The 5th International Conference on

English, Discourse and Intercultural Communication

Macao, 2nd – 5th June, 2015

SLA Re-conceptualized from a Working Memory Perspective:

The P/E Model

WEN Zhisheng, Edward (温植胜) Ph.D.

School of Languages & Translation

Macao Polytechnic Institute

wenzhisheng@hotmail.com

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Outline

SLA conceptualized: UG vs. UB vs. Processing Views

WM conceptualized: Structural vs. Functional Views

Integrating SLA with WM-

The P/E Model : Predictions & Empirical Evidence

Implications and conclusions

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Prelude The most recent ‘bitter’ dispute in SLA theories

Site 1: UG vs. UB (Applied Linguistics, 2015/1)

Slabakova, R., et al. (2014). ‘We have moved on: Current concepts and

positions in generative SLA,’ Applied Linguistics 35/5: 601–6.

de Bot, K. (2015) Moving Where? A Reaction to Slabakova et al. (2014)

Applied Linguistics 36/2: 261-4.

Slabakova, R., et al. (2015). Rumors of UG’s Demise Have Been Greatly

Exaggerated,’ Applied Linguistics 36/2: 265-9.

Site 2: UB vs. Processing Views (Language Learning, 2015/1)

Focus: Order of Acquisition (or ‘Negation’)

Pienemann (PT) vs. de Bot & Verspoor (DST) vs. O’Grady vs. Lantolf 3

UG vs. UB vs. Processing Views in SLA

Three factors in language acquisition (Chomsky, 2005:6)

1. Genetic endowment determines the general course of the

development of the language faculty

(UG: Chomsky, 2005 & 2011; Hauser et al., 2002; cf. O’Grady, 2012)

2. Experience (comprehensive input?), which leads to (narrow) variation

(UB: Tomasello, 2003; Ellis, 2013; Ellis & Wulff, 2014; Ellis, O’Donnell & Ute, 2015)

3. Principles of data-analysis & computation efficiency

(Processing Views: O’Grady, 2012; Jackendoff, 2002 & 2006; cf.

Pienemann, 2015; VanPattern, 2010 & 2013)

O’Grady, W. (2012) 4

Generative(UG) Approaches to SLA

These are just myths and are no longer true (Slabakova,

2014)

-- Disregard input? Native speaker hoax?

Current Focus (Slabakova, 2014: 605) :

Processing and other cognitive constructs (e.g. inhibitory control);

Linguistic input, including construction frequency;

Form–meaning mismatches between the L1 and L2 (re-assembly of

grammatical and semantic features)

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Usage-based (UB) Approaches to SLA （Tomasello, 2003; N. Ellis, 1996, 2002, 2012 & 2013; Gries & N. Ellis, 2015; Eskildsen, 2015）

Constructions (embodied, frequency- & saliency-

based form-function mappings )

-- phonemes, lexis, formulas, morpho-syntactic

constructions (Goldberg, 2006) (cf. lexicon and grammar?)

How they develop (complex, dynamic, and adaptive)

-- Concrete exemplars/chunks Creative Schematic

templates

DST dis-regards‘context’ of instruction (DST: data-driven/corpus)

(Rod Ellis, 2015) 6

Processing Views (PI): Two Faces of SLA (VanPattern, 2010 & 2013)

1. Mental Representation (abstract, implicit,

underlying linguistic systems)

-- Abstract rule-like properties (phonological, lexical, morphological,

syntactic & certain semantics) that exist outside of the speaker’s ability to describe. (not rules themselves)

How it develops (evolves only in one way):

-- (1) input + (2) parsers/processors + (3) UG

Not amenable to normal instruction? -- However, instruction can make a difference in some way (processing

instruction -> manipulated input).

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Processing Views (PI): Two Faces of SLA (VanPattern, 2010 & 2013)

2. Skill/Use (speed & accuracy)

--Interpretation (Listening &reading); Expression (speaking & writing);

Negotiation (conversational interaction, turn-taking)

Note: L1 (representation precedes skills) vs. L2 (skills precedes)

How it develops (task- & context- specific)

-- not by mechanistic activity (‘drilling’ ?)

-- but by engaging in the activity/behavior

Amenable to normal instruction? (Yes & No)

-- Yes, if instruction provides ‘opportunities’ (facilitates)

-- No, if instruction is explicit intervention (no impact)

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Summary:

SLA Re-conceptualized: Three Key Aspects

Acquisition/Representation (SLA domains) L2 phonemes, lexis, formulae, morpho-syntactic constructions

Processing/Use (SLA activities) Comprehension (listening & reading); Production (speaking & writing);

Bilingual translating/interpreting (comprehension + production)

Development (L2 proficiency) L2 Beginners (ab initio learners) intermediate advanced Levels

What are the cognitive underpinnings? 9

Summary: SLA Re-conceptualized (Cognitive Underpinnings)

Cognitive mechanisms underlying SLA:

Dual-coding system (Skehan, 1998, 2002, 2012, 2014 & 2015)

Memory/Exemplar-based system

Analysis/Rule-based system

Working Memory as central? Fundamental differences between L1 & L2

-- Mental Lexicon & Grammar

-- Automatic/Implicit vs. Controlled/Explicit Processing

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Working Memory: A Structural View (Baddeley, 2003, 2012 & 2015;)

Alan Baddeley’s Multi-component Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)

Central Executive

Phonological Loop Visuo-spatial sketchpad

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Working Memory: A Functional View

Nelson Cowan’s Embedded-Processes Model (1988, 1999, 2014 & 2015)

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WM re-conceptualized:

A Multiple Components/Functions View

(Coolidge & Wynn, 2009: 41)

Working Memory Re-Conceptualized:

Unified Theories (Miyake & Shah, 1999; Conway et al., 2007; Coolidge & Wynn, 2009; Carruthers, 2013 & 2015)

Limited capacity (Signature Feature; Carruthers, 2013) -- Span (Miller, 1956: 7±2; Cowan, 1988 & 2001: 4±1; cf. Chunking)

-- Time (last for about 2 seconds; cf. rehearsal to offset forgetting)

Implications for SLA: Tradeoffs Hypothesis (Skehan, 2014 & 2015)

Multiple structures/functions in the service of human cognitive activities

(domain-specific & domain-general components: Williams, 2012; Carruthers, 2015)

-- Sustain

-- Rehearse

-- Manipulate

-- Inhibit

Implications for SLA: Distinctive impacts from different WM components/functions (PSTM vs EWM)

Two-way interactions with LTM (D/P), which in turn affects real-world Action

Carruthers, 2013 & 2015

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Integrating WM and SLA: A Conceptual Framework

Theorizing & Measuring (Wen, 2012, 2014 & 2015)

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The Phonological/Executive Hypothesis: Predictions & Evidence for PSTM

Empirical Predictions:

“ PSTM mainly underlies the acquisition and developmental aspects of SLA, encompassing lexis (vocabulary), formulas (phrases) and morpho-syntactic constructions (grammar).” (Assessment: Simple Memory Span Task)

Converging Empirical Evidence :

• WM in (L1 &) L2 Vocabulary/Lexis: YES!

-- Theory: PSTM as a ‘language learning device’ in L1 & L2 (Baddeley et al., 1998).

-- Evidence: Service, 1992; Cheung, 1996…

• WM in (L1 &) L2 Formulae/Chunks/Collocations: YES!

-- Language learning is acquisition of sequences/chunks (N. Ellis 1996, 2002 & 2012)

-- PSTM is instrumental in this chunking process (PST store and rehearsal)

-- Evidence: Skrzypek, 1999; Bolibaugh & Foster, 2013; Foster et al., 2014

• WM and (L1 &) L2 Morpho-Syntactic Constructions: YES or NO?

-- WM is not related to L1 grammar (Adams & Willis, 2001; cf. N. Ellis).

-- WM is involved in L2 grammar (e.g., Martin & Ellis, 2012…)

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The Phonological/Executive Hypothesis: Predictions & Evidence for EWM

Empirical Predictions:

“ EWM predominantly subserves the processing and monitoring aspects of

L2 comprehension, L2 interaction, and L2 performance. (Assessment:

Complex Memory Span Task)

Empirical Evidence and future directions (cf. Linck et al., 2014 meta-

analysis):

EWM and L1 vs. L2 comprehension (e.g., Walter, 2004)

EWM and L1 vs. L2 production (e.g., Ahmadian, 2012; Bergsleithner, 2010)

EWM and L1 vs. L2 interactions/noticing (e.g., Mackey et al., 2002; Revez,

2012; Goo, 2012)

EWM and interpreting (= Comprehension+Production?) (e.g., Cai & Dong, 2012)

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The Phonological/Executive Model For L1 & High Proficiency/Native-like L2(cf. P for Children vs. E for Adults)

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The Phonological/Executive Hypothesis

(P for L2 beginners/ab initio; E for post-intermediate)

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Implications & Conclusion: (Chapters in Wen, Mota & McNeill, 2015; Wen, Biedron & Skehan, 2016)

SLA is re-conceptualized: Acquisition, Processing & Development -- Acquisition & Development Aspects: Lexis, Formula, Morpho-Syntax Constructions (Ellis)

-- Processing/Use Aspects: L2 Comprehension, L2 Production and L2

Interaction, and Interpreting (Comprehension + Production).

WM is re-conceptualized: Components, Functions & Development (“A promising area for future WM research in the next ten years” – Alan Baddeley, 2014)

-- Dynamic L1-L2 seesaw scenarios (cf. Ullman’s Declarative/Procedural Model)

-- WM span task development: Production-based (c.f. Daneman, 1991)

-- LTM operationalized as L2 proficiency (Lexicon and grammar; D/P model)

Integrating WM theories with SLA theories (Bunting & Engle, 2015)

thus achieving synergy effects for both fields!

Ultimate goal: WM as language aptitude (from ‘predictive’ to ‘explanatory’)

Next week -- HKU Symposium “Language Aptitude Research: Where are we, and where to go”

(11:45-12:40, 12 June, Grand Hall, by Wen Zhisheng, Peter Skehan, Li Shaofeng & Yang Jing)

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References (PPT can be downloaded from my homepage at ACADEMIA.EDU)

1. Wen, Zhisheng. (2007). Working memory as foreign language aptitude: Theory and practice. Xiandai Waiyu (现代外语), 30(1), 87-95

2. Wen, Zhisheng. (2012a). Working memory and second language learning. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 22/1, 1-22.

3. Wen, Zhisheng. (2014). Research timeline: Theorizing and measuring working memory in first and second language research. Language Teaching, 47/2, 173-190.

4. Wen, Zhisheng. (2015, in press). Working memory and second language learning: Towards an integrated approach. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. (Foreword by Peter Skehan)

5. Wen, Zhisheng, Adriana Biedron, & Peter Skehan (2016, commissioned.). Foreign language aptitude theory: Yesterday, today and tomorrow. Language Teaching (2016 July Issue).

6. Wen, Zhisheng, Mailce Mota, & Arthur McNeill (2013). Working memory and second language acquisition: Innovation in Theory and Research [Special Issue]. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching (AJELT), Volume 23, 1-102.

7. Wen, Zhisheng, Mailce Mota, & Arthur McNeill (2015). Working memory in second language acquisition and processing: Theories, research and commentaries. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. (Foreword by Michael Bunting & Randall Engle; Chapter 1 by Alan Baddeley; Chapter 2 by Nelson Cowan; Chapter 3 by me on P/E Model) (Contact me for Discounted Offers of ONLY ₤15)

8. Wen, Zhisheng & Yi Baoshu. (2015 in press). Working memory and SLA research: A review and a new View. Xiandai Waiyu (现代外语).