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Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1360e1370

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Journal of Archaeological Science

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Sourcing the interaction networks in Neolithic coastal China: a geochemicalstudy of the Tianluoshan stone adzes

Tianlong Jiao a,b, Zhengfu Guo c,*, Guoping Sun d, Maoliang Zhang c, Xiaohui Li c

aDepartment of Anthropology, Bishop Museum, HL 96817 USAbDepartment of History, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, ChinacKey Laboratory of Cenozoic Geology and Environment, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 9825, Beijing 100029, Chinad Zhejiang Provincial Institute of Antiquity and Archaeology, Hangzhou 310014, China

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 19 August 2010Received in revised form5 October 2010Accepted 7 October 2010

Keywords:TianluoshanSourcing studyStone adzesSeafaringNeolithicChina

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ86 10 82998393; faxE-mail address: zfguo@mail.iggcas.ac.cn (Z. Guo).

0305-4403/$ e see front matter � 2011 Elsevier Ltd.doi:10.1016/j.jas.2010.10.029

a b s t r a c t

Using geochemical techniques such as XRF, ICP-MS, and SreNd isotope analysis, we conducted a sourcingstudy of the stone adzes of Tianluoshan (ca. 5000e7000 BP), an early Neolithic waterlogged site inZhejiang Province, eastern China. The result demonstrates that about one-third of the lithic raw materialscame from places of at least 50 km away, suggesting the existence of a long distance interaction network.Because Tianluoshan was located on the ancient coast, this result also has implications for studying theearly Neolithic seafaring in China.

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1. Introduction

Sourcing analysis of stone tools has been widely recognized asan effective approach to study prehistoric interaction networks.Using geochemical techniques such as XRF, ICP-MS, and SreNdisotope analysis, our previous sourcing studies of stone adzes haveprovided new information for understanding the regional interac-tions and seafaring in Neolithic southeast China (Guo et al., 2005;Guo and Jiao, 2008; Jiao, 2007). As a part of our long-term effortto study the changes of Neolithic cultures on the coast of east China,we applied the same geochemical techniques to study the prove-nance of stone adzes of the Tianluoshan site (ca. 5000e7000 BP) ineastern Zhejiang Province, China (Fig. 1).

Tianluoshan is a waterlogged site on the northern side of theNingshao Plain, a coastal basin accumulated by marine sedimen-tary deposits in early and middle Holocene (Fig. 2). Extensiveexcavations have revealed that the Tianluoshan site is buried undera layer of marine sediment, indicating it was much closer to oceanthan today (Zhejiang Provincial Institute of Antiquity andArchaeology, 2007). The waterlogged environment has providedexcellent conditions for many organic materials to survive at

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Tianluoshan, and these materials demonstrate that people hadextensively explored land, river and ocean resources for sustenance(Fuller et al., 2006; Jiao, in press).

Archeological surveys and excavations have demonstrated that,during the period of 5000e7000 BP when Tianluoshan was occu-pied, Ningshao Plain was well populated by many communitiessharing similar styles of material cultures (Fig. 2). This region isregarded as the core area of the Hemudu culture (5000e7000 BP),named after the waterlogged Hemudu site (Zhejiang ProvincialInstitute of Antiquity and Archaeology, 2003). These Neolithiccommunities are characterized by their long houses built on stiltsand an assemblage of stylistic material cultures such as pottery,bone, wooden, and stone tools. The rice remains are believed to becritical for examining the beginning of rice domestication (Fulleret al., 2006, 2009). At Tianluoshan, archaeologists also found oneof the earliest rice paddies in China (Zheng et al., 2009). Becausemost of the Hemudu culture settlements were located close toancient coast, they are also important for studying the earlydevelopment of seafaring in China (Jiao, 2007).

However, there has been a lack of study on the interactionnetworks among these Neolithic communities. We do not know towhat extent these settlements interact with each other. Oursourcing study of the Tianluoshan stone adzes in the first timeoffers new evidence to investigate this issue.

Fig. 1. Location of the Tianluoshan site.

T. Jiao et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1360e1370 1361

2. The Tianluoshan stone adzes

More than 300 stone adzes, axes and chisels were found atTianluoshan (Sun and Jiao, in press). Most of these stone tools arebroken or damagedwhen found, suggesting theywere heavily usedbefore being discarded. Most of these adzes were scattered aroundhouse structures. Macroscopic observation in the field indicatesmost of these stone adzes were made of high quality dark fine-grained volcanic rocks. They differ sharply from the coarse-grainedvolcanic pyroclastic rocks in the adjacent Siming Mountains, sug-gesting that they were likely brought into the site from furtherdistant places.

For this study, we selected 30 broken adzes for geochemicalanalysis. As indicated in Table 1, these adzes are selected from fourlayers. Ten adzes are from Layer 6, six from Layer 5, seven fromLayer 4, and seven from Layer 3. Radiocarbon dating demonstratesthat the age of Layer 6 and Layer 5 was about 6000e6500 BP, andLayer 3 and Layer 4 was about 5500e6000 BP. This time span wasthe middle period of the Tianluoshan settlement.

3. Geological background

As a marine sedimentary plain, the Ningshao basin was sur-rounded by the SimingMountain ranges and dottedwith individualsmall hills (Fig. 2). Geological studies indicate that these mountains

are primarily basiceintermediate-acidic volcanic rocks of Jurassicand Cretaceous epochs. Although there are few places withoutcrops of fine-grained basaltic and dacitic rocks, the area ofcoarse-grained pyroclastic rocks is much larger (ZhejiangGeological Survey, 1982; Xing et al., 1999; Xie et al., 2003; Zhouet al., 2006).

Available geochemical data of the volcanic rocks in this areawere previously collected sporadically for addressing geologicalquestions, and they are insufficient for our sourcing study (ZhejiangGeological Survey, 1982; Chen and Zhou, 1999; Xing et al., 1999; Xieet al., 2003; Zhou et al., 2006). For this study, we conducted a seriesof geoarchaeological surveys in both the Ningshao basin and itssurrounding Siming Mountain to collect comparative rock samples.We are particularly interested in the outcrops that macroscopicallylook similar to the Tianluoshan stone adzes (Fig. 2). In total wecollected 16 volcanic rock samples from different geologicalformations (Fig. 2). Characteristics of these geological samples aredescribed in Table 2.

4. Methodology

The surface of both the adze and the geological samples werefirstly removed in the laboratory. The petrographically fresh partsof each sample were selected for further processes. They were cutinto several thin slices for petrographic and geochemical analysis.

Fig. 2. Location of the Tianluoshan site and the geological samples.

T. Jiao et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1360e13701362

One slice was polished to a petrographic thin-section, and theothers were used for geochemical analysis. The samples forgeochemical analyses were first cleaned three times using deion-ized water, then dried, crushed and powdered with an agate millfor whole-rock major- and trace element and SreNd isotopeanalyses.

Whole-rock major oxide abundances were analyzed by usinga Phillips PW2400 sequential X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrom-eter at the Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy ofSciences, Beijing, China (IGGCAS). Loss on ignition (LOI) was deter-mined at 1000 �C for 10 h on 2 g samples. Analytical errors for majorelement oxide contents are less than 2% (Table 3). Trace elementswere analyzed in IGGCAS by using inductively coupled plasmamassspectrometer (ICP-MS) in the procedures described in Jin and Zhu(2000) and Zhang et al. (2002). Analyses of international stan-dards (BHVO-1 and AGV-1) are in agreement with the recom-mended values (Govindaraju, 1994). The analytical error for mosttrace elements is <5% and about 8% for Ni, Sc, Co, and V (Table 4).

Whole-rock SreNd isotope analysis was performed on a Fin-nigan MAT262 mass spectrometer at IGGCAS. Sample powders(60 mg) were spiked with mixed isotope tracers, then dissolvedwith a mixed acid in Teflon capsules for 7 days at room tempera-ture. Rb, Sr, Sm and Nd were separated from other rare earthelement fractions in solution using AG50Wx8 (Hþ) cationic ion-exchange resin columns. Collected Sr and Nd fractions were evap-orated and dissolved in 2% HNO3 for analysis bymass spectrometry.Mass fractionation corrections were based on 86Sr/88Sr ¼ 0.1194

and 146Nd/144Nd ¼ 0.7219. International standard NBS987 gave87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.710254 � 16 (n ¼ 8) and NBS607 yielded87Sr/86Sr ¼ 1.20032 � 30 (n ¼ 12); La Jolla gave143Nd/144Nd ¼ 0.511862 � 7 (n ¼ 12) and BCR-1 yielded143Nd/144Nd¼ 0.512626� 9 (n¼ 12). Whole procedure blank is lessthan 2 � 10�10 g for RbeSr and 5 � 10�11 g for SreNd isotopeanalysis. Analytical results and errors (2s) are reported in Table 5.Detailed procedures for SreNd isotope analysis follow those of Guoet al. (2005b, 2006).

5. Provenance of the Tianluoshan stone adzes

Petrologic observations under microscope indicate that both thegeological samples and stone adzes have fresh thin-sections, anideal condition for comparing their compositions and textures. Thecompositional analysis demonstrates that among the 30 adzes, 23are made of subalkaline series, 7 are made of alkaline series (Fig. 3).The variety of rocks includes trachybasalt, basalt trachyandesite,trachyandesite, trachyte, rhyolite, basaltic andesite, andesite anddacite (Fig. 3, Table 1).

Petrologic examinations indicate that the microporphyritictexture and massive structure of the stone adzes contain 5e20%phenocrysts of plagioclase, alkali feldspar, amphibole, biotite andquartz, and miner clinopyroxene and olivine. The phenocrysts aregenerally 0.2e2.5 mm (maximum up to 3.0 mm) in size. The matrixconsists mainly of plagioclase, sanidine, amphibole, biotite, quartz,titanite, apatite and glass.

Table 1Characteristics of the stone adze samples in the Tianluoshan site.

Lab no. Context Description Rock names

TLS1 T103(3):C2 Broken adze, partly polished TrachyandesiteTLS2 T103(3):C4 Broken adze, middle part RhyoliteTLS3 T103(3):C3 Broken adze, middle part DaciteTLS4 T203(6):C3 Broken adze butt DaciteTLS5 T203(6):C4 Broken adze side DaciteTLS6 T203(6):C2 Broken adze butt AndesiteTLS7 T204(6):C2 Broken adze butt AndesiteTLS8 T204(6):C1 Broken adze, upper part DaciteTLS9 T204(4):C3 Broken adze side DaciteTLS10 T205(5):C1 Broken adze side DaciteTLS11 T205(5):C5 Broken adze flake Basaltic trachyandesiteTLS12 T205(4):C3 Broken adze side TrachyandesiteTLS13 T302(3):C2 Broken adze body RhyoliteTLS14 T301(3):C1 Broken adze butt TrachyteTLS15 T105(5):4 Broken adze, bevel well

preserved, polished. Butt top bashedDacite

TLS16 T104(6):21 Broken adze, upper part bodypreserved. Fully polished.

Basaltic andesite

TLS17 T104(6):20 Broken adze, bashed tracedobservable on butt top, polished.Pecking traces on both sides.

Andesite

TLS18 T302(5):55 Broken adze, upper part preserved.No bevels.

Andesite

TLS19 T302(4):11 Broken chisel, lower body preserved.Fully polished

Andesite

TLS20 T105(6b):25 Broken adze, one side broken, peckingon sides. Bevel polished

Trachyandesite

TLS21 T302(4):14 Broken adze, upper body preserved,butt top bashed, fully polished

Trachyandesite

TLS22 T003(4):2 Broken adze, upper body preserved,no bevel. But top polished

Basaltic trachyandesite

TLS23 T104(6):18 Broken adze, one side preserved.Bevel polished

Trachyandesite

TLS24 T305(3):1 Broken adze, only the bevel preserved. AndesiteTLS25 T004(5):9 Broken adze, upper body preserved.

Butt top bashed. PolishedTrachybasalt

TLS26 DG3(3) Broken adze. Upper part preserved DaciteTLS27 T306(4) Broken adze. Top and bevels are

missing, body preservedDacite

TLS28 T306(4) Broken adze. Body preserved,polished on one side

Andesite

TLS29 T003(5) Broken adze. Middle bodypart preserved, polished

Dacite

TLS30 T004(6) Broken adze. Top and body preserved, bevel missing. Dacite

Table 2Geological samples for the Tianluoshan adze sourcing study.

Sample no. Name of the samples Location and description

HKS-1 Coarse-grained rhyolite Huangjiangshan, Gaoqiao Township, Yinzhou District, Ningpo County. Coarse-grained rhyolite.MINSH-1 Rhyolitic lava breccia in the

pyroclastic rocksOn the hill south of the Mishanhou site. Xiwu Township, Fenghua County. Dark reddish, rhyoliticlava breccia in the pyroclastic rocks.

CHAWAN-1 Rhyolitic pumice in thepyroclastic rocks

Quarry site, Shangtian Township, Fenghua County. Coarse-grained, dark, rhyolitic pumice in thepyroclastic rocks.

HQ-1 Trachyte Hengxi Reservoir east, Yinzhou District, Ningbo County. Fine-grained trachyte.HQ-2 Trachyte Same location as HQ-1.LBX-2 Trachybasalt Lubu River, Lubu Township, Yuyao County. River pebbles. Fine-grained trachybasalt.BPS-1 Tephrite Banpushan, Yuyao County. Dark, fine-grained tephrite.MYC-1 Trachytic tuff Meiyuan village stone factory under Banpushan. Provenance unknown, possibly from Fenghua County.

Fine-grained trachytic tuff.DDS-1 Tufaceous limestone Dadushan, Zhangting Township, Yuyao County. About 2 km north of the Zishan site.

Fine-grained tufaceous limestone.DDS-2 Rhyolitic tuff Dadushan, Zhangting Township, Yuyao County. About 2 km north of the Zishan site.

Fine-grained rhyolitic tuff.DDS-3 Rhyolitic tuff Same location as DDS-2.HX071 Andesite Hengxi Township, Yinzhou District. Outcrops beside the mountain road, close to the Hengxi Resevoir.

Andesite.HX072 Trachyandesite Same location as HX071, but much higher in the same mountain.DA073 Rhyolite Da’ao village, Yizhou District, Ningbo City.LT1 Trachybasalt South of Luting Village, Lubu Township, Yuyao County. Outcrop on top of the mountain.DYS1 Basalt North of Dayangshan, Lubu Township, Yuyao County.

T. Jiao et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1360e1370 1363

Table 3Major element analyses of the Tianluoshan stone adzes and geological samples collected in Zhejiang province.

Sample no. SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 TFe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 LOI

TLS1 62.58 0.92 17.22 5.49 0.12 1.70 4.32 3.74 3.50 0.40 1.8TLS2 74.56 0.23 8.18 2.12 0.16 0.87 9.86 0.81 3.10 0.10 8.39TLS3 67.15 0.65 13.95 4.83 0.05 3.88 4.97 1.67 2.74 0.10 0.92TLS4 66.72 0.65 14.62 5.31 0.06 4.24 3.16 3.20 1.88 0.17 2.28TLS5 63.47 0.71 15.57 7.25 0.16 5.29 3.84 1.70 1.92 0.10 2.92TLS6 62.20 0.59 14.65 4.43 0.05 5.25 8.80 2.06 1.88 0.09 0.82TLS7 62.34 0.67 16.82 6.60 0.09 4.82 3.55 2.06 2.97 0.08 2.78TLS8 67.04 0.58 13.81 5.21 0.07 4.41 5.11 1.60 2.08 0.07 1.82TLS9 66.58 0.58 13.82 2.41 0.04 4.30 6.36 1.67 4.13 0.12 0.88TLS10 63.93 0.75 16.23 5.84 0.09 2.68 3.60 2.31 4.40 0.16 1.52TLS11 52.48 0.98 20.15 9.33 0.17 3.87 7.61 3.08 2.05 0.27 3.65TLS12 56.85 0.55 13.23 5.46 0.12 5.52 11.11 1.72 5.32 0.12 0.88TLS13 71.47 0.53 12.34 5.18 0.03 1.91 2.85 2.78 2.73 0.17 0.9TLS14 60.45 0.56 14.29 4.56 0.06 4.67 5.92 1.98 7.38 0.11 0.92TLS15 63.26 0.42 8.86 4.06 0.03 8.32 10.20 2.01 2.77 0.07 0.76TLS16 52.28 0.64 17.54 9.32 0.15 6.58 9.14 2.63 1.57 0.14 3.39TLS17 59.04 0.58 11.89 2.94 0.06 9.97 11.77 1.23 2.43 0.09 1.18TLS18 61.11 1.22 16.91 6.84 0.15 2.46 5.23 4.98 0.53 0.56 2.06TLS19 62.40 0.65 15.06 5.09 0.07 5.42 6.26 1.77 3.17 0.12 0.9TLS20 59.56 0.60 13.11 6.58 0.10 5.88 5.63 2.46 5.97 0.12 1.22TLS21 58.37 0.61 13.81 6.44 0.09 5.33 6.82 3.08 5.36 0.11 0.92TLS22 51.91 0.61 14.10 7.11 0.11 5.54 13.44 3.63 3.45 0.10 3.08TLS23 59.56 0.65 13.40 5.47 0.10 5.63 7.04 3.99 4.02 0.16 0.86TLS24 58.66 0.52 9.48 2.54 0.04 11.37 11.76 1.57 3.94 0.13 0.66TLS25 51.40 0.91 19.00 10.03 0.17 4.70 8.30 2.93 2.33 0.23 3.08TLS25P 51.45 0.90 19.11 10.03 0.16 4.64 8.20 2.92 2.36 0.23 3.08TLS26 68.57 0.53 17.32 6.35 0.04 1.00 0.10 0.05 5.92 0.11 2.72TLS27 63.48 0.75 16.86 5.61 0.09 3.30 4.17 2.40 3.18 0.16 1.2TLS28 61.01 0.83 18.24 6.97 0.14 3.46 5.44 2.05 1.72 0.13 2.4TLS29 66.62 0.58 14.25 6.02 0.06 5.26 3.33 1.27 2.52 0.08 2.38TLS30 64.00 0.78 16.25 6.50 0.11 3.17 4.38 1.58 3.07 0.15 2.56MINSH-1 76.87 0.65 11.76 3.33 0.09 1.28 1.03 1.63 3.26 0.11 2.48CHAWAN-1 74.70 0.34 12.82 2.40 0.08 0.29 1.29 3.24 4.77 0.08 2.54HQ-1 60.99 1.35 14.57 5.13 0.16 2.87 5.42 3.43 5.52 0.57 2.22HQ-2 63.45 1.11 15.88 6.46 0.15 1.59 2.73 3.53 4.62 0.46 2.28HX071 62.88 1.20 16.42 7.01 0.25 2.33 4.22 2.80 2.43 0.48 3.56HX072 60.03 1.27 17.72 6.64 0.17 2.30 4.24 3.93 3.18 0.52 1.62DA073 70.89 0.45 14.70 3.08 0.10 1.23 2.05 2.30 5.11 0.10 0.66HKS-1 69.53 0.48 15.47 3.14 0.09 0.92 2.01 4.21 4.01 0.14 0.96HKS-1P 69.58 0.47 15.45 3.13 0.09 0.92 2.00 4.21 4.01 0.14 0.9LBX-2 45.62 2.95 12.41 12.27 0.16 9.90 10.36 3.28 2.06 0.98 1.36BPS-1 42.75 2.99 11.35 14.61 0.18 10.27 10.74 4.82 1.29 1.00 0.74MYC-1 66.11 0.65 15.33 3.98 0.10 1.83 3.50 4.52 3.77 0.20 3.92DDS-1 27.70 0.19 4.23 1.62 0.22 3.78 60.89 0.25 1.00 0.11 33.1DDS-2 76.68 0.27 12.94 1.75 0.04 0.92 0.94 2.47 3.91 0.09 2.32DDS-3 78.66 0.13 11.82 1.13 0.05 0.36 1.10 3.82 2.89 0.05 1.64DYS1 45.55 3.04 13.05 12.87 0.16 10.08 10.16 2.67 1.42 1.00 2.32DYS1P 45.42 3.05 13.02 12.91 0.16 10.16 10.15 2.70 1.43 0.99 2.38LT1 46.23 2.91 12.74 12.34 0.16 9.80 9.72 2.98 2.13 0.99 1.14

Note. Values are reported in wt %. TLS25P: repeated analysis for TLS25; the same for other samples.

T. Jiao et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1360e13701364

The 16 volcanic rock samples can be subdivided into 4 groupsbased on their petrologic, mineralogical and geochemical charac-teristics. Group 1 includes LT1, DYS1, LBX-2, and BPS-1, all of whichbelong to alkaline series (Fig. 3). Group 1 is made of gray and darkbasaltic volcanic rocks with porphyritic texture and massivestructure containing 5e10% phenocrysts of olivine, clinopyroxene,orthopyroxene, plagioclase and minor amphibole. The phenocrystsare generally 0.2e1.0 mm (maximum up to 2.5 mm) in size. Thematrix consists mainly of olivine, clinopyroxene, plagioclase,titanite and amphibole, and minor orthopyroxene. The mineralassemblage in phenocryst and groundmass of the group 1 is clearlydifferent from the stone adzes, indicating they are not the sourcesof these stone tools.

Group 2 includes HQ-1, HQ-2, HX071, HX072 (Fig. 3). These aretrachyte, trachyandesite and andesite with microporphyritictexture containing 5e15% phenocrysts of plagioclase, alkali feld-spar, amphibole, biotite and quartz, and miner clinopyroxene. Thephenocrysts range from 0.2 mm to 2.0 mm (maximum up to

3.0 mm) in size. The groundmass consists of microcrystallineplagioclase, alkali feldspar, amphibole, biotite, quartz, titanite,apatite and glass. The mineral assemblage in phenocryst andgroundmass is similar with nine stone adzes, including TLS1, TLS5,TLS6, TLS7, TLS10, TLS14, TLS19, TLS20 and TLS23.

Group 3 includes trachyte and rhyolite HKS-1, DA073 and MYC-1.They are subalkaline series (Fig. 3), characterized by red andbrown, coarse-grained ignimbrite and fine-grained tuff. This groupof rock samples possesses porphyritic texture with 10e25%phenocrysts of sanidine, biotite quartz and FeeTi oxides, and minorplagioclase; the groundmass includes plagioclase, alkali feldspar,biotite, quartz, zircon, FeeTi oxides, apatite and glass. Both theirtextures and geochemical compositions are clearly different fromthe Tianluoshan adzes.

Group 4 includes DDS-1, DDS-2, DDS-3, CHAWAN-1, andMINSH-1 (Fig. 3). They are rhyolite, and their porphyritic textureshave 5e30% phenocrysts of sanidine, biotite quartz and FeeTioxides, and minor plagioclase; the groundmass includes alkali

Table 4Trace element analyses of the Tianluoshan stone adzes and geological samples collected in Zhejiang province.

Element TLS1 TLS2 TLS3 TLS4 TLS5 TLS6 TLS7 TLS8 TLS9

Li 18.445 24.303 13.792 102.103 56.742 32.614 40.941 75.905 35.658Be 7.701 2.134 3.618 2.481 2.377 2.708 3.346 2.707 2.626Sc 13.907 4.651 13.888 15.780 13.950 14.805 15.451 12.098 13.153V 44.266 33.752 87.616 86.657 84.565 85.675 101.282 79.541 81.112Cr 46.757 24.882 98.568 104.725 104.962 155.364 95.414 95.030 120.552Co 7.270 6.917 31.519 16.405 19.801 14.624 21.037 28.310 13.034Ni 3.068 9.150 34.121 32.673 36.678 29.846 40.474 38.408 34.034Cu 3.962 7.345 3.155 22.367 11.102 22.033 15.414 32.530 10.298Zn 75.648 43.839 44.042 34.341 110.557 32.653 84.201 60.670 44.157Ga 18.594 9.617 18.963 19.543 20.551 19.479 21.813 16.513 16.576Rb 97.100 99.474 165.796 117.396 84.050 91.434 139.035 120.790 165.051Sr 460.404 200.896 224.100 198.269 180.307 320.730 203.317 206.846 305.425Y 47.000 14.465 26.744 23.617 26.437 20.531 19.766 18.465 21.382Zr 152.928 79.702 109.742 103.608 110.331 84.358 94.566 85.150 95.812Nb 9.653 6.162 12.714 12.370 12.874 10.967 12.771 10.592 11.298Cs 3.864 25.624 18.871 6.166 9.277 6.386 2.508 13.474 6.305Ba 872.660 549.188 634.423 583.899 590.360 451.666 710.079 673.639 912.315La 40.839 18.943 42.494 43.844 39.129 33.019 36.681 30.192 36.772Ce 65.702 36.740 88.270 79.310 80.543 59.740 69.256 58.607 64.214Pr 10.297 4.122 9.913 9.047 9.139 7.262 7.843 6.804 8.004Nd 42.777 15.607 37.118 31.627 33.686 25.504 26.924 24.748 28.297Sm 8.798 2.947 6.951 6.094 6.814 4.984 5.044 4.689 5.278Eu 2.319 0.636 1.337 1.239 1.215 0.942 1.037 0.907 1.063Gd 9.080 2.729 6.119 5.219 5.790 4.425 4.384 3.995 4.617Tb 1.345 0.453 0.941 0.809 0.925 0.687 0.673 0.621 0.714Dy 7.431 2.495 5.232 4.516 5.162 3.783 3.780 3.482 3.978Ho 1.593 0.514 1.056 0.920 1.072 0.793 0.762 0.712 0.827Er 4.089 1.429 2.800 2.448 2.854 2.138 2.115 1.936 2.250Tm 0.561 0.224 0.411 0.367 0.433 0.324 0.333 0.310 0.343Yb 3.287 1.440 2.621 2.366 2.807 2.050 2.109 1.992 2.158Lu 0.517 0.219 0.394 0.354 0.422 0.322 0.318 0.299 0.330Hf 4.639 2.321 3.276 3.100 3.349 2.494 2.830 2.539 2.888Ta 0.673 0.537 1.006 0.988 1.017 0.850 0.993 0.840 0.905Tl 0.589 0.822 0.864 0.685 0.489 0.542 0.737 0.980 0.887Pb 19.229 13.533 6.504 2.679 8.363 3.856 6.413 7.932 35.341Bi 0.120 0.374 0.115 0.082 0.342 0.084 0.070 0.144 0.203Th 10.286 7.575 16.968 17.213 17.672 13.914 16.597 15.268 16.373U 2.109 6.023 2.883 2.956 2.472 2.124 2.540 2.301 2.867

Element TLS10 TLS11 TLS11P TLS12 TLS12P TLS13 TLS14 TLS15 TLS16

Li 30.339 9.777 8.658 64.194 64.168 18.918 27.848 14.230 9.701Be 2.729 0.533 0.569 2.142 2.048 2.694 2.395 2.515 0.422Sc 16.023 15.463 10.712 12.488 12.843 13.227 14.180 9.637 28.912V 128.419 202.620 198.134 94.908 93.379 5241.196 80.004 103.343 187.707Cr 96.553 28.557 25.805 108.912 111.451 522.900 102.395 91.970 126.987Co 17.245 26.389 26.361 21.608 21.184 13.560 11.989 12.808 32.081Ni 41.388 21.620 17.358 29.493 29.822 195.515 30.908 35.626 54.356Cu 16.928 84.332 83.326 7.243 7.294 207.939 8.928 30.753 95.237Zn 80.264 92.008 107.722 51.588 52.102 8224.724 67.901 38.524 134.138Ga 21.552 18.586 17.863 15.973 16.143 9.008 17.359 11.810 14.952Rb 229.137 34.867 24.317 181.151 189.830 103.668 423.400 111.166 30.186Sr 386.961 378.674 354.459 484.132 529.354 260.514 347.080 98.720 284.318Y 30.708 17.103 16.170 22.470 22.809 92.819 20.311 14.937 12.648Zr 192.358 66.427 64.342 95.988 93.661 88.278 98.194 80.401 47.481Nb 16.713 2.685 2.651 10.250 10.154 10.220 10.963 8.505 1.958Cs 16.790 1.690 1.528 4.401 4.451 19.112 7.486 5.547 1.814Ba 746.888 518.975 470.270 917.952 933.020 33770.827 630.015 4460.937 274.449La 50.613 10.009 9.161 35.642 34.502 54.230 30.143 22.082 7.297Ce 96.877 23.569 22.420 68.019 69.715 56.655 56.923 43.638 16.418Pr 10.816 3.230 3.107 8.064 8.129 12.376 7.084 5.088 2.403Nd 38.027 14.355 13.789 31.306 31.686 49.316 25.386 19.024 10.177Sm 7.125 3.605 3.366 5.905 5.877 9.108 4.739 3.479 2.419Eu 1.192 1.191 1.137 1.050 1.031 3.072 1.030 0.604 0.814Gd 6.230 3.306 3.268 5.198 5.137 9.671 4.169 3.082 2.393Tb 0.986 0.546 0.538 0.806 0.8 1.574 0.658 0.469 0.392Dy 5.687 3.157 3.154 4.696 4.42 10.583 3.727 2.768 2.403Ho 1.223 0.670 0.666 0.876 0.888 2.469 0.773 0.561 0.502Er 3.379 1.850 1.847 2.320 2.372 7.396 2.123 1.607 1.383Tm 0.519 0.277 0.276 0.345 0.344 1.087 0.321 0.248 0.211Yb 3.332 1.781 1.750 2.186 2.208 7.012 2.113 1.651 1.381Lu 0.522 0.270 0.268 0.325 0.325 1.101 0.312 0.253 0.210Hf 5.901 1.949 1.895 2.906 2.767 2.070 2.887 2.244 1.358Ta 1.237 0.143 0.145 0.832 0.815 0.676 0.894 0.674 0.101Tl 1.981 0.142 0.131 0.701 0.7 2.413 1.825 1.733 0.144

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T. Jiao et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1360e1370 1365

Table 4 (continued )

Element TLS10 TLS11 TLS11P TLS12 TLS12P TLS13 TLS14 TLS15 TLS16

Pb 17.136 2.884 3.503 5.057 5.105 23.258 10.080 11.240 2.196Bi 0.153 0.026 0.026 0.140 0.15 0.772 0.095 0.224 0.016Th 17.750 0.443 0.415 14.791 14.054 9.439 14.788 11.345 0.523U 3.686 0.218 0.219 2.936 2.866 49.699 2.270 3.875 0.216

Element TLS17 TLS17P TLS18 TLS19 TLS20 TLS21 TLS22 TLS23 TLS24

Li 21.354 21.349 6.824 65.713 17.361 44.238 133.610 13.040 15.552Be 2.274 2.290 1.422 2.611 1.698 2.587 0.845 1.476 1.626Sc 11.882 11.538 16.544 14.637 12.819 12.610 12.661 12.142 11.175V 89.650 88.891 38.350 87.649 68.963 71.940 84.264 75.806 80.926Cr 109.345 101.391 23.096 99.938 81.376 83.365 73.374 102.960 77.160Co 7.077 6.923 8.498 12.753 9.167 8.840 15.376 13.357 7.460Ni 37.931 36.000 3.147 30.823 30.071 21.695 29.048 34.105 32.832Cu 13.284 13.850 11.761 34.058 59.701 39.259 2.750 9.147 5.040Zn 31.010 29.894 83.594 52.203 51.712 71.072 68.256 57.433 36.735Ga 15.400 15.270 18.579 19.486 12.575 15.266 19.131 14.689 9.553Rb 106.477 105.400 5.732 170.439 422.184 270.711 225.294 165.189 118.118Sr 124.115 112.351 291.458 232.170 250.821 299.916 230.696 201.328 137.762Y 18.133 18.120 41.986 23.476 20.881 21.776 19.899 24.199 20.823Zr 106.895 109.760 274.058 93.560 104.784 96.706 80.065 110.275 114.951Nb 10.716 10.752 9.297 11.680 10.319 10.219 9.346 10.241 10.809Cs 4.789 4.742 0.496 24.116 6.063 7.569 13.588 3.201 8.097Ba 1994.430 1780.300 277.165 568.178 506.611 418.251 382.751 419.014 3836.119La 29.864 29.781 27.126 37.699 27.793 33.681 29.812 34.116 28.463Ce 56.362 55.940 60.945 68.051 53.972 57.904 55.490 60.680 56.245Pr 6.678 6.685 9.210 8.501 6.738 7.812 6.949 8.111 6.682Nd 24.947 24.862 38.740 31.079 25.919 28.132 26.064 30.914 24.337Sm 4.408 4.462 8.624 5.685 4.738 5.071 4.856 5.754 4.614Eu 0.812 0.836 2.321 1.145 0.792 1.001 0.996 1.065 0.859Gd 3.998 3.992 8.391 5.005 4.111 4.686 4.464 5.233 4.329Tb 0.598 0.593 1.360 0.789 0.650 0.726 0.681 0.824 0.652Dy 3.468 3.307 8.226 4.560 3.807 4.165 3.796 4.737 3.758Ho 0.699 0.683 1.706 0.914 0.804 0.827 0.768 0.960 0.784Er 1.886 1.891 4.474 2.488 2.229 2.257 2.052 2.602 2.158Tm 0.289 0.294 0.671 0.359 0.339 0.331 0.312 0.376 0.325Yb 1.882 1.838 4.435 2.342 2.141 2.119 2.006 2.454 2.106Lu 0.279 0.270 0.669 0.350 0.329 0.322 0.306 0.371 0.309Hf 3.128 3.203 6.884 2.785 2.967 2.742 2.322 3.251 3.316Ta 0.860 0.865 0.561 0.948 0.834 0.804 0.756 0.849 0.823Tl 1.112 1.116 0.057 1.441 2.415 1.380 1.419 0.984 1.751Pb 10.392 10.340 4.621 4.626 4.635 6.083 4.637 5.944 8.001Bi 0.058 0.056 0.023 0.330 0.542 0.165 0.102 0.252 0.142Th 14.655 14.470 2.067 16.963 13.667 14.141 11.980 14.206 13.031U 6.286 6.317 0.583 2.311 1.786 1.656 1.872 2.650 3.815

Element TLS25 TLS25P TLS26 TLS27 TLS28 TLS29 TLS30 MINSH-1

Li 10.208 10.048 17.974 40.853 61.898 90.646 67.032 31.883Be 0.644 0.624 1.624 3.192 4.226 2.897 2.901 2.964Sc 22.749 22.461 14.915 17.409 17.501 13.659 15.562 7.958V 203.111 202.961 110.627 130.001 171.199 80.73 127.142 40.507Cr 42.543 40.476 55.489 137.41 129.306 100.995 125.696 34.388Co 30.803 29.909 8.574 10.859 8.902 14.65 9.46 6.441Ni 29.793 29.759 13.564 46.09 47.96 39.31 40.022 12.106Cu 85.352 84.007 12.407 5.09 1.916 21.414 3.804 10.158Zn 74.527 75.657 51.535 51.153 49.83 550.744 74.231 75.795Ga 17.954 17.782 23.412 23.309 24.792 19.589 21.421 22.290Rb 40.971 40.325 235.203 159.067 66.263 141.181 99.122 168.082Sr 372.770 379.550 65.687 180.617 262.985 135.178 214.263 129.345Y 16.646 16.433 16.838 28.638 25.133 20.008 25.77 25.637Zr 65.313 63.585 134.673 175.329 177.494 105.06 164.636 342.249Nb 2.737 2.645 13.019 15.378 15.66 12.175 15.35 14.808Cs 2.148 2.073 11.546 14.004 3.006 18.025 2.941 7.692Ba 473.902 460.361 818.218 466.54 498.346 560.809 636.125 318.897La 11.021 10.874 58.675 48.79 58.253 35.706 48.667 48.314Ce 24.676 23.977 81.091 92.267 107.928 71.888 92.812 46.598Pr 3.514 3.509 14.18 10.927 12.233 8.104 10.666 9.956Nd 14.480 14.388 50.122 37.975 41.5291 29.461 38.979 33.276Sm 3.188 3.175 8.761 6.906 6.709 5.436 6.743 5.625Eu 1.082 1.040 1.594 1.32 1.091 1.069 1.176 1.161Gd 3.128 3.062 6.064 6.056 5.818 4.63 5.922 4.852Tb 0.502 0.497 0.857 0.928 0.851 0.725 0.895 0.772Dy 3.012 2.999 4.40006 5.325 4.782 4.19124 5.109 4.599Ho 0.625 0.616 0.784 1.149 1.016 0.827 1.053 0.943Er 1.734 1.738 2.001 3.198 2.912 2.292 2.908 2.665Tm 0.267 0.265 0.294 0.476 0.439 0.345 0.437 0.414

T. Jiao et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1360e13701366

Table 4 (continued )

Element TLS25 TLS25P TLS26 TLS27 TLS28 TLS29 TLS30 MINSH-1

Yb 1.758 1.722 1.979 3.172 3.029 2.281 2.843 2.782Lu 0.263 0.266 0.317 0.478 0.481 0.337 0.449 0.423Hf 1.840 1.833 3.969 5.095 5.148 3.017 4.837 9.139Ta 0.126 0.119 1.136 1.164 1.325 1.007 1.217 1.107Tl 0.153 0.151 1.215 1.27 0.862 0.937 1.143 0.640Pb 3.631 3.520 29.776 12.917 4.373 5.085 4.555 26.313Bi 0.027 0.025 1.601 0.095 0.119 0.256 0.067 0.118Th 0.974 0.964 18.786 16.802 21.211 18.341 18.4 12.993U 0.303 0.297 2.012 3.475 4.097 2.431 3.545 2.820

Element CHAWAN-1 HQ-1 HQe2 HX071 HX072 DA073 HKS-1 LBX-2

Li 32.467 41.289 37.096 31.003 23.372 19.587 35.737 15.501Be 2.545 2.606 2.351 1.437 1.738 2.871 2.104 2.346Sc 6.392 18.966 15.113 14.535 16.875 6.134 6.755 18.857V 6.208 50.358 42.597 59.244 27.338 25.992 36.989 191.713Cr 20.918 34.764 27.394 19.741 26.187 55.135 37.700 235.227Co 1.545 7.782 7.060 6.197 5.244 5.139 5.036 49.830Ni 0.993 0.881 1.717 0.308 2.648 5.947 2.754 187.526Cu 1.758 3.357 3.655 1.144 2.013 0.667 4.436 64.083Zn 58.194 110.484 99.865 75.963 115.748 46.742 57.012 130.499Ga 16.264 22.797 21.651 17.470 17.833 17.353 18.723 22.542Rb 150.954 161.591 151.821 94.429 72.025 156.149 132.252 46.007Sr 95.739 375.382 391.780 473.213 646.390 221.058 402.060 1019.455Y 31.884 43.627 35.429 26.546 32.938 28.770 20.476 26.364Zr 408.031 347.911 283.352 183.655 202.723 257.243 222.355 263.137Nb 21.060 17.465 14.619 10.112 11.345 21.928 13.873 77.555Cs 5.029 2.705 2.420 4.145 1.183 7.975 2.848 0.913Ba 1176.646 1241.775 1031.161 449.949 897.017 957.584 1274.604 636.751La 55.696 64.330 43.065 35.703 39.704 63.855 48.871 53.734Ce 108.592 246.481 98.305 65.820 80.975 122.934 93.356 101.164Pr 12.816 15.778 12.672 9.470 11.160 13.673 10.237 12.049Nd 44.980 59.267 52.063 37.589 46.001 51.062 34.810 46.286Sm 7.986 12.186 10.048 7.147 8.978 8.228 5.740 10.647Eu 1.726 2.916 2.175 1.835 2.251 1.198 1.193 3.220Gd 6.820 10.811 8.601 6.236 7.968 6.996 4.732 9.295Tb 1.074 1.612 1.290 0.900 1.185 1.015 0.692 1.342Dy 5.929 8.864 7.174 5.004 6.224 5.544 3.806 6.563Ho 1.193 1.761 1.440 0.993 1.207 1.074 0.766 1.126Er 3.285 4.677 3.879 2.731 3.288 2.977 2.131 2.523Tm 0.487 0.654 0.552 0.397 0.479 0.432 0.332 0.311Yb 3.195 4.224 3.563 2.552 2.317 2.789 2.222 1.763Lu 0.492 0.644 0.550 0.390 0.459 0.414 0.343 0.234Hf 9.730 9.249 7.472 5.035 5.673 7.009 6.287 6.418Ta 1.378 1.095 0.928 0.613 0.669 1.383 0.986 4.761Tl 0.719 0.564 0.531 0.525 0.296 0.933 0.697 0.081Pb 13.795 17.998 13.568 10.020 20.501 24.123 22.421 4.499Bi 0.062 0.050 0.043 0.019 0.040 0.143 0.088 0.024Th 16.240 13.792 11.836 6.955 7.364 13.890 18.627 9.292U 2.619 2.382 2.131 1.351 1.404 2.729 3.170 1.980

Element BPS-1 MYC-1 DDS-1 DDS-2 DDS-3 DYS1 DYS1P LT1

Li 8.918 26.333 96.781 45.259 18.491 12.513 11.973 7.878Be 2.217 2.147 0.879 3.218 1.779 2.201 2.117 2.192Sc 18.247 10.370 3.502 4.972 2.604 19.021 19.308 19.094V 219.227 86.579 28.736 21.525 4.810 182.465 178.331 182.316Cr 221.945 50.237 12.836 26.460 15.660 240.5153 248.023 243.978Co 56.368 9.350 3.536 3.109 1.495 48.26 47.065 46.27Ni 190.220 11.097 10.194 4.444 2.161 187.839 186.865 179.709Cu 68.744 5.760 6.676 6.870 3.554 70.955 68.133 67.501Zn 154.177 68.283 21.403 51.989 34.503 119.152 113.806 141.539Ga 21.636 17.993 4.033 15.460 11.428 22.106 21.263 21.627Rb 37.999 148.564 37.402 177.278 99.983 34.7911 33.49986 47.473Sr 975.050 219.568 1934.857 173.054 125.669 880.8291 863.35527 911.239Y 26.321 17.843 9.113 24.646 21.127 24.782 23.207 23.839Zr 228.502 201.625 36.266 117.311 114.327 255.721 245.897 246.992Nb 79.583 13.223 4.430 13.711 10.184 73.479 70.478 71.377Cs 1.116 4.680 21.518 15.973 3.953 0.891 0.846 0.648Ba 792.540 934.159 119.903 626.269 722.355 654.5705 652.6898 626.777La 51.809 37.841 12.723 33.308 33.132 48.7921 48.06444 50.338Ce 93.321 72.647 24.693 64.910 59.451 88.9607 88.76754 90.856Pr 11.713 8.636 2.737 7.369 6.554 11.374 10.77 11.187Nd 45.600 30.442 9.422 27.691 24.293 45.0056 43.5339 44.432Sm 10.388 5.613 1.838 5.191 4.137 10.6795 10.32652 10.3509Eu 3.136 1.282 0.419 0.721 0.657 3.163 3.122 3.038Gd 9.331 4.363 1.662 4.980 3.627 8.917 8.857 8.889Tb 1.340 0.651 0.256 0.789 0.592 1.253 1.222 1.23

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T. Jiao et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1360e1370 1367

Table 4 (continued )

Element BPS-1 MYC-1 DDS-1 DDS-2 DDS-3 DYS1 DYS1P LT1

Dy 6.618 3.557 1.442 4.553 3.408 6.18 5.978 6.2109Ho 1.145 0.694 0.293 0.904 0.733 1.061 1.033 1.06Er 2.563 1.945 0.842 2.549 2.166 2.374 2.295 2.316Tm 0.320 0.297 0.125 0.391 0.360 0.298 0.281 0.29458Yb 1.803 1.987 0.800 2.612 2.458 1.601 1.549 1.626Lu 0.242 0.308 0.126 0.402 0.393 0.222 0.211 0.219Hf 5.587 5.845 0.981 3.939 3.775 6.338 6.151 6.127Ta 4.957 1.011 0.273 1.123 0.950 4.538 4.391 4.453Tl 0.049 0.887 0.549 0.994 0.646 0.07 0.07 0.078Pb 4.407 19.342 6.253 25.322 18.337 4.315 4.319 4.316Bi 0.024 0.131 0.162 0.240 0.126 0.009 0.009 0.008Th 8.863 17.217 3.620 16.713 11.961 7.903 7.509 7.943U 1.739 5.290 14.665 4.958 3.685 1.822 1.745 1.848

Note. Values are reported in ppm. TLS12P: repeated analysis for TLS12; the same for other samples.

T. Jiao et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1360e13701368

feldspar, biotite, quartz, zircon, FeeTi oxides, apatite and glass. Themineral assemblage in phenocryst and groundmass of the group 4is obviously different from the stone adzes. The K2Oþ Na2O vs SiO2is also different between the adzes and the rock samples, demon-strating they are not the sources of the stone tools either.

Therefore, we can exclude group 1, group 3 and group 4 rocksamples from the possible sources of Tianluoshan stone adzes. It isnoteworthy that these rock samples are mostly collected in theareas close to Tianluoshan. The fact that none of them matchesTianluoshan stone adzes suggests that the Tianluoshan people had

Table 5SreNd isotope analyses of the Tianluoshan stone adzes and geological samplescollected in Zhejiang province.

Sample No. 87Sr/86Sr � 2s 143Nd/144Nd � 2s

TLS1 0.714449 � 14 0.512266 � 7TLS5 0.715046 � 8 0.512248 � 9TLS6 0.713974 � 12 0.512194 � 5TLS7 0.712497 � 9 0.512297 � 13TLS10 0.713462 � 11 0.512279 � 14TLS14 0.712385 � 17 0.512847 � 8TLS19 0.712846 � 15 0.512751 � 10TLS20 0.714075 � 13 0.512516 � 7TLS23 0.714811 � 16 0.512673 � 12HQ-1 0.712709 � 16 0.512816 � 13HQ-2 0.715097 � 15 0.512119 � 6HX071 0.713779 � 12 0.512768 � 9HX072 0.712278 � 17 0.512347 � 11

Fig. 3. The variation between SiO2 and Na2O þ K2O for adz

a very complex strategy to look for raw materials to make theirstone tools. Only the four rock samples in group 2 (HQ-1, HQ-2,HX071, HX072) have similar mineral assemblage in phenocryst andgroundmass with nine stone adzes, indicating they are possiblesources of these adzes. These four rock samples are all collectedfrom the mountains near today’s Hengxi reservoir on the south-eastern side of the Ningshao Plain, about 50 km away from Tian-luoshan (Fig. 2).

In order to further find out the degree of the relationshipsbetween group 2 rocks and the nine stone adzes, we furthercompare their major element (e.g. SiO2 and total alkali) contents,trace element compositions and SreNd isotope ratios. As indicatedin Figs. 4e6, these four rock samples consistently display a highdegree of similarities with the nine stone adzes. The similaritiesbetween SreNd isotope ratios are particularly important, becausethese isotope ratios are not subject to change in the subsequentmagma evolution (e.g. partial melting, fractionation processes),therefore they are much effective indicators of the same source.However, it has to be pointed out that there is no perfect matchbetween these nine adzes and the four rock samples. These smalldifferences in geochemical composition might be generated bymagmatic processes (fractional crystallization, partial melting, andelement mobility).

Taking together, we can conclude that the raw materials of nineTianluoshan stone adzes (TLS1, TLS5, TLS6, TLS7, TLS10, TLS14,TLS19, TLS20, TLS23), accounting for about 30% of the analysed adzesamples, are very likely from the Hengxi area where the four rocksamples are collected. However, among the thirty adze samples we

es of the Tianluoshan site and the geological samples.

41SLT

91SLT

9 1 1 5 . 0

1 2 1 5 . 0

3 2 1 5 . 0

5 2 1 5 . 0

7 2 1 5 . 0

9 2 1 5 . 0

1 3 1 5 . 0

6 1 7 . 0 4 1 7 . 0 2 1 7 . 0 0 1 7 . 0 8 0 7 . 0 6 0 7 . 0 4 0 7 . 0 2 0 7 . 0

32SLT

5SLT

01SLT

6SLT

7SLT

02SLT

1SLT

143 N

d/ 14

4 Nd

7 8 / r S 6 8 r S

Fig. 6. SreNd isotope ratio plot.

8

12

16

20

40 50 60 70 80

SiO2 (wt%)

Group 1

Group 2

Group 3

Group 4

TLS7

TLS1

TLS10

TLS19

TLS6

TLS20

TLS23

TLS14

TLS5

Al2O

3(w

t%)

Fig. 4. The variation between SiO2 (wt%) and Al2O3 (wt%) for Tianluoshan adzes andthe geological samples.

T. Jiao et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1360e1370 1369

studied, twenty-one of them do not match with any of the rocksamples analysed so far, therefore the provenances of their rawmaterials are still unknown. Since our geoarchaeological survey hascovered major formations in the Siming Mountain, we also thinkthese stone tools are likely made of raw materials beyond theregion we have surveyed. Further studies are required to find outthe source area of these stone tools.

6. Discussion

Our sourcing study offers new evidence to study the procure-ment strategy of lithic resources of Tianluoshan. The result also hasimplications for understanding the interactions between Tian-luoshan and other contemporary settlements in the region. Unlikemost of the organic subsistence materials which were readilyavailable nearby, the Tianluoshan people obviously engaged in longdistance interaction networks to get the high quality rocks to maketheir stone tools. About 30% of Tianluoshan lithic raw materialscame from places of at least 50 km away. Given the fact thatTianluoshan was located on the ancient coast, this result also hasimplications for studying the early Neolithic seafaring in China.

A significant number of sites have been found between Tian-luoshan and the lithic sourcing area (Hengxi), all yielding many

0

5

0 1

5 1

0 2

5 2

0 3

0 8 0 7 0 6 0 5 0 4

O i S 2 ) % t w (

Sr/N

d

1 p u o r G

2 p u o r G

3 p u o r G

4 p u o r G

0 2 S L T

4 1 S L T

6 S L T

0 1 S L T

1 S L T

5 S L T 3 2 S L T

9 1 S L T

7 S L T

Fig. 5. SiO2 (wt%) versus Sr/Nd plot.

stone adzes. These stone adzes share a high degree of stylisticsimilarities. Macroscopic observations suggest that the raw mate-rials of these adzes are also similar. In addition, Tianluoshan and itscontemporaneous sites in the region also share a high degree ofsimilarities in the styles of other kinds of material cultures such aspottery, bone tools, and wooden structures. This cultural homoge-neity was likely the result of frequent interactions among thesecommunities. However, due to the lack of geochemical data of stoneadzes from other contemporaneous sites, we do not know the rolesof stone adzes played in these interactions.

Most of these Hemudu culture sites, including Tianluoshan, arelocated on the foothills of SimingMountain. All of the sites excavatedso far are buried under a layer of marine sediments, suggesting theywere very close to ocean. These Neolithic communities were likelyseparated from each other by oceans or bays, any exchanges orinteractions among these communities were likely involved inseafaring over different distances. Many canoe paddles have beenfound at the Tianluoshan and other Hemudu culture sites, suggestingwatercrafts were important component of their lives. Marineanimals, including pelagic fish remains, have been found at allHemudu culture sites, further suggesting people explored oceanresources (Jiao, in press). On the basis of available archaeologicaldata, we have argued elsewhere that around 6000 BP, a significantnumber of the Hemudu population migrated towards the ocean,exerting great impact upon the Neolithic cultures in coastal south-east China (Jiao, 2007). The result of our sourcing study of theTianluoshan stone adzes provide further evidence to explain themechanism of these ocean-going migrations.

Acknowledgement

We thank Mr. Wang Yaozhong, Mr. Wang Haiming, Mr. AdamLauer, and Mr. Brad Evans for their assistance during the geo-archaeological surveys. We are also grateful to the two anonymousreviewers for their productive comments. This project is supportedby a grant from the Henry Luce Foundation to Bishop Museum anda grant from the National Natural Science Foundation of China(NSFC) to Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy ofSciences (No: 40773023).

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