words presented

by the experimenter. According to KURODA, the experiment

enabled him to draw up his theory of polarization which, he

maintains, is the essence of Kan.

SAKUMA, Kanae (cf . 134) studied prelogical and aesthetic

experiences and described Kan as their visible manifestation.

- What Progress was Made i!2 Experimental and Applied Psychology?

Practical-minded Japanese psychologists recorded the

greatest and most satisfactory priogress in these fields,

again following imported technique which were applied almost

without change. This progress is fully and ably described by

UENO {228) who is himself an outstanding representative of

industrial psychology .

According to him, MATSUl'vIOTO ( 117) pioneered in this field

- with the introduction of intelligence tests and the develop­

ment of industrial psychology, with the former based on American,

and the latter predominantly on German models. His inductive

methodology obtained through the obersation of a very large

number of subjects an inventory of varied psychological acts .

This inventory was carefully analyzed and prevalent traits

accepted as norms . Quantitative and qualitative deviations

from these norms were recorded statistically, (~ ~ 95) .

Tl.1.e Japal1lese te~tile industry, .followed by the Ministry

of Transport, were the first to employ such methods in the

-

- 22 -

select ion of their personnel. Until recently, the use of

similar performance and aptitude tests was fairly prevalent

in all industries, as well as in army arsenals and navy yards

(51). Among psychologists who improved or elaborated upon

MATSUMOTO 's experiments and tests, SUZUKI (191) and UENO (229)

may be singled out for mention. In present-day tndustrial

psychology, vocational guidance (70, 94), performance and

aptitude psychology (48, 108), psychological means of labor

improvments (170) and accident prevention (63) figure most

prominently, KURIBAYASHI (94) descr:i,bed progress along more

modern lines in still another direction, applying psychology

to scientific management, selling, advertising, and even to

political propaganda.

An exceptionally interesting paper in this field was pro­

duced by M.ATSTJYUKI (118) who studied the "chacter structure

of the superior worker. 11 In other fields of applied psychology,

- ISHII (55) contributed to the development of criminal psychology,

some of his investigations having considerable political signi­

ficance as well, since they were concerned with the study of

political prisoners or victims of the thou.ght -contrioJ. law.

KIDO (70) and KUBO (85) worked in the field of educational

psychology; KIDO especially succeeded in pro·ving that school

performances usually validate psychological prognostications,

and advocated a more widespread use of psychology as a means of

educational guidance~ MATSUI (114), continuing his work along

somewhat different lines, suggested new movements in physical

-

-

- 23 -

education on the basis of his psychological experiments,

and became, together vii th FUKUTOMI ( 30) a leader in the

psychology of sports.

Considering the volume of applied psychology in Japan,

this is by necessity but an incomplete list of activities in

the field, Additional material may be found in MATSUMOTO's

.ill:i3tory of Psych_olo~ in . Japan, where several chapters are

devoted to tho subject , while KISIMOTO has cornpilecl a compre ­

hensive bibliography of books written on applied psychology

up to 1935 .

pow was Japa11_ose Psychology Mobilized f01• the War Effort? ' '

The preoccupation of Japanese psychologists with the

problems of applied psychology facilitated the mobilization

of Japanese psychology for the war effort . This psychological

mobilization began in 1920 and was continued apace with tho

mobilization of the nation's total re sources for the s epies

of wars which started in 1931. In a sense, industPial and

educational psychology were the pace -makors for military

psychology as an independent discipline . On the whole, however,

progress was simultaneous in both fields and it is difficult to

separate the two within the framework of psychological mobiliza -

tion .

HIRATSUKA ' s (38) noise experiments provide a good example

for the clos e cooperation between civilian agencies and the

... 24 -

military authorities. They began as a civilian project,

until they attracted the attention of the ai~med forces, and

were subsequently integrated into military psychology. The

investigations into aviation psychology conducted by AWA JI

(23) at Tokyo Imperial University, and the psycho-clbnatological

studies in the L'JW Tsnperature Laboratory of Hokkaido University,

were cori:p~_et ely tr.ken over by the armed forces, al though these,

- too, s tar ted out as private research of a non-military character.

T:,.o Tokyo m·,;micipali ty and the Youth Employment Council

embarked on a fruitful cooperation with the armed forces as long

as 25 years ago , aj_ding each other in the development of mental

and aptitude tert s , and designing various means to raise the

intellectual level of prospective conscripts (22, 137). All

along the li:'.'lo , the cooperation was both close and uninterrupted.

The armed fo r ces oitheI' directly supported investigations, or

adapted the findings of independent scholars to military require-

- ments. Such divergent investigations as, for example, TOMEOKA's

and SASAME's (217) experiments in habit-breaking, and KIRIHARA 's

(74) and MASAKE-OTOMI's (112) will-temperament studios found

ready employment in milita,ry psychology, together with the

functional investigations mid tests developed by various schools

of industrial psychology.

Within the framework of this cooperation, civilian psycholo-

gists were expected to conduct investigations potentially or

immediately useful to the armed forces. A sr:1all number of

-

-

- 25 -

psychologists employed by the army and navy examined the

specific psychological problems of the armed forces and

applied the findings of independent psychologists to their

solution. The close cooperation between these two groups

resulted in considerable accomplishments in the field of

military psychology.

What was the Progress of Psychological Work in ~apan 1 s Armed Forces?

Reviewing the progress of more than two decades, NAKAMURA

(134), in his review of psychological activities in Japan,

could credit the armed forces with an important contribution.

Just at the time military psychology was abandoned in the

United States after the auspicious beginnings it made in the

first world war, Japanese military authorities became inter­

ested in the subject and encouraged the study of specific

psychological problems of military life and combat. In April,

1921, a psychological laboratory was -established in the Military

Academy and Dr. NISHIZAWA was appointed its head (137). Simul­

taneously, the study of psychology was included in the curricu­

lum of the Officers t School . "From that date on, 11 NISHIZAWA

wrote, "the practical application of psychological studies was

pursued in every phase of military life. 11

The Navy, too, adopted psychology for its needs, and estab­

lished a psychological laboratory at the Kure Naval Station at

-

-

- 26 -

about the same time (51). This laboratory was responsible

for the selection of workers for the Kure Navy Yard, and with

the development of accident prevention methods. Soon after­

wards a psychological laboratory was established within the

scientific department of tho Navy Ministry, to design intelli­

gence and aptltude tests for the selection of naval personnel,

and to inves·qigate specific psycho-physiological problems (45).

A great step forward was made in 1924. Army authorities

became alarmed by the low mental level of conscripts and called

a conferen~e in Tokyo to discuss possible remedies. This con­

ference was presided over by a civilian psychologist, A.WAJI,

of the Department of Psychology at Tokyo Imperial University,

and resulted in the establishinent of a Permanent Advisory

council on all matters relating to military psychology. The

council developed a series of mental tests, organized the

procedure of testing, provided for the validation of test

reports, and determined the persons to be tested. It also

placed thirty psychologists trained to administer these tests

at the disposal of the military authorities. The army on its

part assigned several officers to l::tcquire an elementary kI1ow­

ledge of personal practices, and to assist AVJAJI and NISHIZAVvA

in the execution of the tests .1

1. See special issue of J. J. Psychol. ( to t~problems of military psychology.

), entirely devoted

-

- 27 -

The first mental tests conducted within the Japanese

Army were made in 1924, among soldiers of the Seventh and

Eighth Divisions, and the Saghalien Expeditionary Force.

From September 10-15, 1924, no less than 5,650 soldiers were

tested, and special studies were continued with 50 soldiers

specially chosen for the purpose. The tests used wer·e the

American Army's Alpha and Beta tests, but slightly adapted to

Japanese requirements.

These tests revealed a generally low mental aptitude

among soldiers, only members of the Signal Corps producing

satisfactory results. It was found that members of the infantry,

heavy artillery, cavalry, and even engineers had an inadequate

mental aptitude for their work. Among prospective conscripts,

farmers and unskilled or semi-skilled workers also failed to

pass these tests, although they supplied the bulk of the con­

script army. On the basis of these findings, a mental examina­

tion was added to the physical examination preceding induction,

a procedure continued to the end. In the Army it was largely

confined to the selection of specialists, while in the Navy it

covered everyone.

The Artillery School was then given its own psychological

laboratory under Dr. UCHIYAMA (224, 225), and the Psychological

Laboratory of Tokyo Imperial University was integr1ated into

the armed forces as headquarters for aviation psychology. When

in 1938, Dr. Pryns Hopkins1

visited Japan, he found this

1. Hopkins, P. - 11 Psychologicril tests ·1n the :El.t"rny and· air' force of' foreign oountriea, 11 Occuputiono.l .Psychology, 1939, 13, 56-63.

-

-

... 28 -

laboratory using the most modern methods and devices i n the

selection and classification of aviation personnel, and con­

ducting large-scale investigations into the various psychological

problems inherent in military aviation, (23, 112a, 140, 220) . 1

In the same year, Zielasko also confirmed the use of similar

methods in the Japanese Army.

The cooperation between the military and scientific

personnel was not free of the friction which characterizes

similar cooperation in Western countries. NISHIZAWA , for

example, complained of o. "lack of understanding on the part

of regimental commanders ·who prefer their own methods of

intuitive and instinctive selection to the psychologist 1s

acientific methods of classification.!! Such .complaints, how­

ever, were voiced in 1926 . In a later report, ~~itten in 1936,

NAKAMURA (134) was able to repor•t that "even those persons in

the War Department who in the past were hostile to or indiffer­

ent of psychological practices have come to take an exceeding

interest in our experiments.!! He was also able to state vdth

satisfaction that aside from the selection and classification

of personnel, the psychologist was given an advisory role in

what he called "military pedagogy" and the promotion and preser ­

vation of combat morale .

1, Zielasko, G~ 11 Psychologische Ausvrahlmethodon in den lieeren fromcler Laender, 11 Soldatent~£~~ 1938 , PP • 74 - 80 ,

-

-

... 29 -

What is the Role of Ps::zchoanalysis in Japan? I

Among academic psychologists, psychoanalysis is almost

entirely confined to Professor MARUI's school at Sendai Univer­

sity (107). In non-university circles, however, psychoanalysis

enjoyed considerable popularity, at least up to 1941. This

was revealed in the various writings of OTSUKI, Kenji (171-174)

who was probably the most outspoken and prolific writer among

Japanese psychoanalysts. A _Japanese Psychoanalytical Associa-

tion existed and its annual seminars attracted considerable

attention. The last seminar is knovm to have been held in

November 1940. The Association had its own journal, Seishun

Bunseki or Psychoanalysis edited by OTSUKI.

MARUI's presentation of psychoanalysis reveals no original

trends, no attempt to apply the discipline to specific Japanese

cond;i tions, and, indeed, no departure wha tover from the es tab­

lished Freudean theories. In fact, the majority of the investi­

gat;ions published in the Seishin Bunseki have non-Japanese,

general psychological problems for their themes, as, for example,

I-IA:YASAKA' s ( 36) studies on neurotic anxiety, YAHAMURA 's paper

on erythrophobia, OGAWA's (145) consideration of homosexuality,

and others which have no bearing whatever on the specifica.J.ly

Japanese aspects of these important problems. Even a study

of the death instinct, a problem with important Japanese impli­

cations, refrained from taking into account the native aspects

-

-

- 30 -

of the question. OKUMOTO {158) almost alone represents the

exception to this rule, with his comparison between the

Buddhist love-pain theory and the analytic sexual theory.

Among the general a s se t s of psychoanalysis for Japanese

psychology , MARUI lists (a) its practical truth; {b) its

popular rationalism; (c) its constancy hypothesis; and (d)

its concrete conception of man. He perceived its greatest

value in the cure of neurotics "who find security in it."

By "constancy hypothesis" MARUI meant 11 the assumption of

developed mental states behind the undeveloped ones, a general

principle of the atomistic viow of mind."

MARUI also called attention to the contribution ps-ycho­

analysis made to certain neglected aspects of psychological

knowledge in Japan, especially the developmental and social

view of the mind, the estimation of experiences in early child­

hood, the distinction between various factors of the ego, sex

analyses, and others. The analytic experience accumulated by

the MARUI school in its treatment of neurotic persons is

generally acknowledged as its greatest contribution, compensa­

ting for the largely non~analytical approach of other Japanese

psychologists to the problem.

Japanese psychoanalysts had a considerable social and

political significance under existing conditions, since they

were among the most outs poken c1,itics of the militarist regime.

This stand was best: illustrated by one of. OTSUKI's articles

•

-

- 31 -

( 172) in which, in 19401 he dared to criticize Japanese

infatuation with Nazi Germany, in an article courageously

and significatntly enti'f;led "The Servile Character of the

Japanese . n The article was [; discussion of the unrealistic

attitude toward foreign policy that characterized certain

Japanese political philosophers, especially IIM0110, Nobuyuki

who published a paper on the Problems of the Netherlands East

Indies and suggested a "German solution . " OTSUKI dared to

write : "We must simply avoid playing the fool like IIMOTO who

is a completely bewitched rider on Germany ' s coat - tails , This

scoundrel t s pretense of patriotism is really too much to bear . 11

Because of this critical attitude, (and also because of

the Western opposition to psychoanalysis being copied by certain

Japanese psychologists) , the Freudean school is severely criti ­

cized in Japan (Yabe , 238) . In this respect , a well - knovm

situation which existed in Germany under• the Nazis was repeated

without change in motives or methods. Among the most severe

c1"'itics of psychoanalysis is SATO, Koji (177a) of Kyoto Imperial

University , SATO criticized the "incomplete hature 11 of the

analyses and interpretations of the l\1ARUI school and called

attention to the fact that the Oedipus complex (as well as the

castration complex) are prominently featured in its literature

"although they are unapplicable to Japanese cases . 11 This he

claimed was shovm in one of HAYASAK.A. t s own analyses : A pass ion­

ate love for the mother was found, with only an indifference for

-

- 32 -

the father, and not passionate hates as suggested by the

Western interpretation of the Oedipus complex. The criticism

is not without its point . Japanese psychoanalysts could,

indeed, make an important contribution to a better understanding

of the Japanese mind if they would free themselves of the

shackles of Wester-n psychoanalysis .

What Major Contributions were Made by Native Psycholog~sts to the Study of the Japanese Character?

There is, however, a group of reliable Japanese sources

which, despite its mass of fascinating data, is almost com­

pletely untapped by Wes tern reseru"ch. It is devoted to the

analysis of the character structure of the Japanese. Good

examples of the care and objectivity with which some of these

native studies were prepared are the experiments of KUBO

(89, 91) . They are analyses of the Japanese character through

self-diagnosis . He prepare( an inventory of eighty character

traits which he considered native to the Japanese, and asked

fifty undergraduates in one and eleven of his own associates

in another pha~e of the experiment to check each trait which

they believed they themselves possessed.

Extreme traits weI'e checked by few subjects, with so-called

adrni11abl1S traits clearly predominating . Tho agreement between

self- judgement and estimates of others was low. Admirable and

extrovert traits were more frequently checked in appraising

-

-

- 33 :..

others than in self-analyses, Comparable results were found

by :WJ.ASAKI (109} who attributed to cqmpensation his subjectsf

frequent tendency to express the opposite of oneself before

others.

A similar experiment was conducted by KUBO (91) on 308

sick or wounded soldiers brought back to Japan from the China

front . This test produced the same general results vdth the

element of ambivalence added~

A..rtong the monographs devoted to a description of the

Japanese character st~ucture TANIKAWA's (212) and NOJIMA. 1 s

(139) studies are more OX' l e;; :=:: representative . The following

is a random selection of specialized investigations. It may

give an idea of the nature and scope of studies devoted to the

various single aspects of the general problem .

IvIATSUYtTKI (440) investigated the character structure of

what he called 11 the superior wor•kers , 11 a paraphrase of the

Confucian term, meaning in fact skilled workers . He found the

elite among Japan ' s industrial workers "indifferent to fame

and weal th , capable of concent1,ation , becoming gradually ab­

sorbed in work although rather slow to start , strongly s elf­

confident , stubborn, and bold . 11

MIBAI (120) maintained that the Japanese have a dual

personality in which introvert and extrovert traits are more

or less evenly divided, romanticism and altruism characterizing

the introvert , egotism and materialism tho extrovert . He also

•

-

- 34 -

tried to establish the foremost traits of the female charac­

ter, but found only those differences which would normally

accrue from the difference in the social status of the sexes

in Japan.

FUKUTOMI (30), in a characterological study along some­

what more original lines, observed Japanese youths during

physical activity in order to uncover cha:eacter tra :i,ts as

they manifest themselves in competition. His findings con­

firmed the long suspected fact that the Japanese display

considerable initial enthusiasm ,vhich, however, is hardly

ever sustained and which often collapses in the face of

increasing difficulties.

Among the more interesting investigations of this type ,

although hardly the most scientific , were those of FURUKAWA

(31, 32, 33) . In a stimulating debate with KANESEKI (62) , he

developed a theory of relationship between blood~groups and

mental dispositions. FURUKAWA maintained that temperament is

correlated vd th blood types, and desc1 ... ibed persons in blood

gr oup Oas generally phlegmatic, those in group!:. as melancholy,

and those in group Bas sanguine . He also suggested that the

"proportion of the two types of blood groups in certain communi­

ties may indicate the general character of individual commu~

nities . 11

Although KANESEKI questioned the general validity of this

theory, cautionihg that 11 political units should not be gauged

by biological norms, since national boundaries often override

-

-

- 35 -

racial boundar:j.es, 11 he agreed vvu.th FURUKAWA on a bi0mechanical

formula for ca~culating the "gnoup":'.':mind qf a nation .• " Their

formula is 0% plus B% divided by A% plus ABf, They refrained ,

however , from establishing the group-mind of the Japanese

nation with the help of their formula.

In the f i eld of comparative national psychology , WA'I'ANABE

(233 , 234 ) relied on conventional methods . He prepared various

comparative studies, comparing the Japanese with the Chinese

character (235) , as well as with the character of peoples

formerly under Japanese control . AYA - FURUITI (25 ) compared

Japanese living in Japan proper with those living in occupied

territories. WATANABE described the typica l character traits

of his compatriots as simplicity and aestheticism in feeling ,

realism and plainness in economic life , nationalism and

chauvinism in politics, optimism and simplicity in art . He

found the Chinese epicurean u.nd antiquarian in f eeling, magnani ­

mous , self-possessed,enduring and conservative in voli tional

activities; egotistical and thrifty in their economic life;

adaptable in politics ; realistic in religion; and what he

called "un-scientific in science ."

WATANABE stated t11at the Japanese character as it is

expressed in politics :ts remarkable for its "M:achievellism,

f ormal obedience, unsystematization , propadandism, and blind

following," character traits vvhich , in his opinion, most

-

- 36 -

Orientals share with the Japanese. The character picture

WATANABE painted of the average Japanese is in striking con­

trast to the ideal character type which the omnipotent state

tried to make compulsory for every Japanese. In the following,

we wi ll examine this ideal type first and compare it with the

"real" Japanese in an effort to reconstruct, with the help of

expert observers, the character of the Japanese.

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II. The Problem of Personality I n Japan

The Japanese is both fascinated and :tntripued by hts own

national character, but he seems incapable of exp laininc p'";r­

sonali ty in simple terms . 0 I t is difficult for us Japanese 1

to find out our own mental charac teristics ," OSHIMA MASbJ\TORI

wrote , "as our o l d proverb says: ' At the foot of the lig·ht ­

house it is darker than a far- off placo . 111

A peremptory preoccupation vii th the personalt ty concept

may be due to the general confusion surrounding the definition

of personality in the Orient where the concept is still clouded 2

by an ancient controversy between Mencius and Hsun Tzu .

The controversy revolved. around good and evil . Mencius r;rn.pha­

sized the innate goodness , Hsun Tzu the inborn depra.vi ty of

human nature . As the controversy dragp:ed on, it proved defi ­

nitely detrimental to social progress . Attempts were thnre­

fore made , in the eighth cent:.:try , to reconcile the two concopts 11

Han Yun , for example , suggested that s orno souls s.ro inrn.1tcly

good , others innately evil , while still others are compounded

of both.

1 . Oshima, M. Japo.n from Within . Tokyo , 1940 , p . 89 .

2 . Cf • 1:Che W?rks of :r,foncius ( enc~ tr . by .Tam(-'; s ~GP['G) and The Jorks of Hsun Tze ( tr . by H. H. Dubs); al.so h1ng Yu- ln.n ., A History of Chinese Philo soph:v: , Peipinr;~, 1907; Hu Shih, Th~ Development of the Logical Method in Ancient China, Shanp-hai , 1922.

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What is the Japanese Concept of Porsonali ty and How Is It Defined ?

There was a time when the J apanc so at ti tud0 toward por­

sonali ty was dominated by Han Yun ' s compromise . According 1

to ASHIDA, a distinc t:i.on was made between tho two k:i.nds of

souls existing in eve r y 11 distinruishod porson . " One w:1.s the

nigitama, the inc arnation of rrnod , Ct gvntlo , bcn0volont , peace ­

ful soul ; thu other was the nratama, n rouph, tou,'1'h, stronr, ,

and brave soul . Later the ,Japanese presented their own per­

sonality as a compound of both; clements of tho nip.:i t'.2-rnf} al­

pervading and mollifyi ng tho so of the arc.tame, . In feuda l

Japan, tho icleal porsorw.li ty type , that of thu samurai , WD.S

2 a ft1sion of the two . The idea is revived today and tho Japan-

ese s o l clicr is again presented as a 1runiaue being , strone- ,

nob l e , and beautiful, rr combining in his persono.lity elements 3

of both the nigitama and tho ,1.ratnma.

1. Ashida, K. " Jepe.n . 11 Hasting ' s Enc . of Religion and Ethics , vol . 7 , P • 481.

2 . Cf . Nukaniye , K. The Religion of tho Somurai ., London , 1913 . Also Hashimoto , ~r. ., 11 Zon doctrine and its influoncc upon t ho Samurai classes , 11 Cultural Nippon, 193f-3 , 6 1 1 ,. 51- 4,6 .

3 . Taniguchi ( ed . ) Tidings from the Front ( J )., Tokyo , 1940 ; also Ivrn.goyo , s . rr A J8.panoso Christian nt tho front , i i Contomp . Ja')an, 19,JO , 9 , 6 , 720 - 726 . 11 Thl;I'O is no soldier on uai,th , 11

ho wrote , amore sympathetic , g0ntle , averse to vioJ.onco , pcaco­l oving , humane ., and woll- mec,ninv, and at the sruno tirM; valiant and gritty than a tTapanosc solclior . 11

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Jap ane s e definitions of personali ty still reflect the un­

s e ttle d nature of the ancient controvorsy . KOURA ( 83 ) , who

attemptod a dofini t i on by analyzing tho various cric:tractcrs 1

in Lo.dy Murasaki ' s elev enth c entury Ta l c of GC;n :j i , stated

only that tho ,J apane se i' pcrson '' is a mystic phonomunon to

which no Western definition of p e rsona l ity c an succossft1lly be 2

appli ed . NITO:SE, in a l engthily ambiguous dofini tion, ·wrote

that the Japanese have o. supprcrnsod porsrrn.2.lity ; it is 11 a b- ·

sorbcd in tho Grc:o.t Who l e of Hoality o.nd Self ls ;:,,wal lovJC:d up

in tho inf ini to Bolng., o. poor• mortal irnU vi dual bcd.ng l oft

like an empty corp s o behind . 11

All dofini tions , hm·, cver, :mgp:cst a porw;nr,.li ty fcr c G-

fully di vorcod from the indi viclual . TANIKI:YifA ( 211 , 21 :2 ) o.nd.

NOJIMA (139 ) st ated categorically thnt tho Jr_pr,nesc po,,..sonnl ­

i ty , asido from buing i1.,rational and inst inc ti vc , is primo.ri l y

characterized by an nb s cnco of individuo.limn . rrANIKA\'VA Cf'"llod

the J 2pnno so porsonali ty 11 impersonnl ir , while NOJ I Jl/'.A wrote

that II n.11 their forms of li f,: como from nn 8. tti tudo of po si­

ti v c submission to tho Abso lut o . rrhoy do not divldu their

l i fo and experience i nto the two phf1ses of self and oth,:rs ,

thinking and behavior, but re cognize thorn in conduct t:LS o.

1 . Murnsaki , s. Tho Talc of Gon.i i , ( tr· . by Arthur V o_loy ) , Lcmdon, 1935 .

2 . Nitob c , ·I . J ap anese Tr~its and Forcipn Inf luence s , London, 1·927, pp • 24- 25 •

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wholo . Japr:moso life psychology , n he concluded, "is accord­

ingly unrestricted by consciousnc ss or behc..vior . 11

1 YASUOKA described tho rrabs0nc0 of individualism in tho

Jnpanoso porsonulityB as tho one featurG which distinruish:Js

the Jap o.noso from the occidonto.l cho.rc.ctcr . }_<;v._m clothinr- re-

fleets the diff0ronce . It is sharply indi VJ.c1unl:i.zod :ln tho

wost , but restrained by rigid convontion in line , color nnd

form in Japan . 11 The ideG. of clothes rts nn oxnrossion of per-

sonality , 11 ho wrotc1, 11 is unknov:n tc tho cTnpf'..11.vso . 11 .A Japn.m.,so

ste.tosman provided tho following illustretion: 11 Ccmpnro Amori-

can woods with our state forests . In them u ~ru~t tree rises

hero and there and dominates the scorw . 1/0 don't like thnt .

We prefer making our trees grov, like c:,. govornmc.mt :·.fforc;stn-2

tion scheme , in strnig:ht rows uniform :1.n hvlpht and pirth. 11

An entirely different picture of tho ,frpnnoso porsonc1.lity ,

at l east dif forcnt from tho one <.los cribdd by NI'l10BE o.nd NOJIMA,

is prl~ sontod by OT SUKI KEN JI , a p sychoSXl.al y.1:3:b,.- • ,J apo.no [:lG

psychoannlists on the \Ihole tacitly r o j Gct the 0xist0nco of

a bo.slc difference between tho oridntal and occidental por­

sonali ty , and cite as proof tho success \d. th which we st0rn

1 . Yasuoka, M. Oricmtc'-1 Poli ti cal PJ.---i:j_losopb:,y ( cT) , r.rokyo , 1937 .

2 . QuotGd by Byn.s , H. Govt;rruncnt by Assassinr.,tion, Hew York, 1942 .

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methods of psychoanalysis Rnd psychiatry csn be applied to

solve even seemingly typical ori ental conflicts ( 238 ). CT­

SUKI ( 173), how over, recognized a dis tin.ct cul tur8.l clif :L',)r­

once botwocn tho oriental and occidcntel mind , o.nd rc,i:::o.rdcd

the study of tho difforonco , as we11 as the control of the re­

sulto.nt conflict , as tho p:r'i:.'Yl.ary mission of psychoonaly si1.:1 in

J ap2.n.,

Acc o rding to OTSUKI, opicntals a. r e nc.Jg:?-tivc , p:0 cic:.:ivo .,

super- realistic , intuitive , and m~sochistic , in contrcst to

Occidentals whom he described as poDitivo , active , rcc'.lis~ic ,

lo gical and sadistic . (Soc nlso 203 ). F:r'om i~ psycho:_1_nc,lyti­

c a l viewpoint , or i 0nta1 life is bnsod on tho Id , while oc ci­

dental life rests on tho Ego . Conaequc,ntly oricntc.1 culture

is SD.id to be:: n. cu 1 ture of the cl oath inctinct , r.rhi lo w,:: Gto rn

culture emphasizes tho survival instinct . The Jo.punoso per­

sonality , OTSUKI maintrd.ncd , rm I'fors from an influx of 1vc ctorn

cul turo.1 influences and , thi..;I'Oforc , is the muut unscttl.:;d of

tho oric3ntc.l minds . The ,T o.pf:,nooc Id hn,s boon V,'0;1kc,n0d by

tho oo o cciclcmtal infl uvncc s ;·1h:l ch, how;ver, f ni lod to ,strcnp:thcn

tho Ego :::mffid.on tly . Consequently tho ,Jnpc.nc.: so Id is info1"­

ior to such other oriunto.ls o.s th,) Russic.n,s Dr~d Chine:::;,.,;_, while

their E~o is inferior to tho Western Ego .

Dos toiovski P..nd Tolcto1 c,ra rcp1'8santod in this connec ­

tion as the ou tst~nding 15. tor3.ry oxr:1,~plc s of thr __ oriont,.J. Id

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pcrsonnli ty, but "nothing compnrablo c o..n be found in Jc>p,ncco

literature . 11 In this psycholor::Lcnl stn.t o , 0T[3UKI ccnchlciC;d ,

11 s0 long ns thl, rGcio.l inferiority complex ho.rborod uncon­

sciously by the Jccp ::.mos0 rcmidno in. cxistcnc,, , it bccm11cs frc -

quently substituted by o. po.thologicE',l superiority complex,

which not only lacks in but c,ctunlly irn.p 0rJ.o s thl, 0 stabl:lctuncnt

of o. healthy and firm fooling of suporiori ty . 11

What Is Tho Plo.co of The Individual In This P0rsonnlity Concept?

If vimvod function8.11y ., as it must bo in J,.,.p::m, convon­

t:Lonnl J::.:pnn o so dufini tions of p :.: rr:;onali ty do not f'lJ.nd~~,mcn­

tally differ from somo Western do:Cinitions . Gordon w. All­

port , for oxarnple , dofin,~d porsonnli ty 8.3 tho 11 d ynadc orgc.ni­

zo.tion rd.thin tho individual of those poycho - phy:J:°Lc:,l ;3ystoms 1

that determine his unique o.dj ustmcnt s to hi 8 onviron:r1cnt s . 11

'rl-10 ethlco.l nnd sociologic8.l oricntatj_on of this duf:lnitlon

is p:::i..rticul."rly c_pplico.blc to tho Jo.pnnc so . V✓hil,; it r:rn.y be

possible to evr:..luatc tho Western character n:i. thout an ethical 2

co lo ring., the J apm1.o so chnro.ctor cannot be soor.ratcd from i to

o thical milj_ou . A who l u ma.ze of othicc.l concepts C'.nd

1, Allport ., G. Porsono.li~.

2 , Cf . Roback , A. A. rrhc Psycholopy of Cho.ro.ctor , Nc,i York , 1926 , P • 6 .

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institutions, genuine and counterfeit, exert nn inordin~tely

great influence on the Japnnese ch0racter .

It 1}ould be ·i1rong, therefore , to 8.S Cribe the impersonn l

and irrational quality of the J apo.nese personality to the

so.me cultural and spiritual forces ;,·.1hich depersonr:.liz e tb.e

Oriental in India or , to some extent , in Chinn. In JnpC'_n,

this process of depersonalization is brcught nbout not so rmch

by an esoterj.c outlook on life , as by the por1erful outside in­

fluences imposed upon every Jcpnnese by en exf\cting f'nd csre­

fully organized socio.l ci.nd poli ticc..l sy-3tem . It is similor,

on a historical □ cQle , to the depersonnlization to which con­

scr i ptc c.ny,vhcre in the world ::.re subjected , and the sccomplish­

ment of nhich is considered the primary duty of 0very drill

sergeant . Ito contemporary Western coun terpr..rt could be found

in Nazi - Germany where , too , the .stn.te deprived 1;ersonnli ty of

its individUL:.1 ciuality through n pl2.nned coordination of nll 1

ethical and ideologic~l concept3 . To poraphrnse Bergson,

the individual in Japnn, ( or , for tho.t 1:10.tter, in Gen, .'my )

wns provided with n reu.dy- made pcrocnnlity which ·, 1 [' S supy)oscd

t o fit Peter D.S vrnll ns Pnu1, since it wc.s mode for neither .

This is probc.bly 1::hy Jc.pc'.nese per~mno.li ty '.'.ppenrs so unkempt

o.nd ill- fitting nt :firot sight .

1. Cf. Faro.go , L . ( ed ) Gcrrri_ru1 Psvcholo'"ic8.l Wu-.fo.r0 , Nsvf York, 1942, PP • 65- 99.

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Schopenho.uer 1 s sophisticntecl remo.rk tho.t objectively

character is the opinion of others , ,1hilo subjectively it is

our fear of th::i.t opinion i3 pnrti culs.rly C'pt . Per13c n,·,lity in

Jo.pan refers "lmo st exclusively to the role L'cn indi vidu:1.l

plays in society; to what Burges3 called the individu~l 1 s 1

social effectiveness . Hitler , en undoubted expert o.C the

regimented porsonc.li ty once de fined this in the v1orcls : 0 '11he

vo.lue of the indi vidur-cl is detern:i.ned by his Vf'cluc, to the

state . 11 In Gerrn.o.ny r:.s in Jr,_po.n tho dynnmic for co;:; \Vhich nor­

mnlly produce personality vJGre subjected to ruthl(~SrJ totnli­

to.ri c.n contra 1 . Adju.s ti ve c f'.pnci ty Y✓ ao promoted at the o;-~p8nse 2

of feeling- emo-cioncJ. responseD , nnd even 01' onu•,.nic drivo3 .

11 Thc no.tion he.cl been long subjected to t~ discJ.plino of

o.lmo st incredi blo minu tencss in dGtr:J.l , rncl of ox-t11 n.o:rdiJY.ry

rigor in f'.ppliec,tion , 11 Hearn ,v:rote . ,;From the berinninp: of

this civilization, th(=; whole life of the ci tizon wo.E~ ordered

for him : his occupc.t:i.on , h:ls 1110.rrL.1.ge, his rip.b.ts of fnthor ­

hood , his ri[~htn to hold or to dispose of property, -- :.11

1 . In Proc . Sec . Coll . on Pers . Invcstig ., lkltimore , J.93O, p . 149 : i1Personolj_ty i3 the intc;-rrc.tion of · 11 tllG tr::-its which dote:cmine the role and status of the person in soc:'Lcty . Personality might , therefore , be defined f'S aocinl·eff0ctivo­ness . 11

2 . Cf . Youn,·, re . Sociolor~y , Now York , 101:1.2 ., PP • 893- 921.

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1 these mat tors were settled by religious custom. 11 Lc.fc o.cUo

Henrn borrowed n phr•ase from Herbert Spencer v:J.1.(:;_n he L:bcJ_cxl

this moulding o.nd dominating influence as tho rule of the deo..d :

"Lmrn , 11 ho quoted Spencer I s words as fully C'pplicc,blo to Jr..pG.n,

11 whether wri tton or unwritten , formulate the rule of tho dGGd

over the l iv i ng . I n addition to that power which pc,.st ger10rn­

tions exercise ovor present gonero.tions , by t r o.nmni ttlng thei r

n['.ture , -- bodily nnd muntnl , -- 2nd in ::.~ddi tion to the prnver

they 8XOrci so through their regulc.tions for public conduct ,

hnnded down oro.lly , or in writing . 11 SpenceJ' o.dc.1ed " <> f°l 0

,'J l{':11.l l l -

c::.mtly tho.t the rule of tho det.1..cl implies 8. tncit :::i.neustor wor ...

ship .

Tp,~ -ethics crcr,ted by those force·s "were not diffC:;ront

from religion; religion wo.s not cU.ffersnt from rroverrnnent ;

and the very word for government si;-nifiod 1r;rntters - of-

r elietion 1 • • • • To obey wns piety; to dinobey wo.s in.pious ;

and the rule of obedience \·10.s enforced upon d:o.cl.1 indi v:i.C:1uc.l by

t ho will of tho community to whlch he belong0d . 11

This discipline gradually repressed the individu3.l nnd

brought into existence on ovornge chs.rn.c.tor . ''The r0 ,v n.s ,

moreover, no WC\.Y of ,wo.ding or shirki ng thcso obl:L,:rcttioxw of

l o.w o.nd custom: '>1hoevor fo.i l -=Jd to fulfill thl~m v10.s doomed to

1. Hoc..rn , L. Jnpru1.-- c.n Attr..@pt o.t Interp,:,r;t;r_tion, 1'T0w York, 1904 , PP • 175- 200 .

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perish or to become an outc,0.st; implicit obcdiLnce; nns the

condition of survivC:1 . 11 The tc•;1dcncy of this coercivo custom

•;o.s to 11 supp:!.,.,ess c.11 :rnorr'.l and mento.l differcntir~tion , to numb

p,Jrsonflli t:r, to estnblish one: uniforxi1 CLnd unchn.n,0:ing type of l

chnro.ctor . 11

In the boc:inning , coercion was exorcised only fron Pith­

out . Lntor it bocamc s0lf-imposod , , util:L tG.rir.n process by

itself , since , as Hco.rn points out , only conformism fllo.r:,ntcod

survivr.l . 11 As m.nny hr,bit3 ., :rt fj_rst ,-~infully fo1"Y'-:.-..:d under

com.puloion only , become onsy throurrh constont ropcti tion, n.nd

o.t lo.st autom2..tic , oo th,; conduct compc:llod t:hrough rrn.ny gon­

crntions by religious and civil f'.uthori ty , t,mdLl ov,mtuc.lly 2

to bo come nlr-10 st inst inc ti v .; • 11 Th, . .: so , then, ,rnre the Eto.in

historico.l Forces of dopcrsonf'lizntion in ,J o.p8.n e

How Wo.s Indi vid.ur,_li sm Combo.t tod In Re, cent Yor..rs?

Ono of the mo.in to.sks nhich tho Jnpe:.ncso ~:;to.to sot fo r

itself ,-J~.n tn .. ; r,bsoluto rop:r1.:ission of indiviclu:.=-.lism. Of

course , thi::..: drivo f1.guinst tho individur.l v;r.s thu 111O0.ns to

1. Cf . 1ivicnoro , ,J. H. aNintorio.ls for the study of private law in old JL1.p:tn, 11 T.t-1.SJ., o..ncl Si,<'mons , D. B. "Notes on lnnd tunuro o.nd l ocnl in::iti tutions in Old Jo.pf'..n, fl ']\'\SJ ., li91, 19, 1 , 37-270 . Also H£trf1. ., B . Indi vic.luf'.li sn. t.ion de l e, ropru ssion on dro it pon[ll Japonc..i s , Pnrio , 1911.

2 . Hcnrn, op . cit ., p . 177.

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1 the end, rnt~_,_)r thnn the end itself . It nlso conconlod the

gro8.tor dri vc conduc tod :-,gr.inst forcde;ni sm in tho midst of tho

grcc,tost cu.1;~.,1.rnl f'. ssimilnt iv o ::::-1:?:'ocess tho 'JOrld ho.s uvcr seen.

The Jc,pnnose hoped thereby to sueccod in suporir1pocing the

modern m::~t0rin.l a ccomp lishment s of the West on t:,.0ir nnc i ont

nnd n2cossnrily D.nnchronistic :Jpir:i..tu~1l structure , and by com-

bininf th,:.31.r ··10diov ctl 11 opiri t 11 rd. t h modern m[1.t0Ti::-.lis1:1 , to

crcc;to c. driv ing force , both cthicc.l '1nd pc li ticf'..l , capable

of conqucr:lng n.nd donin::.ting tho rro rld . In t his r r andiosc

powcr-poli ti cr:l pro c-r::u:1 sponsorc.~d by , c,nd coinplctGly de vo ted

to , th:2 r:s1Jb•8.tiono of the stnte ., no pl:7.CO cculc1 b0 found fo r

the indi vidu ·:.l , or for his poll ti e::11 ~ct i on,.:; c;nc':. cx;w..: s sions •

But the pr'ocoss of dopcrsonnlizo.ti on wris novor ,'.n unounlifiod

succcs:J . l:;,ro•~JUontly it Y't:l(lUi rod t:1c cntj_ r G mi ne. tory L:r·. ch:tno

of state , but 0von so , tho nnturnl urge of tho individ u a l to

assert him;3Glf broke through tho ironclad L 1yor o.t' r oprGss ion

which t:-.:.c rolicc stato tried to cl 2.rr1p on llim.

As c. consGquencc of tho spiri tu .'c.l lnflucncco of the West ., 2

ospeci2lly bctriocn 1868 cmcl 1900 , f'.nd b0tw,)0::-1 1920 nnd 1930 ,

1 . FukudC1., 'l'. Die gcso llscho.ft licho und r:irtschc.ftlicho Ent ­rli ck1ung in J,.pcm. Stuttgrcrt , 1910 .

2 • Oku_m~, , S. ;1Ag·---.ins t .·ili tnri om in J r 1Y.n. 11 }forp c r J s Wocldy, 190~.: , p . 1 592; Uyohc.rc.. , G. E . The Po li tic~,.l D---..volopmcnt of J npnn , 1867-lgog , Now York , 1910 .

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1 this st;:·ict r0pr0ssion of tho individuo.l uo.s relaxed . Demo -

cracy, libc1• .- lisr.1 nnd socir.lism mo.de deep inro8.d8 into Jnpc.n ' s

nr.tiono. l lifo . Under their influence , individunlism stirred

to rcossert l tEJGlf . The Jnpci.noso suemod to go through n. pro-

c.oso of cpiri tuf'.1 cmnncipn.tion in which his porsonnli ty wo.s 2

restored to the individual.

Tho process, however , wc.s ro-o.rrested by the spiritual

heirs to tho Shogunr~te .

An inno.tG practical otrecJc of tho J o.p::2.neso is snid to

have prevented tho proces3 of dopc:rsonnlization from hnving

tho sCt.me dj_.sastrous effect on the Jo.pc.nose ns :it ho.d, for

exrunple , on tho Chinese chn.rncter . NITOBE sugrcsted that the

same procooc •;Jhich in China croo.ted n .. psycl1ic inertia tho.t

proved dctrimento.l to tho nation's socic,l progress, o.ctu:J.lly

promotad tho unpnrnlellod strength of tho Jo.po.nose chnro.ctor .

'rhe J[ipo.noso, ho st~tod , is only purtly do - porsonnlized. The

repression of the GEJ:O 1.·ri thin the Jo.pn.nose persona.li ty had a

c ::mo.lyzing off0ct, since it produced pa trio ti 3rn, loyr;l ty , o.nd

1. Oshima , R. K. Tho Dovclopmont of Soci:-..1 Iden.lism of Modern Japan, Chico.go , 1930 , o..nd Snto.. , A. Lotzto \Vnndlungc1., des Jc.po.nor-Ge:1. stos , in.sbc.sondorc der juengoron Gcnorntion, Munich 1927.

2 . Normo.n, E. H. Jn-PE'.n' s Emergence ns G ·Mod2rn Stnto, New York, 1940 , PP • 167-173 , 181- 185 , 193- 201. Also , Miyo..oko. , T , G-rowth of Li b0 r11li srn in J f'.pn.n, •ih-..shington, 1918; Iw f'.so.ld , u. Working Forces in Jcpo.nese Politics , Now York, 1921; Tc.kignwa, M. A Socio.l History in Jup ..... n (J), Tolryo , 1935 .

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fc:mily solidc-_J'.'ity ., n.nd ff'.cilitntod regi:montntion nnd n[ttiono.l 1

unity .

Spokosmo!'l of tho :r,1i li tnnt nn ti- indi viduc_li stic fo recs ., 2 3

like FUJISA."JA and others stc..rtod their drive n.gf'inst incli-

viduc..lism with occ Gsiono.l sniping::: , insisting thc-,t in.di viductl­

isr,j_ nn.s not compo.tiblo vL th whn➔:; thoy cr.:.llod tho J apo.nose

no.tionnl spirit . ThG rtuthori tios wero rcprlnw.ndod for their

failure to r0cognizo thi8 bf'.Gic fo_ct . Thus , for oxn.rn.plo .,

WJ_TSUJI TET'SURO wrote in 1931., on tho ove of the Mnnchurio.n

incidsnt, thc_t ilit r:1u::it not bo over l ooked thn.t our uniquo no.­

tionc,l spirit ., founded upon hiizh moro_l p:cinciplcs, ho.s boon

noglectod . 'l'he responsible le:•_dcrs El.f'_dc no offort to implant

our nf'.tionol spirit , " uhich ho described L'_s co - operative

ro.thor tho.n indi vidu:::,listic . FUJISAWA n.ddod in this connec­

tion thnt t1i.tJ nntionc_l spirit ;'expresses itself in tho ff'mily

system, in willinc:noso to sncrifico indiv:Lduo.1 intcrGsts fo r

tho good of the group . • • • 'l'l1G cornr:1uni ty is not composed

1. Nitobo , oo . cit .

2 . FujisctW'1., c. 11 Jn_p~,.n vcrsuo Mnrxism., a Contcrrio . Jnpt:n ., 1932 , 1 , 3 , 441- 452; 11 Attributus of tho Jc.punoso nr~tionf'l spirit .,

11

ibid., 1935., ,1 , 1, 53; Jnpc1.ncoo n.nd Oricntc,l Politicc..~ Philo­sophy , Tokyo , 1935; Tho Gront Shinto Puri:Cicntion Hituo_l nnd the Divine ~!dssion of 1'1i1ypon ( J) , Tokyo ., 1942 (Engl . tr . :ln To)yo Ro cord, by Otto D. Tolischus , Nc:,i York., 1s4;5, pp . 42S - 449 .

3 . Ohki , R. "Der H,.uptgodankc cl()S Ilojinismus ., ;, Zci tsch .. rift fuer Gcopolitik , 1 936 ., 13., 3 , 183-185 .

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of individuc_l moJ_nboro but fnNilios . 11

The crnnp:.1 ign WGS p:radur1lly onlr.rgcd. . It nr...s conducted

by jintrnistic writers Gnd tho pulico , in strc.ngo but .::dfoctivo

concord . Its gonornl staff w~s tho Nntionnl Spiritunl Cul-l

turo Roso arch Ins ti tu to of which FUJI SJ:1.-iivA bocn.,,10 ro DO arch

director . ItLJ high command wns contorod in the ~:1inistry of

Education, t.hrn. unclor tho control of snc~1. lenders of nnti -2

ind:l vidur.lism as Gunoro.l i,..RAXI SHADAO a.nd Gcmorri.l HAYASHI 3

SEHJURO . Between 1931 and 1937, :,_11 foroi pn in.fluoncos, rang-

ing from Buddhism to Marxism, were lumped togotb.01• rmd repre­

sented as clctrimontal to tho 11 Jo.prmeso no..tionf'.l ~ipiri t , rr be ...

c o.u3G of the ulo:ments of indiv:J.C:,u ulism inhurcnt in them . From

his ivory toner in his om.birmous Rcsonrch Institute , 1-i'UJISAWA

urged thc..t tho so indi vidu ctl i sti c idcc,:::; which ri.rc indi opcmGab l o

to the i'Jn.pf.1.n.cse spirit;' , be intogrettod into nnd submorgod in

this spirit . ARI:MA SEIHO fulminated ngo.inst Buddhism o.nd Con-

fucianism 1 .1hi ch, in his 1rnrds , prov Gd o.s noxious now r.s they

wcro useful in their initic.l states . H0 spolrn of tho 11 poison

1. Rued , J . P . Kokut,,:1.i: n Study of Cv:!.1 t:-'..in S:0 crod r'.nd Secu­lo.r Asp e cts of Jr-1Jnnoso lfr1 .. tionnlism, Chicnp-o , 1940, by fnr the best 1,1onor-;ro.ph on the oubjoct .

2. Cf . Ar~ki , S. 7, 3 , 422 .

;'Stu to nnd cduct.ltion, it Cont\.;mp . Jo.pnn , 1938,-

3. Holtom, D. c. ~fodorn Jr-tnan rmd Shinto --J[J_tionD.lisn., Chicago , 1943, P • 89 .

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of ConfuciGni~m o.nd Buddhism, 11 which , with thuir pessimistic ,

nogn.tive o.nd po.thotic, but ospocir.lly individur'.listic tendon­I

cios ;'undermined the idco. of tho nf.'..tiono.l spirit . 11

The ctrch enemy of Jrprmoso non- indi vidu:0 liom, however,

rorii[dned thu ,nntoric.listic Western civilizc.tion. For Gn exo.mp l c

of nc,tiono.li3tic repudL,tion of 1,\footct•n individuc.lism o.s the

source of r!l",lf'.djustr1cnts of tho public life we have o.n un-

usurlly sip:nific8.nt document to dro:w on . It is tho publication, 2

Kokuto.i no Hongi or the J:iundc.Y'lentc.l Principles of tho National

Struc ture: which the Dopartrnont of Educo.tlon issued in 193? ,

when G1..;nerc;l HAYJi.SHI ., r'.n nr:my officer on the c.ctlve list , wns

Minister of Education. Holtom described it ns 11 0. manifesto

of the principles of mili tnry tot.--1.li turir.nism in 8. Jo.pc.no so

set ting . 11

fl All of th0 ov il s of thought r-.nd ,society in our country

today c,ro tho rGsul t of thu excessive D.nd oxt r omo introduction

of the manifold c..nd complico.tod EuropGo.n nnd A:rnor i ccm cul turo .,

ins ti tu tions Nld. to chnique . • • • Tl1.c fundrunontal wor l d -

view o:f this kind of think:Lnp: , c.o well :J.S its philosophy of

1 . Arimo. , s . 11 Tho soul of J:-,pc.n , n Cont01~1p . J·r.pr,n , H);36 , 5 • 1, 70- 76 .

2 . Also soc I-t!r.[::ota & Herr,. , . .A Cormrn~ntnry on tho rrruc Moru1ing of the Nntiono.l Structure (,T) , Tokyo , 19Ll0 , nnd Schubert , J • "Do.s Kolmt:i.i - Prinzip und die j.".pnnisc11.o Eultur , 11 1:Tuu,)s Jb . f . d . Hisscncch ,, 19~5'7 , 13, 2 , 129- 138 .

-

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mo.n , in a r o..tionalism nnd n positivism tho. t n r o clc f e ctivo in ] :..::~ /: ·l: :.-:~· ~· ...... ~-·. · ···, :·_ .... :: ·: t ~- .. ·• historicnl o:;.,~ionto.ti on . ('11his philosophy ) finds the highes t

V[1.luo in tho individur,l mrm nnd procl~ims i nd ividuc.l freedom

n.nd equt"lli tyJ o.t the s o.rne tino r eve ring en nbst r o.ct universnl-

ism thD.t tro.nsc onds 110..tion nnd ro.c0 . • • • /..,_s a mc.tto r o i~

fact in the lf'.st r:11.alyr.lis , n rrcdic ~1. l systor.1 of thought like

socin.lism, :.:,11.'.'.rchism, and cor:1J'1unism n r o c..11 founded on the

indiv idt1c,lisrr1 thn.t lies c.t the be.s is of r0cent fcrcign thought

c~nd riro nothing other thc.n thu vr-.riouo r,1cnifestntions of thnt 1

indi viduc.li s2n . 11

Sinultr.ncously, journnlistic holpors of tho drive 11 h oapod

up the total 1 11s of the bod;y- 1 )o li tic on the doorstep of for -

. . ct· "d 1· i: eign i n ivi u~ ism. J npcn oso intell•Jctuc.l c ircles , espe ci o. lly

the e c onomic dcp0. rtrnont G.nd tho l f-'Xl dopn.rt:r1cnt of tho Iri1pcr inl 2

Uni vcrsi ty of 'rokyo , have boon [: t to.clrnd for their ridvo c o.cy

of 11 d o.ngerous individu:1.lisL1 . n A state,:1ont in tho 'l'EIKOKU

SHIMPO f o r Sc J t ember 18 , 1938., r e v 00.l e d t he quo.li ty of t:1is

kind of crit;lcism en lts rGbid chnuvinistic level , in rm o. t -

t o.c k on tho Inpcrin.l University f'..S c. 11 c ontor of rnti - r.1ilito..r is-

tic t0c.chi1:.g o.nd '.l. hotbed of cor1munism 11• Tho pc,pcr prin.t8d

1 . Kokutc.i no Honfd , P • 3 - 5 ( r,::i tr~.nslntcd by Holtom, op ._ cit ., pp . G0- 91) .

2 . History of Tokyo Inµori.'.c. l Uriiv0 r :::.:ity ' s Fifty Yc~.rs (J) , 2 vo ls ., ToL;o , 1932 •

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the ncrn10s of the men whom it ::'.Ccused of hnving be::c.m poisoned

·,1i th foreign democro.cy . It included prrictico..lly tho ontiro 1

law department of this Univcr3i ty.

Commenting on these o.xrunples of th0 cn.mpnign ago.inst in­

dividunlism, Holtom vvrotc; ''If it seer.is puzzling to one fo.mil ­

io.r with the true history of western socir.l theory to find

such thoroughly collcctivistic syst0ms o.s socifl.lism end com.r:iun­

ism attached to tho root of individunlism, ho ohould ror:1cr.1bor

thnt tho key to tho understanding of the philosophy of mo.n

that controls Japan today is tho o.ll• suffici0ncy- of tho vir-

tue of unquestioning obedience on the part of subjects . Social

2.nd porsona.l evi l n.ri oes as soon o.s tho indi viduc-.1 o.ssorts him­

self over c.c;c,inst tho fixed forms of the pc,st or tho commando

of tho rulers of the present ,·,heroin o.bsoluto vn.luos arc n:odio.­

ted . In such :.:i .. psychology it is inevi to.bl0 that evo:cything thn.t

threatens tho status quo should be o.ttributed to o.n o.rch-.cvil

of individu::licm thnt hns come into being through unpo.triotic

infntuo.tion \"'ith foreign error . Thus , much dorrostic discon­

tent a.rising entirely out of intern8.tionn.l malo..d,justmonts io

sh1'GYJdly loaded onto n. foreign scc.pogo8.t c..nd tho glory of the 2

tried o.nd true Y rune.to wnyo pre served into.ct . 11

1. Imperi Gl Nows ( J) , 1938 ., Septor1bor 18 ( '.13 ·crr,nslo.. tod by Holtom., op . cit • ., p . 88-89) .

~oltom, op . cit • ., p . 90 . ~-:

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It vill bG noted tho.t the n.11 - ou t Jt:1.p~mcsc3 ccimp:J.ign t:1.go.ins t

thcso CL11cgoc7 sourcco of individu,..,,lism c l osely duplico.tes tho

No.zi effort ·0 lso :::i.imed :::i.t the oxtirpntion of tho individu'.11 .

Just [._ts J,.rin ::. c rusnded :-.gr.inst Buddhism c..nd Confucinnimn.,

Rosenberg ca1pai gnod n.gainst ChriGtioni ty . When Gcn0rnl h.Rf~KI

wrote thc,t no individunl is uooful unl ess ho ::rnrvos the stotc ,

he r:1Groly- pnrrottcd Hitler ' s Mein K.":J:1µf . And when FUJISf,.WA

argued n[r,D.inc t soci nliom .-..-,_s cm outc-rowth of incU vidu i:.li ~}m , he

ropoo.ted Goebbels \'lho doscriib\.,d tho 11 oxtirpo.tion of tho C1ccom ...

p l iolmcnto of tho Ii'ronch Rovolution 11 o.s tho 11 noblost task of

No.tionC'l Soci e1.lis:r:1. . 11

Tho thJory which wns w1dcrlying tho anti - individunlisti c

c02~1pr:.ign C'.11.d which rclo.tcd individuc..lisr.1 to .socinlism c,nd com-

munLm1 served its purpo8G m::11, oinco it unc.blod tho men in

powor to mobilize tho po l ice in their concrotc drivo o.gr1.in1:1t

sool'l.ing l y abstro.c t ideas . Th0 grn.nd syc; tGn of tho so - c.:.,llo d 2

Foo.co Pro .. rnrvation Lmvs vii th their provi ;Jions of thought

1. J.ro.ki , s . 1r110 Mission of Nippon undo-r tl.1.0 Roi Fffl of Shown. In Docunonto Illu.stro.tivo of ,Jo..pc.n ' s Nc,tionr.l l'olicy , No..nking ., 1937 , PP • 18- 31.

1

2 . Ymnnlrnwn. , I-I . 11 1 Diosquioting Li tcrnturc I nnd the oxtro.ordin-• 1- • If ( J ) rr · 1 9 ~ ,- 4 ···r t. L . 1 ' . . o..ry s1tuo.\,1.on, , ,.c_izo , uo , ; ,11 nr ir,10 0gio o.-cion in

J npo..n (with tho text of tho "Fon.co Prosorvation Lo.w 11), Tolryo ,

19L11; "No h ,.f t turn --Scionoo of Thought Control , rr Fortune mo.g ., 1936 , 14 , 3 , 95-106 ; Wildes , H. E . Sccl~l Curronta in J~pnn., Chi c c,go , 19~?; Wilde o , ~-I . E., J f~P'.'-11 in Crisis , N(,~7 York,, 1934 •

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contro l niclod in tho complex offort of regimentntion of ,·._1hich

the rcproo;;-Jion of' the individunl nnd of individur-lisr.1 rvns tho l

nlpho. nnd tho omega . Converse l y , tho ideolorTic[,l rehc.bili -

tf',tion of J::-,.p~:m nnrnt borin with tho omrmcipa.tion of the indi ­

viduo.l o.nd individ.unlism. It vi1:-w ns yet be possible to entrust

this tnsk to the Japanese thomselvos , since thuro wore many

f'.L1ong them wllo l[dd tho groundwork for the tc.sk which could now

be ccrriod tc :Lts loGicr·.l end under our ouporvision c,nd protec­

tion .

A. considuro..blo group of <T npo.no s0, p sycholo [\i sts n.nd rwcio ­

logi sts , KOZA.WA ( 84) , '11.ANJ:.KA ( 205 ), and UEMA'rsu ( 226) [U:nOng

them, rofuocd to ondorso tho oxpodiont I'ntionnlizntions of the

o.nti - indi vidu ci.l.i □ tic school . On the contrary , they or.1phn­

sizod the detrimental nogntivo conacquonccs of tho dopcrsonnli ­

zntion process on tho bc.oio of' th,Jir Gocio..1 n.nd clinicr'.1 invos­

tigntions . m~:NJAT[3U, on tho bn3lf.l of clinicr,_l experiments ,

n.rguod tho.t forceful roprosoion of individunli.sm is bound to 2

loo.d to schyzophrunia. KIDO , n. socio - psycholorist , po.ttorning

1 . Tho best study of Thought Control is contn.inocl in Rood ' s op . cit • ., pp . Also sec Honunn, s. a.nd._ Ushiji1:1c.. , Y. ( 42 ) in tho Biblio 1

1·rc.phy ; Gnd the diocusoion of 11 Tho ' Bad ' Jr~pn.nor::.:o " of this Survuy .

2 . Kido , M. Culture , Por:Jonn.lity and Education (J) , Tokyo , 1937 .

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his idoo.s nftor thooo of Rooc.; , d0sc1°ibod Jnp[~noso porson::i.li ty

n3 foninino nnd unduly er,1o tionn.l :..,_s o. rcoul t of dcporoonnlizn-

tion . According to him, pcrsoncli ty in J~pr,n displo.ys o.11 tho

ncgnti vi:; quc.li ties of tho crOivd. It is rundorcd credulous ,

ir-ro.tionoJ. , susceptible to :_;nggestions , OflDily led , oinplo ­

mi ndcd , and m:1oro..l. KOZXv\TA ( 84 ) ad:Lr.gnosod 11 indi vidw,_limn o.s

nn in togro.l pnrt of po rsonr.li ty cJ.1.d YJG.rncd th.flt its for c0ful

r opresoion, o.s it hnd buon practiced in Jnpt1..n for centuries ,

l oc..d to c, disintegration of tho wh0l0 ehor0ctor structure .

Tho offi ci nl trend of ~nti -individuP lism was nloo combo.t­

tcd by· ~'. group of oloqucnt li bornl~1 v,llo rofuocd to nccopt the

shr'.llor1 ro.tionr>.lizntions of FUJISi..WA 1 s RGGC:--.rcll Institute . 1

BABA Tsuncgo ~rote in this connection : 11 Liborr'.licn is too

intricat0ly Hov en into tho fo.bric of tllo nr,_tioru 1 chf..ro..cter

to bo ontiroly cffnced. It coons no oxnGgoration to sny thnt

lib ,;rnlinm is ;,.Jmost :::i.n inhcr,.m.t qur.,_lity of our re.cc . ;i His

dofini tion c;f liborD.lism wn.s c. rootntcmont of J~1pc.no,so indivi­

duo.lisin, 11 n m0nto..l o..ttitudc .:hich !·,w .. kcs hil:!1 t ,.maciou::: of his

own liberty and respectful to other pooplu 1 o . 11 BABA tl10n

v o iced thu hope rc..thcJr thnn conv:J.ction th1,.t tr1osc trends 8.ro

not likoly to be st.~u.1p-..;d out by r'..ny rvf'.C tionary· :r1ov emoat of

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a t cmporo..ry nn tur o . 11 During tho wo.r, t ho li borc..l pro -ind:L vi­

du 2.listic voices of Don like YOSHINO Snlruzo , KAVJ'AI Ycj_jiiro ,

ROY1-~MA Mnso.rnichi , TSUCHIDA Kyooon o..nd Tb.KIKr.WL Y. Hore silenced•

They either kep t p r odently qui ut or pori::littcd the rufficms

do nll tho tnlking , or were in protec ti v o custody , together

vii th HAS:t!:GJ,.\JA Nyozeknn, YAMfa.Ki.1:iA Hi toshi , MOHITO Tc.tsuo ., ci.nd

othors, to whom wo oue f.'.. definite ob ligation, since they wore ,

in thoir fooblo 211rl incf.f\,cti vo but pioneering vrny, fi ghting 1

somo of our own idoologicnl b~tt l os .

WhZ"Lt Psycho logi c c.l Conflicts Accrue Prom Thin Porsonc1li ty Con­c ept?

Ni thJ.n his d.0pors0nr,lizod str,tc of nind t:t-1<.J Jt~p:::moso en-

j oys ~11 tho advantngcs of and suffers from tho disndv~ntngc s

* of c rrn1d psycho l ogy .

Tll.0 fi"'.nous Hi tle:ci 2J1 descripti on of tho crond fits the J r.pan ... osc p·3rsonali ty ·,Ji th uncr'.nny perfe c tion : "Like n wornr:.n v•b.o se psychic feeling is influcmcod by o.bot r c.ct rec-.ooni ng rather thnn by c,n un.d c finrcb l o , son ti:r.~ontr.. l l on~ri ng for complcnen to.ry strength, '-vho vii 11 subui t to tllc strong nwn rr.. the r then cJomin­atc th,J i.rnnk, the r-io. s3os l ovo the ruler rather thoi1. the suppli­c.nt ., 2.nd inv1nrdly thuy [.~re fer noro sc.tlsfiod by '.:. doctrine -_,ihi ch tol0ratcs no rivnl than by tho gi-• o.nt of liborc'. l froGdom. They of ton fool ::,t o. l oss wha t to do Hi th it., nnd ev en Gres l ly fool thcr.rno lv o s do sorted• They nci thor rc:r:..lize tho impudenc e r: ith which thoy o.re sp iritually torrorlzed, nor the outr•ngoous curt :::d l mont of thoi r hur.1m li bcrtie s , fer in no wn,y docs the d 0lusion of this doctrine dn.wn on thori1 . 11

1. Miyake, Y. irwho cc.n co:'lt r o l tho Jo.pc.nose mi l i taris ts 11

(J), Chuwo - Koron, 1918 1 9 1 46 .

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In J f'..pf'_n , \/he r e tho doporsonfllizntion proce ss is L 1.rg0ly

rirtifici nl end coercive , tho individuc.l ic conp0ll0d to re ­

nounce his p0 r son:-- li ty , of t 011 agf:.inst his better judgr.10n t o r

uill . 'rho forc0s which bring o..bout the cnfor c oci d0pur:-Jo:t·lc..li ­

zn tion o.. r o , hovrnvor , not confined to tho oto. tc . Other cmd fc.r

grco.tcr for ces contributo tlloir shr:-.rc to tha p r oc,:Jso , c..nd :Jri­

mo.rily it is t ho phyoi c c..l cnvironr:wnt of the J t:..pnn,:; s o , c.nd tho

unru l y c.nd bo i storous n8. turo in uhich ho l i vos . 'I1hus tv:o

mo.jor conflicto , one 1J0two0n tho individucl c.nd his society,

and tho other b0t1.w011 the i ndivj_du.---.1 c.nd 11.is physicc,l c)nviron-­

m..:m t , 8.ri so . Thu indi vidu .-,_ ]_ J:1pG.nc sc hc,s to s0 lvo both, or

G.t 102.st ndjust hir.1solf trJ both cxc,cting nosto r s , if ho wc~nts

to ourvivc .

1 Wht-:c t Is Tho Confl ict Bct1.voon tho Giri nnd Tho Ni n io?

Tho conflict between tho lnd ividu ~l nnd hie so ci a l onvi ron-

non t roc.cho s :i. ts clin~'.C tic mnnifcst8.tion in tho ;:·_ncicnt cLwh

botnecn tl-10 p:i ri , tho r,Gnsc cf duty, c..nd tl:.c ninl2_, tho 02nse

of focl i nc; , of hmnCtn affe ctions . This ccnflict dc.,ninc.tos tho

l ife of ovory J '.:"'..pt\..,_11.0 ::rn . It is th:; bas:Lc p l o t of' tho J;p;;·n1JGG

plo.y on tho Ko..buki str, to , like tllo l ov e notif in our thdc,tors .

1 . Cf . Htrnd~, T. Honolulu, 1929 .

11 JT'"'J)'U''"'"-'C' r>h• P"C ... u'-"r r,nd Cl1,0 .L·· q-r-··Lr:ni t-·• ii I..,.<._ L'>.Jr...J \..-, __ c .. _t • .,, v. 1..-.... . .... ._..u. 1.. .•. - · iJ I

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It is nlso tho eternc,.l di l ommo.. around which J f'.pf'..ncso life re­

volv es , without ove r ov en n.ttompting to solve it ~ But only

tho giri is rcgr..rdod n. s bo.sic to the idor:l J:-i.pn..neso checrnc -

ter , ·.-;hilo tho ninj o is looke d upon c..s some thing thL, indi vi dun.l

is pormi ttod only to yonrn for , n. s \'JG yoc..rn for the J.ogondc .. ry

Blue Bird .

Tho typicnl his tor ic c .. 1 oxrnnp l e of tho conflict in uhi ch

tho s onse of ought is pitted ng~--ins t thu censc of humcm :-i.ffcc ­

tions is tho dilcrm'ln of Shig0no ri , ,,_ Jn.p['_noso Hmnl ot of tho

twelfth c entury , Ho wns o. mcr.1bcr cf the DD1bitious Tf'..i r o. clo.n

b ent upon seizing pcwcr from the divine Guporo r . Shigomori ' s

f o. thc r o.ssi gned to hin tho tD.sk of c c.ptu.ring ~md olin in['_t ing

the emperor., c..n net i n which filic l piety ( ninjo ) sh0..rply

clashe s with t he trndi t:1.onnl duty of l oyal t y ( giri) to1mrd 1

tho inviolnblo Imporinl house .

Tho conflict rc.:o.chos its 0rnotion::'.l clir-1nx when Sl.i gomori

r emonstrnto o with his fn.thur : i'If I um J.oycl , I co.nnot be

1 . Murdoch., ,T . A History of Jnp~_n , 2nd inpr ., London , 1925 , v o l . l , PP • 304- 340 . 11Ho n.l l o\/od himself to bo booot with o. hr:Lunting dr,;o.d of wh:..1.t h is fnther might do next , rn1.d of the probo.blo consoquencos of the outrngious b0hnvior of the ter­rible o l d mcm., 0v o ry ycnr gettinr 1'orso unrl wor s e . In tho sum­mer of 1179 Shigumori went to Kumnno to suppl"l.cat0 the gods f o r - .. o. sp0edy don th! Such ,.rns the de; .spi·.i:dng vi 0 1:, thr-,_t h o t ook of th J situation. As if in ~nswar t o his petition, he c ontr2ctcd ~ m~l i gnnnt f,Nor upon his return to tho cnpitnl , c.nd of this ho died on Soptorn.bc:r 3 , 1179 . 11

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-~ -filietl , 11 ho sn.id . 0 If I r:rfl flli~tl ., I cc,nnot bo loy:"'.l. Hor0

lo ny sore dilorurw.1 11 Ho cnn only reconcile the conflict by

co.rrying out his fnthor ' s crdor nnd then d0stroyinc; hh1Solf .

It io f'..n irr·ationo..l sc, l ution tho molodr::--.r10.. of '.1hich :Ls in the

best tTo.pr,neoo trndi tion . No oyc rennins dry in tho audience

nhcn Shigomori I s rrco.t dilcr.tn::"L is prosontod on tho Ko..buki

stc..go .

Jc1.prn 0lorifios tho r-:iri_ ·,:hich, it is so.id ., wr.s the sole

mot i vo.tion of the scmmre:.i t'r,d guided tho fc rty-sovon ronin of 1

Asa.no to thoir ino scapablc destiny. Today it is stressed

o.gr~.in , CLlmo ot b,)yond c:::ndurm:.co . An outstr.1nding mcc:_e1.1 n oxnnp l o

of itG e1.pplication wo.o ;;1rovidod by n Japc.ncso nodicc,l officer

ntl..-r:-icd TATSUKICHI Nobu , nho \Vo.s ordorod to c.xtcn.~in'ltG tho

r:n ticnts of f'. field hospit['.l on Attu to prevent their C'.:lpture

by the .Ar:.ericei.n forces then convorging on Chic~_gof Bo..y . ~:'AT,­

SUKICHI ' s cnso is partj_cularly :i.ntornstinp: , s:inco ho was

b:rought up nnd oduc o.t od in the United Stntcs end returned to

Jc,,.po.n only shortly bcforo tho outbreak of hostilities . Indeed,

in his n.br~ndonod bc..g on Attu '. 10rc fo u nd textbooks bolongin6

t o the Modi c nl Schoo l of Pc..cifi c Union Ccllcgo of Agwin, Cnli ­

fornio. , which Dr . ~C1i,.'r.SUKICHI ho..d conv0nicntly forgotten to

1. Shioyr'. , S , Chushinp:ur::i.- - nn Exnosi tion ., rrokyc ., 19(0 , PP • 98-10·1 cmd 107- 11·4:; r.nd ,...,sc~c:\.'.,lly 1Uchin.'.ln- Fukurn.oto , A Re co rd of tho Stirrinp: Entorprisc of tho Gcnroku Er_f'; , T0kyo ,, 1909 .

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return.

The order to cxtorr;1innt0 his v10.rds c.s well ns hir:!solf

i;10.s the giri in his porsonnl conflict . The nemory of his

wife '.'.l1d his children waiting for hh.1 in J·f'.pon , or the oppor­

tunity to surrendo1, 1-:md be t ci.kcn bo.ck to tho Uni tod St ,'.:1.to s,

which ho o.pparontly rospoctcd n.nd 2-drnircd, roprescntcd the

nin.io . The conflict, however, wc.s unoqtlivocc..lly solved . His

diary shows no si311 tho.t he ever po:cr".ittod the sense cf huno.n

o.ffoctions to intcrferu -..vi th hia perverted senao of duty .

TATSUKICHI ki lled h:ts pntionts bruto.lly , r.10st of th<::m with

hc.nd - grcn1.:..dos . He retsinocl n lo.st gr ono.do for himself . When

his turn c eme , ho devoted 8. l:.'.S t paro.gro.ph in his dio.ry to

o..n imp1:'..ssionod lc.~wc- t['.king from his fcu11ily, then pressed the

live gr enade '.lgrdnst hls c:!.-10st CLDd blew hinsclf ·up .

F1ror.1 our point of view, tb.u constant J r_p.-,nosc conflict

between the rd ri nnd the nil':J:.12. poses t". dlffi cult :problem, o.1-

thourrh it 1-:1ny not be beyond solution . It is not the giri per

so wj_ th which \JG :--:mst bo concerned , but the o..bsonco of ctn a l­

torno.tiv0 which inevi t'.:tbly renders it into r,_ on.0 - wri.y 1:1.ctivc.­

tion. 'rl-10 solution to th0 problc:r.1 might b~, found in the dis­

covcr•y of c.n oqu8.lly strc•ng coun tcr-- motivntion in whi ch the

c1:1pho.sis j_s diverted from tl1c p: j_ri to tho nin.io . It nust not

be overlooked th.Gt it is outside c0mpulsion YJhich enfor ces

the. inner drive , a co:n1;u lr.Jlon dependent upon irnmedintc contro l

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nnd motivnted by fear of' physico.l punishu~ont or socic..l S,J.nc ­

tions . Will Ador.1s , a bcmovolcnt critic of sovontoonth century

J r.pcm ond r-, close friend of 'rOKUGAWA Iyoyn.su, recognized this

when ho so.id thn.t the peop l e of Jn.pcm arc r'vcry subject to 1

thei r govcrnorc a.nd suporiorsn in whatever they do .

for , too , obs0rved in this connection:

so oc.si ly to be bound by ;-,_n onth t,'.:..ken to such Gods , or Spirits ,

o.s o..ro not \70rshipped by mr.ny , o:t1d unknown to nos t: If they do

comply Pith it, it is noro fo:r· fcnr of _punishr1ont , which would 2

inovi tn.bly c.ttond th1Dm if b~trC\.yod . 11 It nny bo hero , th:.1t

vrn find tho loop ho lo in the uncondi tiono_l onforco:nent of the

n:iri . Moro will be so.id o..bout thiG lr"tor .

Hon Docs the Jo.po.nose Porson2.lity Ccncopt Influence Jo.p:::mese Mori1.li ty?

Tho ov,-:;rrd.1clming enpl1c.s:J.o plc1.0cd upon the socin.l ,;ffoc­

tivenoss of tho Jr.pnn0so persono.lity cnnnot fnil to h'."".VC reper­

cussion::: on the Japuncso concept ( ['.nd , one nny sny , prc,ctico )

of soci.".l con':.rol 8.S vrnll . Of course , the Jf'..pm1esG culture is

1. Adruns , w. ( Alsc sec , Mur.n.kc,_i , N. LcttGrs Written by the English Rco:l.dents in J"n-par_!:., Tokyo , 1900.)

2 . K.'1ompfcr , E . .Ai-rioenitatum oxoticnrur1 poli tico-physico­mcdicnrum fo.sciculi , L<;r:1go ., 1712 . Also his History of Jnpo.n, Engl . tr. by J . G. Schouchzor, 2 vcls., London, 1727 .

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n o t the only one charo.ctorizod by vnst bodies of institution­

c..li zcd rugulo.tions , promot0d by c<)-3rc iv c or lcgc..l o.nd syrn.bo lic

or :mo r o.l devices . The difforcmce bct\won our cu l turu ., spcc i ­

fico.lly tho Anglo- S axon culture , and the.t of tho Jo.p:::mooc is

a. difference in omphnsis . While we unph rcsizc oynbo lie .fon:1.s

of control Gnd strive to develop n wi ll- t0-pnrticipo.tic:1 in

the i ndi vidu c.. l throu~h inner convic ti ens ., the J r.pD.no so dcp ond

on coerci on within n p~inst~kin~ly gr ndcd h i ornrchy for tho

dovclop':JOnt of rm irro.tionc.l ',vill- tc - subordinc.ticn . ThG result

io cm individu:·,_l deficient not only in pcrsurnl i ty but c'.lso

in such intrinsic Wustcn-i ~-.1or;~l v:1lucs o.s ., for cxc-mp l c ., o. 1

s ens e of right0cusno s G 2.nd of sin.

Tho o.ppo.rcnt ab s ence of Chris ti nn norQ ]J. ty in the J c.pnn­

o co no. tionc,l othos usually first bowildt3rs thon ,'.1.1li:3no.teo .,

the Western observer . Thus 8.ppo.llod by "IJhc.t f_ppcr:•.rod to lliin.

a s the bnsic moro.l defi cien cy of tho .J,.pn..ncso , Cr'.ncn Bctrrott

r cnn.rkod that no 51st Ps:::-.l n is to be found in the v1ho l c ,T n.pa.n ­

csc li tor'l.turc - - [1. stc..t-..;nont auotl3d with r1pprovr~l by H.Fi.RJ .. DA

Tasudo , one tine prcsidont of the Christian Doshishn Uni vorsi ty 2

of Kyoto . Ch~nberlnin , too , pointJd to this deficienc y ,

1 . Suycmntsu., K. 1''I1ho ethics cf .Tc.p,.n., " Sni thsoni r:'..11 Inst .

Ann . Rop ., 190 6 ., PP • 293- 307 .

2 Hrirndn T ())n . -,i' t :-11.r:o t.ll0

r: The Fr'..l0

t1" of J·,·1pL"n , 1\lc1," York, e L--. u .u1 • .=.!___G_ e 1 ,_ ~ l ~ -~ . _ _ 11

,

1914 ., PP • 157-184 •

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which ho described ns m'_:.torinlLJr.11 .~nd so.id~ rrThnt is whore

the fo. l sc not o is struck, nhJ. ch • • • j~rs on European l

norvos Nld prevents true intollcctur;l s:fr.1pc.thy . 11

2 According to G:ci ff i s ., 11lovo of truth for its oHn snko ,

cho.sti ty., o.nd tcr.1pcrm1c0 , 8.ro nut cho.rnctoristic virtues "

of tho Jc.pnnoso . Indeed , tho notorious hobcn nu use , OT' whi to

l ie , c.nd the uso of cunning expedients f ,-:. r the snko of o.cccr.i•

pli shing one ' s purpose n.re fully sr.nctionod by their trrJ_di ­

tionr.l uao.gc o.nd by tho dolibern.to flHbigui ty of tho r-10rt.:. l

codco , ospoci2.lly tlK,t of the Bushi . Jo..p::.nosc ido:-1-s of scx-3

uo.1 bohavior :..'.re scr1.rco l y contr•c,J.lod by norcl vc.l uos . Tho

quo.si - r:1.or o. l tenets of the ,fr.po.no so , such r~s fi. lic,l pi cty o.nd

l oynlty , are Chinese in o~igin ., but , unlike in Chin~ , they nro

b['_scd en for1;12lizod trib .:-.1 ':,'r~cticos retthor thr1.n on ucrnl con-

victions .

The Jnp:::n10s0 pcrsono.l i ty cannot be viewed apo.rt fJ~o:--.1 its

cthicc.l coloring . The ,Trp;1.ncsc systor1 of ethics , however , nus t

c:I _,I

O;O

1. Chm~1borlain ., B. H. '11hings J r-.pc,nos,3 , 5th rev . ad., London, 1905 ., pp . 250- 264 .

2 . Griffi3 , E . E . Tho Mikr:.do I s Er1pirc , 2 vols • ., Nevi York, 1906 , vo l. 2 , 391- 404 .

3 . Ichiko.wc, ., D. 0 Dn.s Go schlo cht8lobcn dcr jung0n Lou to in J;1.pan., 11 Ost - 1--i.sion, 1906 , 9 , 458- 460; cJ.so cf. Krf'.uss , F . s. Dns Goschlcchtslcbcn in GJ.r.ub0n , Si ttc ., Brc..uch und Gowohn­hci tsrccht des ,J:::,_pc..ncrs

•

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1 not bo regarded in the so.nw li ght f,S our own .

2 of J o.po.no s e ethics, ;i wrote h.SHIDli. Kei j i , 11 rove i•.ls n c o::1posi te

chr..rnct0r in the t empornment o f the peep l o . Wo find in it ,

even fron rnci cnt times , a combin~ti on of who.t Y.1'\Y be ci:. llc d

Hc ll 0nic o.nd Hobro..ic tendencies , vnrying cnly in proportion

in diffuront ages . 11 By Hellenic tcndenc:Lcs ASHIDA 1."lr:s obviouo­

ly r eferrinc t o the Sophists , to ,1hor.1 no r.:-. J.j_ ty \110.s a bl cmcl

of noble and purely u.t:1.li tarir.1.n s enth1cnts r.nd who regarded

the life of' tho ci tizcn [1./J cons is ting nwinly of public func­

tion.s . Whon ope r.king of l-I12 orn.ic t ond cmcic s , Ji.SHID11. had in

mind c.. concept of 1:1oro.lity bn.socl C)r1 tl1e positive 1 0.1.ivc o f n. thco--

crn tic c orinuni ty o.nchor ud t o n writ ten code inpo s,3d by d-i vino

r ev o 18. tj_on t:..nd sc.ncti onod by di vine proni sos r nd thror.. ts , f'.S

TT Cll ns tc the idoo. of s e lf- id enti fi cation vi th God . Beth

conc ep ts ~ro r omt:. rko.b l e for their juridic~l rnthcr thf'..n philo­

sophico.l troo.tr1unt of rncrt:. lity, c.nd both l:'. ck th::·t qunlity o f

irnvo.rdnoso whieh. Christi['_nity shf'_ r e d with the StoicD . Tho

J r..pc·.no s c of tcdny o.re H0ll,:mic c..nd Hcbrrcic in th0 s en s e thc. t

thoy nro r'lindful of virtue c..s o. uniquo qunlity cf intrinsic

value , but r egard it merely ~s ru1 ~t tributc of tho goo d

1 . Ibuk D. , I\. e 11 The othicnl problcns of new ,J ·p·0.n . " In Jr,1xm ' s MOS[W./;U to ii.n~;r:l..cc , Tokyo , HH 0l , PP • 15~) - 166 .

2 . .hshid;-_, cp . cit ., PP • ·r.83- 483 ,

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c itizen juot :rn good o.rtisan:Jhip is regnI'dod .'lS the c'.ttri­

bu te; of c-.n. oxpcmsi vo cn1cl fr\shionnble si lvcrsni th .

Th:1.;:; do::is not r,1e811 that tho Jo.pl',nese wero never subjec­

ted to o.bstrc.ct morr,l infJ.uoncos . Confucir;n ethics mr:',dO n 1

deep inror,d ,Jn J,r,_p~mose norc..l life . Cc,nsidorc.blo social con-

tro l uo.G exorcised from tir.10 to tir:10 by tho Buddhist priest­

hood G.nd by the prcnulgc,tion of the Ju- zen- Hogo ., the ten Bud-2

dhistic virtues . But in o.ssossing tho nornl offoctivono s s

of those too.chings c:i..r1d cur,inc.ndr:rnnts , ono is inclined tc t._ccept

tho cc.ut5.on surrosted by Ltkin::ion who wrote : 11 /._s I otudy Bud ­

dhi sti c o thi c :J , I find it difficu l t to nvo id i llUi!i.inu ting .,

docpcnL1g o.nd wi.dening thcr:. \7i th r~.;; ncquired Chris ti o.n ins t r u c­

tion . If ono Pl~uld otudy those ethics without this prepos­

scsoion, r in0J. i ne to think th~'.t t.ht_;y \•rnuld seem of loss vnl ue 3

then thoy o.ro uomotimos and by .so.rn.c pcrcons rcgc"Lrded as hnv i ng ."

T.1:-ic:lr o thical philosophy ., if it r:10.y be cc,llcd such, is simi l o.r

to n qunsi - Socr[1.tic concept: knowludg0 is virtue Gnd error

1. Kung '110h r,;1cn;"" , 11 Det' jn.p'ini,schc Ir~poric·.lisnus in Lichte dos h.onLuzic.ni.Jnuo , ri D:J.s neuc Ghhin., 1938, 5 , 31 - :32 , 6 - 11 ; CcLrus , P . " Cc--1:11.cio.nisr.1 nnd :.:--.ncestrr..l worship , rr The Open Court , 1906 , 20 , 8 , P • ~ 7 .

2 . To.chibr.nn , s . The Ethics of Buddhis-:-1, London , 1926; .A.he­sr.:.ki , M. 11 Buddl-:.ist 0U1ic::.J cJ1d ·r,orilli ty , 1T T.LSJ, 1912 , 40 , PP • 11 5-152 .

3 . Atkin::,on, n. w. "Tho ten Bu.ddhistic virtues , 11 Tl1.SJ ., 1 905 , 23 ., 2 , p~ . 159- 181 .

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is evil . The formula was almost literally repeated by KAT­

SURAGI Ji-un, o. Buddhist preacher of the eighteenth century,

Hho stet.ted in o.n explo.natory sermon on the Ju-zen-Hogo thn.t

11 it is o. virtue to train one I s mind in o.ccordn.nc e with and in 1

obedionce to reason, nnd th£',t the oppos;i.te of it is vice. 11

The Jo.pane so warrior I s code, the greater ethical impli.­

co.tions of which will be denlt ~ith on a l ater page, is often

mentioned o..s nn instrument providing still another set of 2

moral precepts for tho Jo.pGnese.

Thero oxi sts in the Western mind a. considerable confusion

insofar o.o Bushido is concerned, chiefly because of our fail­

ure to distinguioh botwoon the historicc..l origin o.nd the per­

verted modern tintype of the wnrrior I s code. When origino.lly

conceived during Jo.pan's chivalrous middle o.ges , it was a

legal system of ereat ethical vnlue. Its ruthors were tho

puriton gontry of Jo.pan o.nd its conception v10.s induced by the

rovuloion with v,hich those puri to.ns rogo.rdod tho effeminate ,

immo rnl, docadont wriy of 1:lfo of the nobility. Eo.rly Bushido

1. Atkinson, R. w. "Tho tcm Buddhistic virtues, 11 TASJ, 1905, 23 , 2 , P•

2. Nitobo, I. Bushido, the Soul of Jc .. pan, New York, 1905. Aoc.ko.vrn, K. 11 Somo of tho contri bu tiono of foudo.l J apo..n to the nmv Jr'<pr·n, 11 J 0 urno.l of Haco Dovolopmont, 1912-13, 3, pp. 1-32. Anoki, .s. "Geschichto dos Bushido, 11 Ost-Asion, 1908-09, 11, 468., 507-511 . Gubbins, J. H. Tho Mo.kinr of Modern Jo.pan, London, 1922 (Chnptor XIV, pp. 145-151). Riess , L. "Der Volksgoist Jr.po.ns und do1~ Bushido , i, Asien, 1906-07, 6, 65-68, 86-88, 104-106,

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promot ed de cency, justice, righteousness, o.nd fair play, o.nd

was d emocratic both in its b a sic t 0nots and its political 1

aims.

Whon it wo.s late r resuscitated as mi instrument of pro­

p ag ~ndn in tho hands of tho modern militarists, it wo. s com­

plet ely Gtripp od of its ethic nl cont ents and made into a h andy

system of subterfuge to cove r up aggression, t e rrorism, end 2

brut ality . How fo.r tho modern Jnp::mose soldi e r wn. s removed

from the modi ov c.l Buohi c.nd hor,r little true Bushido in.flucmcod

the nets of tho cont emporary militarist cnn bo d emonstrated

in just one incident of vro.r. The a ttack on Port Arthur with

which tho Russo-J c.p rme s 0 v1 a r was stc,.rted, r.nd the r aid on

Pe arl Harbor t o i gnit e tho Po.cific wo.r, displo. ye d Jrcp.'.',noso de­

grad o.tion in int e rno.tion o.l mor o.lity. Both incid ents ho.d noth­

ing to do with Buohido or the conduct su gge sted thoroin. In

f act., the y viola ted tho principle s of Bushido. According to

its t en e ts, no nggr os3ion must connnence unle ss the opponent

is prope rly f or cvrnrnod . Thus, in individu .'.', l comb nts, the

cho.llongo r v!as r equir ed to stop forw Grd, bovv do oply, introduce

hims elf o.nd hi s p edi gr ee to his o.dv e rso.ry, o.nd invite him to

acc ept his ch allenge . In bnttloa, tho nttncking force was

1. Sans om, G. B. J np~n, n Short Cultural History, rev. ed., New York, 1943, pp. 495ff.

2. Cf. Sheba, S. 11 Prop ng nndo. v s . Bushido, 11 J c..p o.n Times, 1937, October 2-4 . Also Okuno, K. 11 Tr e1.dition und Rekl rn:ne in J o.p c..n," Gebr o.uchs gr o.phik., 1934, 11, 5, 58-61.

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required to o.lert the enemy by shooting n sinr-:ing nrrow into 1

the air , annou11 cing the impending bo..ttle.

When revived in the nineteenth century, the modern Japan­

ese militcrist expropriated the n~e of Bushido, but virtually

none of its tenets o.nd principles. It beccme o.n integral part

of the Ja.po.neoe propc,gnnd~1. scheme, 1:.:nd not of c. mornl system.

To mo..ke the subterfuge more convincing to the Western observer

who is apt to view all n.lien cul turc.l symbols in the light of

his own culturel pf'..ttern, various Jc.pc.nese o.tte:::npto were made

to establish o. spiritual kinship betvrnen Bushido o.nd Christian-

i ty, by compo.ring the martyrdom of enrly Christians with the 2

spirit of self-sacrifice dioplnyed by the SLunurni. Such

compnrisons were pnrtly inspired by the desire of opportunis­

tic Japanese Christians to demonstrc.te their loy'.l.lty to the

regime. If It is difficult for c. We stem chronicler, 11 Holtom

wrote in this connection, "to reo..d the idealization of Bushido

1vi thou t pro to st. The 1Vny of the Wo.rrior truly le o.ds through

centuries of bloodsto.ined pages , but r,rhere in c.11 that story

do vve find o. single exmnple of Jesus-like love that requites

evil ,ai th good nnd offers prnyers on behc.lf of the enemy nnd

persecutor? The lurking revenge of the Forty-seven Ronin is

1. Brinkley, F. r1J2.p[:n, 11 Enc . Brit., 11th ed., New York, 1911, pp . 206-209.

2. Ebio:J.wo., A. 11 The relf'..tion between the ethics of Bushido o.nd Chris ti nni ty, rr Cultural Nippon., 1939, 7, 4 , P• 27 •

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typicnl of Bushido, not the spirit thnt evinces resentment 1

agnins t no ono . 11

Tho Japcne se Lincoln who would testify to on inner feel­

ing of charity tow o..rd al 1 and malice tow C1.rd none has yet to

be born. Indeed, the gradual ethical degredation of Bushido

was keenly felt, not only by modern Christians, but ev en by

the J" apo.nose scholo.rs of the seventeenth century. MURO Kyuso,

for example , felt the mornl ino.dequacy of Bushido when he

prenched pity and humility., both of which were irreconcilably 2

a li en to the orthodox. principles of tho Warrior 's Code.

Unfortun o.tely C1.n ethic rtl evolution thn t c.ppe ared possible after

such a promising beginning was cut short by the Shinto revi­

v alism of the historic,ns of the Mito School, whose opposite

orientation made a ro.pprocbment with Occidental ethics utterly

impossible.

Whatever moral precepts Confucio.nism., Buddism and Bushido

succeeded in imparting to the Jrpo.nose h c..ve long been cancel­

led out by that ambi tiouo project of the modern Jo.p[mese mili-3

tnry state for which tho misnomer 11moro.l educntion" was coined.

1. Haltom, op. cit., P• 102-107; ~lso Imni, s. Pntriotism of spirit o.nd Christianity, (J), Tokyo., 1940 .

2. Snnsom, op . cit., PP • 504-507.

3. Sasnki, H. Mor~.l Erziehung in J2pcn, Leipzig, 1926. Also Yoshida, K. . Uobor io.pe1,nische Erziohung und den Morn.lunter­richt in den Schulon Jo.pc.ns, l\:indcn , 1906. Cf. s e ction deal ­ing with moral education in this Survey, "The Making of the Japanese. 11

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The technin,_ueo of this project, which, like those of the Bush­

ido , r:erc both apparently designed to make paragons of virtue

of all Japanese , will be considered more fully in a later

chapter. This education is motivated not oo much by a genuine

interest in morality for its onn sake as by tho utility of

morality in promoting the intorests of tho state . The resu l ts

are often ludicrous . NITOBE, for example , describes a burg­

lar nho , upon entering a otrange house vii th the intent of vio ­

lating tho second Buddhiotic commandment which condemns theft ,

found himself in front of a Shinto shrine . The burglar otoppod

for a moment , bowed deeply and ceremoniously yfi th all the out-1

ward signs of reverence , and then proceeded to rob the house .

An even crasser conflict bctwoon imrnrdly felt morality

and i to ::mperficial, organized, modern form v1as described by 2

YO3HINO Sakuzo , lato professor of the Imperial University of

Tokyo . Not long after the close of tho ,Russo - Japanese war ,

tho father of a certain family 1vvas asked by one of his chil,..

dren why tho souls of tho dead r:arriors wore enshrined in

Yasukuni Jinja . He replied that it TTas bocauoe they had given

their lives for their country . The child \7as not satisfied.

He aokod if a certain sorvant of thG family who had lost his

1 . Nitobu , I . Japanese Traits and Foreign Influences , Lon­don, 1927.

2. Yoshino , s . as cited in Holt0m, op . cit ., pp . 52- 54 .

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life in tho war was enshrined thor.e. The father said that

ho was . Tho child, however., know that this particular ser­

vant had been a notoriously bad character., disnipatcd., a liar,

nnd a thief . Shortly after having been called to tho colors

he hnd been killed in action, and his spirit had been deified

in tho Ya3ukuni Shrine. The artless child was inc apablo of

comprehending that no matter how worthless a person might have

been, if he diod in battle for his country his former sins

were blotted out and ho became a kami, worthy of tho worship

of tho best.

YOSHINO was attacked for his article eighteen years after

it was published. He was accused of having insulted tho

national structure and of h:::.ving heaped indignity on the sa­

cred spirits of the vrnrrior dead: "Thoso who , with tho words

Tenno Heika Banzai on their lipo, have consummated tragic

death in battle, v1hethor they arc good or whether they are

bad, arc thereby sanctified, 11 an odi tori al said in Toikoku 1

. Shimpo .

Ethic8.l isnuos in modern Japan nore so completely con­

trolled by the otate that they have come to be regarded as

being ,Ji thin tho juriodiction of the pclicc department and

the gendarmes . On 4 Mo.rch, 1938, the chic f of the "Thought-

1. Toikoku Shimpo (J), 1938, Sept. 18, P• 2 (Holtom 1 s trans ... lation., op . cit • ..,, P o 54) . Dr . Yc,ohino's article appeared in the Chuo Koron in December 1920. Its ti tlo was , 11 The ethical significance of 1.1orshj_p at tho shrinooi; (J).

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Control Offico 11 of tho Gondarmerio in the Osaka o.rea sent out

a questionnaire to thG ropresonto.tivos of the Christian move­

ment in his area . The quostionno.iro required Christians to

submit their views on such subjects as, for exo.mple , tho Chris­

tiru1 idea of God , tho relation of tho Emperor of Japan and tho

God of Christianity., o.nd tho rolation of tho Imperial Rescript

on Education and tho Bible. The Osaka questionnaire nas by

no means tho only case in which military officers have assumed

the role of invDstigators of Christian ethi c s . This was re­

sented by some upright Japanese Christians like TAGAWA Dai­

kichiro who dared to wri to: "Is the Gcndarmorio tho office

that supervises the affail'S of Shinto and religion? • •

I feel that th0rc is a measure of coercion nnd encroachment 1

upon tho freedom of belief in Chris ti ani ty. 11

•

Our failure, or unwillingness, to evaluate the practical

Japanese concept of ethics in its true light is tho caus e of

many misunderstandings in adjudging the so-called moral action

of tho Japanese, We speak of treachery in the sneak attacks

on Port Arthur o.nd Pearl Harbor, but to the modern Japanese

it was but an excellent realization of tho customary hobon nu

~ and by no munns incompatible with their concept of ethics .

A typical oxmnplo of this fundrunontal misunderstanding is seen

in tho horrifiod excitement with which tho Amoricru1 people

1. Holto,n, opa cit .. , pp . 91-920

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roc0ivod tho nows of the de c apitation of an American prisoner

of war in Japo.nose hands . According to our own moral princ i ­

ples this act '78..S one of almost unbolievablo srwagory . But

the c,vcrago Japanese would find it rathor difficult to share

our dismay . ,lccording to his ethical concepts , tho American

boy 11disgro.ced 11 h i mse l f by becomi ng a prisoner of war . Whon

tho Japanese officer, using his best sword , docap i to.tod him

a c cording to strict ri tual 1 he was perform;l..ng an almost samari ­

tan 0.ct by aiding tho American captive to redeem his lost 1

honor .

It uould be wrong to say thnt the Jr-po.neso is unethical ,

immo r a l, or amoro.l . 'I'hoso , undc3r tho circumsto.nces , are com-2

parativo terms . A sovero critic of Japanese morality , tho

Christian philosopher HARADA Tasuku Yvroto in this conne c tion :

11 Tho lack of ethic 0.l content in tho original fni th of tho

Japanese has boon often noted, and is indeed most evident .

Yot this very l2ck has in itsolf boon clo.imod as a character­

istic of r-;roo.t credit in that tho rc,co noodod no complicated

system of mcro.lity , being froo to bo natural in its self -

1. Matsumoto , T . 11 Jo.prurn iiktion im F'ornon Os ton i m Lichte seiner 11ifol tonschauu ng , 11 Europ . Rcvuo , 1935 , 11, 10 , 642.-646 ; Sa·,,ada, B. History of Abnormal Punishments ( J) , Tokyo , 1926 .

2 . Anoso.ki , I'II . nTho war ' s effect upcn the Jnpnncse mind , 11 in What J 2Pnn Thi nksJ Ncm York, 1921 , pp . 143- 159; o.l::io Ibuka, op . cit 3, and Mn.suoka, J ., °Ch"l_nging moral bo sos of the J n.p o.n­o so family in :IaHnii., 11 SGG]:_£}..:·c soc,. Ros., , 1936 , 21 , PP • 158-1 69.

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1 expression., cmd hence more truly in accord with the Vvay . ".

MABUCHI Kmno declared that Jo.pcm 17as governed by tho will

of Heav en and honce \·ms froo from all such petty and pedantic

re gulations as chnractcrized Confucian rule: "Tho non- existence

of any ethical system in J apan, ;r hG wrotG., "proves tho moral

superiority of thu Japanese over the Chinese who possess and

ne0d such sys t om . 11

If wo nov1 try tc adjudge Japanese more:.l acti on according

to our oun id00.lizcd Chriotio.n ethics , 1,·10 moroly duplicate

tho failure of tho early AfllOrican settler to understand the

ethics of tho aboriginal Indian . This i n[~bi lity to vien ethics

comparativ0ly m1:.~de a truce between tho opposing ethi c a l forces

impossible ., Md resulted in the near-extermination of the Ameri­

c o.n Indicm~

From our point of view the issue o.ssumes o. crucial im­

porto.ncG at this stage, especially insofar as post- i.7ar rehabi­

litati on is concerned . Hhon n ow our ovm ethical concepts come

into close contact nith the ethical principles of tho subju­

gated enemy ., tho difforoncos botwocn thum c.nd cm unvJilling­

ness to reconcile thum might v e ry well frustro.to all attempts

a t r ehabilitation a..nd eventual reconciliation . The men who

arc now s 0nt to administer Jc.pcm must o. lw c.ys bonr in mind that

the oduco.tion of th0 Jc..po.nose dces not d eprive him o f all

morality., but rather provides him with c.. different sot of

1. H8.rado., T. Tho Fnith of Jo..po.n., Now York., 1926, pp . 48•72 .

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e thic a l pre c epts . It is c e r emonial , e xt erna l , ' and coe rciv e .

It includes , f r c m our own p o int o f vi e w, fun d nmcnt a l mioco n ­

c option s nnd m.'.lny o.b o rrati ons . "It has omphnsizod unquo stion ­

ing o b od i once , 11 Ho l t om vvr o t o , 11 0.nd the r e by h ns h e lped t o dry 1

u p the inne r nullsp rings o f r e sponsibl e conduct . " Our

t a sk vJill b e to r e stor e t o tho J c.p:me se the b a s e s of respon­

sible conduct , by shifting r e npc-nsibility from tho l e ade r b a c k

t o tho individu o.l .

The f nct that J ap an , liko Ge r many , r eq uir ed a gi ganti c

po l ice f orce tc supe rvis e mo r o. l educ a ti on and e nforce the

mor o.l action o f tho individu a l prov e s by itse lf tha t the pro -

j oct of 11 mor a l educ /:\. ti on 11 h a s bcon o. f o.i lure , d oep oning tho

conflict r a t he r tho.n e limina ting it . Tho f ailure o f the J o.pnn­

e s o e f fort of mor al r egimen to.ti on , h owev e r , will c e rt a inly

facili t atc our t a sk, e spe ci ally if v10 will try t o und e rstand

the J ap nno s o mor ::cl t en e ts instoo.d of f orcing our own ethical

principle s d own J ap an e s e thron ts .

1. Holtom, op . ci t ., P •

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Hmv Does tho Conflict Botwoon the Individual o.nd His Physico.l Environment Influence the Jo.panesc Personality?

Tho problem of tho Jo.po.nose porsono.lity is furthor deep-

0nod by tho difficulties of a personal adjustment to nature . 1

Somo 1,,vritors , like Weston o.nd NOHARA , oxplnin much of the

peculinritios of tho Japanese cho.ro.ctor by citing tho compli­

cations involved in this difficulty . Whereas we h~vo grad­

ually succeeded in reducing tho prodoterr:1ining influences of

tho ecologic fo.ctors until todo.y they o.ppoar o.s more geogra­

phic limitntions , tho Japnnoso remains tho slo.vo of his phy­

sicnl environment . The causes arc , of course , beyond him.

They arc inherent in nnture itself . uTho aspects of no.turo

in LTapcm, ;r wrote Weston in a beautiful ossay on tho subject ,

11 comprisc an nme.zing variety of so..vc.go p-rnndeur , appnlling dos­

tructivoncss, [tnd almost heavenly boi:cuty . From the mountain

burst forth volcruiic eruptions; from the: lnnd come tremblings ;

from the ocean swoops in tho dreaded tidnl wo.vo; over it rages

tho typhoon. Floods of rain in summer o.nd autumn give rise

to land-slides nnd inundo.tions. Along tho coast tho winds

and curronts c,ro vory variable . Sunken ruid emerging rocks lino

th3 shore . All those malrn tho dark sides of nnturo to cloud

tho irn.o.gino.tion of mf'n , and to arouse the nightmare of

1 . Noho.rf'., W. K. The True Face of J o.p::in , Londcn , 1936 , pp . 29-30 .

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- 77 -

1 sup 0r sti tion in mnny untutored minds . 11

Tho Jap"nose people r00.ct in various wo..ys to those un­

friendly moods of nature . 11 In oornc persons , 11 ·wrote Willis La­

mott , 11 thoy ho.ve incu lc o.tod o. dovil- mny - cnre spirit such ns

o.ni nrn.ted the inho.bi t nnto of o.nciont Yoda when they nickn.':'lilod

the diso.strous fires which poriodiC['cl l y lo.id Ho.stc tho city, 2

' tho flowers of Yodo . 1 11 In others they hnvo infuaed the

spirit of fatalism so often cxprossod in the onorvo.ting by­

word , shiknto. gn. no.i -- 1 it co.n ' t be helped.' Tc still others

tho hardships of life have ccme c.s o. chc.llongo to spiri tuo.l

cu l ture ond too. stoico..l conquest of o.dvorsity ::.-nd diso..stor .

On tho whol,:; , honever, tho J~:.pcnose appears to mo.kc litt l e

conscious effort to sottlo tho ccnflict betvrnon himse l f o.nd o.

co.pricious , unruly no. tur e . But ho cc.nnot osca.po tho conso .­

quen cos of tho conflict on his porsonf:'.l i ty . It further devel­

op s in him o. po.ssive o.do.ptive co.pr,ci ty in which helpless ronig­

no. t ion o.nd improvisntionn prodcmino.t0 . On the surface this

appears as a submissive stoicism, co..ll od onryo in Jo.po..n; n

word den o ting n combino.tion of diffidence ., rostr8.int o.nd cere ­

moni ousness . The onryo is often considered the solution of

the basic ccnflic t whcron.s in re c,li ty it in only its mc.ni fos -

tation . Bonoo.th it o.1 1 tho Jc_pc'ncso is restless nnd unstc..blo ,

1. ViGston , './ • ;'Tho g .:;ogro.phy of J o..pc31 in its influence on tho cho.rnctor of tho Jo.pc.nose poc•plo , 11 TJS , 1923, 20 , 15 ., 2-12 .

2 . Lamott , VI . Suzu k i Looks at Japnn , Now York, 1934 .

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o.s if ro.ging ivi th Dn inso.tio.blo fury ng:-,_inst his personal fate.

Tho conflict has its thoocro.tic prototype in Jo.p[\noso

mythology. 'I'ho o.borigi nnl doi tics Iznno.gi nnd Izo.no...mi go.vc

birth to the Sun Goddess , tho Mccn God, nnd Susa-no-Wo, tho

Impetuous Mo.lo , black sheep in Japan's divine po.nthcon. As

described in Nihongi , Suso.-no-Wo is o. boisterous ~1d trouble­

somo young god whoso violence o.nd irnsci bili ty po rpotuc..lly

threatened tc upset tho app l e co.rt of tho Jn.petnoso genesis .

Tho impact of Susa-no-Wo's conduct on Jo.po.nose imagination is

difficult to ovorostimnto . Evon todny ovory Japnnoso, no

mo.ttor how nnivo or onlightonod he nwy bo, riogc.rds Sus a-no-

Wo ni th o. mixture of fco.r o.nd envy . The flood o.nd tho storms

o.ro so.id to bo tho wo.i ling c.nd weeping of this bois terour ~,

and tho de.mo.go done by the typhoons is attributed to his vio­

l ence . In Susa-no-Wo I s u ncontro llod fury the Jnpcneso wo r-1

ships the tempest of his own r epressed impetuosity.

Tho symptoms of this basic ccnflict, al thc ,ugh concoc..lod

beneath n vunoer of ri tuo.listic stoicism, ho.vc boon revoc.lcd 2

by o. simple biologic o.l experiment . OGUCHI found that the

ac id base of the stoical Jo.pnncso, ,just like tho.t of o.ny ex­

citable Occidental, reacts to mental disturbo.ncos. When a

Jo.panoso is uneasy or so.d, when he is burdened by wcrrios ,

1. Kido, M. 11 Intcrprctntion of Jr.p:moso myth" (J), J. J . PsychDl., 1929, 4 , 5 . J.lso soc Florenz, K. Jo.p8.nischo :rv:ytho ­f ogi0 , Tokyo, 1901, pnrt 1.

2. Oguchi, T. ( 149) in the Bibliogr o.phy .

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his state of mind mny not be betrc..yod by hio facio.l expression,

or by his gonoro.l boho.vior, but it is rGvonlod in his aci ­

dosis -- which in this CGso mr.y be r•op.o.rdod o.s nri organic lie

detector . And the indico.tions o.re tho.t tho degree o f reaction

is c0nsiderably greater than might be onccuntorocl in 8. loss

repressed culturnl group .

Combnt expo ri0nco c onfirmed O GU CHI' s findings . Tho im­

p orturbabi li ty of tho ,To.pr.no cc scldior in th0 face of diffi ..

cult combat conditions ho.d of ten boon featured in front-lino

diDpatchcs nnd vrns gonorc,lly o.ttri butod to tho bnsic stoicism

of tho rGco. However., in tho spring of 1944, c, Jo.prnoso modi­

cc..l r uport fr· m tho South '.i/o ct P o.cific rovo alod the wide spro o.d

existence of gc..stric ulcers rnnong J c'.pc.noso officers o.nd men

fighting thc:Lr losing bnttlos in thr,t n.rec.. . Tho r0port dcs.­

cribod ulcer ns n. "source of ccmstc.nt agony for tho Jo.pc.nose

officers nnd men in tho Southern Regions who re it is most rmn­

pnnt. tr A spocinl trontmcm t center fc-r tho se ulcer sufferers

had to bo opened in Dovo.o., P. I., whore o. lo.borntory o.nd a

ho spi to.l tried to find n remedy for tho incrocw ing number o f

cnsos .

Tho ,T:;p::mo so chc.ro.ctor n o.tur o.lly tends to disintegrate

under tho immense weight of m~lo.clj us tr,1cn t c o.uscd by those two

gigantic conflicts botwoon mC\Il nnd his s c ciuty, end mon o.nd

his physical environment . Ls c.. result c f disintograticn, cor­

to.in morbid tr 2cits seem to prodominGtG in the Jo.po.no se chnrnc­

t cr , especially if viewed by our 0°.-m st~mdetrds of normalcy

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and abnormo.lcy. Indifference towo.rd life, tho clinging to

fo.lsc b0liof s, cycles of wild oxci tomcnt nnd omotiono.l depro s­

sion nro tro.its freauont in tho chnro.ctor of tho ,To.prmoso.,

though they o.ro all listed ns symptoms cf D.bn0rmo.l psychology

in our textbooks.

TAKAORI (198) o.nd UEMATSU (226) , to monti c n only two of

tho native students engaged in tho study of this specific sub­

ject, fcund sovorr,l distinctly morbid trn.i ts in tho Jo.pr.nose

character. Their studioo revealed psychnsthcnic. , mnni c­

dGprossivo psychosis , ci.nd , o.bov0 all , po.ro.noid schizophren;ia

as tho moot frequent co.sos. KUSANO (103), for oxo.mplo, found

o bso ssion as tho foe o.l olomon t cf J o.pnnc so psycho.sthonio..,

resulting frcm o. ro.mpo.nt foul ing of inferiority ond ogo-

centri ci sm, ,md adversely influencing other cho.ractor trC'.i ts

too., in the n::.'.. turc.l intero.c ti vo prcc o ss of cho.ro.ctor dovolop­

m0nt. Tho existence of mo.nic-dopressivo psychosis Das pointed 1

out by NOHJ.i.RA., who described f."I. prononoos for sudden o.ngcr o.1-

torna ting wi.th molo.ncholin., C'.Dd o.ttc\ining terrible ferocity .,

and o. rushing to extremes ',vhonovcr differences arise: , o.s "tho

no.tiono.l vices of Jo.pnn. 11

TAKAORI found schizophronict rr.pidly incroo.sing under tho

strain of tho J.'J.po.noso wo.r effort . A distinct incroo.so in tho

group level \10.s din.gnosod betwoon 1936 nnd 1938 o.s o. result

of tho intensification of r-Jho..t \VO.:J co.llcd tho Chinn Affnir.,

· le Nohnra, op . cit ., P• ;5off •.

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cmd the increo.se wc.s further c.ccoloro.ted by thu 0 1.J.tbroo.k nnd

protro.ction of tho vrn.r o.go.inst tho United Stn.tes . According

to UEMATSU, .: ts chief symptoms in Jn.po.n r-.ro tho i;1trovortive

un.y- d r coming c..bout which Jc..p8.noso di2rieG furnish sufficient

oxmnplos, polyvnlenco, o.nd the gro.duo.l losing of individuc.lity.

Tho difforonco botwoon Jnpcnoso o.nd Vostcrn schizophronin

is qunntitativo ro.thor tho.n quo.lito.tivc. In this respect,

Bloulor' o dL-::tinction botno(;n schizoidism o.nd who.t ho co.11s

latent schizc.-phronio.. is eminently cpplico.bl o tc tho individun.l

J o.po.nose po.tiont. Tho inno.to Jo.po.nose preoccupation with him­

self., his tendency t o split from his surroundings to o. groo.to r

or l essor dogroo, mo.kos him schizoid by tho sheer process of

tho introverted or i entation \"Ii thin his ch[lro.ctor dovolopmcnt.

It is tho intonsi ty of schizoidism ·which turns mnny Jo.pc..ncso

into schizophrenics. 1

Edgo.r Lc1ythn o.nd Willis L[IJTI.ott provided examples for o.t

least one fc.rm of 11 Jc,ponoso schizophronio. 11 by simply describ­

ing the dc,.ily lif e of o. J::.1.p':'..nose BD-bbitt. Laytha.'s typico.l

J c..pnnoso is o. Tckyo businosom[m, while Lf'.rnott's is SUZUKI

Susumu, o. professor c.t the 29th Eiddlo Schcol. Tho no.me

SUZUKI, Lomott explains, is Q cc:nveniont disguise for tho

avorc,go J::.po.ncso, Suzukis being D..S numerous in Jnpo.n o.s Smiths

are in America.

1. Lnytho., Ed. Jnp~n -- gestorn ., houto, morg0n. Berlin., 1936.

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They bGth spcmd thoir do.ys in so·phisticnted cosmopolitan

pursuits . Th0y wonr WOE:Jtorn dross , frequent rostauro.nts which

serv o O cci dontn.l mo c-.ls , c.mj oy Hollyvrood movies , nnd use tho

English lo.nguo.ge . But whon SUZUKI ro turns to his horn.a in

suburb·o.n Tokyo , ho undorgoo3 n CC'mploto chcmgo of ntti tudos

and ho.bi ts . 11 Wostorn civilizntion ['. □ it comes tc them , 11

Lcrrnott wrc,tu , i'pross:mts tc o p-reo.t c. throo.t to the socuri ty

of their livco . • • They still believe thnt tho true

end of life is to sook co.lmnooo of r1 ind . Their kynkumo. ( liv ­

e ing room) , o.nd not their for'-;ign- stylu study , is symbo l ic of

-

this quest . • • • No mc.ttor h ew univors~l their outside

interests mc.y bo , when tho Suzuki f['mily ro..thc;r hero they nro l

o s son ti o.lly o.nd truly J np c.nooo . 11

Thus drn.wing tho pen picture of r1n Oriontnl Dr . Jokyl

o.nd Mr . Hydo , Lnythn end Lwnott revoc.l an nlternc.ting person-

ality o.s tho fund[':m0nto. l confl ict in tho Japo.nose cho.ro.ctor .

This du8.l c c.- nsciousnoss with its resulto.nt disturbnnccs is by

no moo.ns restricted to the upper str£~tn. It pormontes the

entire J:·p rmose scci oty . Nor ;i.. s it duo to tho periodic in­

fluxes of o..lion cultures , like tho Chinese in tho ninth nnd

la Loraott , op . cit .

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• 83 -

tenth and tho Western in tho ninotoonth conturios .

'rho Japomoso on their part rocard those morbid traits

with no r.1isci vin~s. On tho contrary , they cons iclor them

admirable and sources of their inner stroncth. Tho anam­

istic concept of demoniacal possess ion is than usod to

explain , ju::; tify, and oven to L: lamorizo thos o tro.i ts • Tho

Western obsorvor , who would bo :Lnclinod to dos cribo tho

Ja.panoso rwrsonali ty as compulsi vo nuorotic , would mo roly

fall into tho trap of ono-siclod :-:;onoralization. i1.n o.nalysis

of tho Japanese character must alvmys boar in mind tho.t we

roc;ard certain traits of tho Ja:;:x1noso pors onn.lity as r,1orbid

and neurotic only bocauso thoy arc statistically unusual,

not in Japan jut in tho ~cstorn world .

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III. THE "GOOD rt JAPi~rntsE

Stir.1u.ln.t od by the 1:Jostern interest in tho Jc.pc .. noso chnrtr.c-,(

tor, no.tive studonts in c.11 wn.lks of life turned their o.ttcntion

to Jo..pn,noso chc.ro.ctcr C.io.gnoses • Most of them propo.rod long co.­

to.logues of cho.ro.cter tro.its o.nd.virtuos o.nd o.ttributod thorn

quite o.rbitro.rily to tho Jo.po.noso o.t lo.rgo. Probably tho first

effort o.lon3 lines vo.guoly suggested by Occidonto.l methodology

wo.s tho cho.ro.ctor n.no.lysis propci.rod by o. school principal no.mod

NOSE. His po.per on tho Jn,pa.noso chnro..ctor first o.ppoo.rod in tho

November 1889 issue of tho Journal of tho Jc.po.nose Educo.tiono.l I

Socioty, o.nd wo.s lo.tor incorporated in the book Kioku-Go.ku or

liomory studios.i

Nose r e itoro.tod tho popu~o.r theory tho.t tho Jo.po.nose cho.•

rn.ctor wo.s unique , uninfluoncod by tho cultures imported from

China, o.nd b oo.ring no compo.r:i,son with tho cho.ro.ctor of tho West­

ern mo.n. According to him, tho fundo.montc.l difference botwoon

Jo.po.nose o.nd foreign mcnto.l cho.ro.ctoristics rostod, first, in ,( ., ,

tho vn.luo put upon lifo 1 o.nd, second, in tho fo..ct tho.t 11 in.~~hor

countries, othico.1 terms D,l'O dori vod from so..crod v:»i tings •• •

but in Jo.pun they ho.vo no connection with r eligious crood who.t ...

ovor." Cho.ro.ctor Y'1n,s so.:i,d to ho.vo boon moulded by purely in•

digonous cultural o.nd socio.l forcos with but slight moralistic

le Cf• Dcning; . W. · 11 Eontnl cho.ro.ct er-istics of tho Jo..po.noso, 11

TASJ, 1891, 191 PP• 17~36.

- 85 •

influonco, producing as thoy did prominent national virtu~s in•

grained in tho wholo nation mlS univorsal ch.o.1 ... actor traits. Thoso

traits NOSE listod as loyalty, filial piety, boLJevolonco, chast-,

ity, and personal clounliness, o.nd mo.into.inod tht~t "eight puroly

ru:t tiono.l olomonts II combine to form "tho cho.ractor of tho Jo.po.nos c:

raco • 11 Tho so olomonts o.ro: (a) oxtromo o. version to dis gro.co; ( b)

high regard for unspotted honor; (c) 1071--alty to superiors; (d)

dutiful fooling toward parents; (o.) s:traightforwurdnoss; (f)

cleanliness;- (g) cho.stity; and (h) mi. tendency for controvorsios •

This pioneering catalogue of Chinoso virtues roprosentod as

Japo.noso cha ro.ct or tro. its roappoo.rod in innumoro.blo books and

papors in which J o.p o.nose scholars lator olo.boratod upon NOSE 1$

original lis t. Thus, for cxllJJrllplo,. NOHARA listed fourteen traits

oo dominant in tho Jap a noso charactor, ru.unoly (a) indifferonco

toward wol'J. dl y possessions:; (b) tusto for beautiful things; (c)

a:i.mplicity o. nd modesty in life; (d) llibility to start a.frosh; (o) ,

- calm, resigne d a ttitude in doopost sorrow; (f) roo.diness to .sac­

rifice onesolf; (g) frivolity; (h) wo.ntonness; (i) co.rolossnoss;

(j) le.ck of ondurunco.; (k) oxcossivo delight in ritualn·, f ostiv-,

a.ls, and extravaganzas; (1) ~ proneness for sudden anger; (m) ,

rushing to oxtromos; ~nd (n) little dobating ability, grout do•

pendonce on intuition.1

------------------------------------1. Noho.ro., K.w. Das wahre Gosicht Jo.pans, Dresden, 193·5•

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HA~ADA, CL koon s tudont of tho Jo.po.nos o cho.ractor o.nd a; man

profoundly improssod by Western morality, listed seven ~rodts in

ono ::i:.nd four in another study on tho Jo.po.noso character. In his ,

opinion, run all-porva.dinr; and all - consuming lovo of naturo was

tho prodomino..nt Japo.noso cha.raotor tro.it.1

Love of simplicity

wa.:.s listod by him in second placo, followed by love of ho.rmony,

lovo of tho gold.on moo.n (tho Confucian compromise), o.do.pto.bility, ., .

a. modito.tivo taciturnity, and loyo.lty. 2

In nnothor study, HARADA J.istod tho s·onso of duty, tho scnsro

of grat:i,tudo, a:. apirit of disintorostodnoss, o.nd tho virtues of'

loyalty o.nd filio.1 piety ~s tho chief cho.ro.ctcristics of tho Jo.­

po.nose from o.n othico.l viowpo:i,nt. Inhoron.t in those ethical cha•

ro.ctor tro.its (Ja.po.noso ethos) is tho Japo.noso attitude toward ,,:

doo.th and lifo. 0

l. Profossor HAGA. nJ.so listed lava of no.tui-•o us tho 1:1ost pro­:minont Jn.pc.noso chn.ro.ctor'trait which 11ho.s 1mmonsoly influenced our CTJ:'ts, mor•o.ls customs, and o:11' other o.f'fo.irs.'1 Soo his "Tho·· spirit of Jo.pan, ft TJS , 1917, lfr1 4, PP• 120-132; and Gundert , W. "Dor jupo.niE:cho No.tionalcharo.kte1., , 11 ' DGNVO, 1934,a:. condonso.tion of Haga.ts Tho Theory of the Nationn.1 Chnx•o.ctor (J).

.. , ~ .,

2;. _ Hn.ro.dm, T. 11 Na.tional cho.ro.ctoristics of the Jo.po,noso," ~ Bulletin, IPR! 1927; Jtt.no•July, PP • 1-5.

3.. Harn,dm, 'r . Jnpo.nose Chnro.ctor and Christio.nity, a;_ Study of Jnpanoso Ethico.1 Idoa.s n.s Compa11 od with tno Touchings of Ghris ­tio.nity, Honolulu., 1929. ,cho.mborlain, op• cit., (p. 252) clusis:od indifforonc6 t6 c1outh onong tho physical cho.ro.ctor:lstics of tho Jo.po.nos,o (g,. v .) •

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- 87 -

YUSUKE romo.rkod that simplicity, purity (in its non- othica.,l

SJOnsoJ, 1:-iodoration, and hurmony stom f1,.,om o.n. urtistic impulso ,

motivo.tod by tho bo.sic lovo of no.tu.re. , rather thun fror.1 o.n othic ... . 1 ,

a:1 dosiro . HARADA, too, questioned tho mora.l foundation of tho

tro.its, a.t loo.st :i.n our intcrprcto.tion of ethics . According to ;

him, in Ja.po.n bo~h tho lovo of s implic:i,ty and of ho.r1:1ony o.r•o

practical trui ts• This h.1.r1:-iony is oxp1~os sod in humo.n relations

CL:$ v{oll o.s in such oxtrunoous mo.nifostations of cultui"o o.s o.r-✓

chi toctu.ro , a.rro.ngor.1ont of fu.rni turo , docoro. tion of walls , go.r ­

don designs , flower o.rro.n.gomonts , tho t oo. ooromony, all of which

n.ro oxpr ossions of m Jo.panoso striving for ho.rr.iony in tho midst

2 of dhthnrmony •

Among tho innumoro.blo i-•oc ont cato..loguo s of Jc.po.nose charac­

ter traits wo mo.y mention tho one prepared by OSHIMA. Masanori .

Ho mo.do a shrewd distinction botwoon tho no.tionnl and tho indi­

viduo.l Jo.po.nose charo.ctor . Among tho traits of tho nat:Lonal chn.­

rn.ctor (or who.tho co.llod 11 cho..ro.ctoristics of Japo..n.oso moral

lifo 11 ) ho listed loyalty, filial piety, and chivalry . lU:-.1.ong tho

1. YU.suko ; T. 11 'i1ho idoals a.nd·n.spiratlons of Jo..pc.n, 11 Ncms l3.2Q.-1~tin, IPR, 1927, Soptonbor, P • 29 .

2;. To understand the 41 intossonco of harmony, tho ron.d c: r mo..y profitably study tho fo.mous JCLpa.noso t o,'.l.. ceremony of which Cho.m­borla.in ' s Things- Jn.pn.noso · contains an illunino.tint:; and vri tty description (pp. 4l.55 '-460) ,. Also soo Ful(ukitn. 1 Y. Cha- no-·yu, Too. Cult in Japo.n, Tokyo , 1931.

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"mental charo.ctoristics of tho Jnpnnoso individual" ho co.taloguod ,

tho 11 importanco of personal acq1ainta.nco, to.kin.g and assir1ilat-, ,

ing, dexterity, artistry and good to.sto, lovo of nature, intu-, I ,

itivo and imo.gino.tivo p~wors, rosorvo, self-control, and e:::­

prossion by implication. 111

' Almost all nati vo vvri tors n.groo tho. t love of no. turo, rJ impli ..

city, and tho spirit of sacrifice arc tho outstanding cho.ructor

traits of tho Japo.noso. In tho catnloguos propai .. ocl by thoso qua.•

si objective native observers positive traits pr>odominato. Evon

such m fundru:-iontally nogativo trait o;s lifo nogo.tion io popro­

sontod Li;s tho souroo of r;ron.t spiritual strength. On o.. nationo.1

scale, tho spirit of sacrifice produces tho ono cho.ractor trait

w.:hich is a.osoribod by oJ.l a:s tho dominant trait of tho Jo.panoso , - .

character, both national and individual. It is loyQlty. ,

Tho Japo.noso who possossos those basic traits is, in tho ,

words of HARADA, 11 'o. man of porfoct character." In tho top;:i:tno•

- logy of tho, Ministry of Educn.tion ho is tho 11 300d Japanoso. 11

~hat ~s .-~oant b-y tho Torm 11 Gooq" Jo.E1111.o.so?

Naivo ni.s it may sound to Woc-ccrn oars , this torn ''r;ood Jai.•

1. Os:li!:io., I:Ie J:..1pn.n fro1;1 'lli thin, Tokyo, 19401 PP• 63 ... 1?5.

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- 89 -

pr.'.nono" hun n dofiai to uncl off icia.l r:1oaninc; in Japc.n, 1.1ho i-:-icro

l""r..."c.Ct -r11~{-: ~,.o i·n L'"'.:. Jnp•"\1"0"'0 1•1n1-o~ • V - ._, • ~ • '-'• '-" 4 U • C • • y the cwor[lgc no..n in Jqx:.n __ iprJO

,

fo..c·i;o superior to cvorybo(:~-- clso in tho world, but not to 1., ve,p·:;·­

body olso in Jo.panl> Thin in briof is the racio..1 i:i.1tcr•prctc.tion

of tho torn. Gut culturally it ho.s a different ch.c..llon3c, "Whon

vro vrnro born, 11 \vroto NAKAZA\1A, "vlO n:i,nply wor-o livj_"1:,-·; cpr::r1.turos

C[•.llod hUtl~'.n boings, but c.s vrn grovr up q;.::; :r.icubcrs of our Count-,

ry' a· Being, n.nd inllcri tod ouP trn.cU tionnl chc..retctcric tics, v:c ,

hcwc bocor.10 Jupancso, Wo r.1"'0 possosso1 ... s of CGPto.in p::.1-yd.qu.o, ,

features, skin, color ancl otb.cr racial characteristics c.nthro­

poloc;ico.lly spoo.kine;, but thus o a lone do not mo.kc us Jaµ:-1.nos o •

In ordor to bo a.. real Japanese, wo 1:1Ust have o. corto..:tn noPo..1

na. tu.ro or spir l t toward our country which si vo8 us· o.:. required

qu8.lifico.tion. 111

Tho Japo..nose is por:r.iittod to boa sinplo "living creature

cnllod hunan being" only for tho first sovon yoo.rs of' his life.

But when at tho o.i;o of seven ho e;ro..duo.tos fron tho soconcl r;ro.do

of tho prima,ry school., ho concludes this co.rofroo po1,.,iod of his

life n.nd con.sos to bo 1~oroly o;. "good child. 11 It is on this pa.rt ­

inG note thu t tho official pr:tmo.ry school Ethics: Training Roo.d­

or concludos its second volumo, It shows tho pi(~tW-o of o. child

~--------------------------------~ ...... --·---1. No.ko.zn.wn, K, ''~rho biolordcal bn.sis of oup Country ts oxls t'­oncc;" stuclios in tho Sociolo,r;Y and Ec~ics of Jo.pan, No , 5-, 1937, PP• 1 .. 3§.

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.. 90 -

s.:itting boforo its paronts while thoy study his report ca.rel. Tho·

CQpt ion of tho picture roo.dn:

"This is a c;ood child who follows tho instructions of tho t oo.char. Tho conduct of this child is equally c;ood'o.t hono o.nd in school; it gets a long woll with its fellows, never forgots kidnoss shown by others ., prepares its l oss o1w by himself; and is ovor gri:ltoful for tho gracious favors of His Mn.josty' tho Er.1poror, Sinco this child c1.l1.10 oxc c: llc:d ln its studios , it ds given this cortificato of comnondation by its school."

·w1 th tho so words ands tho happy childho?d of tho avor:::.e;o J'o.po.n­

o so . Now tho e;rco. t motn.r.ior•phosis bo~imi. Tho tr•o.nsition is pro­

clo.inod by tho parents in tho picture, who say: "~1.1,~w on it

l is yo1:,1r duty to ,Er~~.!.~-bocono a P:~?A J8.J)~~~<?_1"

Vlhat o.ro tho CritoPia oi' tho "Good" Jq_:eD.2:_-ioso ?

Tho criturio. of tho '' c;ood Jo.pancso " aro oxplicitl-y- clcfinod

in tho third volu.r10 of tho Shushinsho which closes witl:. Cl. l esson ..,.._ -

ont itlocl "'rho G.ood Jnpanoso . 11 Accoradine: to this tu.xt, " to be [I.

good ~Tapanoso , orw nust equal the august virtue s of n • .r.i. J.n Ma j esty

tho Enporor nnd Hor• Majesty tho Enpross , worship nt tho Inpcrial

1. Fror.i tho Jinjo Shot,aku Shuahinsho or Ethics 'l'oxtbook for Or­dinc.ry Prir.w.ry School s , the main t oxt twod in J o.pnn ' s ::-1 o ... c a lJ.cd r:1ora.l oduco.t ion. It is publishod in uni ;Corr,1 oclitions f or> o.11 Jn.­po.noso pr>imo.ry schools by tho Iviinistry of EdU,cC1.ti6n [d.nco 1 883 . For a. criti cal study of thoso · t oxts soo Rood , J . P . Eok1..1.tcd , Chi­co.go, 1940; and Woo r;mann, c. V • "Dio' vo.t orlaonc1ischo Erziollune; in dor j n.panischon Volksschulo ," DGNVO, 1 93.5 , 28, D, PP• 1-29 .

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.. 91 -

Ancostro.1 Shrino, and boar in ono•s heart tho virtuos of loyalty

and patriotism. 11

Tho~w, howovor, aro but ,'::.. fow of tho innumcro.blo . ' Vll''L;1J.O:J

which a. Jo.po.nos o r:1Us t poss cs s to bo o. 11 good Jn.po.no so• 11 AHAI So.­

dao, o. specialist in raoral education, proparod a list of tho

stato-sponsorod virtues , prosontin~ o. totn;:L of sixty- t·'.iroo , tho

nunbcr rovcalinc; by itsolf how difficult it is to bo a ttcood J·r~ ...

po.ncso. 111 ARAI oxtro.ctod tho so virtues fr•on tho six volu.r.1os of

tho Shushinsho. Tho sixty- throo virtues , ranked in the order of

their froquonc:t in tho texts but not in tho ardor of onpho.sis of ►

ficio.lly plncod upon thorn , o.ro:

Pers·is tonco Service Industriousness co .. oporntion Loyalty Couro.e;o Obodionco Lovo Thrift Rospectfulnoss Cl"'OO. ti vonoss Sympathy Honesty F ilin.l piety Honor Ca.rofulnoss; Kindness

Duty Approcio.tion Tornper•anc o Mo:ra.l integrity Ini t-:to.:bivo Orclbrlinos s Justice Courteousness Solf- oxc..nino.tion Pr or1pt nos s Etiquette Modosty Sincerity Mora;l conscionco 11rus twor hino s s Poise Determination

Loa.dorship Prion.dship Conccntrc.tion Contontnont Po.t:tonco Spor-tsr-:w.nollip O,onorb::li ty So.crifico Ambition Opon- r.1indodnoss Solf"" confi ,lonco Intollisonco Tol eration Gratefulness Enthu.s ia.sm Cloanlinoss Sociability

1. Arni , s. An Analytico..l Study of' tho Ethical To.:x:t ... Books of Jo..pn.noso Elonontn.ry Schools• For por1:1ission to quot6 fro1h Aro..i 1 s unpublish0d no.nuscript'I express ny cro.titua.o to Dr . J . P . Rood , professor of sociolo:3y, Univo;r•sity of Minui .

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Responsibility Ado.ptubility Indopondonco Good jucle;mont

- 92 -

:B,ore; i v onos s Bro.ve ry Bonovol onc o Willinc;noss

Sol;C-o.d.mittanco Pacifism Social oquo.lity Purposofulnc s;:1

Tho importance or" being o. 11 p;ood J o.panoso 11 is unoquivocci.l.

Tho difficulty of' being ono is., howovor, c01:1plico.tod by tho o:xi st•

onco of o. f ow o.dditiorml so ts of :r.ioro.l toachine;s. Ono of them

conprisos tho t on Buddhistic virtues• Tho so virtues., Atldna·on \,

wroto., " uro stutod in tho noe;u.tivo for111 , instoo.d of {.n, tho in•

poro.tivo as i n tho ton Mosaic connt.:i.ncluonts, yot they a.re inhoront--, .,

ly mundo. tory • 111 Thoy uro "not killing, not ctoo.line , 2 not corn-, ,

nittinc.; o.dultory_, 3 not l yinc; , not oxnc;gorn.tin11, not s l o.ndorinc; , .,

not be ing doubl ?-tonguod ., not covotine;, not boine; nnc;ry , o.nd not

boine; horotico.1. 11 4

Confucius hus contr•ibutod, fi v e ba.sic virtues, numoly philo.n­

thropy, Pi.shtoousnoss, politonoss , w:i,sdor.1 ,, o.nd truthfulness . Tr10

t arns £tro to bo understood in thoir or i onto.l ro.thor tho.n their oc-

--,,------------------------------,.--1. 2., of in

Atkin.son., ;J.L. "Tho ton Bttddhist i c virtues , 11 TASJ, 1905, 33 , PP• 150•184, n. trn.nslo.tion of tho Ju-zon Hoc;o or Wo.1•ld of Law tho Ton Virtuos, tho .fc.nous s or,r.1011. proo.chod by KATS UR.A GI Jiun 1773.

2. Atkinson, J.L. 11 Tho ton Buddhi st ic virtuos ,- o. po.per on Budcl ­h:tsnt s socond ~r ~at virtuo., not stoalins; , 11 TASJ, l 907 , 3["i , 1.

3. Atkinson., J.L. "Tho ton Bu.ddhistic vh•tuos, tho thiI'd. p1,ocopt and virtue , li1u•ja.-in , or not cor:unitting adultery, 11 'l1AS J , 1808, 36 , l, PP• 9-22.

.. " 'I -

4. ·Bouldin, G.W., "Tho' ton·Budclhistic virtues , 11 TAS,J, 1913, 41, 2 , PP• 215-350; 1919, 47., PP • 23-153.

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... 93 ...

cidonto..l monnine, Their effect as woll o.s thoil• innor :moaninf;

diff'or33 from tho identical sto.to-sponsorod v:trtuos • 'l'ho sixty­

throe official virtues wore dosi[:;nod to proclll<?.£ ru "c;oocl 11 Jc•.po.n­

oso,--ovon nc;ainst his ,;;ill or disposition,---whilo Confucius

noroly dosoribos tho virtues of an i deal character whon ho calls

11 thc supor:i,or nan, 11 n univorso.l o.nd not noroJ,y Chinese tor•n. 11 rrhc , ,

superior• mn.n, 11 Con!ucius vrroto, 11 lovos his soul; tho inforior 11.a1

loves his proporty. 11 And o.r:uin: 11 Tho superior :mo.n is liborn.l to­

wards othoi--s 1 opinions., but docs not completely ac1~00 rrith them;

tho iri...forior man complotoly cr.c;roos vdth others I opinion, but is ,

not liberal toward th,:3m . 111 Confucil~s deduces, tho Japanc::30 stn.to

induces• Confucius moroJ,y hold up his superior :no.n to tho info:r•i­

or man for 01:-iulo.tion, if ho is capublo of it; but tho Japanoso

stD.to absolutely domands of its subjects to be "sood Japanoso. 11

Tho. t Jo.po.nos o s,cholars wore not unnwaro of this, by no moans .

subtle., cU.s tinction wo.s rovoa.lod. by o. Shin.to vr.r:t tor ,1hcn ho said:

11 Tho toflchinc; of tho sac;os is to toach nnn to bocm;10 fl. e:ood r.mn,

not to boco:mo a. Chinoso. 11

A conflict botwoon tho two short sots of rol:i.r;iously promot­

od 01• othico.l and tho ono lonr; sot of stn.to-sponsorod or politic-

-----··--·~--1. Tho Conf'ucia.n virtues o.rc closcrib•Jcl ns 11 dut:1.oa of universal obli£3a. tions II in ChL'1.ptor XXXI of tho book o.f Chunc:ru.ne:; or Tho Doctrine of tho Moa.n 51 tho socond of tho 11Four Dooks. n '11ho 11 su­porior r:io.n'' is do~ cl"ibod in Chapter XLII of Liki.

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- 94 -

a.l vil,.tuos all"oa.dy oxis ts in bcwic va.lu.os • Mor•o inportcmt , how­

ever , i s the conflic t a.ri~inc fron tho practical o.pplicution of

these val ues . Tho Jo.panoso st.a.to pror.1otos virtues which o..r0 not

oven montionod c.r:1ons tho rcl:i,cious tenets , o.ncl convorsoJ.y dlsPc-­

r.;ards sovoro.l c01;n-,mndr.1onts . which Buddhism a.nd confucio.nisn1 onpha­

s izo . Thus truthfulness i s not ar.1onc; th.o virtuos oxplici tly spon­

sored by tho state , while loyalty und val or which tho stuto fost­

ers with po.rticulr,i.r vigor aro r.d.s sine; fron the roll :-,iou r1 tonots .

Tho piu- mo - r'.O or• 11 not lyinc~" of tho BuddllLJt:i.c virtuos is not no ­

cossn.rlly iclontico.l with tho utilitarian honesty which tho sto.to

rcc;urds as a cri tor i on of tho II r,ooc1 11 Japo.no so • Tho fm:-nor is an

o.bsoluto torn of sublh10 ethics whcrco.s tho latter is qualified

by ran.sons of sto. to , Tho Bucldhistic virtues o.ro po.rticul[Lrl-y in

conflict with tho stato~sponsorod ones in ~1lch no o.bstro.ct ~ood­

noss but tho individuo.l' s socio.l cffoctivonoss is tho prino.r:r clo­

torminins factor ,

Whil e tho conf l ict bctwoon tho divorc;cnt virtues is rc.::..1 in

theory, it is ovon. today not pornlttod to provail :tn practice .

'.l1ho stato solved. tho con.fllc·b by plo..c i n:::; q,bsolut (; cnpho.sis on its

own no:ro..l tonots o.nc. by inrdstinc; upon unoontesto.blo priority

in tho :tr ob:::or-vo.nco , '11ho ult ir:10.tc provnlonco of tho s to.t,:;-spon-­

sorcd vil•tuco ovor tho :i;•oli:·,:ious tenets is eu: .. rc~ntood by tho

fact~ th.at while tho obsorvo.ncc of tho L1 ttor is nor>oly suporvisccl

by an inpotont clorc;y I abfJOluto o.dhuronco to tho forr.1or is on-

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.. 95 -

.forced by tho s ta. to tl1.rou:-:h its polico for cos or with socio.1

sanctions. The o.vorn.c;o J"o.po.nono hns no "~ltorna.tivcs. Ho in ei ­

ther virtuous by oboyinc tho s ·tc-. to' s c_:randiloquoni:; o thic c1.. l l aws , ,

or., la.eking in those virtues., is stic;no.tizod as o. 11 b c.d J ~'.po.n"

oso 11 and is en.do to suffer tho consoquoncos.1

Tho ruline; political o.nd nilita.r:/ clique inprovod on tho

sto.to-spon.8orocl virtucn, po.rtly by rod1.,icinc thoi:1 :tn nur.!bc1 ... o.ncl

thus s irc1plifyinr; tho ir obsorvo.nco, o.~1cl po.r>tlJ by plo.cint; dif-

f 01,ont or.1pho.s :ts on dif.fcront virtues• Tho virtues \t11ich the ru­

linc; clique prm:1otod [U"C onw;.1cro.tod in o. book inspired by tho I

r;1ili ta.rists but vn,j_tton. by o. civllio.n no.nod IIIBINO Yutakn., 2

o. f'ormor principal of the Govornnont Middlo School et.t Ec~:::oyo. ,

c.n.cl subsequently o. ncnbor of tho Diot. HIBIWO ca.lls tJ::.or.i 11 tho

no.tional idea.ls: of tho Japanese pooplo 11 whoso u.ctions c:.ru 11 s010 ..

ly r:1oti vc. tocl by th.:.:so spir:L tu.o.l t enets• 11 Ho lists th()n, in tho

orclor of or1pha.s is placocl upon then by tho n.ti.thor itiu s, ;:-uJ loyal­

ty, f ilinl piety, r oalizn.tion of boo.uty, fi-•a torno.1 c;oo(l- will,

connubio.1 accord, friendship., r10do sty a.nd frtic;ul:t ty, bonovol-, , .

once, studiousness, valor, nnd patriotisn. Tho Jupri.noso who oi-

1. Wildon, H.E. JC'..pan in Crisis, Nc:w YoJ'.'k, 1934.

2, Hibino, Y. N:!.ppon Shinclo Ron {TI10 i\l'Qtion::tl Idoo.ls of' tho Jc:.pc.ncso People), trc.:nalntcd by A.P. l.lcKcnzio., Cr: .. nbric1~;o , 1928.

... 96 ...

thc1 .. posscsson those virtues or subnits to conpulnion :1nt: a.d•

horos to than is o;_ no.:n of Michi, HIBnm, s v10r1..1 for tb .. c c;ood Jct--

pnnoso.

Wha.t is r.Iichi?

Mic~.:?.. i is w1:n.t tho Chinoso oxpross in tho word Trto op "tho --Wa.;;-; 11 it is also the t orn used in translc:..tinc tl-:..c Grc:ol-~ Loc;os

or tl: .. c Gospel by John.1 "r,Ioro.lity is Uichi ," I-L\RAD/\. ,.woto, "tho --ha.rnony o:f' li.f o Yd th the iCoal. 11•2 In J"a.po.n it is n nys torious,

unforr:rnla tad concci)tion, carrying \·ii th it a sens o o.f c.x,c and so­

ler.mi ty; tho o.cccptocl pa th or life vihich is tc.ucht n.nc1 folloY1ocl

a.~ tho idoa.1. Ea.rly scholc,rs and sta.tosnon ondowod tho torn with

r oli r-:ious ovortonos n.nd novi, in tllo Jo.pa.nose ninc1 , it o..ppGars us >

l!- subs ti tuto for r oli[;ion, as o:x:pros sod by SUGJ\.'.'l!U-1A Mic;1iznno ,

tho ninth century sto.tom:mn o.ncl poet:

11 If in tho socrot hon.rt Wo follou tho ho.llovv0d Wa.y ,

Surely tho cods v!ill guar d , Th.ouch never a: pro.yor wo s.ay."

In tho Michi tho Japltnoso porcoivos a. 13od-,civon cthico.1

ayston, oxcluoivo with tho Ja.pn.noso. In o. sense it is sufficient

------------------------------------~ 1 r• ccord·~-.-- to c :·,tl."P···,• ~i1'"?.,1 (?-. 0 9 ... 09r; I3 C ) lf rr!_'_,-.... • >,c'1,,! ".J." ·'· litv ,-,.nc1

• ,l~ -•.a.,.__, I _,. L-.•·-,J .• ~...... V"iJ I.J V •• , .,... .J\-,. .. ..., t) (.._ •

cvic~cncJ bu·c no uctio~1 ;.10:c• fc,rn. rt -1;w.y b~J ·cro.nm·!itto;.~, · ;.;Ut co.n-··1c·•;- be Y>QC('ivr:·c1 · -l'G ·-·1,,·~ 1-)"· ,,•:- -:-. r :i_", ... (•r" bt1·:- 0~·110 •:- 1):· ,:ocn. It i:J H...lv J.-.1' .I' .I.~. ~-'-.. ti r~'--(,_,. V.., \..i.-.C.-'v .. , .\,J 1....- ... .., -'-~

].•••1.,-~ 0\01''"' ('"""l"C~ ,· '1i1 ·i ·'t.,·n O' l• l.,.._,,,.•l,. II _ ,.,.,,. ,w.._,,v.J. '-"J L ..... .).. _ u .. , _ u'\J •

-.;,, l'"''"'<."L'' ,n 'Phc ·,11-:-, -t ~-··, A-'-• • <..<, _. J ..I, • - • • ~ •-•.I., v., of J['.po.n, New York, 1026 , PP• ,_w-72.

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.. 97 -

l.J.OTOORI, , ,-· -,- ·i-·J l c·• ,_, J.~ , .-... 1... ~,

:)roves tho :·10rr,l suporior:i.-c:r of -t:10 J c.pc.nose ovor. tJto c: :L.1c:3c

J"l">r"1 ·, ,, ,·, / -!~o ···1, ~Jll0Dl" l ... .. . J.. \ _, ).,)V v 1,., . .• ., V

-1·'-,.-i.,,, ~-1··, ,., ,, .,. '"J.•.•-1, '".to·'- , ·, ·1<• ')i' ··•Ol"'' l ·T·'•,:r 11 v .. k..., _ .t. J..Ut. .. -..~..., -., l.J ...... wt,,/ul.i-.1" · ► > • .L.1, L ...... ..i.VJ•

~von victo1•lou:.:i

·l-'.h,,•}'. ·'·', ·· co1·, ·"' lie ··· b'' .1- . ·co~-, J"p,..,11 ·•« , ., ..., __ .._,.. -.., U ... ._.U .l,.J. L, \..; V . . -- 1..-. c .. l_, ,__. v '1,'Jrn 1 i· , . ..,r "11r~ 01·,r·i· n-'··i ·· 111· ·'·•r -· 1._. - UJ' 1... .. -l 1 1 uV.,.\.. . .... L,v

it:::; cli;- 1e.;.:. To

p:1.11cso, \l1c r on.s to 'chc C~iri.s tir~n it is ·1·11·' ''/"'"i.' 01··> '.-, n 1 1,--··~i' ·'• ·;_t V U ~ ~--v - - ,.. .i..t..!..4 -.\. .l - V tJ •

1~~-·u'.1 «o ·ri· c 1·,1 ,., .... "' ·1·1~ ,J J..!.I V ... l,.J ' J•,.. -- • c.. ... u V ,.

tt[:.11 ui$siorn:.ricn first "llCCl"'""'full·• ··r•·,., c bc ·, -'-1,c· c•o,..·J "1 1 J,.,) ... ., I,..) l,;J' ;; lJ ,, ,. .. .. .. ~ l ~ L, .. · ' t ,:_·, J. u H- . Cl::r:t~:.tic~nity m ·~c c :-.,.11;::;(·~ 11 t ho Truo 1-'foJ , 11 Qnc1

• rm ini'lucrrcial ti•,i.ct

Truo Wc..y , 11 r_rh;.: j· ,rnr o not conpl(;toly unsuccosoful , thus L1:~icc.t •

-------~------·---------,.---.,·---------•--'---·---1 "...,."("' 01

1_) e c1•+·•, ·:·> 1 8'-1. J:'Ol:1 C')1 ;'"'nl"•"'·l•·ivc :·'r·'·~ , •t •u·, .· ,_, ·~•l"l"Cl' • J. ' ""'-.L.!ft...~ .. ~"' , ......, ______ u .;.: • ..r.. e.:. •. •,;,_->(,. . .. u.""' ~ .,.\..,.l/(. 1. ; ..,J...,, • l_,,.t.. ....... - •J

:-, . --T:i.·ci l-o •,·•"' of DO"T1', (Lc1,p/'U.ch rlc r ' Do ' ~·10n'-'(.:JC'·1c'1,tn' r:)·J.-~ - · cc1 • .1..-. ,1_ ..., v • v ,4 ... .. , ""°"' 1 __ .,, . ... ..... · .. r· - ~.; 1 ·- · J.- v, "'- 1... . ..

i!'l 'c~:r co volu;:·wn ), 7 v ., 1 091~ •1899J n.lso Sco·ct , r; •. e , 'i'l:o l?ourth C~ospol, 1906,

-

-

- 98 • .

in;::; u uno to which r.Iici_ii :r.1:tr,ht yot be put: to r.1r~ko t'.::~o "c;ood"

!"!Ur,:1-.,o!"tt t!"""G "-[; OPO -Ci' ·lC Or 'lJ.··,rJt1,CP.., -'cl10.,..,c c--•i• "'t.c-c_' J-•11. J··,.,-,·v,,-, "' _, t.J-..~ - ~•t., i. '-..I. • J. .. , V -\o J..., .... , - .... -'A iJ V • ' "' .. <:..-._ ., (.1,..1 . .. , .....

,

::;rop:i.nr; opposition to such cthicn.l 0-c::mocontrim:1 c.nc1• tJ ,.c:-c, there..., ,

fc,po , tho Jc.pcmcoc n.:ty c·.n yot be rccon.cilcc1.. to ouP oY;n ;_;i:;hical

concepts . "Tho m'l.y is t:·:o Huy . of hcc.ve:11 ancl ,-, "r1~ 1·, 11 h c·· "''-"' v •..• , , • '. iroto •

of' Jc.pcm, ::.n,.o o..liko tho \'Jo.:, of tho GO(!. of hoc, von c.nc~ o:i.' oart:1. 11

A.ml z'..:~nin : 111']1.c Wc,y of tho Go) of hoavon is ono. '12o nn.i:KJ it Con-

fUcia.n, Buc;c.~1is t op Tc.ois t nnc~ introc:uco tho so no.nos 'L;o c. f o--

roi:.:.;n lc.nd :ts the \','OI'k of thoso v1ho t;hcr13olvcs know not the \1/c..;r.

The :tdco..a of KULt:~zAV•fA Bc.nzn.:q, l:.ovvovor , f cdlcd to ['. ttr[tct

tho :populur ir.10.:::;ino.tion. 11 If' 1,.oli~,;ion bo tho s otu•co frc,n r;hich

sp1"inc; tho notivos of nan ' s noblost actions , " IL'i.ill~DA vvPoto ,

11"thon tho roliGion of .Jnpan vms noi thcr tho Law of Buddha , nor

tho Pc.th of tho Gocls , but the Wo.y of tho Wari•ior . 11 '.rhat olomont

loyn.lty, tho supor ..-virtuo of tho .Japanese non of I':!:1.:_c:).£ • Thin

Jo.po.no so loyo.1 ty is not v1k1 t Hoy co called tho "'Nill to B•J liovo

in somothinc otorno.1 1 and to express that boliof in tho pro.ctlc•

nl lifo of a hw:mn boinc . 11 It is personal dovotion, not to an

iclon. or an idoo.1 but to o.n indi v:~clual , 11 bo h e or1poror or nili­

tary superior , rt or o.ny supar>io1, f'or tb.o.t rn:i.ttor .

-

- 99 -

Who.t is tho Jn.pa.noso co1;-c,optio,n ,of ~oY,nlty?

Tho chnracto1~ trrti t w~-iich th.:J t t · v ('n i·n c,,..n~ t S 8, 0 J (_; ., lv.L ,., ,'.J,. J pro ...

notes vdt~1 tho c;roa.tost vi:·~our und tho possoosion of' 1.rldch is

i--c,so.rdocl c.s o.n abs oluto criterion of tho II c;ood Jn.po.nos o , 11 is

loynlty. All other tra.its or virtues hnvo no v :::,lidity by t hcn­

solvos, but aro offa ctivo only in the ir r ol o.t ion to loy~lty ,

It is tho solo cllo.ractor trait prosontod o..s connon to ovary one

of the fifty-fivo historico.l pcrsono.litios of J L:.pnnoso nor•c.l

education whoso u;xD.npl o t he c;ood J o.po.nose i s r oquj_r ocl to onu-

1 lo.ta, It is tho univorsa.J. cnto.lyzor ·which not only roloo.sos

but r.1otivntos nncl stii:1Ulatos tho othor tro.it s nnd v :tr tuos , In

hisr brilliant formvord to HIBINO r n book, McKenzie c2.ll c; d loyul t:,

tho contro.l conception of Jc.ipa nosa othlcs 11 to ·whioh ull national

i Jous o.r o rolo.tivoly a rrn.nc;cd , 112

:No wondo l" tho.t u.ndor• such cil,curwto.ncos , oven tho noro s.,oun

of chu or chushin--r.1cuninc; loyo.lt;y or tho spir5.t of loyalty ... --hn.s o.n innons o fn.scino.t ion for the o.vo1•ac;o J apn.noso , cvon thow:::}..

ho nay, liko SAIGYO, fail to understand its true philosophy:

11\!Vho.t is it tho.t dvmlloth hero I lcnow not ," S~IGYO wi--oto, "Yot

ny hoo.rt is full of ~ra tituc~o nncl t!:c t oo.rs cone tricklin~~ dOi711, 1

Vlhe n HIBINO ouloc~i:a.ocl loyc.l ty, Gonorn.l NOGI ts ontl:us i o.o:t1 pPO•

l, Schwa.:--:;or, L. H. "Die nC'..tLmo.lpolitischo Ausrrnrtun,: ::istori• s ?;· . ...; r Go st .:~1 ton in c:1.o r S c::ul .:rzi c! rnn:..:; Japo.ns, 11 DGIJVO, 1934, 28.

2 • 1Iibino, op• cl t.,

-

-

• 100 -

voli:cd this na.r.'.;inal no'l;u: "Ah, loyalty, loya.lty& Hor! true it is

tho. t o.11 vii--tucs of tl:o Jn.pa.ncs o sub jcct n.riso fron this u:~:u.rcc. •

The littlo r.1a.n of Jo.po.n uspccin.lly 'thinks of loyalty nith un•

u:::unl poc·cic wn.:rr.rch and refers to 1 t in vwrcls like tbc,sc: 11 It 1s:

a. c;cn.tlo quality, like tho (lcv, of h.ou von, or the hoo.rt of tho

virc;in brido who will c;ivo hor doarost possession to hor beloved,

She usks not why she hus to do this or tho.t; sh.o sir1ply ;3ivos

o.nd is ho.ppy in the fulfilnont of hoi-• devotion. ul

NITOBE doflnod loyl:'.lty o..s 11 honct0 o n.nd foulty to o. suporior 11:

n.ncl a.s "personal fidolity. 112 This ho doscribocl us tho priviloGod

possession of tho Jn.pci.noso ulono, different fron tho Gorr:w.nt s

Trouo. It is 1.umffoctod by tho HoGclio.n view thnt "tho fidelity

of fouda.1 vassals, boinc c.11. oblic;o.tion to o.n individual and not

too. Co:r.uJonwculth, is u bond osto.blishod on totally unjust prin-, ciplos1"1 or by Spcncor~s qualifico.tion tho.t loyalty is ncrcly ai.

11 tro.nsitional fu.nction. 11 Tho J"n.punoso alono , so tho a.poloc;ists .,

- 3 ar~uo, is co.po.blo of obsorvinc loyo.lty divorced fron o.11 r:10.-

to1•iaJ. considorutions nn.d conscionco, oven thou[~h tho Jnpa.noso

1. Osllii:m, op. cit., pp. 63-66 • .,

2. Ni tobo, I. Busl).:lclo, tl:c Soul of Jn.pa.n, Now York , 1904, pp, 74-84.

3,. Cf. Huturo., Y, "Die bohorrschonc1.o Icloo dos · ja.pn.nischon Le• bons-;'1' W11;lo unci, l\Io.cht, ,, 1938, 6 , 17, pp. 11-13 •

-

-

- 101 -

is said to donpiso tho noi-shin, 11 a crincolin.:::· who r10.kos court

by unscrupulous fuwninc, '' o.nd tho cho--shin, "a. fa.voritc wl:o

stoo.ls his no.starts n.ff'cctions by moans of servile conplio.nco. 11

,

Accordins to XASUOI{A, loyo.1 ty is inherent in tho Jc.po.nos o

spirit which 11 dovolops relationships bctwoon ~aster o.nd sorvo.nt , ,

protector o.nd protoc;co, which o.ro so r.mch tho product of our cul­

ture tho.tit is impossible to conceive of tho ono side rosont­

ine; or tho othor o.bus inc tho:r.i. They r1ako for a corto.in clopcnd­

onco o.nd absonco of solf•ro11.o.nco . Tho ossonco of tho Japo,.noso

spirit is oo.~ornoss on tho part of tho individual to find a por•

son worthy to bo sorvocl with unromittinc dovot:Lon. 111

.,

In view of its ovorwholminc importo.nco it nay bo useful to

roviow br•iofly tho dovclopnont of tho loyul ty cone opt throuc;h

Japo.noso history.

Tho Japanoso prefer to roprosont loyalty a.s o.n o.borir~ino.1

cho.ro.ctor trait of tho ro.co. "Loyalty to one I s lor·cl unC::. filial

piety, 11 vl!'oto tho soni-official Japan Yoo.rbook for 1940 in a

pura13ro.ph dovotod to tho chaI'o.ctcroloc:;y of tho early tfo.pcmoso,

1. Yasuoku, M• Orionto.l Political Philosophy (J)., Tokyo, 1937, us quotod by Hur;h Byn.s in Government by As snss·ination1 Now York, 1942 1 PP• 257•258.

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• 102 -

"wore thoir two 1110.in principlos of norulity fostor ccl fron tho , . ,

remotest past." In roulity, however, loyalty par s.o wo..s unltnown

in tribul Jnpo.n whore only o.. primitive form of filial piety

oxisted. "Tho national chaructoristics of tho Jo.po.nose people , 11

wroto ASHIDA Koiji in this conn.oction, 11vrnro dovolopod throuch

tho woldinc of a croo.t nurabor of tribes o.nd fc.r.dlios into one

united pooplo throur;h tho prossuro of social und politico.l

stru[ie;l.t , 11 uncl ho added : "It is ovidont that tho1"'0 existed bot•

w.oon tho chiof and his tribosmon a relationship sinilt:.r to tho.t

botwoon father o.nd son. 111

Tho Jo.po.nose loyo.lty concept has its roots in Chino... Thora

it wo.s tho princ:Lpal factor in tho Confucia.n system of morullty

on which tho Chinoso political orso.nization wo.s founded. Accord­

in3 to Confucius, ~ovornmont rosts on tho fivo basic virtues of

tho individual crs they bocono socially offoctivoin tho fivo l:!~

sic human relations. Whan Duke Ai, tho ruler of Lu, Confucius'

no.tivo state, o.skod tho so.r,o what constituted Good c;ovornmont,

ho answered : "Tho moro.1 sonso is tho characteristic o..ttributo

of' rno.n •. • Tho relative do0roos of no.turo.l affection wo ouc;ht

to fool for thoso who o.ro nearly related to us and tho rolutivo

gruc.1os of honor wo ouc;ht to show to thos c worthier than our-

l. A.tJtiid~, "Japan, 11 ·111 I-:ID. Dtinc;'s Encyclopodia of Rolic; ion o..nd Ethics ; vol. VII, P•

-

- 103 -

salvos: those c;ivo rise to tho forns nnd distinctions in soc i al

lifo (li, or principlos of socio.l orclcr) ••• Tho duties o.ro -thoso betwoon rulor and subject, betwoon fo.thor and son, bot­

woon husbo.nd n.nd wife, botvv0on older brother and younc;or, and

those in tho intorcourso between frionds. 111 Confucius thus

plo.cod kun-shin or tho r clo.t:i.onship botvrnon ruler cmd subject --- ,

at tho hoo.d of his list, roloc;o.tinn- oyo. ... ko or rclo.tionship bot-u .. ~ _._ "

woon fo.thor o.nd son to soconcl plo.co. In actual pro.ctico., how­

ever., tho ~-~ ho.cl c;i-•o.dually co:me to occupy ni. rola.tivo po-,

sitlon in Chinoso polit~cs, while o):o..,..~ r orminod u..no.osailablo

o.nd absolute thr\out)iout.

Althouc;h tho ruler in this Confucio.n political order ro­

coivod his no.ndo.to fror.1 o. supor-nnturnl authority vnc;uoly ro•

forrod tons 11 Hoo.von," ho wn.s entitled to his rule only ns long

as ho followed tho ~ or tho proper Wo.y. While durinc~ tho oar•

liar sto.sos of this political ordor tho ruler's o.uthority wn.s

ho.1 .. dly ovo1" questionoc.11 ut lo.t o1" and noro sophisticated sto.r.;os

tho difficultios of tho stato woro froquont;I.y attributed to tho

rulor'a deviation fron tho Way, ru fa.ct consitlorod sufficient to

absolve tho subject of loyn.lty to tho ruler. In Chinet, a poli­

tical onorGoncy usually l od to or wo.s co.used by tho crisis of

1. Lin Yuto..nr;' s t1~ci.nGlo.tion of ChaptcI1 XX>;I of · tho ., · Liki, in Tho Vfisdo1:1 of Confucius, Nm1 York1, ;l.938, pp, 116-117.

-

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• 104 -

loyalty, On tho othor ho.nd no clovio. tion fror.1 parontn.l wo.ys o.b•

~olvod tho child of its duty of filio.l pioty,

Tho concept of loyo.l.ty wn.s unclorsoing ono of its periodical

crises in sovonth century Cli~(il whon this Confucian doctrine

wrus introducod into .To.pan as oi. political forco, .lf.l_ distinct po­

litico.l ordor vms just or.1orcins in Japan fror.i its protrac ted

tribal po.st , 1 rrho invaders who c;o.thorod around tho lo c;ondary

.Ti:mmu Tonno, sr:rld to hn.vo roo.chod Jo.pun in 6'60 B'.c., noodod U'.

1onr, timo to consolidn.to their conquest, not only boco.uso it J

wus contested by tho natives founcl on tho spot, but o.lso bo­

co.u~rn tho vo.rious Jb.po.noso tribes continuocl to quru.~rol runonc;

thomsolvos. 2 '.L'ri.bo wo.s fi[~htinc ago.inst tribo o.nd clo.n o..c;o.inst

o1o.n, o~ch strivinc; to assuno ma.story ovor tho rost,

Evontuo.lly tho doscondo.nts of Jimr:1u Tonno, ori:3ino.lly noro• ?

ly ono of tho sovoral tr:tbo~·, found in Chinoso political doc ...

trinos tho instrument which would establish th.on in solo con•

3 trol of tho sto.to, This was tho ancient Chinoso doctrine of

1,. Florenz, K, Jo.po.nisCho MytholoGio, Nihonr;i, Zoito.ltor aor· Goetter, po.rts' I and II, Tokyo, 1901; Japo.nis cho Annn.lcn n. D • 592•697

1 Tokyo, l-903; also 11Dio'stao.tliDho und gbsollschni'tli.;.

c·ho orc;o.niso.tion :t,n Alton Jo.pan, tr DGNVO, 1890, 5-, 44, p.l64i'f. ~ .. .. ., ,I

2:, Roischa.uor, R,K. Eo.rly Japanoso History, Pr.ilncoton, 1937, part A, PP• 14-21 o.n<1 46•62,

• . I • " ;,

3, . , G:idffis, W'.E. Tho Miko.do, Institu,tion o.nd' .Forson, Princo• ton, l.9l.S., . pp• 25-a6 •

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- 105 -

s:-ovoro i13nty, o: hior?-rchy d opondont upon ob odionco throuc h loyo.l•

ty to tho sovoroic;n~ Loyn.lty thus boco.r:10 tho koynoto_o~ tho so-,

vontoon norul injunctions which Princo Shotoku, in A.D. 604, ~ . . ,

introducod to·· Ja.pan fron China. In tho words of Sanson, tho in-

t ores t of Shotoku ts injunctions ''IJ.ios in tho fact that the y ro­

pro sont not n. now systom o:fl adninistration but o. turninc; point , ,

in tho idouls of covornmont, inspi~od by tho now loarninc, both ,

rcliGious and s ocular, f.rom o.broad. 11 And ho o.ddod: 11 Tho provido . 1

at tho sumo tir.10 a usoful koy to contonporary sontimont. 11

Six of Shotoku•s injunction$ woro dovotod to an oxpqsition

of loyalty, tho basic issuo. Tho twolfth injunction prornulc;atod

tho cloctrino of eontralizod loyalty vdth tho sovoroic;n ces its

solo objoct. "Lot not tho prov;lncial. c;ovornors or tho local . ,

chieftains lovy oxactions.· upon tho pooplo, 11 it roacl. "In u coun•

ry thoro aro not two loPd n:, tho pc oplo havo not two rJastcrs •

Tho sovoro:tc;n is, tho ma:.stor of tho p ooplo of tho wholo country,

tho officio.ls: to wb,om ho r;ivos control aro his vo.ss o.ls. 11 Tho

ovor-curront validity of this ancient injunc~ion Wt:llS dononstrn.:t•

od ovon in Jn.pn.n_• s r.1oc1orn n.ncl r ocont h;l.story. Tho lo.ot of tho

Tokuc;n.vm sho13unm aurrondorod his rulo to tho Moiji Rostoration I

in 1867-68, with a docu.mont in which ho roforrod c.J.nost word for

1. Sanson, G.B~ Jupa.n, a. Short Cultural History,· Now York, 1·943

1 PP• 70-r:rn. Tho Injunctions a.ro on PP• 73•74,

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.. 106 -

d '

h . . i '1 wor to Shotoku s twolft inJunct on, and tho surrondor of Ju•

pan, its solo Jo.po.no so proviso cone orning tho Enporor, n.c;o.in

ro-onphn.sizod tho tro.ditiono.1 political principle first onun­

cio. ted r.1oro than thirtoon-hundrod yco.rs boforo •

ln tho sovonth century, ho~over, tho position of tho JL~­

nu cyn~sty wn:.s still precarious . Moro tho.n twonty yon.rs o.ftor

Shotokuts do o.th, his s-uccossor i1; tho roc;ency wo.s still fi13htt­

inc a.co.inst tho robollious clo.ns • Tho clyno.sty could, thoroforo,

pcrni t no quulif ico.t ion in tho obsorvcmco of loyo.l ty us it o..x­

is tod in China.-•if it wo.ntod to rer.10.in :i.n so.lo powor. So tho

Chinese procodonco w.o.s so rovors·od 0;13, to subordino.to filio.l pio~

ty both do jui1 0 o.nd do fa.ct£• This wo.s b~untly voicod in tho to•

not, quoted by HARADA: 11Evon thouch tho no.star fall short of ,

his duties rus no.star, tho sorvo.nt nust not fo.11 short of his du~

ty as s,orvo.nt, 111 in contrast to tho Chinoso practico which nb.,.

solved tho sorvo.nt or vo.sso.l of his dutios whon ho docidod that

tho no.star dovintocl fr.on tho wo.y , 2 . . ,

In 64.5 A, . D •, tho lo.st of tho protonclors , tho powerful S013a

fn.:r:1ily., was sur.rr:mrily olinino.tod uncl tho concept of absolutis·t •

1, M6Lo.ron, w·.w. "Jo.panoso c-; ovornnont clocunonts,,w TASJ, 1914, . 1 1 42:. This 681-po.co volUtJ.o contains tro.nslo.tions of be.sic c;o ...

vox•nnont clocur:10nts issuocl betwoon 1867 and 1890,

2. Asr.tka.w::L, K. Tho Early Institutional Lifo of Jo.po.n, Tok:ro , 1923.

-

.I.

ic loyalty had cono into its own. How firr.1ly ostablish.od it soon

boca.r.10 is shown in tho fru:1ous poon of Otono .. no•Yo.kanochi, con•

posed in tho oic;th century but still popular toclay:

11'Goinr; out to son. Wator• son.kod corpso Iill bo;

GoinG up r.1ountain, A cruss .. covorod corpse I'll bo.

Bosido dour sovoroien Do I covot over to diq;

Navor fror.1 duty virill I turn. 11

This ancient poon was found scribbled in hundrods of diaries ro­

covored on tho battlofio1ds of tho rocont Pacific war.

Evon thouch chu or loyo.lty was political o.llocianco to tho ;/ --

so v or o ic;n, its 1:1oaninc: vru.s not confined to tho juric1icn.l connot-

cn.tion of our own torr.i, clorivod o.s :tt is fron tho French !s,! or

law. In Jo.pa.n 1 t cn.rriod o: potent riolic;:Lous S°J''nbolisn o,.s wall, ,

aco.in fusinc tho saorod with tho 130culo.r, inplyinc; and indood

do1:m.ndinc tho sano kind of d?vot:Lon to tho sovereign which wo :Ln

our culturo sbow only to God. '.I.1his dual. connotation noroly r·o­

inforcocl tho duty and virtue of loyalty. Tho sovoroisn boinc; ;;

cod o.nd ruler- sinulto.noously, hip socula.r proro(in.tivos -vrnro di­

vine conno.ncls a.nd his soculo..r co1:rr.mnds 'iroro divine proroc;a.tivos.

Loyalty in this sonso noo.nt so.cr;i.f:i.co , be it of onots vrorldly

possessions or one ' s lifo.1

l. Ki to.be to.ko, Ch . Jinno Sb.6to1d, Buch ,;mn '-1.or v,m,hron l""rott ­Kn.is 6r-Horrs cho.fts ... Llnio·, ·tr• w:t th an inporta.nt int:r>oc'.u,ction by H. Bob.nor, Tokyo, 1935)•

-

... 108 ..

It wn□ in fa.ct this duc.l absolutisr.1 ·which r'.olo.yoc.1 the. tri•

unph of tho loyalty concept in Jupn.n .for alnost a. can-cm .. y. Tho

Jir:n:1u clyna.::d;y coveted not □ o r.1uch tho spiritur.l .::i..lloci~·.nco of

the clans as their properties a.nd, abovo all , their privilcc;o ,

to collect tho to.xos . 1i'Joro it confined to spiritual 1:mttors,

tho clc..ns vwulcl havo o.J,roady subnittod to tho Jinr.1u dynasty in '

tho seventh century. Since, hovrnvor, it concornod their no.torial ;

nouns as wall, thoy rosistod what nppo.rontly wn.s noroly c..n ido• 1

olocical cncroachnont to tho bittor encl.

LoynJ..ty novr bocn.1:1,0 an institution but it rono..inod with tho

clynn.sty only o.s lone 0;.s it ho.cl tho soculo.r power to enforce it. ,

By 1167, tho Inporio.l hou~o no lonc;or possossocl such powoi-- o.nd

wa.s: consequently conclonnocl to a $ocular oblivion which wo.s to

lust until 1868. This secular oblivion was outwardly r.io.nifcstcd

in the tro.nsfor of loyalty fron tho sovcroicn n.s its solo objoct

to thoso feudal lords who roplo.cod hin in tho possession of

pow-or . Loyalty that once had n. thoocro.tic unc..101 ... tono and wo.s in•

divisible now booanc un instrur.1011.t of power politics.- o.nd was

hichly fo.ctiono.l iz od . 2'

Consoquontly loyalty ho.cl lost i tsr,contralizoc1 orionta. tion,

and also r.iuch of its abstrnct and oxo.ltcd cho.ro.ctcr . As in

1 . 'So.i to, II. ( vd th Prof ; Otto Bocker) Gos chi ch to Jo.po.n::i , Bcr-1;n, 1912 , 03pocio.lly PP • 30• 39 . , .

2.. Asc.J:<:awn.., K. "Tho .foundinc of tho Sho_:ttno.to bj· Uinn.noto no Yoritono , u' Sonino.riur.1 Kondn.kovic.nun , 1933 , 6 , PP • 109- 29 .

•

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.. 109 ..

Europe with tho coninc of feudalism., in Jo..po.n., too., loyc.1 ty was

tho ins truraont with which a feudal lord tiocl his vo.sso.l to his

porsonnl r1;1-lo • If it was o. virtue o.. t o.;Ll.., it was indooc1 o. utili­

tarian ono • It was part of th.a. t 11 f ac-ti tious honor"' with which., ✓

in tho words of Brinkley, tho so)"diorinG ca.sto wn.~ arbitrarily ,

invostod; und like tho solclior co,sto itself, it wu.s "'not of n.n­

c·iont oxistonco , nor did it ariso fror.1 cr.ny cµ ostion of ro.co or

co..sto, as is often supposed on~ stn.tod., 11 but noroly "o.n outcono

of wholly nn bit ious us u,rpa t ion. 11;1

Loyalty was no loncor tho

virtue but both tho duty and priviloco of tho profossionnl war­

rior. Tho cor.tri1on pooplo wore noithor ~oqmirod nor privilocod to

bo loyo..l. Thay had to bo subsorviont .2

7.

Tho loyalty of tho sru.:urai, 0 which vms so stronc;ly onphD.s-

izod in Japan's noclorn r.ioral oducution, was o.. conr.1odity which

coulcl bo bought or solcl', not unlike tho zoal D..n(l onthusiusn of

n:. professional fo~tball playoi-> . Tho prico of lo·yo.lty was not

particularly hir;h. Tho lord no.rely had to provide a.. subsistonco

for his retainers o..ncl ho was in turn atasurod of their unflinch•

inc; loyalty. A wholo sot of ninntory noro.1 tenets which present •

1. Brinkley, op• cit., P• 206 • ✓

2:. /1.snka,m:ll, Ke 11S ono -of the c ontributionr: of fouda.l' Jo..pc.n to tho now Japan, 11 Journ. of Ro.co Do volopn., 1912-:-13, ~, l-32.

3 • 11 Pfloc:;o dos Soldatonco1Bton in dcr ko.isorl. ja..p. Wohrr.mcht , n propuroc1 b-;f tho P;r-oss Dopt • of tho War• MinistPy for DGNV0, 1939.

-

•·llC, -

od nonoy a:s tho r.1ost d.o tosto.blo of worldly c;oods; sorvec1 its pur-1 4' #'

~ l pos o ,7ll;;L, as it kept tho price of loyulty down_.

m1n r.mtters of 107/ctlty and filial piety, 11· Murdoch wro~o,

11'/Jt.AI Haku_soki wa.s at once o. purist, n.ncl o. croo.t authority. In

1682:: ho onterocl tho service of Hotto., the To.iro., who m:i.s C\.S­

sn.ssino.tocl in 1684. 'His son wo.s very unfortunn.to.,' says ARAI, ,

'o.ncl out down the o.llowunco of his SJar.1Uro.i, and r:1:'lny loft his

sorvico. I wo.s not in confidontio.l relations with hin or his

fo.ther but would not louvo at such tino., for if 011,0 ho.s onoui:;h

for onosolf o.nd fo.riily nuch dosort~ arc not loyo.l ovon thoush

tho s orwico bo uns·o. tisfo.c tory • It is no.turo.l thn t a sar.mro.i

should bo poor, yet ho nust r.minto.in his sto.tion, but fino..lly > • .J )

ny funds t30.vo out.111· And ho, too, loft. 2

ARAI ho.cl orisinully boon a v~sso.l of Tsuchiy~. After o.

short tino o..s a ronin h,o boco.r.10: ~ vassal of the Hottu fa.nily.

Aftor om.othor briof spuco us 0; lordl oss no.n ho ontore c1 tho sor•

vice of tho do.inzo, of Kofu, who presently boci.lrl~ tho Shocun.

Thus, ARAI ho.d o.t l east throe clifforont no.stars., o.ncl ho would

1. Asako.wo., K. Tho Docuncnts of Iriki: Illustro.tivo'of tho Do­volopnont·of Fouclo.1 Institutions of Japo.n, Now'Havon., 1929; Gub­bins, J.H.· t1A so.nuro.i no..nunl," TJS, 1910 .. ll, 2, 139-157; o.lso Tal{iza,wa., M. Tho Ponotrn.tion of Monoy Econony in Jo.po.n a.ncI its -Ef fo cts: upon Socio.l und Poli tic al Inst 1 tut ions, Now York, 1927, (cf. Cho.ptor v, ''Tho Doclino of tho So.nuro.i Class,"). ~ ., . , ,

a. Murctoch, J. A History of J a.po.n, vol. ~., Lonclon, 19251 P• 231-232.

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readily ha.vo a.ccoptod sorvico under a fourth , if one ha.cl soon

fit to utilizo his talents. urn Japa.Dr, no loss tho.n in foudo.l

Chinu, tho hich-sounclinr, procopt tho.t ta. fa.ith.ful vo.sso.l should

not s orvo two loi--ds t was f ornally ondornod anc1 o.pprovoc1 , 11 Mur­

cloch wroto. 11 Bltt whon it cur.lo to tho plain proso of pro.ctico, ,

ARA.I 's co.so is by no 1100.ns tho only contoriporo.ry 0110, which

socris to indica,to that tho no.xim wn.s to.ken as a counsel of. por•

foction. It nic;ht s orvo very vrnll llS o. copy-book hoo.cJ.-lino , but,

in tho ordorinc of his lifo, tho so.r.mrai plo.inly felt thn.t tho

injunctions was bottor honored in tho broo.ch than in tho obsor•

vn.nco. 11

11.l though ho wo.s oxcludod fror.1 its obsorvo.nco o.nc.1 wo.s r,uid•

ocl by no hon.or codas.: but noroly by his sonso of doconcy, tho

dospisod connonor ofton rovoa.l c'--1 ru. c;roa tor clocroo of loya.l ty ,

than tho inbrod so.nurn.i. In fa.ct, whon. Arcd bo en.no a. ronin, ho

wus f ollowoc.l by two s orv[mts who woulcl not loo.vo hin, and who

so.id they could provide for thonsolvos somehow.

ARAI ' s oxo.riplo was not tho oxcoption but tho rulo. Whonovor

one feudal houso was clofoo.tod by a.nothor , or str•ickon fron tho

ro cords of heraldry for sor:io offonso, its roto.inors bocano .E,2-

nin, r.10.storlo ss knic;hts ?onto.inocl by no lo..w, roo.ninc tho count-

1 rys ido in s oo.roh of loot• A [iOOc.l rotci.inor, howovor, was novor

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• 112 ..

lone; 0:1 tho unonployod rostor.- Ho soon found or.iploynont with an•

other feudal r.10.stor- --ofton with his la to rmstor J s arch onor1y.

It was thon natural for hir:1 to s orvo tho now master with tho

snno kincl of unqunlifiocl devotion which ho ho.cl shown to his for-

nor no.stor . 1

HIDEYOSHI Toyotoni, tho outsto.ndinc politician of Jnpo.noso

histoPy _, understood best tho vo.luo plncod on loyn.lty whon ho of-,

forod his OYll"l to tho hir:host bidder _, and ro.isod ~ho sto.kos when

ho wo.s hinsolf biddin0 for tho loyalty of othors ,2

Probably tho nos t inportn.nt acco1:1plisb.nont of tho Uoi ji RorJ­

toro.tion, soconcl only in sic;nifica.nco to tho dynasty 's victory ,

ovor tho Soc;as, was tho restoration of loyalty to its contro.liz•ou

r-olo tocothor with tho r;athorinc of sufficient r.mtorio.1 and r.10 -,

ro.1 stronc;th, ovon durinc tho oo.rly years of tho rostoro.tion, to

onforco [Uloc;ianco to tho Er:1por•or only . Tho second c;roat o.chiovo•

mont was who..t 1-:10.y bo called tho, populo.rization or ro..thor prolo •

. 3 ta.riza.tion of loyalty. Onco tho duty ancl priviloco of tho sa.- ·

nuro.i n.lono , now it bocru::10 rociti.ro d of ovoryono of tho Enporor t"s

1. To.kokosh:t, Y. Tho Ec6not1ic Aspects of tho History of tho Ci~ vilizo.tion of Japan, vol. 1, Now York, 1930.

"' .; ' " ,I

Doninc, w. Lifo of To-yotoni Hidoyoshi, 3rd od., Koba, 1930 •. ,

3,;. Nornan, E,J. Jo.pants Enorconco o.s D..t Uodorn state, Political ru--id Econotiic · Problor1s of tho Mo iji Poriocl, Novi York, 1940; o.lso Haushofor, K. Japans Roithsornouorung , ·strukturwundluUGon von dor Meiji Aora bis houto, Borlin, 1930.

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s·ub jocts. 11 ~ho f ouclatory has a co.in boon roplacoc;. by tho Enporor, •~i

Abucc wroto. "Tho controvorsy bctwoon fouclo.l domains hD.s boon

roplacod by tho controversy botwoon tho Japanoso usu mtion and

tho rost of tho world; tho privilogocl 1:iilitn.ry class ho.s boon

ro:placod by tho citizens in their obliGation of conpulsory 1:1i•

lito..ry sorvioo. 111Thus to tho concept of loyalty tho Meiji Hos­

toro.tion, for tho first tino in Jo.pa.nose history, ndcJ.ocl tho

concept of pn.triotisn.

Who.t is tho Jo.l?o.no,s,q Concept of Patr,iotisn? '

In Japo.noso history, patr-iotisrt was long an unknovm con­

cept, with n.n island or.t1"Jiro thn.t was but once throa.tonoc1 by fo­

roicn invasion n.nd that, too, was sovon hundrotl yon.rs n.co. Tho

nonory of tho a.ttonptod Monc;ol invn.sion2 wn.s too short li;od

to porr.11 t 1:1;. ron.lizo. tion of who. t foroic:ri conquos t o.ncl occupn. tion

would havo noa.nt to Japan n.s u nation. Tho Koroo.n oxpoc1i tion

wus noro or loss Hicloyoshi's privn.to affair, both tho Iuporio.l

houso and tho people o.t lureo oxcludod fron uctivo po.rticipn.tion . .

in it.3 Only rocontly wore tho r.1or.1orios of both events rosuscit-

-----~-----:;__ ____________________ _ 1. Abogc;, L. Yuma.to, dor Soncluncscluubo dos jnpanischon Vo;t)ros, Frankfurt m:1 Mn.in, 1936 •

.. ) .. .,

2 • . Yann.cla., ~• _ Ghonko, tho l1onc;ol Invasion of Jo.pa.n, Lonc!on,1916. ,

Aston, w.G. 11Hic1oyoshits invasion of Korou, 11 4 po.rts, TASJ.

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a.tad in o.n offort to doopon a foolinc; of patriotisn n.ncl to ir;1-

pross upon Jo.po.noso ninu.s tho oxistinc; onorc;oncy with tho holp

of his torico.1 oxanplo s • 'rho ontiro Ko.miko..z o propn.go.ndo. of sui­

cic.1..ul clofonso was bo..sod on blurrod r.10norios of tho Mon,301 in­

vo.sion.1

At the t inc of tho I:Ionc;ol invasion Jo.pan its olf was in tho

tbroos of a bitter foud botwoon tho Imporio..1 house c..nd tho Hojo

r o r··o11tc u - 0, a struc;c;lo which occupied tho po oplo 's ir.10.c;ino.tion o.nd

u.ffoctod the ir inrJodio.to woll- boinc; to a croa.tcr <l or;roo than a

throat fron without . The co1:11:1on people dovolopoll nn attitude of

dull indifforonco insofar o.s r10.ttors of no.tiona.l inporto.nco or

u.f.fa.il"s of s ta. to wore conco1•nocl. How inclo od can pooplo whoso

politico.l horizon ondotl o.t tho border of o. fiof dovolop mtion­

DJ. s ontir.1onts? Po.triotisn in o.11 its r.10..nifold ranif ica tions is

a:~ Wostorn concept and , in tho words of Abocc; , was inportod to ,

Jo.pan with tho ro.ilroa.d angina , hoa vy r:m.chino - 13uns , o.ncl tho

c;n.no of poker • :Cn o.11 J'apa.nt s nodio val history, sho ro1:1::i.r•kod

thoro can bo found not o. sinelo patriot who could sa.y vlith Bru-

2 tus: "Not that I lovod Co.osar loss, but that I lovoc1 Rone noro . 11

,

Durinc tho first Sino"Jo.panoso war of 1894, and durinc tho

1. .9.£•' Fur Eo.s torn Report of tho Forolc.;n Broa.c1co.st Intollie5onco Sorv:tco ,.: of tho Podorn.1 Communlcation Com .. rniss ion. . . .

a. Abase, op . cit., PP • 5 n.nd 207.

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Russio.n co.r.1po.icn of l90t1 ... 05, Japanese po.triotisr.1 rm.do a tir.lid

s·to.rt, but later, o.ncl especially since what is cctllocl tho Shown.

Rosto1•ution of 1936, it ho.s cone to bo iclontif'ioc.l with loyo.1 ty

to tho Enporor rather tho.n to tho country.1 Tho F...r.iporor thus bo­

co1:10s tho onboclinont of tho Fo.thorla.nd oi.s well o.s tho s7/r:1bol of

tho univorso.1 fo.thor. Whon c1iscussinc; tho EnpororJs role in pro,..,

s ont-clo.y Jo.po.n, wo will show how tho rulinc nili to.rJ 9liqµ o suc­

coodocl in o:x.ploitin0 tho supor•rn1tur8.l sto.tus of tho Enporor to

invic;o1~0.to po.triotim:-i in o.ddition to loyo.lty o.nd filio.1 pioty. -It is in this po.rticulCtr sphoro that tho oxploito.tion of tho En­

pororfs person boconos nost explicit. In a rocont book C:tovotod

to who.t tho author oupb,onisticully co.J.lod "vutriotisn, 11 MOMOZO

Kura.to. bluntly oxpounclo<.1 this icloo., In his torr.1inolo ~;y pntriot• ,

isn boconos Japo.nisn, and, in his ovm words, "it is tho nost n.d-,

vo.ncoc1 principle supors odinc both liboralis1-:1. o.ncl corn:-i.unisnt for

tho o sto.blishnont of o. theocratic Utopia to save tho vmrlc:1 . 11

Jo.ix:1.nism or Jo.pn.noso po.triotisn rests in tho faith of tho Enpor•

or's infb).lo.bility, Ho 11 :i,s both a livin13 cocl a.nd tho canclic:1a.to

best fi ttod to rule this uto:)io.n thoocra.cy. 112

le For c. conpo.ro.tivo stuc1:,,- of sor:.10 va.lu.o' soo Irmi~ s . Patriot­isr.1 of tho Spirit o.nc1 Christianity, 'rokyo , l91c0 (JJ.

2,. Mor.1ozo, K, P~triotlsn a.nc: its Rococnition, Tokyo,,1941 (J). Also s oo; Motono , , Y. i1Pructical Toa chine of Pn. triotism, 11 Jnpan macazino, 1010•11, 1 1 PF.• 3~1-394 , , o.nd Imai, s. Patriotism of tho Spirit nncl Christio.nity, Tokyo , 1940, (J)

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Whoroas loyo.lt:/ n.nd po.triotis1-:1 n.ro 011pho.sizoc.1 o.s tho 11 cha­

ra.cter tro.i ts of tho wa.rriior 1•0.co, 11 f ilic.l J..)iot·y is r eco.rdod ru.s

o;, socia.l function within tho bo.sic Ja.po.noso socin.1 syston, tho

fo.nily •1

A,ccorclincly, tho l\Ji;Jus:hi-ko, a. Chinos o book dos cribinc

tho "twonty-f our pa.ra.c.:;onn; of filio.l pioty, 11 is: a:oconcl in no.ti on ...

wi(1o populci.r i ty only to tho Chushinr;urm which opi tonizos tho

virtuo of l oyalty~ This ovidonco of tho virtue's Chinoso oricin

froquontly onba.rro.ssos tho Jo,punoso who profor to ~oprosont

the ir cho.ro.ctor tra its as aboric;:tno.l or indi c;onous. rro conpoto ;

with tho allon prototype, n book entitled Honcho Nijushi-ko, dc­

scribinc; 11 t vrnnty•four na.tivc po.ro.gons, 11 was conposecl ...... but it

f a iled to nt to.in r enl po~ulo.rity. 2

Tho i doal r.1caninc; of filial p i e ty is described in tho ~

of Kinps pn Filio.l Pi,o_iz. 11 0ur body and o.11 1 ts nenbers nro ci v ..

on us by our parents ," it reo.cls, "It is tho l oo.st of filial pi•

oty to t-nko .. QO,t'tkao E-• -u~t to · trijUl'o tlbtl.1,1\.nd it is tho c;roa t­

o st of f ilin.1 p ioty to <1 istinc uish our sol vos and nako tho nm:10

l. Araki, K. "V✓ oson und Grunclzuoc;o·c10s jo.panischen Fo.nilion­g~do.nk~nm, 11 Ostc,siutis~ Rundschc.u, 1939, 20, 3·, PP • ?3--74,

, , ,

a. Of, Oho.nborlo.in, Thinr..:;s J o..pc.neso, London, 1905, PP • 165--16; o;lsoAnc.1orson, Cettalocuo of Japanoso · ancl Chino so Pantincs v1hicL on po.co 17lj ddals with tho paracons , _.,. Fora comparativo study soo Mausoka, J. "Chancing moral bO.SOS'Of tho Jo.pn.n6so fn..mily in Ho.wai:L, 11 Social so t ilos a1 1936 , 21, pp . l58•J..G9.

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of our pn.ronts known . 11 r.Iuch of tho burninc ambition which drivos

tho Jn.pn.noso oo n.n in<lividun.l and as n. no.tion is clorivod :from

t h is basic conr.1D.nd of tho fnnil:t systom .1

Two Jo.p o.nose to.las r:10.y bo cited to illustro.to filial piety . a.:.s it functions in pro.ctico . One is tho populo.r l oc:,ond o.bout tho

nirror of Mo. tsuyo.nm. A dyinr; motho1., oo.llod hor c;riof-strickon .,

dn.uc;hto r to her doo.th-boc.1, prosontod hor with a Llirror o.ncl so.id :

11Vlhcn ~ o.r:1 loo.d, look into this c;luss o.n(l you shall soo your

notror ,, :ii So uron hoi: nothor ts:: doo.th tho dn.uchtur looked into

tho r,1::.. .. 'Y'Gr [:i.ncl t:.1.oro sho ro co c;nizo c.l tho f an. turos of hor r1othor,

"looJ,:·~n:::; V -'H'Y -yonnc; but un.r:1isto.ko. bly her r.1othor • She snil ocl with

unboundocl j oy o.n<l her nothor sr.1 :t.lod bo.ck o.t hor .'' OSHH'ili., who

r ol a t oc1 thin to.lo , c.oscribocl its less on as tho ossonco of filial

p ioty, 11 synbolic of tho truth tho.t tho nothor livos o.l so in tho ()

do.uc:htor , o.ncl that o.ncostors o.nc.1 dos condn.nts o.ro ono e 11t.:-

..

Tho othor s~ory concerns ono of tho Paro.cons who had o.

cruol stopnothor . She wo.s very fond of fish. "Navor ropininc D,:.t

her ho.rsh troo.tnont of h in, ho lo.y down no.kod on tho frozon sur""

fo.co of tho lo.k0, 11 Cho.nborlo.in rolo. tos • "Tho wo.r1:1th of his body ,

molted n halo in tho ice, at which two carp co.~o up to breathe •

. ,

Oshino., ?J)• cit., P• 12 ... 35 • . , 2. Ibid., P• 25.

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.. 118 -

Thes o ho cn.uc;ht and set boforo his s topnother • 11: In other vrnrds;,

filio,1 piety requires of chil(lren to sucrifico o..11, inclucliric;

thonsolves, for their p~ronts, just n.s loyn.lty c.1onuncls; n. sinila:r:;,

so.crifico to tho r:10.stor. "Thnt children should sn.crifico thor.1-

sol vos to their po.rents is, in tho Fn.r-En.storn view of thincs,

a. princip).o n.s indisputo.blo ns tho duty of r:1on to coc1e tho best

of ovorythinr, to wo1:1on is wl th us, 11 Cho.r.ibopln.in wrote. ''Fo.r

Ea.stern po.rents n.ccopt their children's s.o.crificos r:mch o.s our

wor.1on o..ccopt the front soo.t,- .... with thanks porho.ps, but o.s a

r.mttor of courso. 11

The ;.;1 ... 00.tost p11 acticn.l vuluo of filio.1. pioty is ~o.-o.Porq. ti?r

on n.11 levels of tho Jn:n1.noso social synton. It is so well cs­

to.bli □hod ins ti tutiont:.~lly and so in::ro.in.ccl nontr.lly thc..t it has

bocono part of tho Jrtp['..noso p,Jrsonn.lity. Tho institution vrhoro

co-oj_)orn. tion. is first cul ti vo. tocl o.ncl ,·r.:iich inc\oocl. is tho prov inc 1

0rounc1 of n::-~tionnl co-oporo.tion is tl-:.o fanil:,,.,. systor:1. Expressed ,

'b·:/ tho w·,ord. .!£, tho conccp·t of fo.nily is un•lors too cl o.s 11an his• , ,

toric, cons:;o.e,:uincous , c..nc: spiritual inhoritonco fror:i a.nccstor

1 . Tc..ni,~uchi, T. "Uobor ·~o.s hcutl: :o jo.:x1.nischo 1Fc.nilions:;ston; ~o its chr !ft, fucr a.u:::i lt:'. onc~i.s cllo SJ ,rmcl intcrnn.t ionl'.lc s ~r i 'V'l'. tro c ht,

lG36, 10, 4, ~~~ 477• 491.

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-co 1.osconac.nt, 11 Ito historic connoto.tion ic cxprcsaoc: in tho bo•

lief that "both ancc s tor•s o.nd (1..os con.:~c.nts a.re fol t to :Li vo in

t!--.o present conol"Q.tion, '' Its consa.:~u:t.noous chc.ructo1~ is o:;~-

proosc ('.. in t;1c fact t:1c..t it oxtoncls to n.11 r.10 :·1~xrs of -c:.1:: Io no -its prina.ry objoctivo is tho porpc tuo.t~on of tho Io, c ... c0ntro.l

o:.im to uhich ri.ll indi vL~ua.lis tic clu il:10, hopos e.nr'. n S~)il~~ttions

nust be suborr1i1mtocJ.,1

In tho vorticc-.l rclo.-tionships of parontn a.nc1 c:1.il::...i,on, a.n-

c0stors nm~ closccnc~n.nts, th:., ~ is ~)Ut first anc: tho in··:ivic~ua.1

la.st. Al thou :;h s ocond, thirc"~ n.nc1.. succooc1..;I,nc sonn ua.y c stc,blish ,

sc~x i.r11to hou8oholc1s, "no.kine; news brunches of tho fa.nil•/ troo,"

the life of tho pn.r .__. nts anc: children is continued to b e ro r;o.rc\•

ocl n.s one•""':}orvinc; tho intcrosts, not of tho po.rents, but of the

19.• Tllii:., Japo.noso writ oPs think, is tho source of Jo.po.11,os o fru•

c;all~y n.n-:.1 industriousness. In Ja.po.n, OSHH!A ·wrote, 11 t:10ro is no

co.so of po.rants livin:~ L :l :)ovorty n.n•':. chi1dron in lu::-:ury," or

vice vc1.,sa.~ Since thin cl.istilfbution of a.vailo.blc YJcalth r equire s

c r~rofu.l o conor.1y, it o.lso inposos fru:~ality on n cnborr; of tho .f.2.• ,

l O"'·, i '" l" ~- ) ci·... ~)-1), 18-",.l,• nl r. ::) s·' o ' '· tic· ,.,,.,,,.J.• 1 • !l ;nli ···· ' 1·c0 oa ' • ...,1. ,.c ., v, • ., ve, . • _ __ - v ,., ..., ...,._,.J .. , · ·•• ...•• v ., ..

of -1:1oro.1 · h orltneo :In tho Japc.118s0 fnnil:r," The q,po_n Co;q::...,1?., 1917, &l, 8, :)• 227 •

-

-

... 120 ..

v.so;:1.. ·ca \',1orld.:.1:: not mD.y for :1insolf l>ut for o.11 nurflcr•s of tho 1 1£• .Bo nus ·t WOl"l~ twico a.s ~1ard, 11 a1Ym:,·o in tho shnclo of tho Io•"

In t~1.0 ,;rords of B1:1broo, 11 tho size of a burn.ku /.:01 .. ville.co unit/

is rocl{;onod l.y:,· tho nunbor of hou::30holc1s, not by tllo nu.n1)or of

people • • • Pooplo o..ncJ. thint;s of the house o.ro ro:Cor1"o c.l to as

~ch:l:_,no (of tho houso), us, for instnnco, l':1othor of ·cho 1101...1.00,

Dicyclo of tho houso, coTT of tho houso. 112

Alt.hou~;h r.1odorniznti:I.on o.nd os:Jcciull;,r u1"1.x~nizrJ:;ion :.~~--.vc un-

clor•J.1incc1 nuc11 of the foundations 0 ,.. tl"O "'.., . .., t or.1 J. _... ,;, .,, ... • •. ,

onl:r within tho f01Jil7/ ::.uYl housoholc1., but o.lno in c.ll civilic.n , , ,

O:li_)ccin.lly ~)J Ii.11\s.:~KI ( 50) • '.[1ho -cribul or i :; in of JL1x~n nutv.rc.1-

ly fc.vorac1 closo co-oi1oro..~ion [\,nci_ prono-tod it until it ~)G ee.no

an affoctivo oocinl trnit.

co-opoI'o. tion m.10 not only cmcouru;_;oc1 but .. -..ct;tin.11~· r.mc.,.c nn.n-

c.b.to1":r under tho Tokuc;nsra..0 ?hus for cxc..nplo tho rc t:l1.lc.tions

whic>. Toku;:c.vm. Iyoi~mt8U i::rnucd for tho 1)ca.sants s tip1..ua.·li l;;,: thn. t

f::.1.~no1"s in. clifficultioo nust be t1.soistocl h;;· other villn~:ors••

1. Cf. Ho:::ior, A. 1IT1nmil:t0 unc: cl2.n; s-tc.onclo'un-:~. Hccior•ui1t; in c1or °Vi.1c .. ntnchr~n_ Vo1-itr-.ik1.:o,zoit," z.r.sozir\l·,1•~ 191G, 7, ll• 09'-1

2. El1~)rco, J.F. Su:tG l}JJ:>o.., Chlca.:~o, 1940, ~h

5 4

Gubbins, J .H. 11 kt\·rn of the Toku,\~:r~wu. Pcr:to c.1., n TASJ, , 26.

"121 ..

iv0s ·aero ' , . . t 1 G1.lUS or:i.:_;J.11['. c:c, tho Toku:·;r~Ho. also sm-r to it thn.t no

IL, n"'r '-• "

con~i.n:.:tion of lJcrsons for wrmtove.r purpose shc..11 bo unl:..'.'-.Ji'nl . Hl

Accor,1in:_;l-;:,7 co-oporo. ti vo :'.:c. thcrincs rcnc.incd purely flu1c·ci ono.l '

·with no ideolo,;ico.1 or-ientf.'..tion or o.sj_-:>ira. tion. 'I'hc:7 co~1cc:ntrc:.t­

oc1 on econonic objectives, or r8.thor on tho ir.mc (:_if"'..to \;o :rJ-: for

tho porfOrr.mnco of which they rroro forr_1ccJ., 0.1.1 ·:..~ l1[',rc1ly -~ vcr- con­

corned ther:1Sol vep with ~)oliticC\.l idoo.s • 2 The co-opera ti vcs uo.y, ,

however , if prop orly or i cn.toc.1 in tho future , bee 01:10 the noo t in ...

porto.nt source::i of donocr.'.1 tic ~)oli tico-o.o·ononic act lon. Thia

would noce::isito.to c. conpleto overhaul of Jn.:;_1etnl3 s7'·st on of no•

darn co-oporo.tivos.

Enbreo cc>.llecl co-operation tho fou.n•~o.tion of ruretl Jn.pc.noso

society toc.1o.y. 11 Co-oporcd;ion iG tho volunt::try v1or>l:inc; to :·;ctl'lcP , .

of n. croup of people, 11 ho ·wrote• '111hia ir.ti)lios tht'.'c th.ore 13 no

t bona t --,no parson who forces th,.:; people: to work togothol' , •.

This joint workin13 of the cor.rr.-:unity not only c;cto tho work c,ono,

but keeps tho people to::c thor by unitinc; them in c.. conuon tn.sk

t\nd af torvml"'d in u conr.1on drink inc pc.rty • 113

1, Sc.'..cllor, :~ .L. The ;·.icJ:cr of :·.,o .:orn J c·.:y'-n, the i~h'o of '.L',>::u__:mrn Ifo~nsu, Lon~on 1937.

2. Tho Dovcloprnnt of tho Co-Op c- Pr'.tivo in Jo.j_)n.n, •J:o~:-:,·o, 193~.

3. Et1broo, op• cit._, P• 112.

-

- 122 -

Tho fivo nost iuporto.nt forr.1n of co-oporn.t;ion uro roto.tin.:;

l'"' ,:; npons :t'bili ty by croups c8.llod the ~ s:rs tor.1; civil co-opor­

o..tion; 11h c l~)in3" co-opoP.'.'.tion cullc L1 tosurlcd or ku_!'uoi; c.nc~ co­

opcr1:. tivc c!'oc:it c).ubn co..llo:..l ko,. 1 The frnT.:m.sc col1c3ivo valuo oi -such co-opcrr.. ti vc of fort::; o.nd tho spirit of co-opcr•c.tion u~1i ch

they pr•onoto CC'..nnot be o~a;::_;;:;oro:toc::. . 2

What is tho Principo.l l'icro.tivc Effect of Loyal t·;z- cmc1 Filicl Piot7l?

Vlhilo oo-or)o!'o,tion :tn Japan, like 3,~n .ho 111 China, cndovrn

tho Jo.po.nano with inuonso no.tcrial and spiritu[l.l stroncth., o.nd

contributes to his nntional stability, it ho.s its :noc;o:clvo qua­

lity as wall. Abovo n.11, it inpodo s tho dcvolopnont of indivi-,

Lluo.1 lo o.dox-ship fncul tics ., tl:i-e hierarchy boins f irr.1ly c sto.b­

lished o.nd strictly onforcocl. '1Wi thin this so cic.l unit of' o.;. ,

housol10ld, 11 Er.1broe wrote, lfthc r.mstor' s (koshu) ·word is lo.vr. As

ho clociclos, so nust the r.1onbors o.f tho householcl o.ct . Ho is firn ·!

to tnko ~ bath, first to bo served with food or a.nc~ ho

hc.s a. spociul place to s :i,t by tho firo pit. All farnin[; incor:10

0ocs to tho hoad who dispenses it as ho soos fit to 0th.or non-______________________ , _____ _ 1. For o.n oxcollont tlotuilod de □ cription of thoso co-oporntivo offor>ts seo ·tho· chapter ent i tlod "Forno of co ... Opo1,o.tion" in Er.1brco 1 s op . cit., pp. 112-157. . . 2 • For o. survey' of· tho modorn co-opera ti v rJ do vclop1no11t up to lV3l, so6 Wikn.wa, ·T. "Our co ... oporativo mo vement ., If c.J., 1932, 1, 3, PP• 431•440.

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-

• 123 -

bors of tho housoholc.1 • 11 Inc.1i vidun.1 raor.1bors of the Io 1• c concilo,1 _, as they aro to tho hierarchy, o.ccopt tho horodito.r-:,r l0ador with

voluntary subr.iiss ion, ronouncinc; any personal ar1bi tion. 11}~vory

mo.lo in Japo.n is not as froo to do just ho liko s us h o J.11a:r in

tho Wost , 11 o. Japanese observer vrroto! 11 nor is ho fr e e t o fJpo ncl

all ho earns and in thu way ho livos.~1

Tho sn.r.10 puttoi,n is then rop cc.tod in ovory hioro.rchy, poli ­

tical us well us military, l oo.dine to o. l oaclorship wl1ich is dis ­

tinctly deficient , o.nd , o.bovo o.11 , conspicuoun by lnckinG in ,

individual initiative. rl1110 authority of tho loo.clor, n c vor q.l o.li-,

fiod by o.ny Groat sonso of socinl responsibility., is cxtrene . ,

It is frequently abusod , such o.s whon chil..lre n o.ro conp ollocl . to

marry asuinst the ir will or dauehtors sold into prostitution.

In tho o.rny, too , suporior[1 roco.r<.lod thoir non ns 11 thoir child­

ren" ~vhich, in this co.so, mount thut "the y wore at their dis -..

poso.l ." Thay saw in authority tho ri;::;ht 11 to throw subj e cts into J •

fire or water ," as doscribod by HIN0 . 2

Another disndvantac;o of this typo of vertical co- opor n tion

is tho formation of clit;iuo s and tho overall cloponclonc o on tho

c;roup , sa.ppinc; initiative in nll no.tt ors uncl walks of lifo. As.

------·-·---------, ,

l. Tho Sovon Sou1•c os of Jt:1.po.noso Stroncth, rJ7okyo, 19 -1 0 , p . 57. ,

2 , Hino , A. Earth and Solc.liora, Now York , 1939, P • 11.

M 124 M

o. result the J o.pa.ncsc 0;.cqt.i.ir• os o. collective.; per sonality with all

its a.dvantac;cs und clis nclvo.nt ac;os . 1 Ho is rather stronc in con­

pos i t o o.ct i vi ti? s, but woakor o..nd c;raduo..lly d i s intoe_;r o.. tin·; who11

l o.ft to hir.rno l.f •

Althouch stronc.:; in its 01 01-:i.ont s of obocUonco , ospoc:lc~ll:r in

lowor c cholons in t ho po. t c rno.li s t i c o.. t ti tudo of supo:d.or s to

their char~os, true l oo.dorship was soncwho.t doficlont i n Jap an' s

nrr.1.oc.1 for c os ns well o.s in hor political lif'o • Tho abs once o.f

initiat ive and uttor1 c1opc ndonco on co ... opcro.tivo o.id slows cloYvn

J o.panes o a ction. until oft on it c oo.sos n.1 t occ thor • Hu(~h Byas , for

ox 8.r.1plo, watchocl tho pres i dent of tho Upper Hou.rm , confro~1tod

with nn inpor•to.nt but not uncxpoctccl point of procoduro , oit

silent until his official assistnnt had pnssod h:i.n a slip of po. ­

per t ollinc hh1 who. t to clo . 11 Ho cl i cl not nooc.1 to bu told, '..mt ho

concodod his ass istant ts rlcht to toll h i n . It was fic;urohoo.d

cov orn:r.iont in a ction.n 2

In t ho Wost, o..ny superior 1:1:i.,3ht ask h:i.s staff to worJ,;: out

tho do t ail s of 0. probl on for hi m, n.ncl 8.ny s t o. t osr:w.n r.ii, ·ht n.sk

his so croto.i->y to dro.ft n spooch. 11But in Japo.n tho custor.1 :::;oo s

1. J')oninc, w. 11 Montal chetl"Cl.ctorist i cs of tho Jnpc.noso , 11 T,'l.SJ, 1891, 19, pp. 17-36. . , .

2. Byas , H. Govorru:1ont by Asso.ssino.tion, Novi York , 1942, P • 75.

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-

- 125 ...

vory fn.r n.nd somotir:10s it would be ho.rd to SD.)' wt1othor it is a

co.so of n.ssi □ tin0 a chief op oxorcisinc; n. chiof's o.utl·v:)rit-;{. Tho

division of o.uthority o.ncl r ospons ibilit'y froquontly rosnltinr~

in tho conploto disintoc;ro.tion of loadorship oxpL.:.ins nuch of

tho contradictory foo.turo s of Japo..noso policioa . It iupo[:os o.cld­

od difficul tios for our adr:1inis tro. tors who o.ro thoP oby c un.f'ront ...

od with tho principal no::,o.t:tvo effect of loyr\l ty n.nd f.iJ.:l.n.l ~)iot·~

in pro.cticul omorconcy situations .

A cn.roful stu~ly of tho Jo.panoso cho.ro..ctor structur·o con­

vinced Captain Znchurin.8 that cloficioncy of l oo.do rship if, in.dood

tho c;roat won.knoss of tho Jt~pn.noso . 11.ti. sinc;lo Jo.pancso cc.n:not

a.ct by himself , 11 ho wrote • 11 '11v10 of thor:-1 cannot o.r11 i v c; ,t t CL do -

c is ion. It o.lvmys takes o.t l uast throo Jo.panoso to dociclo upon a,

bold r.iovc , 111 Doscribinr..-; his oxporicnco cl urine; tho disastrous

Tokyo oa.rthquako of 1923, ho wPoto: "I suddenly roo.lizocl tho.t

their cron. tost won.knoss wo.s tho ip inherent ps-;;chie inortio.. in the:

fnco of clisn.s tor , It so happonod ·thn. t tho cabinet h1:•.c1 f:.1.llon two

do.ys previously, tho :;ovornr.10nt was not functionii:ic , ancl without ,

J 112 ordors from above , nothinc; is undorta.kon in o.pan .

Problons of loo.dorship vrnro 1~0.clo tho subject of doted.led

s;tudios of Jn.panoso psycholo::~ists vrho found tho.t l oacloNihip in

---=------------.- ::------------ - ·-· ..... ----~---..,__.__-----;-----~- - · 1 1 Zo.chnrin.s , E, M. "EiCh toon Wor•cls. that B8.c;ccd Jr1.po.n, " S_o.tur,do.y Evonins Post , 1945, a1s , 20 , p , 117 . ,, ' ... · , .. 2 . Ibid,, P • 117 .

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• 126 -

Jo.po.n, o.sido fron possossJ.nc cortain abstract psycholo~~ico.l quo.­

litios to bo offoctivo, o.lso noods r:mtcrio.l qualitic;s such 0.s

tho o.bility of providinc protection. or prmwtion in rotu.rn. for

tho follower's s.ubr1ission or loyalty. Amon.c; tho nonor_:rCl.phs de ­

voted to tho subject o.ro Ki~r.:ITAKE's (61) o.n.d UETi-i.KEts (230) ,

studios on leadership :i.n c;onoro.1, AYv1.IaffiA's (17) analysis of

tho pors ono.li ty of lo o.clors o.:monc; uclolo s c onts, HA.R/i' s ( 3,1 ) o;.t­

tompt to osto.blish tho prototype of tho loo.cl.or of youth, o.nd

TOKI'~ (216) po.par on tho loo.dor•followor structure o.s it do•

volops in school classes• ToGothor they c;ivo a fairl-:,r comprohon­

s i vo picturo of tho loac1orship problem in Jo.pan. 1

Tho oxo.ctinc clono.n.cls of filial piety ulso pr•ovo too nuch

to boar for rio.ny Jo.po.no so. An in.nor psycholocicn.1 conflict with

serious clinico.l results was doscribocl in tho convontiono.l

F1~oudio.n rinnnor by Mi\RUI ( ll07) • Ho oxn.ninocl o. younc nan who clo­

volopod tho t";/1.J~co.1 synpto:r.:i of molancholin o.ftor tho cloa.th of

his crn.ndnothor. Ano.lysis clisclosod him to bo stronc;ly anbival•

ont toward hor, ha tine o.s nuch 8.S lovinc her . "His h11to, 11 IVbRUI

wrote 1 11 could not be r.minto.inocl o.fter tho cranclr:10thor rs illne ss

o..nd cloath, both of which ovonts cro.tifiod his foolinr:s of hr1.t-.,

rod, but had cloprivod hir1 of a ho.to-objoct. Consequently his

--=-------------------------------------l. For dcto.ilod abstracts of thoso pnpors, soo ·psj~b.oJ;c·r;io:ul­Abstracts .

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... 127 ...

ho..to turned o.co.inst hinsolf, cnusinc solf-roproo.chos and torture

Tho fo.ctors hero involved wore 1111 excessive object of lovo

o.nd tho unduo oxtorno..l con:;_mlsi on oxortoc.1 u;)on tho youn, '; 1 ,~Lll

both by Jo.panoso socioty o.nc; his ovm ::.;rundr.1othor durins his c1o­

voloprnont, which resulted in intorforonco with supor-oco do­

voloprnont o.ncl tho introjoction of tho cro..nclnothoP' s supo:c•-or.:;o

in his own. In consoquonco, tho 7;-ounc; 1:mn' s oc;o bohc~vocl toward

tho introjoctocl supor-oc_;o o..s in childhood his c:r~:...ndnothor hnd

bohnvod towo.rc.1 hin . 1

Wo.rtir.io oxporioncos l."'ovcalod the overall n.ccuro.cy of tho

conclusions roached by thoso Jo.po.noso scholo.rs on a. nci.tiono.l . ,

sco.lo • .Anothor factor , hovrovor , wnct brou:~ht out by tho wo.r . In ,

tho person of tho Er.iporor , Jo.pan hns a supor-l oo.dor· whoso lao.d­

orsh:i,p 1s bolstered by its historical constancy. This wns fully

ro cor;nizod by ua when wo docidod, dos pi to populnr clos:1or to tho

contrary: '4 to ro to.in tho I1:1porio.l o.uthori ty o.nd tho1,oby provont

tho conploto and inevitable c1isintec~rntion of tho J'o.p-::1.ncso so­

cio..1 ordor, n.lonr" lines su, .. r•ostod by TOKI' s (216) ox·.1.-;erinout • ....__J <...) I. ; ~

1. In o. study sor.iowho..t rolutocl to the problon of leo.ctorship, TACHIBli.NA (193) ondoo.vorod to ostQ.blish tho oricin of respect for tho n.gocl in Jr~po.n o.ncl founct thnt in an overwhclninc,; nn .. jor­ity of en.sos rospoct and subordination·is aotivato~ by fa~r of thoir actual or potential iaproc&tions.

.. .. .. ,I

2 . , .9.f.• Lo.ttinoro, o. Solution in 1\sio. , Boston, 19-15, PP •' 29-30, 33,..34 , l.86•189; o.ncl Roth, ~\ • Dilor.mn. in Japan, Boston, 1945 •

- 128 -

Tho preservation of tho social order nay not oxcludo chances in

tho political order, but thoso chanc;os can bo brou:;ht a'uont onl:,

when and if tho sta.bility of tho social ordor is rminto.inoc1 rioro

or loss into.ct durin3 tho period of transition.1 Rcsisto.nco to

cho.nr;os vvill incrioaso in diroct rolo.tion to the doc;roo nt vvhich

chn.nGos in tho social ardor n.ro inposod upon Japan.

In filial piety wo have tho third lac of tho tripod of tho

ancient Japanoso loyulty structure. Conflictinc interests, both

real and ir10.c.;inod, spiritual nnd r.mtorial, inhoront 0.s they o..ro ,

in tho throe r:1Utuo.lly subsidiary concepts, inevitably onor co in

tho opon clash that r.:10.y bo cQllod tho dilomr:m of tho 11 ~~ood II JQ-

po.nose.

What is tho Dilor.u:m. of tho 11 Gooc1 11 Japo.noso?

Tho conflict which arose at tho tino of tho first x-ovis:ton

of tho loyalty concept in tho s ovonth co ntury bocm:10 inc vi tnblo

in tho wako· of tho s oconcl revision in 1868. Tho 11 ono.ncipr: toc.l

subjoct 11 • wus told that foucklisn coa.socl to exist und lw.c: boon

roplo.cod by 01 11nodorn sto.to 11 which rested on throe pillo.rs,

nnnoly tho InpoPio.l house, tho fanily syston, and tho l) □ oplu at

----------------------------------------1, For an intorostinc; r oviow of tho subject, soo Socurity in tho Pn.cific, ru Preliminary Roport of tho Ninth Co1u'oronco of tho' In­s tit-a.to of P6.cific Roln.tions, Hot Sprinc;s, Va., Janunry 6-17, 1945, PP• 26, 2!7-31, 39~41, 51,

-

-

.. 129 -

lo.rec. Tho difforontio.tion was diff icult to comprohond. It wns ,

abovo all , un-Japanoso. Diel not Prince Shotoku proclcd.n thc,,t a

mo.n cannot sorvo two masters? How arc wo , tho people :1on1 '. □ roc1 ,

ox~Joctod to servo not two but throe :masters frori1 nmv on? How

co.n wo bo l oyo.l to our sovoroi~n, f ilia l to our parents , ~nd do~

votod to our country at ono and tho smno time? Who.t if tho in­

torosts of our family clash with thoso of tho sovoroic;n, or tho

tho interests of tho Imporio.l house with those of tho no.tion?

Hora wo.s tho dilor.1,-:111 o.ncl it soomod vrn ll-ni.:;h insoluble .

Tho mon around Emperor Meiji woro fully avmro of tho con­

flict of thoir own tiukinc;. They wore forcefully ro1:1inJocl of it,

first, whon thoy founcl tho Imperial treasure chost empty, sinco

tho fouclatorios refused to surrornlor thoir :wivilec;o of colloct-

1 inc taxes; then when tho "liborn. tod populo.co II appom,od clilectory

about voluntoorin0 for nilitary service ("a blooc.l-tnx to tho Em ...

poror ") and proforr•od to stay within tho family; 2: nncl fin-'ll ly

whon tho conflict or•uptod into sovoral c:tvil wars botwoon 1 868

and 1877.3

Tho Meiji Rostoro.tion assigned tho solution of' tho innor

conflict to tho throo most potont instruments of tho o.uthorit ~

1. Itn.ni,,z. "Tho economic co.uses of tho Moiji Rostorction," TASJ, 1938, Socond Series , 17, pp . 193-207; To.kizo..wn , u. Tho Po ­notrntion of Money Econo1:1y' in Jo..po.n o.ncl its Effo cts ufJon Social and Political Institutions , Now York , 1 927 , pp . 85 - 99 . . - ,, ~

2 • Norman, E . H. Solcli6r o.ncl· Pon.so.nt in· Jo.. pa.n, tho' Ori~ins of Conscription, Now Yorl{ , 19'13, PP • 45-51. Also Kono , , T . "'.rho Ja­p~neso Army , 11 in Wos torn Influoncos in :,1oc1orn Ja.po.n, 1031, p . 385 .

3 . Mounsey , A. H. Tho ·sC1.tsuma. Robollion, a.n Episode of Ja.panoso History, London, 1897 .

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• 130 -

o..rian sto.~o., no.moly to tho historians , tho oducntors ., an-2 tho

c:;o nclo.rmes. S inc o Japa.nos o 11 rovolutlons II woro no vor 1)ro.:::;r•o SfJ i vo

but omphas i zod tra.di tiorn:,lism a.nd r ovors:ton to tho oL.-i , his ­

torians a. l ways pl a.yod o. conspicuous role in Japan's revolution­

ary movonont s and 1)oli tico. l changes, 1 r.rhus di d o. groU1) of his -( ,

torin.ns, workinc; surrept itiously on o..n osto.to nour Nito , pave d

tho w n.y for tho Mo i ji Hostora tion a lready in tho 18th century . 2

They pl otted with thoir pan acainst tho Tokucuwa shocunato , con­

c1..uctinc whn. t NAKAMURA call ed 11 r oson.rch i nto Jo.po.nos o history

from tho prop or un[_;l o . 11 Sir.ml tano ously, Shintoism rvo.s rovi vod

in tho form of Emperor worshi p .

Tho rosoo.rchos of tho Mito c:;roup o.ncl tho invostic.'.lt ions

of tho Shinto r ovivn.lists woro inspired by a fourtoonth century

loya list, KIT1i.Di1.T!,KE Chllrnfusn., Murdoch <lo s crib od hh1 n3 11roal ­

ly ono of tho c r ont characters in t ho h i s tory of h i s country.,

for ho l)l ayoc1 o. l oadini:; pm..,t in tho nnnnl s of his own t ino,

who1.,o ho vms illustrious on tho bntt l of i ol d as vrnll ns at tho

council-boa.rd; whilo his wr itincs woro c1cstincc1 to cxorciso a.

profound inf luonco upon tho politica l th01.,1s ht a.nd theory of

Ja.po.n nt various timos and ospoc i o.l ly in tho ninotoonth contury. 11

In tho words of Sansom, tho work of KITADATJi.KE 11 vms com-

1. Ta.kooko., K. Jo.po.n's Dovo l opmcnt in Mo(lorn Ti r.10s and tho Nat iona list Scholars Uovo1:101:1t , (J), Tokyo., l <J07 .

2. Sansom, OJ!cit., p . 525.

3 • Murdoch, J • A Histoi,y of J apan, LonJon, 1 925 , pp • 53G- fi37 .

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• 131 -

posod to support dynastic claims, and is thoroforo hichly ton ..

doncious, but it is characteristic of tho day insofar as clis•

plays an offort to oxpoun<l ovonts in tho li:.::.;ht of ·Gonoro.l prin­

ciples, nl This tron.tmont of history vms tho expression of a now )

outlook in koopinc with tho cho.nc;inG timos~ "It portoncls tho ,

closo of tho middle acos, for mon mvako to tl-io intoros t of tho

old only when it is vn.nishinc; undor tho prossuro of tho now,"

KIT!i.DATAKE wrote two books; ono, co.llod Shokusonsho or

Driof Account of tho Oricin of Offices, was use~ as a textbook

in Japanoso schools until about 1890; tho other, callod Jinto '

Shotoki or History of tho Truo Succession of tho Divina Monarchs(

is oven tocln.y tho basic toxt of all true loyalists, Tho funda•

montal passage in tho Jinto Shotoki which is still tho corner•

stono of tho Jn.panoso politico.l ordor roads o.s follovrn:

"Groat Ym.mto is a divine country. It is only our land whoso foundations woro laid by tho divino ancostor , It alone has boon transnittod by tho sun Goddess to a lone lino of hor dos condants • 'l'horo is no thine; of this kind in foroicn countrios, Thoroforo it is callod tho Divina Land••• It is only our country which from tho time whon tho hon.van and oarth woro first unfoldod has prosorvod tho succession to tho throno intact in ono'sinc;lo fo.:r.1ily. Evon when, as sor.1oti1:10s naturally ho..pponocl, it doscondod to a ld.toral branch, it wo.s holcl accorclinc; to just prin­ciplos . This shows that tho oath of tho cocls to prosorvo tho succession is over ronowod in a way which c~istinc;ulsh-

1. Sanson, op.cit., P• 381.

2. Kitabatnko, C, Jinno Shotoki, Duch von clor wahron Gott-Kai­ser aorrschafts-Linio, translated with introduction and notes by Hormann Dohnor, Tokyo, 1935.

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- 132 •

os Jo.pnn fron o.11 othor countrios ••• It is tho duty of ovory no.n born on tho Inporic,l soil to yield c1ovotod lo• yo.lt·y to his sovcroicn, oven to tho so.crifico of his own life. Lot no ono sUlJl)Oso for o.·r101nont tho.t there is o.ny credit duo to hi:ra for doinc; so , Novortholoss, in order to stimulnto tho zoo. of those who come after , and in lov­inc; memory of tho doo.d, it is tho busi nos s of tho ruler to c;ro.nt rewards in such co.sos (to tho children), Thoso who o.ro :Ln o.n inferior position should not ontor into r·i­vulry with then• Still moro should thoso who ho.vo done no specio.l noritorious sorvico n.bsto.in from inordinate mn­;)itions • •, I hCI.VO C1.lroC1.d.y touched upon tho princi1)los of statesmanship. Thoy o.ro bo.sod on justice nncl·morcy in tho clisponsin0 of which firr:1 action is roc;,Uifllto • Such is tho cloo.r instruction to us by tho Sun Goddess•''

KITAD1.Ti.KE composed his book undor tho poli tico.l and omo• ·

tiono.l circur.1Sto.nccs which, in sOljO of their mo.:Ln foo. tures, ro-,

somblo conditions in present - day Jo.pan. Tho loc;itir:mto Emperor,

an o.blo, intollicont, m:1bi tious o.n<.l forceful man nar:1ecl Do.igo II,

wo.s dofoa tocl in his a ttonpt to roco.in s ocular ~)owor from tho

usurper .ti.SIIIK.\.GA and vmsi forcocl to floo to tho south with o.

handful of loyalists. Thero in Yoshino he constructod a po.lo.cc,

orso.nizod o. court, and o s to.blishod what bo co.r1O known us tho

southern or locitir:io.to dyno..sty , In the mco.ntir.1O, ASHIKAGJ~ cro-

o. tod nn Er.1poror in his ovm ir.10.go, vii th his sont in Kyoto , known

o..s tho Northern Dyno.sty.1

Tho turmoil which onsuod in tho wa.ko of tho dyno.stica.l dif -

ficulties confronted tho fourtoonth century Jo.po.nose with o.n­

othor dilo:r.:Ir:1a, Tho sixty ... four yonrs of tho Groo.t Succession Wars

1, Incidentally, tho present occupo.nt of tho throne of Japo.n is o. clos condants of who. t is conoro.l ly rocardo 11 as the Northern or Illoc;itimo.to branci1 of tho Sun Goddoss 1 c~ynnsty ,

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.. 133 -

mic;ht, in tho words of Murdoch, "not ino.ptly bo chaructorizod n.s , .

tho Groo.t Ar:,o of Turncoats, for tho croo..t housos tha.t roi:minocl

cons to.nt to tho fortunos of tho Sou thorn dynus ty fror:1 first to

lust mic;ht almost bo countocl upon tho finc;ors of ono ha.nc1. 111 KI•

T/;_DATAKE was ono of thoso fow.

Si0nifica.ntly, tho c?ntost wo.s vmc;ocl with intolloctuo..l ra.­

thor than material woo.pons . In tho oncountors botwoon tho op­

posinc fa.ctions sword wounds wore oxtromoly ra.ro, inclicatinc;

tho.t tho na.toria.l issuo wo.s not roc;o.rclod as worth serious ho.nd­

to-ho.nd combo.tin tho tro.ditiono.l samurai fashion. An occasiono.l

wound co.usocl by o.n arrow Gono a.stray vms consiclorod a.n 11 0.ccidont ·~

Tho chief woo.pan of tho conflict wa.s o. book co.llod l(.er.nnU:

Shikimoku or tho Code of tho Kommu, drawn up o.ncl })Ut•lishod by

tho .ASHIKAGA to bolster their own influonco. VJhnt mo.do this coclo

uno.ccopto.blo and danc;orous from tho loya.list point of viow was

tho fact that it o.drnittocl tho Chinoso virtuo-thoory with its lo­

cica.l consoquoncos.2 As was shown on an oarlior pac;o , any o.d•

mission of tho locico.l consoqµoncos of tho Chinoso virtuo theory

11mic;ht bo clisnstrous to tho pure na.tivo Ja.pa.noso theory of tho

sovoroi0n rulinc indofoo.sibly by virtue of Divine doscont from

tho Sun Goc1•.2.oss • 11

. ;

1. Murdoch, op.cit•, PP • 56,1-565, a.lso PP • 546•588.

2. Hall, J.c. 11 Japa.noso foudnl lo.ws II,·tho Ashikn.c;o.'Codo . Translation of Komrnu Shik:tmoku A.D. 1336, 11 TASJ, 1908, 36, 2, PP• 3-25.

-

... 13~ -

It was this loc ica.l lino of thoucht in tho pro-o.mblo and

conclusions of tho Kommu codo which :i,nc~ucod KITADATli.Iill ts countor­

blnst . Tho influonco of his Jinto Shotoki upon tho prc.ctica.l po­

litics of his own a.co wns insicni;flcant. His a.rgumonts wore not

of tho kincl that appoo.lor1 to mon whoso chiof convincinc ar::;umont

was so lf•in.torost . In fact, :Lt wa.s not until 1640, m?ro tho.11.

thro o- huncb:>ocl years la tor, tho. t tho book wo.s printoc.1 . 11.'hon in,..

c1ooc1 it boGa.n to ox...:irc iso o. 01--.0 ll t a.nd s toadily c rowinc influence

upon tho political thouch of tho nation. Asi(~O from tho compilers

of tho D.ui - H:thon- Shi , it influoncocl r:IOTOORI a.n~~ tho other loo.c.1-

ors of tho Shinto rovi vnlisin ( 1783-1787) nnd 11 tho book was in

tho ha.ncls of many of tho ' l)a.triots , t whoso watchwords wore 1Ro­

voronco tho Emperor: Expel tho Do.rbarians t in tho troblous time::;

followinG tho appearance of Perry ' s squadron of ' Dla.ck Ships '

in Yoda -;Jay ."1

It lost noth.inc; of its topical influence on tho

lmo.c; inat:i,on o.nd action of tho contompora.ry loyalist whooc r.1ili­

ta.ncy micht soon bo fe d by KITl.BiiTAiill t s f ourtoonth century nr -

cumonts .

Evon in tho oightoonth century, a.s tho researches of tho

L1ito historians progrossod, "mon ronlizo cl how ror.1ot o wore tho

oricins and how solid tho foundations of tho Imporial IIouso; and

with n bettor undors tan:1inc of their• own true rolo. tions o.ncl bound•

on uutios to tho Emporor cmno tho ro n.li zo. t:i,on tho. t 0 ovornr.1ont

by tho wa.rrior cla.ss was o..n illocitima.to institution in Jupan,"

1. Murdoch, op.cit., P• 572 .

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- 135 -

~ 1 wrote NAKJ.i.MURA. Vlhon, in tho politico.l chnos arisinc from Com-

moJoro Parry's o.rrivo.1 in Yoe.lo Do.y and Townsend Ho.rris' mission

to tho Shocun, Emperor Lloiji wus rostorod to power, Wostern­

izo.tion, in tho wor-ds of Abom;, 11 uffocted only tho oxtra.noous ,

forms of civilization, but loft tho Jo.po.nose spirit untouchod. 11

Tho oo.to.loguos of Wostor-n mo.nufo.ctcyors wore usod , but or:ily to

facilitate and o.ccoloro.to Jo.pun's rno.torio.l modornizo.tion. In

ovary other respect, IGT,:illNI11'1.KE' s Jin.to Shotoku o.ncl tho Do.i-Ni­

hon-Shi of tho Mi to historians woro tho chief c;uiclos of tho

Meiji Restoration.

Tho Mita historians ;r.'ostorod Jir.rrnu Ton.no , whom tho Tokuco.-

wo. ro13ar-dod as o. sort of poor rolativo o.nd whoso c;ro.vo ovon was

permitted to c.loco.y, to his full tlivino Glory . They o.rcuod that ,

Jimm.u .Ton.no' s mo.ndato, unlike that of tho Chino so Emperors , wo.s

novor q.i. o.lifiod or limi tocl in timo or sco:)o or space. His dos­

conc1o.nts wore to rulo over Jo.pan for all time • Thoir c~i vini ty

matlo thorn infallablo and thoreforo inonpo.blo of ovor Qeviatinc

fror.1 tho 11Wo.y • 11 The relo. tionship be two on Jirn.mu Tonno 1 s dos cond­

ants anc.l the ir sub jocts was placed o. t tho o.pox of all hw-no.n re­

lu tions. "Fror:i hero stems," VJoeQUo.nn wroto, "tho ovorwholminc

importance of tho ~ or loyo.l ty to tho Imporio.l House , to whir '1

tho ko, primarily intorpro tocl n.s tho piety of children towards

their po.rents , is distinctly subordino.tec1 . 112

1. Nako.muro. , T • . ~fa.po.nos~ History, Tokyo , 1938 .

2 . Woec;rno.nn , op . cit . , p . 5 .

-

-

.. 136 -

Thus was tho conflict botwoon loyo.lty and filial p i e ty

solved with tho stroke of tho historio.nt s pen. Jir.1ll1U Tonno wo.s

r opr oso nto d o.s tho univorsal a. nc os tor from whom tho whol o J apan-

1 oso raco clos conclod. Tho rulinc Emperor is so.id to bo , by virtue

of his c.losc ont from tho Sun Gocldoss ;:i_n d ,Jimr.rn Tonno, "tho fo. th0r

of his country11 in no.r.10 as woll o.s in who.t mi~ht ouphoui rJtico. lly

bo co.llocl f o. ct, ho is tho ultimn. to ob j ect of both loyo.lty o.nd -­,

filial :i.)ioty. 11 Doth chu, ::-i.nc~ ko o.ro ins oparo.b l o , 11 wroto Wooci:10.nn, - -11 chu-lrn and it-chi o;r loyo,lty a.n;:1 filial p ioty aro ono anrl tho

sumo, ho.vo tho sruno :monninG ancl i c1ontico.l objoctivo. 11 2

It was

in this spirit that tho concept of loyalty was r o- dofinocl in

l8'J4 to roa. c1 : 11 Loyo.lty of tho subjocts moo.ns tho r ovoronc o of

tho Imperial Hou.so~ tho lovo of tho country, arnl tho clo volop­

mont of tho 1)owors of tho country /within tho f an1ily / for tho

sako of tho Er.1poror. 113 This dofini tion r o coc nizos tho throo p il"'! ,

lo.rs on which tho Jo.po..nos o supor-stc. to res ts, . but omphasizo s

that loyalty boe;ins a n d onds with tho Emperor. ·'

Tho concept wo..s oven moro forcofully oxpr os socl by HI DINO / -''

Go nor al OKUBO Haruno , l a to c omman da.nt of tho no.co-ya Military

District , submittocl HI DIN0 1 s r.w.nuscript to Gonornl NOGI c..nd ob-

1. Tyj>i.Q.,Q.1 __ 9~ th:h:i bio.socl h i stor ica l prosontation s.ro tho' Nihon • " - ~, ~ . ,,, • ....,\ I

Jic1o. ishi, tho Nihon J::lunlw.shi, a.nc.l tho Sor;o Nihonshi rraiko~, 12 i(J~lurho c;o noro.l hist orios of tho Jo.pa.n os o Er;1piro, put)Iishc"cl in 1911, 1922, an d 1926 r ospo ctivoly. . ., ,. .. ~ _,

1r,r . • t 1 r.:: v~oocino.nn, op . CJ. • , PP • '.t - O e . .

3 • Cf•, Motono; Y • 'l=>ractical t oa chin0 of patriotism, 11 J o.pan ma.c;. 1?10-ll, l! PP • 391-394.

4 . Hil>ino , Y. Nippon Shindo Ro , Cambriclgo , 1928. I

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... 137 ..

to.inod tho c;onopal Is onrlors or.1ont for it. HIBINO sur:rr'.lod up tho

doctrine which was to solvo tho clilor:rr:m of tho 11 c;oocl 11 Jnpo.noso

o.s follows: 11Thoro o.ro no two s opo.ro.to wo.ys of loy2..l ty an.cl f ili­

nl pioty opon to us. For us who uro subjects of this Enpiro

thoro is only ono Wo.y , tho Vfay of Loynlty. /To this po.ssecco

Gonoro.1 NOGI tho r:m:t•cino.1 noto: tTruo , truo, 1/ Wo cultivo.to fi­

lial p i ety fJir:1ply in order to rounc~ out o.n,l enbollish that l o­

yo.lty, not for th1, sn.lco of filio.1 piety itsolf. To cultivo.to a

filial piety of which l oyo.lty is tho central notivo must bo '

our daily 011(:00. voP, 11 o.n f.1.dmoni tion thorouchly 1.1p:j_;rovoc1 by NOGI

in his mn.r0 ina.l pomarks: 11 Aclni:ro.bl o , o.c1nirn.bl o , 11

It is n.ppo.ront , h?wovor , tho.t thoir solution i:J both su­

porficio.1 i:.u1.cl te1-:1.poro.ry • UnrJ.ornoo. th tho conflict cont inuos un­

abo.tod . Two OJisodos mo.y illustro.to how tho historio.n-too.cher ­

policomnn conbino of Jo.panoso political oduco.tion novortholoss

fo. ilocl to inc;rain tho o.rtif icio.l l oynl ty concept in inc"Li vi dun.l

Jo.punoso r.1j_nc1s • In 1 031, o. publi c l)rocura.tor oxm:1lnod o. stuclont

who ho.cl b oon inrlictod on n drur.mod-up chn.rc;o of Coi:u1unisn. Tho

youth ror.mrkod: 11 I cannot un;lorsto.nd why l oyo.l ty o.ncl filial pi -,

oty shoul c.:. be ro spo ctoc.1 , but if you, l!ir . Public Procuro.tor•,

coulu. onlichton mo on tho bo.s ic principl es un ~:.erl yinc; those mor­

o.1 pr·inciplos I shoul c.1 ttu'n a now l oo.f o.t onc o . 11 Tho procuro.tor

could not .

Another younc; Comr:!Unis t oxpl ainod h i s op1:>os i tion to tho

oora.l principl es of tho rocir.io by sayi nc.:;: 11As our pa.rents i:r.rposo

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• 138 •

filial piety upon us for tho - oxpross purpose of protoctinc tho ✓

interests of tho bourc;oois clo..ss to which thoy bolo:1-c, wo must

first of all omo.ncipn to ours ol vos from filio..1 pio t-:r. 11 '1

1ho co­

vornnont official to whon this sto.tomont wo.s mo.uo answoro ·l:

"Your po.rents, I to..ko it, must bo brutosl'' nut tho younc; r.w.n

1)rotos tod: "My po..ronts o.ro not brutes, o.nC:~ it is rudo of you to

so.y so• 11 Tho off icio.l thon romindod tho you.nc r:10.n tha.t his c10 ...

fonso of his parents was nothinc but filial piety, o.nd, in tho

vJOrds of FUJISAW/1. Chilrno1 who rulo.tocl this incidont, "tho youth

wo.s soon convinced that ro.dico.l doctrines hn.vo no plo.co in Jo.• ✓

pun." It mo.y bo sic;nificant, howovor, tho.t tho c;ovorrnnont of­

ficio..l ,vho thus broucht ::tbout tho othico.1 conversion of tho youth

--wo.s tho c;ovornor of n. prison housinc political prisoners. Evon

ho fo..iled to convince tho younc nan that HIDINO wo.s ric;ht when

ho lumped loyalty and filictl pioty toc;othor, or that, in tho

words of FUJISAWA, "love botvrnon sovoroic;n n.nd subject~ anc1 n.f•

fection botwoon pn.ronts anc.1 chilc7.. have o. cor.unon source. 11 '1

1ho dis­

tinction v1as onphasizec.1 by tho c;roo. t Jo.po.neso liboro.l FUKUSAWA

Yukichi whon ho scetthincly o.ttackod who.tho co.lloc.1 11 fouclo..1 lo­

yalty" oven while ho pro..iso (1 filio.l p:i.,oty o.s o. 11 sponto.noous fool•

ing botwoon po.rant anJ child."

i1ocont ovonts , o..rn1 ospocio..lly tho Er:1poror' s porsonn.l rolo '

in them, loncl now impetus to tho basic clilommn, but boforo wo

1 . Fujiso:vva, c. "Japan vorsus Mo..rxism," c.J., l<J32, 1, 3, PP• 1Yi:7-1118.

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.. 139 -

roviow tho influonco of dofoa t on tho c7-ilomm.a of tho II cooc.1 11 Jn.­

panoso, wo ho.vo to oxa.mino two additional Japo.noso virtues so­

ca.llod, both promoted clo.ndostinoly with which loyalty is open­

ly sponsored. Thoso so-co.llod cla.ndostino virtuos o.ro rovonc;o

o.nc.l cruolty.

Wha.t is tho Concept ancl Cult of Rovonr:;o?

Liko tho cloctrino of loyo.lty, tho concopt and cult of ro­

von0o wo.s imported from China. . Tho socond volumo of tho Chinoso

Eook of Ri t~ st ipulo. tos: "With tho slo.yor of o.. fo..thor o. man mo.y ,

not li vo unc1or tho s amo sky, a.co.inst tho slo.yor of a brother o.

mo.n must novor ho.vo to go homo for o. woapon; with tho slo:yor of

a friond o. r;mn may not livo in tho so.mo sto.to . 11 Hovv thorouc;hly

this tonot wo.s a.doptoc1 in Jo.po.n mo.y bo soon in tho vory wordinc;

of ono of 11:0KUG-f~WA I:royasu' s Hundred Articles: "ln Jo.pan thoro

is o.n old so.:,-·T.nc; that tho so.mo hoa.von cannot covo1, o. man o..n .:.1 tho

slo.yor of "L :t:...;3 fathor , or mother, or r.11.1stor , or olclor brothor . 11 ,

In J n.prLn ro vonc;o has its own codo •1

Vonc;oo.nco, c;oinc by

tho no.r.10 of k~~taki-uchi, is c. social custom. 11 rrhoush it wo.s

o.vonc;:tn13 of blood , as it was not mor'O inc1i vi dual rovonc;o fo1• por"'!'

s anal :tn.iur-;/ , it Cloos not ropol our morn.l fo olinc on roadinc o.c -2

counts of it ovon now, 11 wroto SHI OYA So.ko.o • Tho ,fa po.no so rofusocJ.

1., D6..utrom.or, J. 11 Tho vondotta. or local rovongo in Japan," TASJ,,

1~, 1.

2 S k S Ch hi ,., ,. ·· t . m l ' 1° 1 0 •' . u a:o., -. us nsura, nn .c..X1Josi ion, 10:eyo , .-1•.r , pp . 98, in a. oho.ptor ontitloc1 "Tho Coc;,o of Voncoo.nco • 11

91-

-

-

- 110 -

to porcolvo moroly tho nocativo side of rovonco. Thay roco.r c.od

un oxprossion of unselfish c1ovotion o.nc1 uncho.ncinc.; cratituc:o to

fnthor or lord ns tho pos:i, tivo olomonts inherent in rovonco.

In addition to boinc sustainod by lo.wand custom, Lufco.dio

Hearn callod attontion to tho rclicious sicnificanco of tho

Japo.noso vondotta. "Tho ko.to.ki-uchi, 11 lio(:u•n wroto, "wo..s essential · --;- .

ly an act of propitio.tion, as is provod by tho rite with which

it torninn.tod, tho plo.cinc; of tho onomy t s hoad upon tho tomb of

tho person [~ vonc;od, as an offorinc of o.tonernont • As ono of tho

most improssivo features of this rito, o.s formally pro.cticoc1 ,

was tho delivery of on adclross to tho chost of tho person o. ­

vonc~od. Somotinos tho ad.dross was only spoken; sonotimos it vms l

also written, o.nd tho r.10.nuscript loft upon tho tonb ."

~nits present - day intorprotation, rovongo is a borc.1orlino

virtue . It c,ppoars at tho no.rrowost lino of c1or.mrco.tion whoro

tho "c;ooc1 11 Jo.po.nose fo.(los into tho 11 bo.c1 11 Jo.po.noso. As a matter

of fact, it is not tho virtue itself but tho o.ppropriatonoss of

its application which dotorminos whothor tho avoncor is o. cood

or bad Japo.noso. Oishi of tho Loyal Loacuo actod accordinc to

tho rococ;nizoc.1 moral nto..nLlc.rds and is :i.r.1r.1orto.lizod;2

tho Socas

acted in violo.tion of those standards and uro dospisoc1.3

1. Hearn, L. J u.pan , o.n Attompt o..t Intorprotation, Now York, 1907 , PP• 323-325 .

;

2 • .Q.£• Dickins , F.V, Chiushint;urn.; or , tho·Loyo.l Loacuo, u Ja• po..noso nomanco, Yokohctnn. , n.d., PP • 165-172.

.. "' .. ~

3. So..ito, H. Goschichto Japans, Darlin, 1912, PP • 33- 38 ,

-

... 111 -

Althouch not oxplicltly montionod in moral education, to.l a c

of rovonco continua to bo ir.1porto.nt incrodionts of Japanoso his ­

torical t~o.chinc; o.ncl folklore, oxci tine o.c1mirn. tion o.nc:. invi tine

onuln.tion . Most populo.r of tho rovonco to.las is tho story of tho

forty-sovon ronin. 1 When a Japanoso is o.skod touo.y to n~~o tho

outs tunclinc po.rucons of loyalty and rovonco, ho will o.1I10st in­

variably :r.:iontion Oishi an(.:. his follow r onin. Arnl it is truo

that no sinclo inciclont in Jo.pano~o history proviclos o. bettor

opportunity to review tho complex chnra.ctor structure of tho

Japo.noso than tho fa_rjous story of tho Chushin;:,uro.. Those ronin

wore samurai who hac.1 lost their mo.s tor , Asano Taku.ini - no- ICami,

Lorcl of Ako. Thay lxi.nclocl toGothor to avonc;o his cnforcocl sui­

cide o.ncl by so c.1oinc so.crificocl their own lives on tho o.ltc.r of

loyalty. At ioast, such in short is thoir story us it ho.s boon

presented on tho Kabuki s to.co for more than two-hunc:.rod years.

Dut c:.ospito tho psouc1o- moclioval cloner of tho play which lends

a baroq.uo unroali ty to tho incic.ont, tho story is dori vod from o.

truo historica.l opisodo2which is illuninatinc for a study of

tho Jo.pn.noso chn.ro.ctor, as is tho social myth to which it co.vo

riso.3

Only two yoai->s o.ftur Asano • s cloath in 1703 , tho first clra ..

1 . I1odoscln.lo, Lorcl, 11 Tl1.o Foi->ty- Sovon Honins ," in Talcs of Ol cl J~po.n, Lond?n, ~903 ~_PP • 1 - 24 .

2 . Murdoch , op . cit ., volur.io 3 , PP • 218 .. 237 .

3 . For n. comparative cho.ro..ctor study, soo Faraco , L. "Tho story­of tho forty• sovon ronin and tho Jo.po.nose charactor , 11 Wn.shine;ton , 1945 .

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.:. 142 •

P1a.tizo.tion of tho incic.lont o.ppoarod on tho Jnpnnoso staco• Dut

sinco tho GOVorrunont prohibited tho drruno.tizution of contomp•

orury oven.ts ; it was cnnou.f la.co d o.s a. fo.r.10us vondottu ·which had

occurred oo.rlior in Jo.po.nose history . In 1706 tho frunous , 10.y"

·wricht CHIKAMATSU; of ton cn.llod tho Sho.kospoo.ro of Ja~x1n, p1'0 -,

pa.rod a socond dramo.tization., which was soon followocl by in•

nur1oro.blo other dramat:i,c version of l essor morit o.nd c r e:o.to r po-

ot:i.c lic_onso; until in 1740, tho do finitivo version vms propo.rod

by TAlillDA Izur.m; u notod wri tor of puppet plays • It wo.s co.llod

Chushinr;uro. or Storo-IIouso of Loyalty, As time procrossod and

this clrnr.J.atizo.tion was olo.boro.tod upon until it took thirtoon

hours to produco it on tho rcvolvinc sto.co , tho story of tho

forty--sovon ronin boco.:r10 a storohouso indoo<.1. . Innumornblo lo-­

c;onds , not oven ronotoly connoctod with tho Asa.no inci '--lont , o.ro

now stored in it for posterity .

Tho historical version c~ iffors in ulnost ovary dotuil from

that nov. prosontod on tho Kabuki staco o.nd by which tho forty­

sovon ronin o.ro now oxclusi voly rcmo1:1borod. Tho vast naj ori ty

of tho Jo.po.nose co.re little: '-1.b out tho historical fo.cts collect ­

ed by such quasi-objoctivo scholars o.s FU1UJMOT.a .Ni.chintin and

SAKAE .Shio:yu . 1 Thay o.ro not ovon o.wo.ro of tho fa.ct that Asano

ho.c1 ovor throo-hunclrod r o to.:i,nors of whom only forty-s even doome d

it honorable and nocossary to o.vonc;o the ir r,mstor t s c~oath. Thoy

1, Fuk!zji.ota~, N. A R9cor<1 of tho Stirrin13 Enterprise of tho Gon­roku Ero.• (J), Tokyoj 1909,

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• J,13 -

know but llttlo of tho opposing factions, of tho bickorincs over

Aso.no's fortune, of Oishi's oricinal plan to dolay tho vondotta

in tho hope of o. poacoful o.nd profitable sottlomont, and of his

roo.dinoss to abandon it altoBothor. Tho story of tho forty• Rovon

ronin was aoued upon and usod in a cranuioso propacanda offort

to mako poopl0 forcet what Murdoch c.."coscribos o.s "tho croat do ..

basomont of tho moro.1 currency nmonc; tho so.mural class tho.t bo­

co.n in tho roconsy of Sako.i o.ncl culmino.tod unclor 1l1suno.nyoshi in

tho Gonroku and Ho•oi yoa.r ... poriods . 111

Tho influence of tho Chushingura on tho chn.ractor formatio:n

of tho nvoraco Jnpanoso was woll c1.oscribocl by Alcock. "As this

story was rocitocl to mo," ho wroto , 11 I could not help refloctinc;

on what must bo tho influence of such a popular litoro.turo and

history upon tho character as well as tho ho.bits n.nd thouc;hts

of o. nation. When children listen to such frncmonts of their his­

tory or populnr ta.las, o.ncl, o.s thoy r.;row up, hon.r thoir olc.lors ,

prn.iso tho valour and heroism of such servitors, o.nt.1 soo them

co n.t stutocl periods to pay honor to their 0ro.vos centuries o.fto~ ,

tho dooc1--o.ncl such is tho fact, it is q..l.ito obvious that conoro.l

talk o.nd unhositatinc o.pproval of what with us, porho.ps , would

be considorod croat crimes, may ho.vo very subtle o.nd curious

boarinc;s on tho conoral cha.ro.ctor a.ml moral traininc of tho

people. What its oxa.ct influonco may bo wo cannot clotormino , per-,

haps; but that it is doop and all-porvudinc, o.ffoct inG thoir

. ,

1. Murcloch, op.cit., vol.3, P • 218.

- 144 •

conorn.l o s.tirno. to of all c7.oods of liko cho.ractor, who thor it bo

tho slayinc of a rocont, or tho massacre of a foroicn l ocution,

is vary cortn.in o.nd p3:osonts a sto.to of thincs wall worthy of

serious consi doro.tion. 111

Tho c lorifiod virtues of tho forty-sovon wore transplant-

ed .from tho f eudal ora to tho modorn sto.to on tho rovolvinc;

stn.c;o of Japo.noso pol;i,tics: "Tho first patriotic oociotios , 11

wrote Dyas, 11 wor o .forr.1c cl in Fukuoka , a d i s trict swarminc with ,

ronin, clispossosso cl srunurai, unomployocl vmrriors. 113 Ho , too , ro-

latos loyn.lty to rovcnc;o , both of which aro prosorvocl toda.y in

tho patriotic murdor SD,ngs which "cnrriocl ovor into t ho politics

of now Japan the foudnl mo tho c.7..s of tho olcl . 11

Erwin Do..o lz wn.s o.pi)alloc1 o. t tho popularity of r ovonc;o in

tho J apano so Mind: 11 In no civilized country of tho world," ho

v1roto, 11 cl i cl vondotto., which craclua lly dovo l opoc7.. into fou,.:..s of

blind r oyonco, pln.y n. role tho. t woulcl ovon o.pproxima to its rolo

in J o.pan. 113 This dospito tho fact that o.t l eas t twice in J apan­

ese history of tho last ~hroo-hunclrod years , vonJotto. wo.s out­

l o.wod by tho authorities. First in tho so-co.llod Locacy of Iyo­

yasu in tho sovontoonth century, a n d acain in 1873 when o.n In•

l. Alcock , Sir H. Tho Capita.l of tho Tycoon, 2 vols., Now York, 1863 .

2. ' :Jyas, n. -Govorr.;,1ont by Assussino.tion, Now York , 19~?., PP • 1691 227- 228 , 6.s indood -wholo Pn.rt III, "Tho Murc.lor- c.ncl- Hokum S?ciotios," ~JP ! ~63 - 25·1 •

3 . :Bo.olz_,-E .O;E. U6 bor J. io Toc.1osvcro.chtunc; (Lo r Jo.po.n or, stutt ... surt, 1 936 , PP • 7•8•

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porial odict doclarod that 11 honcoforth no ono shall have tho

richt to soak rovon130 or pass judcmont for himsolf, no m:1ttor

who.t tho co.use, and those who follow tho o.nciont custom will bo

punished accordinG to lo.w,"

!3ut ovon whilo tho state thus formo.lly o.bolishocl vcmclotto.,

it o.ctually continued to oncournco it with a. fovorish cult. Amon1

tho officially promoted oxamplos of rovonco o.ro, next to tho Chu .. ,

shinc;ura, now callocl "tho classical prococlont," tho Ic;a vonclotto. ,

closcribocl by Roclcsdo.J.,o in his tro.nslc.tion of "Kazuma.'s Ro vonco;"

tho Ishii-Ako.hori blood foud, and scores of othors r ocordod , in

o.clc1ition to tho thousands which wont unrocordod,

11 Somotimos 1 " wroto Murdoch, "tho rovonco was accomplished

in a fairly fouc;ht duol, sword to sword; somotimos by an runlmsh,

o.ncl not infrequently by what sooms to us aosassino.tion, puro and

simplo 1111 Tho lo.st rocordod co.so of feudal vcndotta occurrocl on

tho vory ovo of tho Moiji Ros torntion, in 1867, whon o. Mito so.­

murai killocl a 80.muro.i bolonc;in~~ to tho Toso. clan, Tho c1ood of

tho avonc;ors from Mito wo..s lauclod in tho officinl cnzotto "ancl

all non praised their conc~uct, 11

Evon in 1937, NOISI-IIKI dofondod tho "moral princirJlos in-,

horont in rovonc;o, 112 0,.n I if sciontific proof wo.s nooclo cl that tho

concept is still vory much a livo in Jo.pan, it vvo.s furnished by

1, Murdoch, op.cit., vol. 3, P• 233.

2. , Noishiki, K, "Die nor.'.'.'.lischo Do ro chtic;un3 clor nacho in Jo.­. pan, 11 Monumonta lUaJonico. 1 1935.

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- 146 •

SUSUKITA (188) who o.ssicnod to tho concopt of rovongo o. hic;h

plo.co in tho c1ovolopmont of foolinc; in tho Jnpo.noso o.n .~ ns a

source of his motivations .

Tho rovon0o motif o..ssumos lX\.rticular importunco in (:ofoa t

situo.tions. Helpless o.nc;or o.nd tho emotional confusion caused

by fo.iluro incroa.sos tho lust for rovonc;o to o. pitch o.t vrhich

tho Jo.panoso froquontl-y con.sos to bo mo.star of his action . All

normal human f'oolincs o.ncl tics o..ro complotoly ovoriric..lclon. rrho

Jo.po.noso mind becomes oxclusivoly ::.lomino..tocl 1Jy v1ha.t it rocarc.1s

ns tho duty of rovonco, o.s compulsive o.s tho ~iri , tho sonso of - ,

ou3ht . In this po.roxisrn of morbid vindictivonoss , tho Jo.panoso

is sirnulto.ncously tho r:1ost dancorous anc.7.. the most ho.rmloss . When

ho cannot clos troy tho cause of his hur.lilia tion, ho usuc:.lly do -

s troys hfr1s olf.

Who. t is tho Japanese Concept o.nc:. Cult of Cruol ty?

V\Jhon blinclod by his rovonc;o fixation , tho Jo.po.noso bocor;:ios

cruel . His o..nbivo.lont so..dism, mixed with olomonts of loyalty

(love) ancl rovonc;o (hate) ha3 but little of tho cliscrirninatinc; .,

nonchalant , almost eloc;o.nt so:tis,fact i on which some Orionto.ls do ­

rivo from o. scientific torture of their oppononts or criminn.ls .

It is a porvorsion in which, whon practiced on o. national sco.lo ,

tho Er.1poror roprosonts tho o'.)joct of lovo • It is somowho.t similar

to what Fraud described o.s tho dostructivo instinct diroctotl out­

wo.rds, thoroby o..cquirinc tho chn.rn.ctor of 9..Ccrossivonoss .

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... 147 -

Gulick, one of tho most bonovolont critics of Japan, c10-

scribod cruelty at soma loncth as a "national chl"lro.ctoristic of

l tho Jo.pn.noso. 11 Tho conoral impression tho Jn.pn.noso usually

convoys to tho casual visitor is that ho is exceptionally hu­

mane . "Dut tho lonGor ono lives in tho country," Gul:i,ck wrote,

"tho moro is ho i:r.1prossoc1 with corto.in aspects of lifo which

soon to ovinco an ossontio.lly u,nsynpathotic n.ml inhunano ,lis­

position.11 Insana persons woro kept in co.cos, lopors wore turned

o..wo.y from tho homo, o.ncl com:;_)ollod to li vo in tho outskirts of

villacos, sick travolors woro often loft to die by tho roadside

from thirst ancl hunc;or. "They will not intorforo to savo a horso

from tho bruto.lity of its c1rivor, 11 wrote tho editor of tho Japan

Ma:ll, "and they will sit calmly in o. jinriksha while its drawer,

with throb:Jinc hon.rt o.ncl strain.inc 1:1usclos , toils up o. stoop

hill."

A moro conspicuous ovidonco of Jo.po.noso cruelty wo.s tho

practice of public torture o.bolishod by la.w only in 1877. "It , ,

was tho theory of Jo.po.nose jurispru,donco, 11 Gulick wrote, "tho.t

no man should be punishocl , oven thouc;h proved cuilty :Jy suf­

ficient oviclonco , until ho hi:r.isolf confosso c~ his cuilt; con­

soquontly, on tho flimsiest ovidonco , and ovon on bnro suspicion,

ho wo.s tortured until the dO'B irod confos s ion was oxtro..ctod . ''

·s<A..'1ADA.:nilm:!at-sl¾ in o. pionoorin13 stucly clovotocl to tho history of

1. Gulick , s .L, Evolution of tho Jo.panoso, a Stucly of thoir Chn.~ ro.ctoristics in Holntion to·tho Principles of Socio.1 8.nd Psychic Dovolopmont, Now York , 1003, PP • l29 .. l 36 .

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so.disra in criminolocy, c1oscribod tho methods by which those con­

fessions vvaro obto.inocl o.ncl by which tho confossoc.1.. crir.1ino.l wo.s

put to don. th. ,1

They woro so cruel tho. t Toku,so.wo. Iyoyo..su saw hi:r.1-

solf conpollod to locislo.to o.~o.inst th.air pro.ctico in 1610, when

ho stipulo. tod tho.. t II crir:1ino.ls o.ro to bo punisholl by :Jrctnclinc;, , ,

or bon.tinG, or tyinc up, o.nd in co.pito.l co.sos, by spoarinc or

doco.pito.tion; but tho ol~ punisb~onts of too.rinc to piocos o.nd

boilinc to cloa.th. o.ro not to be usod • " Althou.::_;h Iyoyo.suts docroo

ondod such pro.cticos o.s, for• oxn.nplo, tho buryinc~ of rota.inors

o.livo in o. sto.ntlinc position nroun~ tho crnvo of their ~opo.rtod

mo.star, much of tho oltl cr~olty survived in tho troa.tmont of

cr:ir ino.1s, inclul.Unc victir.1s of poli tico.l o.nd roli.~ious porso~

cution. Townsand Harris witnoss a crucification noro tho.n two­

hunc1rocl years o.ftor Iycyo.su' s clonth o.n!1. clos cI•i boc1 it o.s follows:

11 Tho crir.1:i,no.l is ti ,Jcl to o. cross with his arms o.nc1 loGS

strotchod apart o.s wi ,lo cuJ ;Jos siblo; then a spoo.r- is thrust

throuch tho body, ontorinc just unrlor tho bottor.1 of tho shoulder

blo.do on tho loft sido, ctnd comin0 out on the richt si ,.": o, just

by tho n.rmpit. Another is then thrust throuc;h in a similr.'..r mo.n­

nor from the ric;ht to tho loft si,lo , Tho oxocutionor ondoo.vors

to n.voic.l tho hoo.rt in this op oration , Tho spoo.rs r..ro thrust '

throuc;h in this mannor until tho crinino..l ox1)iros , but his suf­

forinGS o.ro prolon0ocl as r:mch o.s po3 siblo. Shina.no tol e: mo that

1 , Snwaclo. , '.. iJ·, History of A~)norr.1al Punishnont , (J) , Tokyo , 1926 11

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a few yoars nco a very stronc man lived until tho olovonth spear

had boon thrust throuf.sh him . 111 This was tho manner in which tho

majority of Japan's Christian martyrs onc.1od their livos, whil o

othors wore torn to piocos or boiled to doath .2

Althouch Gulick re ported in 1905 that noarl y all forms of

o.ctivo cruelty had c.isappoo.rocl fror.1 Jo.pan, ho o.cldod tho..t tho

amount of active sympo.thy which hac.1 boon dovolopod wo.s snnll as

cor:1po.rod to other ci v ili zod lane.ls• Whatovor sympnthy v1as c7.o ­

volopod in ovorydo.y pursuits , it was abarn2.onocl in tines of war

whon cruelty was practiced 80th by croups anc'L by inc1i vic1uo.ls on

on institutiono.lizod basis , terror boinc part of Japan's tc.ctic -­

o.l , and ovon strato~ic concept . Tho men who holct out on ~ataan

and on Corrocidor , in Nalo.yn. and Durma sufforoc1 tho r:1ost vicious

cruelties at JEwanoso hands , cincc their proloncod resistance

3 ho.cl to bo avoncod . Sano of those atrocities woro inspired frorn

abovo , by Genorn.l HOMMA , for oxampl o , who ro carcloc1 tho prol!!i ..

tro.ction of tho Philippine cCc1:1paign o.s Cc personal loss of face.

Most of them, however, wore spontaneous but conditioned rospons­

os of subalterns to thoir tr[lininc o.ncl indoctrination in which

tho conco pt and cult of cruelty plCcy o. pr or:1inent role• This ox­

pl ains tho c;roat nU1:1ber of onli stod r.10n on tho list of J::i.pa.noso

1. H:..:.rris , T • Tho Col11iJloto Jour,nal of Townsend Harris . Now York, 1930.

2 . Dolpl a c o , L. Lo Catholi ciarne ~u Jo.pan , vol. 2, ltEro dos Mn.rt-yrs 1593-.1660, Drussols , 1 910.

.. • • ,I •

3 . Dyoss , w. E . and Loo.vollo, c. Tho Dyess Story, Now York , 1 944;

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war criminals o.ccusod of cruelties to our mon in tho various

thoo.tors of tho Pacific vmr. '· Tho Japanoso in China or on 00.taan

patt erne d their action afto r historical- examples of cruelty

they l earned ~urine their so-called moral o~ucution. For ouch

inci r1ont tho Japo.noso soldier had a historical pro c o rl ont and ecn

overall moral justification. ·

Cruelty is tho dor-1:Lnant olo.r.iont in so.r.1O of tho r1ost noble

t o.l as of Jo.pane so moral oclucation.· Tho story of Gonzo., for ox-·

ar:tp1.o, is tho solo oxampl o citod by NI TODE to illustro.to tho con•

copt of loyalty within P.._ushiclo.1

Tho incido nt has boon clro.mat iz o(~

o.n cl tho pl ay c 1_:. J..lod Tho Villaco School i s a.monc tho most :)opular

in Japan. A mo.n nnmod r:Ic,tsuomal"'U is sont by tho authorit i es to

mo..ko s uro tho. t a certo.in youns lor c1 , · the l ns t li vine no1:1bor of

n pars ocutocl f o.1:1ily., is put to doo. th,· r!b. tsum~mru, a forr:ior vo..s • ,

so.l of tho lor cl whoso family is thus oxtorninatod, cannot boar

tho thoucht. So ho makes arr o.nE:;omont s to soncl h is ovvn. son to tho

villa.so school whoro tho youns lor d i s h i ding on tho undo r Dto.nd•

inc tho.this own son i s to to.ko tho pl o. co of' tho J ounc l ord .

Tho play shows tho oxacution in a ll -it s cru osomo ~ota ils~

A smo.11 h oo.d is brou cht on tho s t aco in tho far.Jilio.r rr hoo.d• box 11

o.ncl ho.nclod to Mo. tsuomo.ru.· Tho officio.ls who accompo.ny hin1 to tho

sc~ool watch him clos oly, oinco ho is himself suspected of l oyal­

ty-, This scone calls for f ino actinc.·· 'rho struc;.::;lo botwoon loyo.l ...

le Nitobo i I~ Dushi do ; ~p ~ 7 6-79,

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- 151 -

ty to his former lorcl o.ncl tho foolint:ss of tho father must be mir­

rored in Mo.tsuomo.ruts faco, to clolicht his auclionco. Now tho box

is oponod n.ncl a child's hoo.d displo.yod, still drippinc with blooc

No. tsuomaru cnzos at tho lifoloss hoo.d with ompty oyos. It is tho

head of his own child. Thora is roliof in his voico when ho says:

11Yos it is tho hoad--of tho younc lorcU 11

NITODE in tollinG tho historical prototype of this story

sonsod tho abhorronco with which tho Wostorn mind porcoivcs such

an example of loyalty. Ho triod to rationalize away tho olcmonts

of cruelty in tho talc ancl place particular stross on tho olo­

monts of loyalty in it• 11 'I1his child was conscious ancl tho wil­

lin0 victim: it is a story of vicarious doo.th--as si~nificn.nt

as, n.nd not r.1oro rovoltinc than, tho story of Abrahan's intend­

ed sac1~ifico of Isn.ac, 11 ho wrote. 11 In both co.sos it was oboclionc,

to tho call of duty, uttor submission to tho command of a hiGhor

voice, whothor c;ivon by o. visible or o.n invisible an[jol, or hoar,

by an outward or o.n inward oo.r . 11

Tho comparison is of some sicnifico.nco. Tho Japanoso, brod

on traditions like that of lVIatsuomo.ru, is over roo.dy to perform

oven tho most so.vac;o c..cts of cruelty when so orclorocl "by a hic;h­

or voico, 11 - ... which may be that of his platoon load.or, division

co:r.nnandor, civilian superior, or shoor ho.llud.nation. Inclood,

such hichor voicos o.ro planted in him by his moral education.

VJhon ho boliovos to hoar such a voico, ho will novor por:nit hu­

mQn foolinGs or reason to interfere with obo dionco. If ho still

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... 152 •

noods oncouro.cornont or justification for his act, ho cots thorn

wholoso.lo fpom ,Jo.po.nose historr• Ho is so.tisfiod tho.t his act

vms bo cominc; a II e:;ood 11 Jap.:J.nos o •

Tho moral education produces a man of many contPo.dictory

virtuos, capo.blo ?f combininc; oxtro.orclino.ry nobility with in­

ordinuto basonoss. Tho demands his indoctrination places on tho

indi vicluo.l o.ro so ovorwholl:iinc tha.t ovon tho bast man of ton

finds it c.ii'ficult to boo. "i:;ood 11 Japo.noso.

How doos Dofoat !i.ffoct tho 11 Good 11 Jni)o.noso?

As a. result of our decision to pormit tho Emperor to ro­

mo.in on tho thr•ono, c1ofoo. t 1:10.c.7.o no ins ti tut iono..l chnnc;o in tho

rolo.~ionship botvrnon tho I1:1poriol house o..n.l tho Jo.panoso sub­

joct. Since tho chief criterion of tho "Gooc1 11 Jo..panoso is loyal­

ty to tho Enporor, tho a vornco mun of Jnpa.n r.10.y continua to bo ,

"c;ood" if ho so dosiros, clos~_1i to th? prosonco o.ncl do facto ovor ­

lordship of tho occupyinc; o.uthoPity. Thereby wo a.po, for tho

tine boinG, postponing a sho'l/vc1own, OV8.c.1inr; rather thc.n disro-. ,

co.reline; tho crucial is sue• Our o.r1'i val in Jo.pan c:id not , o.~ was

oxpoctod by :rno.ny, solve tho dilonn:no. of tho 11 goocl 11 Jo.panoso.

Tho dor:10crntization of Jap8.n 1:mst by nocossity bo a slow

process , initiated by tho Jnpo.noso thonsolvos unclor proper cuid­

o..nco nnd supervision, founded on convincinc and o.ccoptnblo o.rc;u­

monts. It must bocin o.t tho top, if possiblo with tho dornoc­

ro.tiza.tion of tho Imporio.l institution, o.nd than continuo,with

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... 153 ....

tho promotion _of tho clomocro..tic olomonts inherent in other Japo..n­

oso institutions. While wo muy show tho wo.y and provide incent­

ives , it shoulc1. bo loft to tho Jo.panoso th.omsolvos both to ini­

tio.to tho prococ1uro ancl execute it. in their own way.

vfo woul cl do best to emphasize tho rural fo.nily system in

tho porioc1 of transition, chiefly boco.uso tho pocuJ.iar social

and o canonic problems of c.lofou t co.n bost be sol vocl within tho

village o.nd tho fanily, and because in Japanoso history., rural

communi tics showed cons i c1. orablo clornocrat ic tondoncios • 1 "Tho

chiof bo.sis for tho hope that, unc1.or favorable conditions, Japan

can ovolvo into o. dornocratic and co-oporntivo society lies in J

0 ,~ tho conto:mporury villa.co orco..nizo.tion," Goror wrote ; Tho autho -

ri to.Pian hiorctrchy of tho rulinc clo..ssos of which tho 1:1ic.lc1lo

clas sos wore lo. toly c:.ominant ro coc;nizod tho inherent s troncth

of tho villnc;o orco.nizo.tion but J oliboratoly obscured its do ­

uocrn tic foo. turos • Othor fa vo:r•alJlo D.spo ct s of tho Japo.noso s ocin

scone which woul .J o.pponr to nood no intorforonco aro tho very

r ospo cto.blo tradition of tho creator part of tho judiciary, o.nd

a groat cloo.1 of tho hic;hor oducn. tion.

Of tho 11 sovon c l ornonts of' Ja.po.noso stronc;th" listed by a ,

nativo ~uthority, 3 tho militQry power of Japan, and her Groator

1. Asnlmwo., K. 11 Sorno of tho contributions of foudo.l Japan to tho now Jn.po.:r:i," Journal.2.f_Haco Dovolopn,, 1012-13, 3, pp ,1-32.

2. Goror, G. "Tho spacial en.so of Jo.pan, 11 Pul lie 01Jinion Qu., 1?43, ~jp • 567-582,

3, Workinc; tho Miracle of tho Twontioth Century, Tokyo, 1939,

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Eo.st Asia ·propo.c;o.ncla no lonc;or oxist. Dut fi vo olomonts continue

to lend stronc;th to tho "cood 11 Ja.panoso ovon in dofout. 1rhoy o.ro

hor t1omoc;raphic stroncth, tho homoc;onoity of tho raco, tho fo.-

1~ily system, tho Imporio.l throne , a.nd tho so-ca.llod II Jo.po.no so

spirit" or national noralo, roinforcocl by Shintoimn, Zon-Ducldh-, ,

ism, tho Confucian 0-Yomoi, and tho ploboian Shiinc;o.ku, tho la.t­

tor too.chine tho vonora.tion of tho virtuos inhoront in tho foro­

coinc olomonts of national strorigth.

Ja1x1n' s spiritual s itua. tion toc1..a.y roso1~blo s that of Judon.

at tho tino of th0 Romans, a.nll moro than rosomblos, in fact, it

a.ctu.ully duplicates it. Titus was tryinc to rocluco tho fortress

of Jorusalom vd th no apparent success whon Rabbi Johano.n bon Zac­

co.i o.ppoarod a.this hoaclquartors. Ho was loador of tho poaco­

pCLrty a.ncl finding that tho Zoulots woro rosolvocl on curryinc on

tho wo..r to tho bi ttcr onc1, ho.cl himsolf sr.mc;c;locl to Titus in o..

coffin. Ho wa.s willinc; to surrondor tho city in return for per­

mission to found a collogo whcro tho Jewish rolic;ion could bo

prosorvocl. John.nan consoled his Jisciplos on tho fall of tho

Temple by tho thoucht that charity could roplo.co sacrifice and

tho. t a lifo c1ovotod to tho rolicious law could form a fi ttinc

continuation of tho old theocratic state. "John.nan felt tho fall

of his pooplo moro clooply than anyone olso , 11 :Go.char wrote, "but

--and in this lios his histo1,ical importanco--ho dic1. moro tha.n

any ono also to propo..ro tho way for Isro.ol to riso o..cain. 111

1 • .Q.£, Do.char , Dio Acacla dor To..nno.iiton, vol. 1, chapter III,

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.- 155 -

All tho i1orn:m hoots v1hom Titus loft bohind in Juclon. fo.ilod

to provont Joho.nan ' s colleco at Jobnn.h fro:r::i por po tun.tinc; tho

synbolism o.ncl i clooloc icn.l va.lues of Juda ism. It 1:10.y bo that Jo. ­

:)un re:r::iomborod John.nun bon Zaccn.i ts oxn.:r;1plo v1hon sho doc i cl.ocl to

abandon tho :r::ioo.ns of hor rno.toria. l stroncth and propnro tho wny

for J o.;:Jo.n to riso o.cn.in by concontro.tinc on her spiritual

stroncth. Thora is thus u lesson for us, ~oo, in tho oxrunpl o

of Joho.no.n bon Zo.ccai ' s ancient o.dvonturo •

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.. 15G ..

IV• SOME CHl.1.Tiii.C'l1Eil 'filAITS OF THE 11 REAL 11 JAPANESE

Fo.r diffor0nt from tho idoo.lizod cha.ro.ctor typo of tho

11 r;ooc1 11 Jo.po.noso, tho "ron.1 11 Japo.neso combines in himself o..n

equal rn.1mbor of pos iti vo ancl noc;a ti vo character traits.

What Ovoro.11 Traits wor•o Found in tho Jo.panoso Charo.ctor by

Western Obsorvors?

Tho most concis o co. tllloc;uo of' thos o ovornll cha.ro.ctor-

is tics and l)roba.bly tho most so.tisfo.ctiry wo.s drawn up by Cho.m-,

borla.in who listocl cloa.nlinoss, kincllinoss, o.nd a rofinocl artist

ic tusto on tho credit, a.nd va.nity, unbusinossliko ho.bits, and

an incapa.city fo1, o.pprociatinc abstract idoas on tho debit sido.

His list was basod on tho chnractor o.nalysos. of scores of Wost­

orn stuclonts whoso opin:tons Chn.,,,.nborlain stucliod and collatocl.

Arnone; tho 00.1,lios t o. ttompts to ass os s tho Jo.pa.nos o cho.ro.c­

tor wcro thoso of' Will Adetrns, Enc olbort Ko.ompfor, o..nc1, somewhat

lator von Siobold. Their observations ho.vo loot none of thoir

topical validity and thoy may bo studiod profitably ovon today~

According to them, tho sixtoonth-oic;htoonth contury JQpanoso wa.s

o.rn..1 wo r.my add, to a. certain oxtont hi:J prosont--day dosconda.nt

still in, coui•toous, vo.lori!ll.ln_, subservient, bold, heroic, ro-,

vongoful, o.mbitious, int·~ustrious, of c;oocl mannors, hardy, cloan _________ ,,_,,___..,.... _____________________ _ 1. Chamberlain, op.cit., p. 262.

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o.nc1 neat , lnconious but unoricino.1 , unscientific, non- sJoculo.t ­

ivo , 1mntinc in no.thenatico.1 a.ptituclo , o.nd superstitious . Ho had

a. passion for lo.ws o.nc.1 roculo.tions , o.nc.1 wo.s punctilious in a.bid­

inG by tho1:1 . Most of those traits woro a l so nontionod in Com­

mo~oro Perry ' s report to tho Secretary of tho No.vy upon his re ­

turn from his fn.r.10us nission to Yodo , o.s incloec1 , tho.t no.val of­

ficer provod a koon and intollicont obsorvor . 1

Who. t vms probably tho first moclorn s ciontific analysis of

tho Jo.po.nose cho.ro.ctcn• structure was mo.do by Doninc; in 1890 . His

findinc;s wore incorporo.tocl in o. po.per which ho roo.cl to tho Asi ­

atic Society o~ Jt1..pan on 1ifov01:1bor l 2 of that yoo.r , o.nc1 wore pub-o

lishod in 1891 . "' His roo.sons for 11 dro:winc tho o.ttontien of this

Society to tho subject" t1r0 still ronarko.bly vo. l ic1 : "Those pro­

minent r:-ionto.l charo.ctoristics , 11 ho so.ic.1 , 11 will ox0rciso no smo.11

infl uonco :ln moulc:.inc tho o vents of tho next few yoo.rs • Monto.l

habits o.nd projudice that ho.vo to.ken acos to form 0,.ro not to bo

roo tod out in one or two conoro. tions •· No amount of 1)0:i_)Ul o.r re ­

pro sonto. tion and po.r l iar,1onto.ry covornr.10nt wil l p1•ovont th? Ja­

pn.nose .fror.1 acting o.s thoir no.tiono. l procl ivit i es cacto.to . 11

DoninG listed four tro.its us basic to tho Jo.po.nose cho.-, ,

ructor , namely, precocity loo.dine to ovorboo.rinc and conceit , ,

unpro.ctico.lity, levity, and fickl eness , Althoush those traits

1 . Commodore Perry- in Japo.n, -o. Government No.rro.tivo of tho u.s . E~_;:pedi tion_ to. Jo.1)0.n, Now York , 1857 .

2 • 1'.)01iing , W • 11 ?/Ionto.l cha.racteris tics of tho Jo.po.nose , 11 TAS J , 1891, l O, PP • 17• 36 .

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nro pr•oclomino.ntly noco.tive, thoy clo dovo lop n. fow subsidiary

traits on tho positive siclo . Thus unpro.cticality, which is tho

source of o. number of neco.tivo subsidio..ry tro.its, is so.ic~ by

Donins to dovolop o. koon sonso of honor, c;onorosity , unsolfish­

noss , n.nc n. tn.sto for sD11plicity in livin0 • Levity, which loo.ds

to fn.talis1:i o.nd scopticisr.1 on tho noco.tivo sido, ctlso clovolops

n calr:moss nnd a.n oqun.ni nity vrhich facilitn.to tho on\.1.uro.nco of

hardships a.nd shocks .

Drinkley, who mo.do his cho.ro.ctor analysis n.t around tho

so.no time, ~ound pos itive tra.its pr odominntinc in tho Japn.noso

porsono. lity, They wore fruGnlity, obodionco, a ltruism, a conius ,

for dotnil, . in o.ddition to tho provorbio.l sorono im.porturbn.bi-

1 lity and stoic onduranco 0

Most of thos o cho.ro.ctor traits wore ru i torD.. tod by r.1oro mo­

clorn wri tors, as , for oxar:iplo , by Holtor:1 who wrote in 1942: 11 A

conoral list of thoso /primo.1°y nn.tion.al psycholocico.l qu1litios/

that o.po onpho..s izo c1 in prosunt - do.y cliscussions would hn.vo to

include o. unique loyalty n.ncl pntriotism, a spocio.l ondowmont of

assiniln.tivo powor which cn.n to.kc in tho bo[1t of foroicn culturo

o.nQ yot remain forovor Jo.po.nose, unusual powers of or3nnizntion,

o.n unrivo.lod co.po.city for oxpo.nsion and o.chiovomont, rovoronco ,

for o.ncostors, and roGurc1 for fan:lly no.mo, a this-worldy o.ncl pro.

tica.l na turo, love of no.turrtl boo.uty , o.n artistic and rofinocl

l. Drinkl ey, F . 11 Japan II in Enc 1 Jrit., 11th oc1., 1911, undor " Morn.l cho.ro.otoristics,fr PP • 165,....167,

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• 150 -

skill ( po.rticulo.rly no.nuo.l skill), co.nc1or o.nc1 opon-hoartodnos s,

optinisn, unique roca.r c"1.. for purity . anc7.. cloanlinos s, 1Jro;_--Jrioty ; ,

an~ orderliness , and, finally, G c entle o.nJ forboarinc ~isJO•

8i tion. 111This, inc7..oo c7.. , 8001:18 to bo o. nost ol.J jo cti vo o.nc7.. unc.1oubt­

oc.1ly truthful 1)icturo c7..rn:vm of tho Japo.noso character structure • .

Thos o -vrho r oac.1 Holton t 8 bli8 tor inc I.iodorn Japo.n and Shinto Na­

tionali8n, ·will certainly a c.7.r.1iro hin for tho objoctivi ty which

ho succoo c7..o c7.. in prosorvinc o..nc1 ox1)rossinc in tho face of Ja:;xm­

oso 1Jrovocations in tho 1Jolitico.l fiel '-7.. which ho so convincinc­

ly doscribos .

His analysis is tho exception to tho rule today . Tho ob­

jectivity of nost noc7..orn writers v:a.s ofton clow1oc1 by their abi­

lity to forosoo tho coo..l toward which Ja1)o.n as a no.tion ro.thor

than tho Jo.panoso woro ;r,elontlossly novinc.; • . Typical in this pro-

11hetic but sonowhat sul1joctivo co.tec;ory was Taic7.. OtConroy whoso

Ueno.co of Jo.pan is probably tho nost bi ttor anc1 oloCJ11...; nt indict-2

n c.mt of any nation over writtono IIowover, books of which his

volur10 is n roprosontativo oxan1Jlo succeodo c.1 in analyzinc tho

Ja.1Janoso charo.ctor only in 1)c.rt . li.s o.n o.1Jpo.ront reaction to tho

Jo.1x:i.noso othnocontr isn , the y stress only tho no r;ativo cho.ractor ; ,

tro.its of tho Jr.panoso, often, as in tho cnso of OtConroy, to

tho conploto exclusion of tho positive onos~

1. nolto:r.i, D. C~ I~o -.1orn Japan an,1 Shinto Nntiono.lisn , Chien.co , l?-~3, PP• 15-16!

2 . · OfConroy, T. Tho :runo.co of Ja1)an, How York, 193~, 1JP • 26--:a." 11.lso·soo Upton · c1oso· (lJsoud •. )- ;::;ohinr:1 tho Fo.co of Japc.n, Now York , 1CJ12, PlJ • 7-15, l22-l3l, - nnc.1 po.rt III, PP• · 287-~18.

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In OfConroyt s Oj)inion,. .. Jo.pa.nose r:1onto.lity is tho.t 11 of o.

prinitive tribe tho.t ho.s 1Joen tro.inecl in rrioc1.orn wo.rfo.re, _tho.t

ho.s ha.cl tho results of n rJostorn rriechanlco.l civilization

thrust suc1.c1only Uj_Jon ·then.11 Ire listo c1. na.tionc.1 conceit, u sonso

of po.triotio -,1.uty throu~; h c.:.ivine oric in, __ blinc:. loya.lty, cruelty, ,

static consorvo.tivisn, . nrt'ifioio.1 restro.int in conc:.uct, ir:Jit""

c.tivoness without o.c:.o.pta.bility, o.n ino.b ility to r oo.son or think_,

o.nc1. o. r.ionacinc le.ck in thoir sonso of hunor. Ho quo.lifioc:. ob•

sorvor -vd.ll c:.ony tha. t all those incro ·:.ionts co.n, inc:.ooc1.1 bo

founc:. in tho Jo..j_Jo.noso r.10ntality,_ l)ut they vlil;I.. ll.lso o.c.ld that

sor.1O of thor1 at least o.ro no ,1.ifioc.l or c1.ilutoc:. by thoso more po~

sitivo tro.its which i:Iolton founc.1. in tho cho.ro.cto1"' structure of

tho Jo.po.nose,.

In rocont yon.rs, howovor, nost analyses on1Jhnsizoc1. nccros­

sivonoss as a tro.it as donino.nt in tho cho.ro.ctor structure of

tho "roo.1 11 Jo.po.nos o o.s loyo.l ty is s o.ic1. to bo in tho r:Jonto.li ty

of tho "coo c:. ;1 Jo.:xmoso.

i7ho.t o.ro tho roll.sons ini)O llinc tho Jo.1Jo.noso towo.r c:. J~.:::;crossion?

,

irn c~o.rdinc tho CQUSO s of 0..0 ::ros s ion, Goror1 f ounc1. fi vo (o ..

1:1ino.nt psycholo~~ico.l roo.sons which soon to c:.rivo tho Jo.i-:Jo.noso,

not only to o._:::rossion, '.Jut ll.lso to o.~:c.;rossivo wars,. rlho. t lUTO­

:J~ co.lloc:. tho incro.ino c1. J8.po..nos o hostility to s tr8.ncors wo.s list•

i.. Goror-, G .• 11 Jo.1Janoso cho.ractor structure n.nc.1. lJrOj_Jo.co.nc1a," Now York; 10-:2 (l)ri vntoly publ:i,shoc1. by tho Council on IIumnn 1(0-

ln. tions .) •

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od by Gorcr in first plo.co, l oo.c1..inc to o. motif which 0.1)j_)OD.rs to

bo shared by nearly ovary Jo..1)o.noso, nar.10ly o.n urc:o to control

tho onvironr.1ont.

11 0vdnc; to tho notho ... :s by rvhich, and tho society in which,

tho Jo.1)anoso aro brow:ht up, no Ja.po.noso can foul safe on.l so ...

curo unless tho wholo onvironnont is un :ors too cl anc"~ o.s f o.r as

1)ossiblo controlled. Tho un-controllo c~ and unknown n.ro danr__;orous

ancl fri c;htoninc; fron tho small chil c:. who risks dro.stic punish­

mo:1t if ho (1..oo s not know whore tho house joints aro to tho noble­

man who risks shn.no n.ncl onburras smont if ho :.oos not know tho

exact rank, o.c:o anc1 fanily of a now o.cqua.intanco , tho unknown

and uncontrolled is always oquutoc1 with tho llancor of mockery

from others anc: punishr.1ont by one's own rroup • 11

11 Two consistent ancl only apparently contro.c:ictory tronc:s

co.n bo soon runninc throu. ;h tho wholo of Jaj_)anoso history; those

o.ro tho n.tton:)t to loc;islc.to a.::.;ainst all chan::;o, so that tho

whole social onvirorunont is controllocl; c.nrl soconclly , tho unf or­

nuln. to cl boliof tho.t sono non-Jnj_)a.noso society has o. loss 0 1)1)ross ­

ivo solution for socio.1 ro r._:ulntion o.nc.: .. an o.ttor.1pt to im1Joso that

scheme on tho whole of J a.panoso socioty throu0h ninuto loc is-

lo. tion • •. Dur inc tho i)orio,l of exclusion, ovorythinc outs ic1o

Ja1xi.n wo.s specifically rococnizod as dancorous because unknown.

Uith tho reversal of policy sinco 1867 tb!t r1ancor of tho uncon­

trollo~ outsi~o worl~ ho.snot ~irninishod ; but tho Jolicy of do­

minance has ro:)lo.co c1 tho policy of with 1..rawo.l. It is a rococ nizocl

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principlo of psycholo:_;y tho. t un orGo..nisn fa.cod with a frichton­

inc objoct will respond with oithor withc:.ravml or ntt:J.ck . 11

A so cone:. alr:1ost uni vorsul r:1otif woulc.:. Ui)i)oo.r to bo tho vary

stronc closirc to ostublish their own position, both in tho oyos ,

of their own croup, and in tho oyos of outsh1..crs., whnt NITOD0

c7..oscriboc1 us conooit on tho lovol of tho n..'ltion anll tho indi­

vicluD.l, anc7.. what OTSUKI · (1?·1) attributoc:. too. Jupo..noso conpon,­

so.tory superiority con~lox.

A thirc.:. motif of sono inporto.nco., thouc;h loss conscious

uncl loss conorul_ than tho first two, is o. subconscious Jo.po.nose

drive away from tho roprossivo rules of oticµ.:itto or, in tho

words of Goror, 11 to osco.po physically fror.1 what o.ro felt to bo

restrictions of livinc in J~anoso society, untlor tho vary ola­

boro.to nncl formal rulos, and ?-lways subjoct to criticism. 11

Tho fourth drivo is what Gorcr culls displo.cod a c..;~rossion,

11 tho possibility of obtaininc in warfnro or in foroiGn countries

tho richt to ox:;_)ross ac..;c;rossion. If thi,s hy1Jothosis of c:.isplacod

uccrossion is true, it woulc: nako Ur\clorsto.nclablo tho oxcossivo

cruelty of tho Japanos o in China and othor concn-,.o;r,oc1 lan<..ls .,

which has boon so woll clocumontos:. ; anc:. ospociully tho provo.lonco

of ro.po by tho Japanoso solc:.;iory. 11

Fino.lly in fifth place Goror listo cl tho fr.ct that warfo.ro

is rocarc:.od as honorable by tho Jnpanoso: 11 ':-Jo.r fo.ro c;i vos to tho

Jo.panoso sol~:.ior tho croo.tost possibility of a..chiovinc :)rostico. !'

This Jo.po.noso nttituc:.o townrd n ccrossion soons to bo in

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·i-rho.t o.ro tho Cc.usos unc1. Porns of i'.ccrossion?

Fron whn t hns boon s c.ic1.. boforo it no.y bo oc.s ily ·7.. is c ornod

thn t Jnpnnoso accrossion is whn t Prouc1. cnlloc1.. o. prir.iorc1..ic.l ro-

0,ction to frustro.tion, ovon thou::h othor co.uses 1:my also con-,

tributo to its dovolopnont , just o.s frustration, too, hc.s othor

consoquoncos tho.n o.ccrossion. Provo.lent nnxioty nourosos co ­

scriboc1 by ~Ii.Yl.ZLK.f. (36) in c. sorios of stu '.7..ios , c1oopon· ns woll

o.s woll o.s co.us o o.:::;cros sion, as shown by Co.nnon who c7..01:10ns trn. t-

od

o.ro

tho. t tho known 1Jhysiol?c:ico.l coi:1pononts of nn.=_;or nnc.i_ foc.r

prnctico.lly i~onticn.i.1

LVory ono of tho ol ononts listoc1 by Dollo.rc o.nc his o.sso -

cintos o.nonc tho co.usos of tho frustro.tion-o.c;c;rcssion complex

in Uostorn soc;Lctios coulc7.. bo a.pplicc1. to tho Jc.panoso inc7.. ivic1unl

o.nc1.. c;rou~J . 2 Ins oft1r ns tho II so cit1lizn tion of chilc7..ron11 is 00:e:­

cornoc.1, tho cnore:;o tic of fort to tuJ;>n tho chil ':. into n II c;oo'.7.. Jo.­

po.nos o II co.uses nt loo.st tho sfil'.lo c1..ocroo of frustration in tho

Jo.pa.nope chilc1 as tho oc:.ucntion of c7..onocrntic, fo.scist c.nc1.. com­

munist chil 7..ron "to b~cono , rcs1Joctivcly, coo .1.. c7..onocra,ts , fas ..

cists, t1nc1.. coru:mnists •" Tho ro-socinlizo.tion of tho nc1..ult is :Jur­

suoc1 in Jn1x :m with creator vicour tho.n o.nywhor o olso oxcopt tho

Soviet Union. It moots with l ess rosisto.nco tho.n in ·.-rostorn

1. Cf . Cannon; ~"l . :J .' iJ oclily Cho.ncos in j?ain, IIuncor , Four nnd i1nco;-1Tow York, 1829, for conj_X1.ro.tivo c7..o. tn,

., .I ~ .. .. • ,,, ., • ., ., .. .,

a. Dolltwc .. , Ju Doob , L.n., IIillor , l'T41 L., Uowr or; o.n., a,rn1 Seo.rs ; ~l ei1 . Frustro.t ion nnc:. J.c::.;rossion, Now IIo.von, ;L <J38 , PP • 75-87 •

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countries, 1Jrobably boccmso of tho conplo tonos s with which tho

Jn.pnnoso sucooc1 in tho socialization of their chil :.ron.

Tho stroncly felt and dooply rosontod racial proju~ico,

accontun tad by various foroicn r.1ovos of which tho l..r.1orican Ex­

clusion Act of 1024 may bo cited ns tho bluntest oxm~lo, con­

tribute a. najor sha~o. In reality, this is o. projoctoc.1 rn.thor

them o. ronl co.use, built up by tho Jnpanoso thonsolvos to a far

creator clo~roo than our own a.ttituc:.os town.re:. thon woul 1. :. justify.

Evor since tho ro-oponinc of Jo.pan in 1053, 'Jos torn povrors wont

out of thoir vmy to o.ccomoc"'.n. to o.nc7.. plo.co.to tho Jn.:x1n. Ja1nmoso ,

frustro. tion, hovrnvor, wo.s fur thor incron.s od :Jy tho roo.c:.ino s s

with which foroicn povrnrs o.ccooc:.ocl to hor c:.os iros n.nc.:. c:.ono.nc1s.

Tho fact tho.t sho wo.s c"!.oponc:.ont on .i'inorican scrap iron, that

sho nooclod ~ritish help for tho buil~inc of hor float, tho.t sho

ho.cl to roly on tho o.ic.:. of foroicn dosicnors in tho c:.o vololJnont

of hor in2ustrios an( socio.l institutions, accrovatoc1 rather

than c;ratifiod hor basic frustro.tion.1

Every sinclo no.chino in

11 Jo.po.nose factory which boo.rs tho inprint of o. foro:i,cn rmnu,­

facturor servos o.s o. frustration stinulus.

Tho Jn.1)n.nos o is oi thor unwillinc or not por1:1i tto c.:. to iden­

tify tho true sources of his frustration. If tho problon wore

o.~,:woo.chod with ob jocti vi ty, thoy woul,~ unc:.oubtodly ::. is covor that

their nn.tionn.l frustro. tion vms and still is cn.usoc.1 by the ir own

1, For o. collection of Jnix1.noso st[l.tononts rovociJ,j;..':lC in• foriority foolinc nn1 f1°ustra.tion, soo 'rolischus , o. D. 'fhrouc;h Jrqn.nosa Eyes , Now York, 10-~5, osj_)ocially PP • 10-21., 55 ... 61 •

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loo.dors whoso consorvo.tivisn first conplotoly isolo.toc1 tho lnnd

fron foroicn influonco s, o.ni:. then :;_;rosorvo c:.. tro.c1i tionnl S7flnbols

for tho pur:;_;osos of n.n onotiono.l isolo. tionisi:1, J~n ii:qo.s si vo

oxo.1:1ino.tion of their problon woulc7.. unc7..oubtocUy localize ovon ,

in Jo.po.nose oyos tho sou!lccs of frustration within JD.iJo.n, c.nc1 , ,

Jo.po.nos a o.u :ros s ion woulc7.. be turno c:. 8.Co.ins t tho1-:1, loo.c:.inc, a.s , ,

it c7..ic7.. c7..urinc Jr:qo.nts nic:..c1lo a.cos, to c7..onostic conflicts, or to

:)ro._;ro ssi vo revolutions, both poli tico.l o.nc1 so cio.l, rc..thor than

to vmrs •

Tho Jo.po.nose loo.dors wall unc7..orstooc1 how to r:.isplo.co tho

o.0crossion of their followers. Evon prior to 1060, when tho pre­

paratory moo.suros for tho I.Ioiji :i:fostoration throo.tono c:. to turn

it into a. socio.l rovoluti,on, suppJ,ononto.ry sources of frustrn•

tion woro forcofu~ly injected into tho process , co.usinc tho Jo.­

po.nose people o.t lnrco to rococ nizo tho Tolr:uco.wo. Sho.:__:uno.to and

tho foroi c n influences to Ylhich · it submittoc:. as tho solo sources

of their frustvation. l<_;cross;i.on ·wo.s, thoroforo, con:Jlotoly c7..is­

plo.coc7.. o.nd concontrc- tad on tho Sho:_;uno. to a.nc7.. tho fo!'oicnors • 11s

frustro.t;i.on continued nftor tho IIoiji ilostoro.tion, lmt o.s nation'"' , .,

o.l unity wo.s rococnizoc1 o.s o. prino necessity, tho Sho cuno.to, tho

native source , wo.s cro.cluo.lly olininntoc1. l1ccr•ossion was c7-ivortod

town.rd fore icnors o.lono in o. c;ro.nc7..ioso mu1paicn of ]:>.., no:)hobio.

which conplotoly oblitoro.to c7.. c..11 r:.onostic sources of frustration.

Foroicn 1vvo.rs sorvod tho supllor.1onto.ry :;_Jurposo of dis:;_Jlo..comont ,

althouch, of course, they woro not wo.cod for this purpose alone .

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Tho Jo..~anoso attituco toward foroicnors, co.rofully culti­

vo. toe:. ns it is: 1

r:m.y not bo o.s cloop o.s its ~)romotors would liko

it to o.:;_Jpoo.r. Tho initio.l contempt with which tho Jo.po.nose look

down on foroicnors ancl vrhich is rn thor q.uick to L7.ovolop into

hostility and accrossion is lo.rcoly ~uo to their ocnoro.nco of

tho outsiclo world. Closor o.ssocio.tion with foroicnors, howovor,

t on clo(1 in tho past o.rn1 pror.:i:1.sos in tho futuro to clispol b oth

tho contompt anc1. tho hos t;i.li ty, as founc.1. by Kannady who wroto

in this connection: 11 Ju(1.c inc fron various remarks mo.do to ono

at c:.ifforont times by Japanese officers, thoro is littlo c.1.oubt

but that you r·o u up in thoir osthmtion if they finc7. that you

o.ro o.blo an,1. willinc to live tho so.no as thonsolvos. 112 Tho part'":'

ly artificio.l no.turo of tho Jo.po.no so xonophobia wo.s rovoo.locl

in tho ro.cio.1 proforoncos of Jo.panoso stu(1.onts obto.inod by moans

of o.ttituc1.o san:;_Jlinc. Tho results showoc1. o. clistinct e ra.dine

within their basic xonoJhobin in direct ratio to tho o.nti"fo­

roicn propac o.nda to which they wore subjoctoc1..3

Intollicont co-opovntion ro.thor tho.n instinctive isolo.tion

or con:;_Joti tion wo.s c7.o s criboc:. o.s tho noo.ns of conbattinc nccros ,... ·

1. "Por tho nnti-.f oroi:~n c.7.ri vos in Jo.po.n, s 60 Cno.mborlo.in, op. cit., pp . lOlff., 230; a lso Ot conroy, T. op .cit., i1iJ • t1:2 - ,.::3 .

.. ~ - .. "' .,

2 . Konnoc.y, r1 . D. 'rho ;Iilito.ry SiJ o of Ja:;_Jo.noso Lifo, :..=ioston, 1023 1 PP • ~0 , 152 1 225 , 2~1~~2, 257 1 275. . , . . ,

3. Trtchibnnu; K. · 11stuc.1.y·on racio..l profcronco ," J.J.:i?sychol., 10,~1 Su:):") l., Pl) • G,~ - G5 . Tho ro..cio.l :;_)roforonco s ·wore : 1. JafJan­oso • '2. Gorm6.ns; 3 , I.Io.ncnurians : 4 , · rto.lio.ns; 5. Eoroo.ns; G, , ' 1 . , . L.m6rico.ns; 7. : :,ritish; o. Pronch; D. Llonc olio.ns; o. IIincus; 11. Chinuso; 12. Tm1ks_; 13. Nocroos ; 1,1:, Jaws; 15, ilussio.ns.

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s ion nnc1. " c:.ovolopinc tho s:;_)1:r tt of ponco II by Yi.l,h .. Gimm:.i. in nn

ack:.ross to tho oi.::;th arinuo.l r:10otinc.; of tho Japo.noso Psycholo-,

c;ical Association in 10,:O.1:uoho. vior basocl on instinct, ho main­

tainoc7.,, loac1s man to strucclo for acquisition of 1:10.torin.ls,

which c~n bo countoro.ctod only ?Y co-operation bnsod on intol­

lic.;onco. "For such co-oporo.tion," ho wroto, 11 10.nc.;uac;o is n no­

cossary but insufficient factor, sinco lancuac.;o can oo.sily bo

abusoc:. to provoke strucclo rathor than c..bolish it. 11 Intollicont

co-oporation, accorc:.inc to Y.,:".H.i,.GINUI.1!,., c1. ovolops ontoc.:;onotically

as follows: nan at birth is ico.po.blo of ron.lizinc his truo po ­

sition in his social onviroru:1ont but is protoctoc1. and cui c:. oc1

by tho maternal nine:. which is o. bo.sic altruistic. concept. Howr

ovor, it is half ins tine ti vo anc:. ~)ri..l':1arily blind. It co.n hard­

ly inhibit tho o:xprossion of co:m.potitivo acquisitivonoss of tho

chilc:. unlos s it is sUj_)plononto c:. by knowlo c1co anc1 trn.c:.i tion.

Tho natornal instinct plus tracitional intollic.;onco will .~c­

quaint tho chilc.1. with its rola tion to its po.rent, family, and

still larcor units. Intollicont co-operation thus cradually d o•

volops in tho child. IIistor ically croups c1ovolopoc1. projuc7.ice ,

rovonco and accrossion when their acquisitiveness was cuided , ,

ox.elusively by inst:Lnct; whon, however, instinct and intolli­

conce o..ro rovorsod in their pos 1 tlon as c;ui c1.. inc principles , a

l• ·yanacinuma, II . 11 S1)irit of peace ," J.J.Psycho:I:•, ;:u),~l, Sup~)l., PP• 7D .. oo .

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spirit of peaceful co-operation ~evelops.

In Jcti)an, intelliconco was well-ni :._;h oxclu t_1..ed nnc:. instinct ,

exclusively pror:iotecl. Consequently, their c.:.is:;_1lo.coc.1 o.ccrossion

with its orionto.tion town.rd foroicnors provontoc.1 tho Jnpnneso

from rovoltinc n::.;ainst native op:;_):i;>ossion, just ns ncc;rossion

r:_i vortod from one's lore:. in feuclo.l tines to tho lor c.1.. of no ic;h­

:)orinc but hostile clo.ns prevented no.tion-wido revolutions in

tho po.st, c1 ospi to tho o.ll:1ost unboo.rnblo socio.l o.Dtl econonic

concitions of those days.~ ~s lone ns nccrossion in Jnpnn re­

mains offoctivoly tlisplo.ced, no lo.rco~scnlo revolutionary movo­

mont will ho.vo o. mass basis o.nd all socio.1 or political up­

heavals will occur in a manner in which o.c[~ession will bo di­

rected and completely controllod.1

This fact shoulcl be fully consic:.oroc.1 in Jo.pants post-war

rohabil:i,tn.tion. no will ho.vo to roco c;nizo ac;crossion in tho Jo.­

po.nose anc:. will ho.vo to rococnizo o.lso that c7.ofoo.t will co.use

u now impetus to frustration. It will bo inporto.nt, thorofr;ro,

both to control o.nd c1iroct o.ccrossion with moo.ns other than

nore foroos of occupo.t:i,on. It vdll bo nocossn.ry to provic:.o do~

finite objoct:i,vos for n. ct~rossion in tho :;_)arsons of those Japan­

oso lon.dors who, if prOi1orly i c:.ontifioc.:., will bo rococ;nizod by

tho Jn,paneso themselves ns tho true sources of their lonc .. stanc1..­

inc frustro. tion. It will bo irr;_1ortnnt to loo. vo po:v1::e:ne:ntly the

l• Cf• Youn0 , 1i..11. Jni)O.n in i.~o cont Tino s, London, 1020.

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o.cl.r.linis trn tion of Jnpo.n in Jo.panoso ho.nc1s o.ncl to rofro.in fror.1

issuinc instructions in tho nano of tho occupyinc o.~thority,

ovon thouch tho l o. ttor is tho pro.ctico now followoc1. 1:Jhon tho

Jo.pnnoso 0.1..7.ninis tro. ti vo for cos will bo ro coc_;nizocl o.s tho sour cos

of unploo.so.nt oxporioncos o.s woll o.s frustration, Jo.po.nose

o.ccrossion will bo fully onco..cod o..t homo o.nc a.lone lines which

will contribute to tho roho.bilito.tion of tho country.

Tho Jo.po.nose o.ttituc1..o town.rd o.cc;rossion scorns to bo in di­

roct contrast to tho oquo.nimity anr1.. rostro.int which is so.ic7. to

boo. bo.sic cho.ro.ctor tro..it of tho Jo.po..noso. Cho.nborlo..in roc;o.rcl­

oc1 their impor-turbo.bility o.s so inc;rninoc1.. tho.t ho listocl it

nnonc tho physical cho.rn.ctoristics of tho rnco. Doninc; , how-,

over , co.llo d n. ttontion to tho fn.c t tho. t inporturbo.bili ty n.nc1

stoicism wo.s not a.none tho oricinal onl1..owi:1onts of tho ro..co,

but n.ro quo.li tics clovolopoc1 throuc_;h centuries of ricic7. tro.in­

in0 and 11 so.vors noro of tho no.turo of otiquotto thn.n of actual

lo.ck of onotionn.l foolinc."

!,"J;o tho Jn.:i_Jo..no so E:r.iotiono..l?

~rinkloy, who was inclined to ovorstross tho importance of

importurbability in tJ:io Jo.po..noso, n.crooc1 that this stoicism was

offoctod by oduco.tion . If Japo..noso foolin:::; sufforoc7. in tho pro­

coss, o.s sovoral Jo.:i_x:tnoso psycholoc ists liko IUY,-,GI (12,:,) o..nd

SUSUKITA (lG7a) nninto.inocl it did , than it wo..s only boco.uso

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tho education of stoicism wo.s o.ffoctod o.t tho cost of tho fool­

in~ it souc:ht to conco[ll: 11F oolincs co.nnot bo ho.titun.lly hick!.on

vrithout boinc; noro or loss bluntoc1, 11 Jrinkloy v1roto.1

It is cµito common in Japo.n to noot o. friend who hn.s just

boon boron.vod by tho loss of n. loved ono, but to fin~ hin or

her smilinc. 11 :Csntt tho smi;I.o of o. Jn.po.noso somothinc tho.t re­

quires profounc1 s tuc1y? 11 HIT ODE o.skod, "Tho hic1don :moo.nine behind

tho snilo is c1ifforontly un,1orstood by c1.ifforont people• 112

Si.TO (17'J) provic1ocl o.n inporto.nt psycholo ~icn.l clue to tho

clovolopnont of such boho.vior in his stuc1y of foolinc in ~u c1c1h.­

ism. This to.u ,:-~ht tho Ji:qo.noso to c1isroco.rc1 their ono-hun .. 1.rod­

and-o icht oo.rthly c1os ires, just o.s Confucinnisr.1, shorn of its

li:.:.;ht so:;_)histico.tion in Jo.po.i:i, to.ucht tha.t it vrn.s o. vico to bo

o.bsorbod in □ onsuous dosiros. It wo.s Zon-~u ~~hisn uith its on-

:;_)ho.sis on solf-rostraint o.nc1 spiritual c1..i,sci:;_)lino which loft ,

its c1.oopo st 1:10.rk on tho Jo.po.nos o cho.ro.ctor • 3 Tho fn.1:1ily, too,

pror10toc1 con:)osuro when tho orc1..ors of su:)oriori rolo.tivos ho.cl to

bo o.cco:;_)to c.1. o..ncl carried out without c1.onur . It wo.s fina.lly shnpod

by no.. turo which inposocl its unasso.ilo.blo vdll upon ovary Jo.1Jo..n­

os o who roo..lizoc.1 tho. t ros is to.nee to typhoons o..nd ti c1.o.l wo.vo s

l . :~rinkloy, op. cit ., P • lGG.

2. Nitobo, I, Tho ':Jo.y of Life (J), 1003 , ' i.lso IIorsich; F., 11Do..s jo.:;xmischo Lnocholn," Dor c otruo :Cckoho.rt, l'J33-3~, 11, 12, Z) . OD7-0D8.

3 , Suzuki, D,'r, Zon·:Juc1.c1hisrn .'.lnc1.. its Influence on Jo.:;_)o.noso Culture, Kyoto, 1030,

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woul,1 bo of no avail who.. tovor .

11.ll thoso :1..icl contribute toward tho sha~)inc of Jn :x"'..n 0s 0 r

sorvo without, howovor1 rnlkinc his solf-rostro..int c onuinc . In

fn.ct, n. stronc an,-: introo.cti vo or.iotionalisr.i is cvic-:ont in tho

Jn.pnnoso cho.ro..ctor , clospi to c;ro.nc.'.ios o of forts to SUi)i)r us s it .

It is ~isplayod in euphoric elation, in swine of exaltation ~n(

c7..oprossion, in bursts of nncor anc~ fo1:l-r, anc7.. in fl.n occflsional

anbivalont lovo-anc'. - ho.to con:;_)lox (2'J ).

:aolz cloniod tho popular theory of a 2eficiont o~otiono.1-

ism or bluntec~ feolincs • iie a ttributoc1 tho O.i)1)aront imi)ortur~­

abili ty of tho Ja:;_xmose in tho face of (-:isnsters, no~;: t to ri­

c;ic7.. rocinontation ancl_ habituation, to a oonbination of i)sychic

inertia anc7.. catalepsy . Tho i1~1pact of earthquakes o.ncl other no. ...

tural ca to.s troi)hos is not Q~Js orbe c1 in o.n omotional vacuun. It

merely causes a dolayocl reaction. Tho fo.iluro to respond to

tho ovorwholr.1inc stinulus is cnuso c'. not by a lack but by a.

blockinc of on9t:i,ons • ~o.elz himself OXiJoriunced such an or.i otion­

o.1 blockinc c'.urin:~ n. s evoro oo.rthquo.ke . Its suc1clen inpnct en.us o,.1

in hin a catatonic stu:Jor- which vms susto.inoc1 until his coach­

man n.vmkeno cl him from this c7..oop introvorti vo oxci tornont • 1

Colonel ' . ~-· _..,__, ~~ to nontion but one oxo.□plo , dis played a )

stronc onotionalisn, c7..os1Jite obvious efforts to ropross it , du ...

rinc his trial for tho EUr~or of ono Jupo.noso conoral to nvonc e

1. :Cn.olz 1 E. Das Lebon cinos deutschon ,~:"ztos in ox•wc.chon(7..on Japan, Stuttcnrt, 103~ .

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tho ror.10vo.l of anothor. :::Io doscribocl a si:milo.r or:iotional block­

inc in tho f o.co of a c1ifforont s tir.mlus • Durinc his trial ho

tostifioc1 that, ha.vine boon 1Jroviously huntocl by hoa.r c.nc7. ha.l•

lucinn tion., ho ho. c1 c omplo toly lost control ovor his emotions

by tho tino ho roachod his victin' s off ico in tho ·.7nr IIinis try

and rorminod in this catatonic stupor throu::hout his act, "un­

til so:moono called my namo •" In toll inc this incic7.ont, ~:,yo.s ro­

mo.rkocl : 11 It wo.s liko tho knockinc on tho door in rfa cboth. A

1 spell wo.s broken. 11

/,.IZNVA a.ls o rovoalod :tn his trial that tho oxci tom.ant which

lod to his a.ct co.usocl consiclorablo functional disor clors in him

a.nd tha.t ho wa.s so concornod that ho coulc7. ho.rdly oat. Such c1is­

orc7.ors aro not uncomnon une,7.or -stronc onotional duross anc7. bo ­

cano pa.rticularly no.rkod in combo. t • :Iino,. for oxrn-:i:)lo , c7. os criboc1

how r.10n of his plo. toon woro ono a.ftor anothor c7.rivon to tho

la. trino whilo o.wai tine o.n irnrninont ba ttlo, m1c.:. other c on;Jo. t no.r­

ro.tivos rocountocl sinilo.r intorforoncos with motor rosponsos ,

such o.s rofloc ~isordors , ca.ta.lopsy, tornporo.ry spooch ~ ofocts,

o.nd ovon a. comploto loss of :motor function as a result of purely

t . l t · I o:mo iono. s rain.

Strone; Jo.po.nose onotiono.lisn has also buon rovoo.l cc1 by a

s implo biolo[~ico.l oxporimont • Profos sor OGUCIII (l~O) founc7. that

1. :Jyo.s, n. Govornmont by Assa.ssination, Now York , 10,:::2 , p. 110

P • . ·TTino , A. Jo.rloy o.nc7. Soldior , Tokyo, 1939.

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tho ncicl bnso of tho nppnrontly ir.1porturbo.blo Jo.po.nose roo.cts

ju~t ns s tronc;ly to rionto.l c2isturbnnc o s ns thu t of o.ny '.:Jos t orn ...

or . 11 Hhon o. Jo.pnnoso is uneasy or snc1, 11 ho wrote , 11 r1hon ho is

1Jurc1onod by worries , his stn to of minc1. may not bo botrnyoc1

facio.l oxprossions or by his outward boho..vior , but it is re­

vonlocl in his nciclos is• Tho Jo..i)nnos o Ho.r IIinis try roj_)orto c.1. an

oxcoptiono.lly creo.t numbur of C8.Stric u~oor co.sos :Cron tho con­

bat zonos, o.nc1.. tho nunbor increased in clofeo.t situo.tions . In .;

fo.ct, tho 1Jropnc:o.nc1.istic contention of K0DJ.I'L'1 (7C) that tho 11 im­

porturbablo Jn:xmo so so1(1.ior is fully c8.:x1.blo of vd ths tanclinc

· tho emotional strain of wn!' without ovo;r, (' .. ovolopinc; monto..l ca­

soo.sos cor.nnon to 0cc :i, ,1.ontal s olcliors,, 11 has boon contro.c1.ictoc1

by tho Surcoon Gonoro.1 of tho Jn:xmoso J;r1;1y, Gonoral IL.S~G;.H.1~ .

I-Io concodoc11 not moro l y tho oxistonco of vmr nourosos, but also

tho fo.ct that ca.sos ho.vo incrousocl in r olo.tion to tho c1..otorior ­

ation of tho military situation.

Evon thou:;h omotiono.lism with its os cillnnt mC1..n:tfosto. tions

is sufficiently c1.ocur;1ontoc-1, it should novortholos s bo bopno in

mind that lone trnininc, almost mortal foo.r of socio.l so.nctions

o.nd strict roc;imontn tion c:L1.. r.mko tho Jo.1Jo.nos o in ~onoro.l more

impervious to omotiono.1 c1.isorc~ors anr1. pror.10. turo nuntul collo.pso

tho.n is usuo.lly tho ens o ni th 0ccL1.onto.ls • :11 thouc:h his moro. l o

t1ic;ht not cro.ck , tho Jo.1Jo.noso is ox1Joso c1.. to all kin.ls of onotion­

nl disturbo.ncos which ho cnn only :)o.rry 1:y c1oliboro.toly c.nc1. c1. os ..­

poro.toly rostrictinc his or.10tiono.l responses to irrito.tions. Jo.-