Soil Chronosequences on Quaternary Marine Terraces Along the Northwestern Coast of Calabria...

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(G. Vecchio).

Quaternary International 156 –157 (2006) 133–155

Soil chronosequences on Quaternary marine terraces along thenorthwestern coast of Calabria (Southern Italy)

Fabio Scarcigliaa,�, Iolanda Pulicea, Gaetano Robustellia, Giuseppe Vecchiob

aDipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Universita della Calabria, Via P. Bucci–Cubo 15B, 87036 Arcavacata di Rende (CS), ItalybIstituto Sperimentale per lo Studio e la Difesa del Suolo (ISSDS), 88063 Catanzaro Lido (CZ), Italy

Available online 7 July 2006

Abstract

Two soil chronosequences, representative of four orders of marine terraces from Early to Late Pleistocene, have been studied along the

Tyrrhenian coast of northern Calabria, in Southern Italy. All soil profiles show a high degree of weathering, although the degree of soil

evolution varies according to the age of each terrace. The soils are characterized by reddish to reddish brown colors, clayey textures,

abundant clay coatings, slickensides, Fe–Mn features or calcium carbonate concretions. The dominance of kaolinite and illite among

phyllosilicate clay minerals in all soil horizons, the intense depletion in CaCO3, Na and K, and the severe etching of quartz crystals in the

older soils all record a highly leached pedogenic environment that is progressively more intense from younger to older soils. Despite the

carbonate bedrock, quartz, feldspar and mica minerals also occur, suggesting a partly allochthonous, eolian origin of the parent material.

The major pedogenic features and their formative processes occurred polycyclically on the different orders of marine terraces, and we

interpret the soils to have mainly developed during repeated Quaternary interglacials. Some surface A and Bw horizons show quite

different features, suggesting a clear change in pedogenetic processes and possibly in climate and duration of soil formation. These

horizons have the typical field appearance of volcanic soils with andic properties (brown colors, loamy textures, high porosity, low bulk

density, high water retention, thixotropy). The occurrence of very small volcanic glass fragments and the possible presence of short-range

order aluminosilicate minerals confirmed some pyroclastic supply during soil formation.

r 2006 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The northwestern coastal landscape of Calabria, South-ern Italy, has been the object of extensive geomorpholo-gical and stratigraphical investigations (Brancaccio andVallario, 1968; Damiani and Pannuzi, 1979; Carboni et al.,1988; Carobene and Dai Pra, 1990). Carobene and Dai Pra(1990) identified five orders of marine terraces, correlatingthem with the marine oxygen isotope record. In contrast,pedological data are scarce (ARSSA, 2003). This paperaims to fill this gap by focusing on genetic processes in soilsdeveloped on a flight of Quaternary marine terraces. Inparticular, two chronosequences of reddish soils, formedon different orders of coastal terraces, were investigated tocharacterize different stages of soil development, and

e front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights re

aint.2006.05.027

ing author. Tel.: +39984 493549; fax: +39 984 493601.

sses: [email protected] (F. Scarciglia), [email protected]

[email protected] (G. Robustelli), [email protected]

evaluate pedogenic change in response to time andchanging climate or environments. The results contributeto the knowledge base of two main topics in the context ofinternational multidisciplinary research: (1) soil chronose-quences (e.g. Garcıa Marcos and Frances Santos, 1997;Vidic and Lobnik, 1997; Huggett, 1998; Birkeland, 1999;Simon et al., 2000) and (2) genesis of Mediterranean redsoils (‘‘Terra Rossa’’) (Colombo and Terribile, 1994;Bellanca et al., 1996; Bronger and Bruhn-Lobin, 1997;Darwish and Zurayk, 1997; Fedoroff, 1997; Yaalon, 1997;Yassoglou et al., 1997; Cremaschi and Trombino, 1998;Durn et al., 1999; Ortiz et al., 2002; Delgado et al., 2003).Furthermore, this paper examines the potential presence ofvolcanic parent material contributing to soil formation insome surface horizons with apparent field propertiestypical of volcanic soils (Andosols, sensu FAO et al.,1998, or Andisols, sensu USDA, 2003). Evidence of somevolcanic inputs in other Andisol-like soils have beenrecently found in southern, coastal or inland areas ofCalabria (Aramini et al., 2003; Scarciglia et al., 2005).

served.

dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2006.05.027

mailto:[email protected]



ARTICLE IN PRESSF. Scarciglia et al. / Quaternary International 156 –157 (2006) 133–155134

2. The study area: geology, geomorphology and climate

The study area is situated between the Noce and the Laorivers, along the northwestern coast of Calabria (SouthernItaly), near the boundary with southern Basilicata (Fig. 1).In this area, the ‘‘Carbonate Platform Unit’’ consisting ofdolomite-limestones (Ietto et al., 1992; Perri et al., 2003) isin contact with the ‘‘Internal Units’’ complex, representedby the ‘‘Lower Ophiolite Unit’’ (schists and metarenites ofthe ‘‘Liguride Complex’’, Piluso et al., 2000) and with the‘‘Lagonegro Unit’’ made of carbonate, marls and silici-clastic deposits (Pescatore et al., 1999). As thrust migration

Fig. 1. Geomorphological sketch map of the study area showing the

different orders of marine terraces and the location of the soil profiles

studied.

was locked by the thickening of the colliding continentalcrusts (Late Pliocene-Early Pleistocene), these two mainimbricate units were affected by severe strike-slip tectonics,which modified the previous thrust geometry (Monacoet al., 1998). During the Middle Pleistocene, an extensionalregime (Tortorici et al., 1995) reactivated the pre-existingstructures with different kinematics.Five orders of marine terraces (Figs. 1 and 2) occur on

dolomite-limestone bedrock, and show good morphologi-cal continuity from north to south. The terraces are bothwave-cut and wave-built, with ages spanning from theEarly to Late Pleistocene (Carobene and Dai Pra, 1990)and ranging between 6m and 200ma.s.l. Quaternarycontinental deposits (mainly alluvial fan and slopedeposits) occur on top of the Pleistocene marine terraces.Reddish brown to red soils are widespread on each terracesurface, sometimes buried by or interbedded with slopedeposits and tephra layers.The I order terrace is the most extensive, and has been

interpreted as due to tectonic subsidence of the whole areaduring the Emilian-Sicilian time interval (1.3–0.8Ma;Carobene and Dai Pra, 1990).On the left of the Noce River valley, relics of the I order

marine terrace extend from 100m to 130–140ma.s.l. Thisterrace cuts the carbonate bedrock, but locally marinesediments rest conformably on older fluvial deposits thatfill a paleovalley carved into the bedrock. The I ordermarine terrace is still recognizable to the south, where a flatsurface on Dino Island can be correlated with it.The II order marine terraces (early Middle Pleistocene,

0.8–0.65Ma) extend from 50m to 65ma.s.l. Their age isconstrained by cross-cut relationships between wave-builtterraces and Early Pleistocene marine deposits croppingout along the right bank of the Lao River (Carobene andDai Pra, 1990).The III order terraces (Middle Pleistocene, 0.6–0.5Ma)

are the less visible in the area; on the left of the Noce River,this terrace extends from 30m to 45ma.s.l. It consists of asmall wave-cut platform, locally blanketed by alluvialdeposits that rest unconformably on eroded patches ofmarine sand and gravel.

Fig. 2. General view of the marine terraces of study area (southern

sector): in the foreground, the I, II and IV order of terraces at Grotta del

Prete site are seen.

ARTICLE IN PRESSF. Scarciglia et al. / Quaternary International 156 –157 (2006) 133–155 135

The IV order marine terraces (late Middle Pleistocene)have been dated by U-series methods on the coralCladocora coespitosa. The age ranges from 250 to4350 ka (Carobene et al., 1986); this dating allows theIV order terrace to be tentatively correlated to oxygenisotopic stages (OIS) 7–9. Close to Castrocucco site, thisterrace is carved across slope deposits and is blanketed bybeach gravels; on a geomorphological basis, it can becorrelated to the southern Grotta del Prete marine terrace.

In the Castrocucco and Praia a Mare areas, evidence ofthe Tyrrhenian (OIS 5) sea level highstand are found at6–7m a.s.l.: they consist of a wave-cut platform too smallto be mapped, a sea cave, lithodomus holes and marinenotches correlated to the well-dated marine deposits ofPunta Iudia located at the northern end of the study area(Carobene et al., 1986). The Tyrrhenian strandlines can betentatively correlated with those further south in Calabriadated with isoleucine epimerization (Hearty et al., 1986)and with thermoluminescence methods (Balescu et al.,1997).

The study area is roughly subdivided into two zones, thesouthern sector, characterized by wider terraces (Figs. 1and 2), and the northern sector with narrower marineterraces. In addition to dolomite-limestone rocks, schists,arenites (quartzites) and metarenites crop out in thesouthern sector, whereas carbonate, marls and siliciclasticdeposits (slates, metaquartzites, very-low-grade metaba-sites, rare phyllites) occur in the northern one.

The study area has a typical Mediterranean coastal zoneclimate, with mild, wet winters and dry, hot summers (Csa-

type, sensu Koppen, 1936). Mean monthly temperaturesrange from minima of 6–9 1C (in January or February) tomaxima of 21–24 1C (in July or August), with mean annualvalues around 14–16 1C. Mean annual precipitation variesfrom 750 to 1000mm according to elevation; meanmonthly rainfall ranges between 12 and 16mm (in July)and 136–183mm (in November). The present-day pedocli-mate (sensu USDA, 2003) is characterized by a thermic soiltemperature regime, coupled with a xeric to udic soilmoisture regime (ARSSA, 2003).

3. Methods

Eight soil profiles, representing two soil chronosequences(northern and southern sectors), were selected after ageomorphological and pedological survey. The profilesoccur on the I to the IV order marine terraces. No profileswere sampled either on the youngest terraces (V order) ofboth sectors, or on the III order terraces of the northernsector because the soil cover is completely lacking,probably due to their extremely small extent and possibleerosion. An additional soil profile was excavated andsampled on the I order terraces, where soils show morespatial variability. In synthesis, the soil profiles consideredare the following: P1S (I order), 105ma.s.l. and P2S (IIorder), 59m a.s.l., both at Torre Dino site; P3S (III order),near Scalea, 41ma.s.l.; P4S (IV order), at Grotta del Prete,

17ma.s.l., in the southern zone; P11N and P12N (both ofthe I order), located at Rosaneto (129m a.s.l.) and S.Stefano sites (120ma.s.l.), respectively; P2N (II order),along the right bank of the Noce River, 54ma.s.l.; P4N (IVorder), Castrocucco site, 18m a.s.l., in the northern sector.The soil profiles were described in the field and sampled

for physical, mineralogical, geochemical and micromor-phological analyses. After air-drying and sieving (fine earthfraction, o2mm), particle size distribution, pH(H2O) andpH(NaF), organic carbon, total carbonate, cation ex-change capacity (CEC) and exchangeable bases weredetermined on bulk samples according to the methodsproposed by the Ministero delle Politiche Agricole eForestali (MiPAF, 2000). Undisturbed samples wereimpregnated with a polyester crystic resin for the prepara-tion of thin sections (10 cm� 5 cm� 30 mm), described inoptical microscopy according to FitzPatrick (1984).The clay mineralogy was investigated by X-ray diffrac-

tometry (XRD) on parallel-oriented specimens (Hugheset al., 1994) of the fine clay fraction (o0.2 mm), whereneoformed phyllosilicate clays tend to be concentrated(Wilson, 1999; Tabor et al., 2002; Vitali et al., 2002). APhilips 17/30 instrument with Cu-Ka radiation (40 kW,20mA) was used, applying the following treatments to thesamples: Mg-saturation, air-dried and after ethylene-glycol(EG) solvation, K-saturation, air-dried and after heating to335 and 550 1C (Whitting and Allardice, 1986; Wilson,1987). XRD patterns were interpreted according toBrindley and Brown (1980).The different forms of Fe and Al were determined by

selective extraction techniques (ammonium-oxalate anddithionite-citrate bicarbonate) (MiPAF, 2000) and mea-sured by atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS), whereasthe total amounts of these elements were detected by X-rayfluorescence spectroscopy (XRFS) with a Philips PW 1480equipment.Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses were

performed, on both sand and silt grains, in order toobserve weathering patterns on primary minerals and toidentify possible volcanic sources as parent materials.Samples were examined with a Stereoscan 360 scanningelectron microscope (Cambridge Instruments), equippedwith an energy-dispersive X-ray analyzer with a Si/Li-SUTW detector (EDAX, Philips Electronics).

4. Results

4.1. Field soil features

Soil profiles P1S, P2S, P3S and P4S are representative ofthe four orders of terraces sampled in the southern sector,from the oldest and highest (I order) to the youngest andlowest (IV order). The other four profiles belong to thenorthern soil chronosequence, where P11N and P12N aredifferent pedofacies of the I order (the latter close to theinner margin of the terrace, probably influenced by slopeprocesses); P2N and P4N are related to the II and IV order,


respectively, whereas the soil representative of the III orderis completely lacking. All these soils have many recurrentmorphological features, with some peculiarities (Tables 1and 2): they are well-structured (subangular or angularblocky to prismatic), dominantly clayey-textured andintensely rubified, with prevalent reddish brown colors(2.5YR 3/4–3/6 to 5YR 4/4–4/6). They consist of one ormore argillic (Bt) horizon(s), with common to veryabundant clay coatings stacked on aggregate outer surfacesor within pores; only soil profile P4S shows scarce illuvialclay pedofeatures. Some profiles lack the surface organic-mineral horizon and appear truncated (P2S) (Fig. 3a) and/or buried by slope deposits (P4S) (Fig. 3b) or alluvial fandeposits (P4N). Subvertical desiccation cracks, usually notless than 50–70 cm deep, occur in profiles P11N, P12N,P4N, P2S and in the buried argillic horizon (2Btb) of P3S,where also shiny faces are found; sometimes also slicken-sides have been observed (Btss horizons of P11N andP12N). Reddish brown to black iron–manganese features(mottles, coatings, soft concentrations or concretions),millimeter to centimeter in size, occur mainly in the deepargillic horizons of profiles P1S, P11N, P12N and P4N. Inparticular, in profile P11N the dark Fe–Mn coatingsalternate with whitish to pale yellow, iron-depleted, some-times reticulated, mottles (Fig. 4a). Secondary CaCO3

features are present in profiles P4S and P4N; profile P4Sincludes occasional carbonate rhizoliths, whereas P4Nexhibits large CaCO3 concretions completely filling itsdeep vertical cracks (Fig. 4b).

Some surface (A and Bw) horizons of profiles P3S, P1S,P11N have darker brown colors (5–7.5YR 4/3–4/4), sandyloam to clay loam textures, and also have the typical fieldappearance of volcanic soils with andic properties (sensuUSDA, 2003), such as fluffy consistence, powdery aspectwhen dry, slight stickiness and no plasticity, low bulkdensity, high porosity, water retention and weak thixo-tropy (e.g. FAO et al., 1998; Terribile et al., 1999; Cinque etal., 2000). As a whole, these properties are due to thedominance of short-range order (poorly crystalline) alumi-nosilicate minerals (allophane and imogolite) and Fe-hydroxides (ferrihydrite) that originated as typical weath-ering products of volcanic materials (frequently glassfragments) under udic to perudic soil moisture regimes(Duchaufour, 1982; Buol et al., 1989). In profile P3S, alenticular, intensely weathered tephra layer, yellowish incolor, is interbedded between horizons Bw2–Bw3 (Fig. 4c).Another yellowish brown tephra occurs a few meterswest–southwest of and about 50 cm above profile P4N.

All these soils occur on the dolomite-limestone bedrockinto which the marine terraces are carved, although atsome sites the soils developed on marine sediments formingthe depositional terraces. The substratum (possibly, atleast in part, the parent material) is not always exposedat the base of the soil profiles. Specifically, the substratumof profile P3S coincides with the carbonate bedrock(R); profiles P2S (Fig. 3a) and P1S overlie (through anabrupt lower boundary) cemented, rounded beach gravels

(horizons CBk) composed dominantly of dolomite-lime-stone, with subordinate quartzite, schist and metarenite,resting on the carbonate bedrock (P2S includes also somemarine bioclasts and crystals of feldspar); profile P4Sformed on marine sands (2CBk–2Ck) of similar composi-tion (with abundant shell fragments), partly cemented bysecondary calcite (Fig. 3b, c). Profile P11N directly occurson the dolomite-limestone bedrock, whereas the otherprofiles of the northern sector developed on mixedcarbonate, marly and aluminosilicate-rich beach sandsand/or gravels, probably supplied by the Noce River,which drains siliciclastic terrains in its headwaters.Carbonate rock fragments (millimeter to centimeter insize) constitute the scarce to common skeletal fraction(42mm), and are sometimes completely absent. Soilprofiles P4N and P2N include also abundant low-grademetamorphic crystalline rock clasts.The redness rating (RR) was calculated on the basis of

the matrix color in the Munsell notation (Torrent et al.,1980), applying the formula RR ¼ (10–H)�C/V, whereC ¼ chroma, V ¼ value and H represents the hue-relatednumerical value. The RR is higher in the soils of thenorthern sector. No definite trends can be recognized forthe soils from older to younger terraces.

4.2. Particle size and chemical data

The results of physical and chemical analyses (Tables 3and 4) depict a complex and overall similar pedogenicenvironment for the soils studied, although some featuressignificantly differ from the southern to the northernsector.Particle size analysis shows that these soils are high in

clay, higher than 30% except in a few horizons, and oftenexceeding 50%. Clear downward clay increases character-ize most of the profiles, sometimes just excluding thelowermost horizons. An exception to this is profile P3S,where the Bw3 horizon interrupts the downward increasingtrend of clay, as well as P2N, with a discontinuity markedby Bt2 and Bt3.The organic matter content is very low, generally p2%,

but reaches values of 3.4% and 5.2% in the A horizons ofprofiles P11N and P2N.Soil reaction is generally subacid to neutral, with higher

pH(H2O) values, as a whole, in the southern sector. Thesesoils are rarely strongly acid, with the lowest values(4.8–6.0) in profile P11N. The pH(NaF) ranges from 8.2to 10.3; it reaches the highest values (9.8–10.3) in thecambic horizons of profile P3S, in profile P2S and in theupper horizons (Ap-Bt-Btss2) of P12N.Field tests with a 10% HCl solution on the soil matrix

show that carbonates are absent in most profiles. Excep-tions are soils of the IV order marine terraces of bothsectors, with moderate to strong reactions in P4S and weakto strong reactions in P4N. The total CaCO3 resulting fromchemical analysis of the fine-earth fraction has extremelyvariable values: many samples show 0.0%, but elevated

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table

1

Main

morphologicalfeaturesofsoilprofilesin

thesouthernsector

Terrace

order

and

soilprofile

Horizon

Depth

(cm)

USDA

soil

taxono-m

y

(WRB)

Color

(moist)

Color

(dry)

Redness

rating

(moist)

Redness

rating

(dry)

Structure

Texture

Carbonate

reaction

Skeletal

rock

fragm.

Fe-Mnsegr.

andconcr.

Clay

coat.

IVP4S

(17m

a.s.l.)

Btb1

0–30/50

Typic

hapludalf

(cromi-calcic

luvisol)

5YR

4/4

7.5YR

4/4

5.0

2.5

mSB,fP

C+

+(x)

(x)

(x)

Btb2

30/50–100

2.5YR

4/6

7.5YR

4/4

11.25

2.5

cAB

C+

+(x)

(x)

(x)

2CBk

100–110

7.5YR

4/3,7.5YR

5/6

10YR

4/4

1.9

0cAB

SnL

+++

(x)

�(x)

IIIP3S

(41m

a.s.l.)

A0–20/25

Pachic

hapludoll

(chromi-

pachic

phaeozem)

7.5YR

3/3

7.5YR

4/4

2.5

2.5

mG

L�

xx

��

Bw1

20/25–40/45

5YR

3/3

5YR

4/3

5.0

3.75

fAB-SB

SL

�x

��

Bw2

40/45–70/80

5YR

3/3

5YR

4/3

5.0

3.75

mAB

CL

�(x)

��

Bw3

70/80–100/110

5YR

3/4

5YR

4/4

6.67

5m

AB

SL

�(x)

��

2Btb

100/110–140/160

2.5YR

2.5/3

9.0

m-c

PC

��

(x)

xxx

IIP2S

(59m

a.s.l.)

Bt1

0–30

Typic

Rhodudalf

(Rhodi-

Humic

Luvisol)

2.5YR

3/3

5YR

4/4

7.5

5.0

f-m

SB

C�

��

xxx

Bt2

30–60/65+

2.5YR

3/4

5YR

4/4

10.0

5.0

mSB

C�

��

xxx

IP1S

(105m

a.s.l.)

Ap

0–15

Pachic

Paleudoll

(Chromi-

Pachic

Phaeozem)

7.5YR

3/3

7.5YR

4/4

2.5

2.5

fSB,m

GCL

��

��

Bw1

15–55

7.5YR

3/3

7.5YR

4/4

2.5

2.5

f-m

AB(P)

CL

��

��

Bw2

55–85

5YR

3/3

5YR

4/3

5.0

3.75

f-m

AB(P)

SL

��

��

2Btb

85–200+

2.5YR

3/4

5YR

4/4

10.0

5.0

cAB

(P)

SL

��

xx

fragm.:fragments;segr.:segregations;concr.:concretions;coat.:coatings;structure:AB:angularblocky;G:granular;P:prism

atic;SB:subangularblocky;c:coarse;vc:verycoarse;m:medium;f:fine;

texture:C:clay;CL:clayloam;L:loam;SL:siltloam;SnL:sandyloam;+

,+

+,+

++

indicate

increasingintensity

ofsomesoilproperty:weak,moderate,strong;-,(x),x,xx,xxx,xxxxindicate

increasingabundance

ofsomesoilfeature:absent,scarce,

common,frequent,abundant,veryabundant.

F. Scarciglia et al. / Quaternary International 156 –157 (2006) 133–155 137

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table

2

Main

morphologicalfeaturesofsoilprofilesin

thenorthernsector

Terrace

order

&soil

profile

Horizon

Depth

(cm)

USDA

soil

taxonomy

(WRB)

Color

(moist)

Color

(dry)

Redness

rating

(moist)

Redness

rating

(dry)

Structure

Texture

Carbonate

reaction

Skeletal

rock

fragm.

Fe-Mnsegr.

andconcr.

Clay

coat.

IVP4N

(18ma.s.l.)

Bt 1

0–35

Typic

hapludalf

(hapli-

chromi

luvisol)

2.5YR

3/4

2.5YR

4/4

10.0

7.5

mSB

SnCL

+�

�x

Bt 2

35–80

10R

3/4

2.5YR

3/4

13.33

10.0

cSB

SnCL

+�

xx

Bt 3

80–110+

10R

3/4

2.5YR

3/4

13.33

10.0

cSB

C+

�x

xxx

IIP2N

(54m

a.s.l.)

A0–20

Typic

hapludalf

(hapli-

chromi

luvisol)

5YR

3/3

7.5YR

4/3

5.0

1.9

cSB

SL

�(x)

��

Bt 1

20–45

2.5YR

3/4

5YR

4/4

10.0

5.0

mSB

SL

�(x)

�x

Bt 2

45–100

10R

3/4

2.5YR

3/4

13.33

10.0

cP

SnCL

�(x)

�x

Bt 3

100–150

2.5YR

3/6

2.5YR

4/4

15.0

7.5

cP

SnCL

�(x)

�xxx

Bt 4

150–200+

10R

3/6

2.5YR

3/6

20.0

15.0

cP

SnC

�x

(x)

xxxx

IP11N

(129m

a.s.l.)

A0–25

Vertic

paleudalf

(chromi-

profondic

luvisol)

7.5YR

3/3

7.5YR

4/3

2.5

1.9

mSB

SCL

��

��

Bw

25–50

7.5YR

3/4

7.5YR

4/4

3.33

2.5

cSB

SC

��

��

Btss 1

50–120/130

5YR

3/4

5YR

4/4

6.67

5.0

cSB

C�

�x

x

Btss 2

120/130–180+

2.5YR

3/3

5YR

4/6

7.5

7.5

cSB,m

PSC

��

xxx

x

IP12N

(120m

a.s.l.)

Ap

0–15

Vertic

paleudalf

(profondi-

vertic

luvisol)

5YR

3/3

7.5YR

4/3

5.0

1.9

mSB

SC

�x

��

Bt

15–40/50

5YR

3/4

7.5YR

4/4

6.67

2.5

cSB

SC

�X

(x)

x

Btss 1

40/50–80

2.5YR

3/4

5YR

4/4

10.0

5.0

cP

C�

�x

x

Btss 2

80–120

2.5YR

3/4

5YR

4/6

10.0

7.5

vcP

C�

�x

xxx

Btss 3

120–160+

10R

3/4

5YR

3.5/4

13.33

6.0

vcP

SC

��

xxxx

fragm.:fragments;segr.:segregations;concr.:concretions;coat.:coatings;structure:AB:angularblocky;P:prism

atic;SB:subangularblocky;c:coarse;vc:verycoarse;m:medium;f:fine;texture:C:

clay;SC:siltyclay;SCL:siltyclayloam;SL:siltloam;SnC:sandyclay;SnCL:sandyclayloam;+

,+

+,+

++

indicate

increasingintensity

ofsomesoilproperty:weak,moderate,strong;�,(x),x,xx,

xxx,xxxxindicate

increasingabundance

ofsomesoilfeature:absent,scarce,

common,frequent,abundant,veryabundant.

F. Scarciglia et al. / Quaternary International 156 –157 (2006) 133–155138

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Fig. 3. (a) Soil profile P2S, truncated at the top; (b) soil profile P4S, buried by slope deposits. The substratum of both soils consists of calcareous marine

sediments, partly cemented by secondary calcite (2CBk–2Ck); (c) a detail of the marine sands deposited on the IV order wave-cut platform and underlying

profile P4S.

Fig. 4. (a) A detail of profile P11N (horizon Btss2), where black Fe–Mn coatings (white arrows) and whitish eluviated mottles (black arrows) alternate; (b)

soil profile P4N: note the CaCO3 concretions completely filling its deep vertical cracks; (c) soil profile P3S, showing a lenticular tephra layer (dashed curve

and white arrow) between horizons Bw2 and Bw3.


percentages (1.9–7.8%, with a maximum value of 50% inthe A horizon of profile P3S) occur even where there wasno HCl reaction of the matrix; the overall higher values arein profile P4S (6.7–56.7%).

CEC is low to moderate, ranging between 10.1 and25.6 cmol(+) kg�1. It is well related to the amount of clayin the northern sector and at a lesser extent in the southernone, whereas it is not correlated with the organic mattercontent. The exchangeable bases show high amounts of Caand Mg in all samples, whereas Na and K are much lower,except in profile P4S.

4.3. Soil micromorphology

Micromorphological analysis of thin sections enabled usto distinguish the main primary components of these soils.Very rare to frequent carbonate (mainly dolostone anddolomite-limestone) rock fragments, as well as dolomiteand some calcite crystals occur (Fig. 5a), particularly

abundant in profile P2S. Soil profiles P4N and P2N includealso abundant aluminosilicate, low-grade metamorphicrocks, rich in quartz, chlorite and/or amphibole, epidoteor plagioclase, very frequent slate and metaquartzite,occasional very low-grade metabasite (mafic chemistry)and rare phyllite skeletal grains. Frequent to abundantquartz and feldspar crystals were recognized (Fig. 5a) in allsamples (dominating over carbonate components in mosthorizons), with rare to occasional micas. Occasionalcarbonate and rare cherty shell fragments of marineorganisms occur in horizon Btb2 of profile P4S, wherethey become abundant in the underlying sedimentarylayers (2CBk and 2Ck). In addition, clinopyroxenes andrare amphiboles were identified in the surface horizons(A and Bw horizons) of profiles P1S and P3S. All thesemineral grains show dominant physical breaking patterns,and a wide range of chemical weathering features (solutionpits or lines, clay neogenesis, Fe-oxide staining). The degreeof chemical weathering varies from weak or moderate to

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table

3

Main

chem

icalandphysicalfeaturesofsoilprofilesin

thesouthernsector

Terrace

order

andsoilprofile

Horizon

Depth

(cm)

Particle

size

distribution

pH

Exchangeable

basescm

ol(+)/kg

Sand%

Silt%

Clay%

H2O

NaF

CaCO

3O.M

.*(g/kg)

CEC**cm

ol(+)/kg

Mg

Ca

KNa

IVP4S

Btb

10–30/50

17.2

37.4

45.4

7.4

9.2

11.5

0.3

23.1

8.6

6.5

0.1

15.7

Btb

230/50–100

25.0

29.6

45.4

7.3

9.2

7.7

1.7

23.9

9.4

6.5

0.1

15.5

2CBk

100–110

60.0

20.0

20.0

7.3

9.3

56.7

1.0

10.7

5.8

6.0

0.1

5.6

IIIP3S

A0–20/25

49.2

29.4

21.4

7.1

9.5

50.0

21.5

23.1

5.0

18.1

0.6

0.1

Bw1

20/25–40/45

22.6

44.0

33.4

7.2

10.2

0.0

14.1

22.3

8.2

17.4

0.8

0.8

Bw2

40/45–70/80

26.4

40.2

33.4

7.0

10.3

2.9

4.7

22.5

7.4

18.7

1.1

2.5

Bw3

70/80–100/

110

22.6

51.4

26.0

7.2

10.0

1.9

3.0

25.6

6.5

24.7

0.2

3.2

2Btb

100/

110–140/160

5.0

31.0

64.0

6.7

—2.9

2.7

22.3

6.0

23.2

0.2

0.3

IIP2S

Bt 1

0–30

9.8

32.8

57.4

7.1

9.8

2.9

15.1

17.8

10.7

15.5

0.7

0.6

Bt 2

30–60/65+

9.0

25.6

65.4

7.1

10.1

1.9

14.1

19.0

11.9

17.7

0.8

0.7

IP1S

Ap

0–15

26.0

38.6

35.4

6.6

9.2

4.8

20.8

11.0

4.5

6.6

0.9

0.3

Bw1

15–55

23.8

40.8

35.4

6.4

8.7

0.0

15.8

11.3

4.5

5.0

0.8

0.7

Bw2

55–85

22.0

36.6

41.4

6.1

9.1

0.0

13.8

11.4

5.3

4.7

0.6

0.7

2Btb

85–200+

20.8

37.2

42.0

6.1

-0.0

3.0

12.1

5.8

4.5

0.6

0.4

*¼

organic

matter;**¼

cationexchangecapacity.


ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table

4

Main

chem

icalandphysicalfeaturesofsoilprofilesin

thenorthernsector

Terrace

order

andsoilprofile

Horizon

Depth

(cm)

Particle

size

distribution

pH

Exchangeable

basescm

ol(+)/kg

Sand%

Silt%

Clay%

H2O

NaF

CaCO

3%

O.M

.*g/kg

CEC**cm

ol(+

)/kg

Mg

Ca

KNa

IVP4N

Bt 1

0–35

63.0

11.0

26.0

7.2

9.5

6.8

0.7

10.6

1.9

14.8

0.8

5.3

Bt 2

35–80

58.8

13.2

28.0

7.2

9.3

3.9

1.0

11.8

5.3

16.0

0.7

5.0

Bt 3

80–110+

26.0

30.0

44.0

7.2

9.2

0.0

0.7

15.0

7.0

16.0

0.9

4.8

IIP2N

A0–20

22.0

40.0

38.0

6.3

9.1

0.0

33.8

16.8

9.1

12.0

1.8

5.7

Bt 1

20–45

20.6

28.1

51.3

6.2

8.8

2.9

12.1

14.8

7.4

8.2

0.8

6.1

Bt 2

45–100

55.8

14.2

30.0

6.1

8.8

0.0

5.4

10.1

5.7

6.2

0.5

5.3

Bt 3

100–150

51.4

14.6

34.0

6.2

8.8

0.0

3.7

9.3

5.8

6.0

0.4

5.3

Bt 4

150–200+

61.6

2.4

36.0

6.2

8.8

5.8

3.3

10.2

6.2

6.0

0.4

5.1

IP11N

A0–25

15.4

50.6

34.0

6.0

8.2

0.0

52.2

19.2

8.2

12.2

1.7

5.4

Bw

25–50

10.0

44.0

46.0

5.4

8.7

3.9

20.8

19.0

6.2

6.2

1.8

5.2

Btss 1

50–120/130

7.8

34.2

58.0

5.3

8.9

7.8

7.4

16.3

5.8

5.8

1.7

1.1

Btss 2

120/

130–180+

9.8

40.2

50.0

4.8

9.0

0.0

4.4

15.7

5.3

4.2

1.0

1.7

IP12N

Ap

0–15

8.2

45.8

46.0

7.0

9.9

5.9

20.8

22.4

16.8

20.9

0.8

5.6

Bt

15–40/50

6.0

40.0

54.0

7.1

9.8

2.9

13.4

22.9

15.6

19.7

0.6

4.9

Btss 1

40/50–80

5.0

37.0

58.0

7.0

9.8

2.9

5.0

23.4

15.6

18.7

0.6

4.7

Btss 2

80–120

4.2

33.8

62.0

7.1

9.6

0.0

3.7

24.3

17.6

20.0

0.7

4.9

Btss 3

120–160+

4.0

40.0

56.0

7.0

9.6

0.0

2.0

24.1

18.9

19.0

0.6

4.8

*¼

organic

matter;**¼

cationexchangecapacity.


ARTICLE IN PRESS

Fig. 5. XPL photomicrographs of: (a) calcite and dolomite mineral grains

surrounding a crystal of feldspar (profile P3S, horizon A); (b) moderately

anisotropic matrix (P2S, Bt2) with some diagonal anisotropic domains

(right bottom side); some laminated clay coatings (white arrows) show

almost sharp extinction bands to grainy appearance.


very strong. Carbonate components are frequently amongthe most weathered detrital grains, and become rarer in theoldest soils except in profile P2S. Profiles P4S and P4N(pertaining to the IV order of terraces) show the lowestdegree of weathering, as a whole. They also includedifferent forms of secondary calcite precipitation.

Abundant clay coatings occur in the argillic horizons,although they are often difficult to recognize because theyare masked by the opacity of iron-oxides and appearstrongly assimilated into the soil matrix. The coatingsexhibit intensely speckled extinction patterns in crossedpolarized light (XPL). Only rarely do small remnants ofwell-preserved clay coatings or infillings occur; thesefeatures show smooth or broken extinction bands to grainyappearance in XPL. Occasionally, microlaminated silty-clay coatings alternate with pure clay coatings; the coatingsappear fragmented, sometimes merging towards thesurrounding soil matrix, and showing smooth-banded,

fan-shaped or grainy extinction patterns. The matrix isclayey, widely and intensely iron-stained (red to reddish-yellow and yellowish-red in color), moderately to highlyanisotropic, with some irregular to diagonal, right linear(occasionally crossed) anisotropic domains (Fig. 5b).Anisotropic aureoles may surround mineral grains or smallrock fragments. Fe–Mn features consist of dark reddish-brown to reddish-black, generally irregularly shapedsegregations, and more rarely rounded, massive orconcentric-layered concretions. In the organic-mineraland cambic horizons, the matrix is dark reddish-brown toyellowish-brown, with no to very weak to moderate opticalanisotropy (XPL). Occasional strongly anisotropic do-mains occur. Also in some Bw horizons (profiles P1S andP3S), scarce to occasional clay coatings have beenrecognized: they are microlaminated and appear almostfresh, with sharp to slightly smooth, broadened extinctionbands, but are often fragmented. Rarely they show grainyextinction patterns.SEM observations indicate the same physical and/or

chemical weathering patterns identified on sand grains byoptical microscopy, and further enabled identification ofimportant microtextures. Most mineral grains have sub-rounded to rounded shapes, worn and abraded outersurfaces, frequent upturned plates and dish-shaped depres-sions (Fig. 6a). In contrast, frequent subangular outlinesprevail in topsoil horizons of profiles P1S, P3S and P11N.Solution lines and pits increase in soil horizons as terraceage increases. Even quartz mineral grains are severelyweathered in the soils formed on the oldest marine terraces(P1S and P11N, I order; P2S and P2N, II order), withevidence of chemical etching (Fig. 6b, c) and amorphous ormicrocrystalline reprecipitation forms (Fig. 6d). Moreover,SEM-EDS analysis enabled us to identify other primarycomponents not detected in the field or in opticalmicroscopy, such as rare and extremely small glassfragments, about 30–160 mm in size, and with a trachyticchemical composition (62.30 o SiO2 o 64.34%; 10.19 oNa2O+K2O o 11.63%). Three main types of variablyweathered glass fragments were observed in A and Bwhorizons of P1S and P3S surface soils. These fragments arecharacterized by: (1) vesiculated structure with elongatedvacuoles (and sometimes conchoidal fractures), exhibitingvery abundant, rounded and concave etch pits on thesurface (Fig. 7a); (2) fibrous appearance with narrow linearvesicles, severely etched by deep irregular holes (Fig. 7b);(3) blocky structure with cracks affecting the outershell (quenching, i.e. hydromagmatic shrinkage for rapidcooling), very slightly weathered (Fig. 7c). In addition,the pyroxenes found in the same A and Bw horizons ofprofiles P1S and P3S show a Ca–Mg composition (diop-side) rich in Ti.

4.4. Clay mineralogy

All soil horizons of the examined profiles showed amineralogy dominated by kaolinite and mica (possibly

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Fig. 6. SEM images of (a) a rounded quartz grain (profile P3S, horizon A), showing worn, abraded outer surfaces, a dish-shaped depression (black arrow)

and upturned plates (white arrow); deeply etched quartz grains from horizon 2Btb of profile P1S (b) and Btss1 of profile P11N (c); (d) close-up of

microcrystalline quartz overgrowths on a quartz sand grain (profile P2S, horizon Btb1).

Fig. 7. SEM images showing (a, b, c) different types of volcanic glass fragments (profile P3S, horizon Bw3) (see the text for details); (d) open-book

arrangement of kaolinite clay platelets (profile P11N, horizon Btss1).


illite) components in the fine clay fraction (o0.2 mm), easilyidentified by the main XRD basal reflections on Mg-saturated specimens (Figs. 8 and 9). Kaolinite peaks persist

in Mg EG-solvated and in K-saturated samples, whereasthey collapse after heating at 550 1C. Although also Fe-richchlorite may dehydroxylate and collapse at 550 1C, the

ARTICLE IN PRESS

10 20 305 15 25 35

Bw1

Bw3

10 20 305 15 25

Mg

35

K

K

K

K

K

I

K

I

I

I

IC

C

C

C

I

V C

Sm

I

IC

IK

C

MgEG

K

C

P3S (Mg)

2Btb

K 335

P4S Btb1

I

V

(a) (b)

Fig. 8. XRD patterns of fine clays from profiles P3S (a) and P4S (b). I: illite; K: kaolinite; V: vermiculite; C: chlorite; Sm: smectite.

10 20 305 15 25

Mg

35

P11N Bw

K

MgEG

10 20 305 15 25

Mg

35

K

MgEG

I

I

I

I

I

K

K

K

K

KI

K

K

K

I

I

I

I

SmV

V Sm

Bt2P2N

K 335

K 550

Fig. 9. XRD patterns of fine clays from profiles P2N (a) and P11N (b). I: illite; K: kaolinite; V: vermiculite; Sm: smectite.


frequent, contemporary occurrence of the 002 kaolinitereflection at 3.58 A and the 004 chlorite reflection at 3.54 A(when the latter mineral is present, see below) confirms thatkaolinite effectively occurs. Kaolinite shows similar ormore intense peaks than mica in all samples except inprofile P3S (excluding the 2Btb horizon). Mica generally

shows asymmetrical and sometimes broad peaks, indicat-ing possible mixed-layer components. In some samples, the001 reflections tend to expand (and migrate towards low 2yvalues) after EG solvation, whereas they partly contract inK-saturated specimens (P12N, Btss1), indicating possibleillite–smectite intergrades; in horizons Btss1 and Btss2 of


profile P11N, significant peak narrowing and intensificationoccurs after K-saturation, suggesting interlayering of illitewith vermiculite. Kaolinite basal reflections are morefrequently sharp and symmetrical, although asymmetricand broad peaks (indicative of disordered crystallinestructures) appear in profiles P1S and P11N (I orderterraces). In P2S also, some kaolinite–smectite mixed layerscan be interpreted from slightly broad 001 reflections ofkaolinite that undergo weak expansion (Mg-EG treatment)and contraction (K treatment). Other diagnostic peakswere detected in some soils (P4S, P12N, P2N, P4N andhorizons Btss1–Btss2 of P11N). The 001 basal reflection at13.92–14.60 A, identified on Mg-saturated samples, con-tracts to the 10 A peak (which grows in intensity) afterK-saturation (vermiculite) or after heating at 335 1C (HIV,i.e. hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite). HIV occurs, to-gether with vermiculite, only in horizons Ap of profileP12N and Bt3–Bt4 of P2N. Small amounts of chlorite maybe present in some horizons of P4S, P12N and P2N, wherepeaks around 14, 4.7 and 3.54 A decrease in intensity butdo not completely disappear after 335 1C treatment. Inparticular, the 003 reflection of chlorite at 4.7 A enables usto easily separate this clay mineral from kaolinite (seeabove). XRD patterns permitted us to recognize smectiteclay minerals, by d-spacings of 14.60 A that expand to 17 Aand contract to 12 A after EG (on Mg-saturated samples)and K treatments, respectively (horizons 2Btb of profileP3S, Bw of P11N, Btss2–Btss3 of P12N, Bt1 of P4N).

SEM-EDS analysis confirmed the main clay mineralogydetected from XRD patterns. Abundant illite, showing notwell-shaped to very irregular platelets, was identified by aSi/Al ratio close to 2, low K content and very small or zeroamount of other basic cations. A chemical compositionwith Si/AlE1 and no other bases, coupled with the pseudo-hexagonal morphology of clay platelets, sometimes ar-ranged in a typical open-book structure, allowed us torecognize kaolinite (Fig. 7d). Some interstratified illite–s-mectite minerals with the typical filamentous shape (e.g.Welton, 1984) were also detected, and different, irregularlyshaped, 2:1 phyllosilicate clays (with Si/Alp2 and variableamounts of different basic cations such as K, Mg, Fe andNa). No evidence of short-range order aluminosilicates wasfound.

4.5. Fe forms and geochemical indices

Some geochemical indices estimating the different Feforms and degree of pedogenetic maturity were calculatedon the basis of major element compositions and results ofselective extraction techniques (Tables 5 and 6). Total ironcontent (Fet) in the fine earth fraction is moderate to quitehigh (3.73–8.10%), with more than half of the sampleshigher than 6%. The amount of Fed, estimating total(crystalline and amorphous) free iron oxides/hydroxides, isrelatively elevated, with higher amounts in profile P2S(3.11–3.29%), the P3S buried soil (3.04%) and the upperhorizons of P2N (3.03–3.45%). Conversely, the ammo-

nium-oxalate extractable forms, estimating the amountsrelated to poorly crystalline components, are always verylow (Feo p0.40%, Alo p0.36% and Sio rarely reaching0.11%). The difference Fet–Fed, which indicates the ironcontent in primary minerals, is extremely variable, rangingbetween 0.78 and 7.20.On the basis of these data, the weathering index

(Fed–Feo)/Fet (Fig. 10a) and the Fed/Fet ratio (Fig. 10b)were calculated. These ratios are based on the fact that freeiron forms (Fed) and crystalline iron forms (Fed–Feo) tendto increase with the degree of pedogenic evolution. Higherrates of both characterize the soils of the I and II orderterraces, with maxima in profile P2N (II), and converselylower values in the lower terrace (III–IV) soils. No definitetrends occur within single profiles, sometimes showing ageneral decrease with depth (P11N—only for the firstindex—and P4S), sometimes an opposite tendency (P2Sand P4N), but more often a discontinuous behavior. Theburied argillic horizons (2Btb) of both profiles P1S and P3Sexhibit higher values than the overlying topsoils. The Feo/Fed ratio gives an indication of the amount of amorphousagainst crystalline iron forms; the ratio is always very low,occasionally reaching approximately 0.1, indicating well-crystallized iron forms.Also an estimation of andic properties (USDA, 2003)

related to possible short-range order minerals was achievedon the basis of the Alo%+0.5Feo% index (Parfitt, 1990) inthe fine-earth fraction (Fig. 11). As a whole, this indexappears very low, with higher values and maxima around0.40% both in rubified argillic (e.g. Btss1–Btss2 of P11N)and organic-mineral or cambic horizons with Andisol-likeappearance (Bw1–Bw3 of P3S).

5. Discussion

5.1. Morphological, physical and chemical soil features

On the basis of the data obtained, all soil profiles studiedare classified as Alfisols or Mollisols (USDA, 2003). Inparticular, they have been classified as follows: P1S andP3S as Pachic Paleudoll and Pachic Hapludoll, respectively(Chromi-Pachic Phaeozems, according to the WRB tax-onomy, FAO et al., 1998); P2S as a Typic Rhodudalf(Rhodi-Humic Luvisol); P4S as a Typic Hapludalf (Cromi-Calcic Luvisol); P11N and P12N as Vertic Paleudalfs(Chromi-Profondic Luvisol and Profondi-Vertic Luvisol,respectively); and P2N and P4N as Typic Hapludalfs(Hapli-Chromi Luvisols). They all show a high degree ofweathering, as a whole, indicated by well-developedhorizonation and aggregate structure, rubification, and avariety of soil features in many horizons (clay coatings,slickensides, iron–manganese segregations and concretions,CaCO3 reprecipitation forms). Also the high percentages ofthe clay fraction, which may represent the main product (asneoformed clay minerals) of intense weathering of primarycomponents, suggest a high degree of pedogenetic matur-ity. Moreover, the downward increase of clay within the

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 5

Some geochemical data of the profiles

Terrace order and soil profile Horizon Fet % Fed % Feo % Alt % Ald % Alo % Sio %

IV P4S Btb1 7.61 2.20 0.08 17.46 0.24 0.09 0.04

Btb2 7.69 2.31 0.09 9.37 0.24 0.11 0.05

2CBk 7.93 0.73 0.06 14.14 0.10 0.06 0.02

III P3S A 3.73 0.88 0.02 7.35 0.06 0.07 0.02

Bw1 6.13 1.85 0.13 16.06 0.18 0.26 0.08

Bw2 6.08 1.59 0.18 16.84 0.18 0.23 0.08

Bw3 6.22 1.56 0.21 17.12 0.18 0.32 0.11

2Btb 7.27 2.38 0.14 13.38 0.16 0.21 0.08

II P2S Bt1 5.86 3.29 0.08 11.17 0.19 0.22 0.05

Bt2 5.17 3.11 0.10 11.47 0.17 0.22 0.05

I P1S Ap 5.87 2.98 0.12 10.78 0.24 0.09 0.03

Bw1 7.20 2.86 0.19 13.48 0.23 0.12 0.02

Bw2 6.43 3.23 0.26 11.98 0.24 0.16 0.03

2Btb 4.19 3.04 0.40 11.22 0.29 0.20 0.04

IV P4N Bt1 7.52 1.78 0.10 17.53 0.09 0.11 0.04

Bt2 8.10 2.23 0.09 8.81 0.07 0.09 0.03

Bt3 5.55 2.55 0.11 10.69 0.10 0.13 0.05

II P2N A 4.64 3.03 0.09 11.15 0.25 0.16 0.03

Bt1 7.05 3.45 0.07 14.01 0.28 0.15 0.03

Bt2 3.86 3.08 0.08 7.83 0.21 0.17 0.02

Bt3 7.13 2.46 0.07 8.42 0.16 0.11 0.02

Bt4 8.06 2.78 0.08 10.46 0.17 0.13 0.02

I P11N A 5.78 2.87 0.14 7.80 0.22 0.19 0.03

Bw 7.02 3.17 0.16 14.08 0.26 0.23 0.03

Btss1 7.19 2.73 0.19 12.02 0.21 0.36 0.06

Btss2 6.73 2.56 0.28 9.35 0.16 0.32 0.06

I P12N Ap 4.76 2.64 0.13 11.09 0.18 0.24 0.08

Bt 4.45 2.92 0.11 11.43 0.22 0.21 0.06

Btss1 6.07 2.65 0.12 11.38 0.27 0.27 0.09

Btss2 5.36 2.80 0.17 10.12 0.21 0.24 0.09

Btss3 7.57 2.41 0.24 16.20 0.17 0.26 0.11


profiles along with abundant clay coatings in the horizonswith higher clay content are all consistent with clayilluviation as a major pedogenetic process. Where thebottom horizons have lower clay amounts, a strongerinfluence of the parent material appears. The lack of acarbonate reaction (10% HCl test) in almost each profiledenotes complete leaching of CaCO3 from the soil matrix.The only exceptions are P4S and P4N, which showed amoderate and weak to strong reaction, respectively. This isconsistent with their younger age, as they represent thesoils of the IV order terraces of both northern and southernsubsectors, where leaching is not yet complete. Thepolygenesis of the parent material, including rocks andminerals different from the carbonate substratum, preventsus from reliably estimating rates of CaCO3 removal, andinstead just provides an indication of the average time spanlonger than 400–500 ka (suggested by the terrace ages) forcomplete leaching in this type of soil environment. It is notsurprising that the total CaCO3 (in the fine-earth fraction)measured in the laboratory shows extremely variablecontent and random distribution, despite the approxi-

mately homogeneous behavior observed with the field test(on the soil matrix only). In fact, this discrepancy is notconflicting with a leached soil matrix, where different kindsof carbonate skeletal grains (dolomite, calcite crystals anddifferent carbonate rocks) and/or concretions are scatteredin the profiles (identified in thin section and sometimes inthe field) are still preserved, and can locally alter the totalCaCO3 content. The average constant amounts of total Caand Mg within soil profiles (data from XRFS, not shown)are always lower than 4% and 2%, respectively, withirregular oversize peaks reaching about 15–22% for Ca (insamples P2N-Bt2 and P3S-A) and 6–10% for Mg (in thesame samples), supporting the prominent influence ofprimary skeletal grains inducing abrupt change (increase)in what is an homogeneous trend overall. Similarconsiderations may explain the pH(H2O) values. Theweakly acid to neutral reaction indicates a moderatelyleached soil environment, as a whole; in particular, the soilsevolved on the oldest terraces (I order) are characterized bythe lower values (up to strongly acidic of P11N), exceptprofile P12N, where soil pH may be balanced by the

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 6

Some geochemical and weathering indices of the profiles

Terrace order and soil profile Horizon Fet-Fed Fed/Fet Feo/Fed (Fed–Feo)/Fet Alo%+0.5Feo%

IV P4S Btb1 5.41 0.29 0.04 0.28 0.13

Btb2 5.38 0.30 0.04 0.29 0.15

2CBk 7.20 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.09

III P3S A 2.85 0.24 0.02 0.23 0.08

Bw1 4.28 0.30 0.07 0.28 0.33

Bw2 4.49 0.26 0.11 0.23 0.32

Bw3 4.66 0.25 0.14 0.22 0.43

2Btb 4.89 0.33 0.06 0.31 0.28

II P2S Bt1 2.57 0.56 0.03 0.55 0.26

Bt2 2.06 0.60 0.03 0.58 0.27

I P1S Ap 2.89 0.51 0.04 0.49 0.15

Bw1 4.34 0.40 0.07 0.37 0.22

Bw2 3.20 0.50 0.08 0.46 0.29

2Btb 1.15 0.72 0.13 0.63 0.40

IV P4N Bt1 5.74 0.24 0.06 0.22 0.17

Bt2 5.87 0.27 0.04 0.26 0.13

Bt3 3.00 0.46 0.04 0.44 0.19

II P2N A 2.64 0.43 0.03 0.41 0.21

Bt1 3.60 0.49 0.02 0.48 0.18

Bt2 0.78 0.80 0.02 0.78 0.21

Bt3 4.67 0.34 0.03 0.34 0.14

Bt4 5.28 0.34 0.03 0.33 0.17

I P11N A 2.91 0.50 0.05 0.47 0.26

Bw 3.85 0.45 0.05 0.43 0.32

Btss1 4.46 0.38 0.07 0.35 0.46

Btss2 4.17 0.38 0.11 0.34 0.46

I P12N Ap 2.12 0.55 0.05 0.53 0.30

Bt 1.53 0.66 0.04 0.63 0.26

Btss1 3.42 0.44 0.05 0.42 0.33

Btss2 2.56 0.52 0.06 0.49 0.33

Btss3 5.16 0.32 0.10 0.29 0.38


presence of carbonate rock fragments. It is also possiblethat profile P12N may have received additions of Ca tosoils by manure application, since this profile occurs underan olive field (all other profiles occur in uncultivatedcontexts). The overall lower pH values characterizing thenorthern sector, may also be due to a higher supply ofaluminosilicate minerals in this zone, which were probablytransported by the Noce River.

Soil organic matter is very low, as expected by thecompetition between humification and rubification(Schwertmann and Taylor, 1989). Moreover, the commonlack of A horizons (which have higher amounts), coupledwith the dominance at the surface of argillic horizons withabrupt upper boundaries, may be evidence of truncationand erosion. The small amounts of organic matter implythat clay minerals give the major contribution to CEC. Thelow CEC values suggest the dominance of non-expandingclays (namely kaolinite and mica) with other minorcomponents, confirmed by the XRD mineralogical analy-sis. The very small amount of exchangeable Na and K,especially in the southern sector, denotes a highly leached

soil environment, on the whole. The highest Na contentfound in P4S may be presumably ascribed to sea waterspray, due to the closeness of the site to the presentcoastline and its low elevation a.s.l. The high content of Caand Mg in the exchange complex of all samples isconsistent with the mineralogy of the dolomite-limestoneparent rock, and with the high degree of chemicalweathering of carbonate skeletal grains, inducing greatavailability of these bases in the soils. Their smalleroccurrence in profiles P1S and P11N (developed on I ordermarine terraces) points out significant leaching of the soilson the older terraces, as a consequence of a longer time ofexposure. A partly allochthonous origin of these cations aslong-distance windblown dust possibly sourced from theSahara desert cannot be excluded (Kubilay et al., 1997;Frumkin and Stein, 2004).According to the relatively high RR (all hues

2.5YR–5YR, and subordinately 7.5YR) calculated for thesoils, a significant amount of hematite is inferred to occurin these soils (Torrent et al., 1983; Diaz and Torrent, 1989).In addition, the rather elevated content of Fed (as well as

ARTICLE IN PRESS

I P11N

IV P4N

I II P2S

III P3SIV P4SBtb1

Btb2

2CBk

A Bw1

Bw2

Bw3

2Btb1

Bt1Bt2

Bt1Bt2

A Bt1Bt2Bt3Bt4

A BwBtss1

Btss2

ApBw1

Bw2

2Btb

ApBtBtss1

Btss2

Btss3

Bt3

I P11N

II P2N

IV P4N

I P12N

I P1S

II P2S

III P3SIV P4S

Fed/Fet

Southern sector Northernsector

(Fed-Feo)/Fet

Southern sector Northern sector

II P2N

I P1S

1.00

0.80

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00

1.00

0.80

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00

(a)

(b)

P12N

Btb1

Btb2

2CBk

A Bw1

Bw2

Bw3

2Btb1

Bt1Bt2

Bt1Bt2

A Bt1Bt2Bt3Bt4

A BwBtss1

Btss2

ApBw1

Bw2

2Btb

ApBtBtss1

Btss2

Btss3

Bt3

Fig. 10. Diagrams reporting (a) the weathering index (Fed–Feo)/Fet and (b) the Fed/Fet ratio (b) for all soil profiles. Terrace and soil age of each subsector

increases from left to right.

I

II P2NIV P4N

I P12NI P1S

II P2S

III P3S

IV P4S

0.00

0.07

0.14

0.21

0.28

0.36

0.43

0.50Southern sector

Alo%+0.5Feo%

Northern sector

P11N

Btb1

Btb2

2CBk

A Bw1

Bw2

Bw3

2Btb1

Bt1Bt2

Bt1Bt2

A Bt1

Bt2Bt3

Bt4

A BwBtss1

Btss2

Ap

Bw1

Bw2

2Btb

Ap

BtBtss1

Btss2

Btss3

Bt3

Fig. 11. Diagram showing the Alo%+0.5Feo% index in the fine-earth

fraction of all soil profiles. Terrace and soil age of each subsector increases

from left to right.


the total iron and the difference Fet–Fed, allowing ironavailability in the soil environment) account for therubification of most soil horizons. In fact, Fed estimatesthe amount of free iron occurring in oxides/hydroxides(Fed–Feo indicating the crystalline forms, such as hematite

and goethite), whereas Fet–Fed values are an estimation ofthe iron content still present in primary minerals. Thedearth of goethite-dominated horizons can be inferred, assoil horizons with yellowish–brown colors (hue 10YR) arelacking (Torrent et al., 1983).The weathering indices (Fed–Feo)/Fet and Fed/Fet did

not show a very clear trend of increase with terrace (andsoil) age, observed in other soil chronosequences of theMediterranean area (cf. Diaz and Torrent, 1989; Bech etal., 1997; Simon et al., 2000). In any case, Fed is moreelevated in the soils of the I and II order terraces, whereas itis lower on the III and IV order, according to their age. Inparticular, higher mean rates of (Fed–Feo)/Fet and Fedoccur in profiles P2S and P2N (the latter showing theabsolute maximum values, inconsistent with the relativeterrace age), pertaining to the II order. This suggests thatpossible reworking of material affected by previouspedogenetic cycle(s) was inherited by the soils at issue,which underwent further pedogenetic evolution in situ,thus increasing their weathering degree and accumulatingthe amount of crystalline and free iron oxides. Thishypothesis is supported by (i) the highest values of RRsmeasured for the II order soil of each sector; (ii) theparticularly abundant clay percent in profile P2S, alsoshowing (iii) an abrupt lower boundary towards thecemented BC horizon and (iv) being truncated at the top


(and therefore recording intense geomorphic dynamics); (v)the irregular trend of the particle size distribution, as wellas (vi) abrupt changes in the (Fed–Feo)/Fet and the Fed/Fetratios within profile P2N, suggesting parent materialdiscontinuities (cf. Bech et al., 1997; Scarciglia et al.,2003b), and (vii) its location towards the mouth of theNoce River, where the fluvial sedimentary supply verylikely could have delivered also some soil sediments(reworked, partly pedogenized material) from the upperreaches of the catchment.

5.2. Evidence for relict soil features

All soil profiles studied are characterized by one or moreargillic horizons. The great abundance of clay coatingsindicates that illuvial processes are of prominent impor-tance in the formation of these soils. Warm and humidclimates characterized by markedly contrasting winter(wet) and summer (dry) precipitation regimes causeseasonal soil moisture availability and water deficits,respectively. These alternating conditions permit claysuspensions to form and be translocated down profile,where subsequent capillary water evaporation allows claycoatings to adhere and stack within soil pores. However,the dominance of grainy extinction patterns observedunder the microscope (XPL) in Bt horizons, indicates thatthese pedofeatures are not fresh, having undergone anintense degeneration of their original internal fabric.Degeneration of the initially strong continuous, parallelorientation of the clay coatings (inducing high opticalanisotropy and consequent sharp extinction bands) occursbecause of internal stress that produces domains with arandom distribution of the coating components (FitzPa-trick, 1984; Kemp, 1998; Scarciglia et al., 2003a, b). Theanisotropic domains of the matrix could be the result of anadvanced degradation and assimilation of old clay coatings(which may be consequently less distinguishable andunderestimated) into the soil matrix itself. As a conse-quence, clay coatings have to be considered as essentiallyrelict features, not related to present-day pedogeneticprocesses and environments. In temperate areas ofmiddle-latitudes such as the Mediterranean basin, claycoatings are considered typical features of past Quaternaryinterglacials (Catt, 1989; Fedoroff, 1997; Scarciglia et al.,2005). Overall warmer and more humid conditions than thepresent with sharper seasonal contrast, that are generallybelieved to be more favorable for clay illuviation, areindicated by high-resolution paleoclimatic data (Orombelli,1997; Felis et al., 2004; NGRIP members, 2004). Despitethe inhomogeneous, complex character of both glacials andinterglacials due to short-term climatic subcycles (SanchezGoni et al., 1999; Kukla et al., 2002; Sangiorgi et al., 2003;Chondrogianni et al., 2004; Klotz et al., 2004), theoccurrence of long-term phases characterized by relativeclimatic and geomorphic stability and overall mild condi-tions is documented well for Quaternary interglacials. Mildinterglacial conditions thus enhanced soil development,

especially when coupled with extensive spreading oftemperate forest landscapes, strong decrease of slopewasting processes and eolian transport/sedimentation,and frozen ground disappearance (e.g. Winograd et al.,1997; Cheddadi et al., 1998; Ortiz et al., 2002; Antoine etal., 2003). The fact that even in mid-latitudes illuvial claypedofeatures are often degenerated, partially disruptedand/or superimposed by cryogenic features due to perma-frost or seasonal ice freezing during glacial periods (Catt,1989; Kemp, 1998; Kuhn, 2003; Scarciglia et al., 2003a)strongly supports the hypothesis that argillic fabrics in theMediterranean area formed mainly during interglacials.Also the development of shiny faces and slickensides isfavored by warm-humid, seasonally contrasting conditionsthat enhanced wetting–drying cycles and consequentshrink–swell dynamics. Since the reddening of a soil matrixrequires similar environmental conditions and someprofiles (P1S and P3S) show weakly rubified and poorlyilluviated younger horizons overlying the reddish argillicones, rubification could also be interpreted as a processthat predominantly occurred during past interglacialperiods (Cremaschi and Trombino, 1998; Simon et al.,2000; Scarciglia et al., 2003b, 2005). In fact, lowertemperatures limit, as a whole, the weathering of primaryminerals (as source of free iron) and the formation ofcrystalline Fe-oxides. Moreover, preferential crystallizationof hematite over goethite indicates unimpeded drainageconditions in warm and humid climates, characterized by amarked seasonal contrast in rainfall, with higher waterdeficit (than goethite) during dry periods (xeric and thermicpedoclimatic regime) (Schwertmann and Taylor, 1989;Huang and Wang, 1997). Prolonged soil moisture avail-ability (high water activity) caused by seasonal ice-meltwater and lower evapotranspiration rates during coolerglacial periods would have promoted goethite formationover hematite and therefore less rubification (Diaz andTorrent, 1989; Scarciglia et al., 2003b). Seasonal water-logging would likely have also induced white/grayish iron-depleted, hydromorphic features (Fedoroff, 1997).Although it is not to be excluded that some rubificationand clay illuviation occurred also during glacial phases(possibly during milder interstadials), mainly soil upbuild-ing due to windblown material seems to have dominatedduring these periods (see Section 5.5).That most soil development of these rubified soils

occurred during interglacial climatic conditions is alsosupported by their frequent stratigraphic alternation (orburial, as for profile P4S) with often very thick, stratifiedslope deposits that lack a pedogenic matrix. In fact, thesedetrital deposits consist of coarse rock clasts that could beof cryogenic and/or thermoclastic origin, produced byfrequent freeze–thaw cycles or thermal changes on bare tosteppe-vegetated slopes under cold periglacial conditions(e.g. Brancaccio, 1968; Boenzi, 1980; Coltorti and Dramis,1995; Garcıa-Ruiz et al., 2001). Scarciglia et al. (2003a, b)suggest that cold periglacial conditions also occurred incoastal areas of south Italy during past Quaternary stadial


phases. Although illuviation of coarse particles may occurafter exceptionally heavy rains, we cannot exclude thepossibility that silty-clay coatings alternated with pure claycoatings in these soils could have resulted from soildisaggregation and percolation of melt-water from season-ally frozen surface layers into subsoil horizons in responseto freeze–thaw cycles during glacial periods (Catt, 1989;FitzPatrick, 1997; Kemp, 1998; Van Vliet-Lanoe, 1998).This interpretation is consistent with the main paleoenvir-onmental changes hypothesized to have occurred insouthern Italy (Allen et al., 2002; Buccheri et al., 2002;Russo Ermolli and di Pasquale, 2002; Carboni et al., 2005),as well as with paleoclimatic reconstructions based onmultiproxy bio-climatic records. All these data indicatethe last glacial maximum climate was approximately8 1C colder than modern in the Mediterranean zone(Ganopolski et al., 1998), with winter temperatures reach-ing 0 to �1575 1C (e.g. Peyron et al., 1998; van Andel,2002) and a moderate (Ganopolski et al., 1998) topronounced drying (Peyron et al., 1998; Griffiths et al.,2002).

The clay mineralogy is dominated by kaolinite and illitephyllosilicates, which overall denotes a moderate to strongdegree of weathering. In particular, although micacomponents are quite common in primary and diageneticenvironments and less widespread as neoformed weath-ering products, their abundance in the fine clay fractionsupports their pedogenic origin (Wilson, 1999; Tabor et al.,2002; Vitali et al., 2002). Pedogenic mica could be derivedfrom the weathering of detrital, primary micas (observed inthin sections). Kaolinite shows asymmetric and broadpeaks, indicating poorly ordered crystalline structures onlyin the I order profiles P1S and P11N, expected to be themost weathered. It is consistent with warm-temperate,humid climates with alternating rainy and dry seasons(Quaternary interglacials). These conditions, coupled witha well-drained soil environment, promote intense weath-ering of primary minerals and leaching of cations releasedfrom crystal lattices (in turn enhancing the formation ofthese mineral species), growing in intensity according to anincrease of the time span of pedogenesis (cf. Bronger andBruhn, 1989; Scarciglia et al., 2003b). Similar conditions(possibly with higher rainfall and temperatures than today,and long time) are also favorable to quartz dissolution(Krinsley and Doornkamp, 1973; Eswaran and Stoops,1979; Howard et al., 1995; Scarciglia et al., 2005) such aswas found in the oldest soil profiles (I and II order terraces,older than 650 ka). However, the occurrence of subordinateamounts of 2:1 expandable clay minerals (smectite andvermiculite) in Bt/Btss horizons still denotes a certain levelof cation availability in the soil environment, and explainsthe presence of desiccation cracks, shiny faces and slicken-sides due to shrink–swell (vertic) processes. The persistenceof basic cations in this pedoenvironment is consistent withnewly and perhaps continuously formed weatheringproducts from parent rock and minerals, as well as witha partially impeded drainage induced by the clay-enriched

Bt horizons, as evidenced by the Fe–Mn hydromorphicfeatures. On the other hand, we cannot exclude that bothcations and perhaps 2:1 clays could have been supplied aseolian dust from Saharan regions (Kubilay et al., 1997;Frumkin and Stein, 2004).

5.3. Evidence for volcanic upbuilding

In the surface soil of profile P3S, kaolinite peaks showedthe lowest intensity, much smaller than mica reflections andthan kaolinite itself in the buried 2Btb horizon. This can beinterpreted to be the result of less intense and/or shorterduration of pedogenesis. In contrast, these data support aninterpretation of volcanic tephra supply, which is suggestedby the Andisol field appearance of its organic-mineral andcambic horizons and by the tephra bed interlayeredbetween Bw2 and Bw3. In addition to the rejuvenation ofpedogenesis, tephra additions can explain the occurrence ofsome short-range order aluminosilicates, as weatheringproducts of volcanic glass. This indicates some change inpedogenetic processes (testified by the weak rubificationand clay illuviation), possibly related also to changes inclimatic conditions (see Section 5.4), as poorly crystallineclay minerals form under less contrasting (udic to perudic)moisture regimes (Duchaufour, 1982; Buol et al., 1989). Inthe surface Andisol-like horizons of both profiles P3S andP1S, both pyroxene or amphibole minerals and very smallglass fragments (observed in optical and/or electronmicroscopy) clearly indicate some pyroclastic input duringsoil formation. The dearth of these volcanic components inprofile P2S (intermediate in age between P1S and P3S) isnot surprising, because this soil appears truncated byerosion and lacks of A/Bw horizons. The possible presenceof short-range order minerals was evaluated first bymeasuring the pH(NaF), because poorly crystalline claysmay be associated with values close to 10 (Fieldes andPerrott, 1966), which occur, as expected, in the cambichorizons of profile P3S, but surprisingly also in P2S and inthe upper horizons of P12N. The Alo%+0.5Feo% index(Parfitt, 1990) that was calculated for the fine-earthfraction always shows the expected high percentagesin the horizons of P3S with Andisol appearance(max ¼ 0.43% in Bw3). Nevertheless, even in some Bthorizons high, values were found, ranging from 0.38%(Btss3, P12N) to 0.40% (2Btb, P1S) up to a maximum0.46% (Btss1–Btss2, P11N). In any case, they all are belowthe minimum of 2.0% needed to qualify soils as havingandic properties (USDA, 2003). Also, the other possibleitem required to enter the Andisol order is not satisfied.The Alo%+0.5Feo% index X0.40%, while valid for somesamples, should be coupled with the contemporaryoccurrence of volcanic glass fragments X 5% (USDA,2003), which is never reached in the studied samples. Thehigher values (X2%) of organic matter in some A horizons(profiles P1S,P3S, P11N and P2N), suggest that aluminumis mainly complexed by organic acids rather than co-precipitated with Si to form allophanic minerals. Also,


mean values of bulk density (1.11 g cm�3) measured in thetopsoils (ARSSA, 2003) are slightly higher than thoseexpected from andic horizons (0.9 g cm�3, FAO et al.,1998). All these results may be explained by a ‘‘mixed’’origin of both the parent materials (carbonate/siliciclasticand pyroclastic) and the corresponding clay-size weath-ering products (phyllosilicate clay and short-range orderminerals). The high rates of the pH(NaF) and the Parfitt’sindex in some reddish argillic horizons suggest (i) theoccurrence of some fine volcanic ash, strongly homoge-nized within the soil matrix by pedogenetic processes(although not detected by our analyses), or more likely(ii) the presence of poorly crystalline iron and aluminumoxides/hydroxides, contributing to rubification, (iii) or ofaluminum-interlayered clay minerals (FAO et al., 1998).The unsuccessful recognition of poorly crystalline alumi-nosilicate minerals by SEM-EDS analyses could be due tothe extremely small size of their particles and their lesseramounts than phyllosilicate minerals. Moreover, theabundance of not well-shaped clay material in soilhorizons, which reduced the chance of identifying clayparticles on a morphological basis, may cause someconfusion between short-range order components andphyllosilicate clays with similar composition (both of themcharacterized by 1pSi/Alp2) (cf. Scarciglia et al., 2005).

5.4. Source and chronology of volcanic inputs

The small volcanic glass fragments (both unvesiculatedand vesiculated) identified in the Andisol-like horizons ofprofiles P1S and P3S very likely represent ash-fall depositsof high-energy eruption(s) that occurred in the peri-Tyrrhenian area. Their composition suggests a LatePleistocene to Holocene emplacement, since in the south-ern Tyrrhenian Sea, trachytic products characterize theexplosive volcanic activityo80 kaBP (Paterne et al., 1988).Moreover, the Ti-rich composition of clinopyroxenes(Joron et al., 1987), along with the location of the studyarea about 120–140 km SE of the Campania magmaticprovince (Phlegrean Fields, Vesuvius and Ischia Island),suggest this domain as the possible volcanic source. Thistephra input led to soil upbuilding and burial of older soilswith more evidence of rubification and clay illuviation.This soil upbuilding produced the Andisol-like horizonsand represents the products of soil formation during theLate Pleistocene and/or Holocene. This explanation isconsistent with the upper stratigraphic position and therelatively weak degree of development of illuvial claypedofeatures within the Andisol-like horizons. A shorterduration of pedogenesis and/or some possible change inclimate and pedoclimate, perhaps towards more humid andless contrasting (udic) seasonal conditions, representadditional environmental evidence supporting the devel-opment of Andisol-like morphology. In addition, as claycoatings show signs of degeneration, they can be related toa non-active process, and tentatively ascribed to late glacialto early (and possible middle) Holocene (cf. Catt, 1989;

Cremaschi and Trombino, 1998; Kuhn, 2003; Scarciglia etal., 2003a, 2005). In the Mediterranean basin, thistransition was actually characterized by a progressivetemperature and moisture increase (Ariztegui et al., 2000;Allen et al., 2002; Griffiths et al., 2002; Carboni et al.,2005), also showing a marked seasonality in the southernTyrrhenian Sea (Carboni et al., 2005), and early Holocenewas wetter than present (Goodfriend, 1999).

5.5. Eolian contributions to Terra Rossa and soil evolution

model

Apart from the question about volcanic inputs in thestudied soils, the abundance of quartz, feldspars and micasin all samples suggests a partly allochthonous origin of theparent material, probably supplied by eolian processes, asalready assessed in many Mediterranean red soils (Jacksonet al., 1982; Bronger and Bruhn-Lobin, 1997; Yaalon,1997; Yassoglou et al., 1997; Delgado et al., 2003). Thishypothesis appears reasonable despite the presence of otherquartz-, feldspar- and mica-bearing (crystalline meta-morphic and siliciclastic) terrains in the study area. Thedirect development of some soil profiles on exclusivelycarbonate bedrock, the abrupt discontinuity between someterraced marine deposits and the overlying soils, oftenlacking of the corresponding marine skeletal clasts (rockgravel and/or marine shells) even in bottom horizons,better support continental eolian inputs after platformwave-shaping and emergence. In addition, the typicalupturned plates (high-energy impact features) and dish-shaped depressions identified on the abraded surfaces ofsand grains, dominated by rounded/subrouded outlines,are diagnostic of eolian processes (Krinsley and Door-nkamp, 1973; Al-Saleh and Khalaf, 1982; Mazzullo et al.,1986). Important erosion and deposition by wind are likelyto have occurred during glacial periods, resulting in profiletruncation and/or upbuilding. During cold stadials, thelowering of sea level enhanced the widening of the deflationarea due to the emergence of the continental shelf (Chiocciet al., 1989), which, coupled with a partial degradation ofthe vegetation cover by decreased temperature, could havepromoted eolian removal, transportation and sedimenta-tion of sand particles (e.g. Bronger and Bruhn-Lobin, 1997;Robustelli et al., 2005). This accords with the above-discussed climatic reconstruction and time constraintsinferred, allowing us to propose the following model forthe evolution of the red soils studied and relatedgeomorphic changes: (i) marine terraces form duringinterglacial sea-level highstands; (ii) once exposed byeustatic lowstand during intervening glacials (and possibletectonic uplift), eolian aggradation occurs on them (andoverall coastal zones), leading to soil upbuilding andpartially inhibiting pedogenic processes; some soil featuresundergo disturbance/degeneration; physical rock degrada-tion and slope processes increase on hillslopes withaggradation of talus deposits, often enhancing surfaceerosion/truncation/colluviation of previously formed soils;


(iii) major phases of soil development including enhancedweathering of primary minerals, clay illuviation, rubifica-tion and vertic dynamics take place under restoredinterglacial climatic conditions (possibly also during milderinterstadials of cold glacial stages). According to the largetime span comprised between the older and the youngerterrace orders, and the continuously exposed topographicsurfaces (intrinsic to terrace landforms), all the soils (exceptprofiles P4S and P4N, buried by slope and alluvial fandeposits) should have undergone polycyclical and poly-genetic processes according to the number of climaticcycles experienced.

6. Conclusions

The whole set of data obtained from a variety ofapproaches and methods depicts a strong degree ofweathering of the soils sampled. As a whole, a higherdegree of pedogenetic maturity is expressed in the soils onthe oldest terraces, whereas the youngest profiles exhibit alower degree of pedogenetic evolution in both subsectors ofthe study area. Therefore the soil chronosequencesexamined along the northern Tyrrhenian coast of Calabriaseem to be reliable indicators of the degree of soilweathering according to the different ages of the marineterraces, and record the Quaternary climatic and morpho-genetic imprint. Similar soil-forming processes (mainly clayilluviation and rubification) occurred on the differentorders of marine terraces, clearly indicating polycyclicityof certain soil features, and therefore repetition ofanalogous climatic and environmental conditions indifferent periods of the Quaternary. Polycyclical soilfeatures alternate with other ones related to differentgeomorphic events, the most important being sedimentaryaggradation by tephra or slope deposits so that the soils ofthis area represent polygenetic pedosedimentary records.Our results show how the spatial differences among soils ofthe same chronosequence (i.e. pertaining to differentterrace orders), translated into temporal differences(cf. Huggett, 1998), are complicated by morphodynamicprocesses: windblown allochthonous material, pyroclasticinputs, reworked parent rock fragments or soil sediments,erosion and truncation of some horizons in turn inducerejuvenation of soil processes, modifying direction andrates of pedogenetic development through time. Such acomplex history of geomorphic events is recorded by nodefinite or highly discontinuous trends of many soilfeatures within single profiles or within each chronose-quence. This makes them not ideally suited to constructand propose reliable chronofunctions. However, in termsof rates of soil processes, terrace ages permitted us toestimate the time span needed for (i) complete leaching ofCaCO3 from the soil matrix (400–500 ka) despite thepolygenetic origin of the soil parent material, and for(ii) an appreciable etching of quartz grains (approximately4600 ka).

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to all the technicians who helped us withtheir valuable assistance and expertise: Mariano Davoli(SEM-EDS), Ugo Lanzafame (XRD, XRFS) and Fran-cesco Colonnese (thin section lab) from University ofCalabria, and Francesco Zaffina (chemical laboratory,ISSDS, Catanzaro). We also thank Adele Caruso andVittorio Vaccaro (ISSDS, Catanzaro) for their helpfulsupport in the field, Rosanna De Rosa and Paola Donato(University of Calabria) for interesting discussion aboutvolcanic glass provenance, and Eloisa De Vuono (Uni-versity of Calabria) for her precious help in the identifica-tion of parent rocks in thin sections. Many thanks also toDan Muhs (US Geological Survey) and an anonymousreviewer for their suggestions and critical comments, andto Edoardo A.C. Costantini (ISSDS, Firenze) and Peter M.Jacobs (University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, USA) forfurther review and editing work improving the quality ofour manuscript. Financial support to this work was partlysupplied by grant ‘‘Programmi Giovani Ricercatori 2002’’(Young Researcher Projects), University of Calabria (Chiefscientist: Dr. F. Scarciglia).

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