Simplification of Solar Control System for a Water Pump in ...

Al-Neelain University

Graduate College

Simplification of Solar Control System for

a Water Pump in Irrigation System

A Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment for the degree of M.Sc. in

Control Engineering

Prepared By:

Khadega Mohammed Osman Ebrahim

Supervisor:

Dr. Abdelrahim Ate

April 2018

I

اآلية

بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم

يرفع هللا الذين آمنوا منكم والذين أوتوا العلم قال تعالى: }

{درجات

صدق هللا العظيم

[ 11اآلية سورة المجادلة: ]

II

Dedication

I dedicate my dissertation work to my great parents for their endless love, support and

encouragement and their unconditional love that motivates me to set higher targets.

To all my family, the symbol of love and giving, my friends who encourage and support me,

To All the people in my life who touch my heart, I dedicate this research.

III

Acknowledgement

First of all, we are grateful to Allah, the Almighty, the Merciful without whose blessing this

project would not been successfully completed. He gave us zeal, power of determination and

courage and vanquished all the stumbling hardness that we faced on the way.

I have to thank my parents for their love and support throughout my life, thank you both for

giving me strength to reach for the stars and chase my dreams. My little sisters and brother you

deserve my whole hearted thanks as well.

I would like to sincerely thank my supervisor Dr. Abd Alrahim Ate, for his guidance and

support throughout this study and his countless hours of reflecting, reading and encouraging.

IV

Abstract

The basic idea for this project is to create a simplified solar control system that would be used

on irrigation systems in Sudan. This solar system will pump water from the land which means

underground water. This system would be Arduino based and quite useful in areas where there

is plenty of sunshine but insufficient water to carry out farming activities, which requires

frequent watering. The system is powered by solar system as a renewable energy which uses

solar panel module to convert Sunlight into electricity. In addition, the system is powered by

an intelligent solar system in which solar panel targets the radiation from the Sun. Other than

that, the solar system has reduced energy cost as well as pollution. The system is equipped with

five input sensors; four LDRs sensors, one level detection sensors. LDR sensor measures the

light intensity falling on solar panel, whereas the level detection sensors detect the level of

water in the tank. The output sides consist of two servomotors, which are controlled

respectively by four LDRs sensors to the direction of sun light.

V

المستخلص

.الفكرة األساسية لهذا المشروع في إنشاء نظام مبسط للتحكم في الطاقة الشمسية يمكن استخدامه في أنظمة الري في السودان تتمثل

ومفيد للغاية في Arduino سيكون هذا النظام على أساس.األرض التي تعني المياه الجوفيةسيضخ هذا النظام الشمسي المياه من

يعمل النظام .ري متكرر التي تتطلبالمناطق التي يوجد فيها الكثير من أشعة الشمس ولكن المياه غير كافية للقيام بأنشطة الزراعة

باإلضافة إلى ذلك ، يتم تشغيل النظام .الشمسية لتحويل ضوء الشمس إلى كهرباءبالطاقة الشمسية كطاقة متجددة بإستخدام وحدة األلواح

بخالف ذلك ، خفض النظام الشمسي تكلفة الطاقة .بواسطة نظام شمسي ذكي حيث تستهدف األلواح الشمسية اإلشعاع من الشمس

جهاز استشعار واحد للكشف عن مستوى ، و LDRs تم تجهيز النظام بخمسة حساسات إدخال ؛ أربعة أجهزة استشعار .والتلوث

ستوى معن مستشعر كشف المستوى يتحسسشدة الضوء الساقط على األلواح الشمسية ، بينما يقيسLDR مستشعر . الماء في الخزان

وذلك LDRs الخرج من محركين سيرفو ، يتم التحكم بهما على التوالي بواسطة أجهزة استشعار تتكون جانب.الماء في الخزان

.لتحريك األلواح بإتجاه أشعة الشمس

VI

List of figures

Figure No ( 2.1) Solar Energy System. ..................................................................................... .8

Figure No ( 2.2) Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) Cell. .................................................................... .10

Figure No ( 2.3) Solar Panel configuration. ............................................................................ .10

Figure No ( 2.4) Arduino Uno Board...................................................................................... .11

Figure No ( 2.5) An Arduino pin diagram Based on ATMega-328 Microcontroller .............. 12

Figure No ( 2.6) Photo Resistor .............................................................................................. .15

Figure No ( 2.7) Characteristic curve. ................................................................................... .15

Figure No ( 2.8) Construction of photocell ............................................................................. .16

Figure No ( 2.9)Servo motor inside features. ......................................................................... .17

Figure No ( 2.10)Variable pulse width control servo position ............................................... .18

Figure No ( 2.11) Working of ultra-sonic sensor. ................................................................... .20

Figure No (3.1) The Block Diagram of the system. ............................................................... .22

Figure No (3.2) The Flow Chart of the system. ....................................................................... 25

Figure No (3.3) Overview of Proteus ...................................................................................... 25

Figure No (3.4) An Arduino board in Protoeus8. .................................................................... 26

Figure No (3.5) The 4 LDRs connection. ................................................................................ 27

Figure No(3.6)Connection of Horizontal and Vertical servo motors when it ON and OFF....27

Figure No(3.7) Ultrasonic sensor connection in proteus. ........................................................ 28

Figure No(3.8) LED which indicate pump. ............................................................................. 28

Figure No(3.9) The LDR module. ........................................................................................... 29

Figure No (3.10) Servo motor. ................................................................................................. 29

Figure No (3.11) Solar panel. .................................................................................................. 30

Figure No (3.12) An Arduino board. ....................................................................................... 30

Figure No (3.13) An Ultrasonic Ranging Module HC-SR04 Sensor. ..................................... 31

Figure No (4.1) The design of circuit in Proteus. .................................................................... 33

Figure No (4.2)Case 1 when A has higher light intensity........................................................ 34

Figure No (4.3) Case 2 when B has much light intensity. ....................................................... 35

Figure No (4.4) Case 3 when C has much light intensity. ....................................................... 36

Figure No (4.5) The design of circuit in hardware. ................................................................. 37

Figure No (4.6) Case 1 when the light intensity in A bigger than B andC…………………..37

Figure No (4.7) Case 2 when the light intensity in B bigger than A and C.. .......................... .38

Figure No (4.8) Case 3 when the light intensity in C is higher than A and B. ...................... ..38

VII

List of Abbreviations

DC……………………………… Direct current

AC……………………………… Alternate current

LDR……………………………. Light Dependent Resistor

LED……………………………. Light emitting diode

PV……………………………… Photovoltaic

SPV……………………………. Solar Photovoltaic

OPamp…….………………….... Operation amplifier

Mc……………………………… Microcontroller

P-type silicon………………….. Positive charge of the hole

N-type silicon…………………. Negative charge of the hole

SRAM………………………..... Static random-access memory

EEPROM… …………………... Electrically erasable programmable read-only

memory

PWM………………………….. Pulse width modulated

USB…………………………… Universal Serial Bus

GND…………………………... Ground

RX………….………………… Receiver in Serial communication

TX …………………….…...… Transmitter in Serial communication

ARef………………………….. Reference voltage used for analog input

IORef…………………………. Voltage corresponding to the input/output of that board

RPM…………………………... Rotation per minute

VSM………………………….. Virtual System Modelling

LCD…………………………... Liquid-crystal display

VIII

List of Tables

1 Table of equipment cost………………………………………………….e

IX

Table of Contents:

I ...................................................................................................................................اآلية

Dedication…….............................................................................................................II

Acknowledgement…..................................................................................................III

Abstract……...............................................................................................................IV

V.................................................................................................................……المستخلص

List of Figures….........................................................................................................VI

List of Abbreviations................................................................................................VII

List of Tables ……..................................................................................................VIII

Chapter One: Introduction .......................................................................................... 6

1.2. Background .......................................................................................................... 6

1.3. Problems statement .............................................................................................. 9

1.4 Objectives .............................................................................................................. 9

1.5. Thesis Layout ....................................................................................................... 9

Chapter Two: Theory and Literature Review ......................................................... 11

2.1. Literature Review ............................................................................................... 11

2.2. Development of Solar energy............................................................................. 11

2.3. Solar energy definition ....................................................................................... 12

2.4. Solar Energy System .......................................................................................... 12

2.5. Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) Cell ........................................................................... 13

2.6. Solar Panel ......................................................................................................... 14

2.6.1. Working Principle of Solar Panel ................................................................... 15

2.7. Arduino .............................................................................................................. 15

2.7.1. Arduino Architecture ...................................................................................... 16

2.7.2. Arduino Pin Diagram ...................................................................................... 16

2.7.3. Programming an Arduino ................................................................................ 17

2.8. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) ....................................................................... 18

2.8.1. Types of light Dependent Resistors ................................................................ 18

2.8.2. Working Principle of LDR .............................................................................. 19

2.8.3. Characteristics of LDR .................................................................................... 19

2.8.4. Construction of a Photocell ............................................................................. 20

X

2.8.5. Applications of LDR ....................................................................................... 20

2.9 Servo motor ......................................................................................................... 21

2.9.1 Components of the servo motor ....................................................................... 21

2.9.2 Controlling the servo ........................................................................................ 22

2.10. Pumps ............................................................................................................... 23

2.11. Storage Tank .................................................................................................... 24

2.12. Ultrasonic Sensor ............................................................................................. 24

Chapter Three: Component in Proteus and Hardware .......................................... 26

3.1. Block diagram .................................................................................................... 26

3.2. Explanation the Flow Chart ............................................................................... 26

3.3. Flow Chart .......................................................................................................... 27

3.4. Algorithm ........................................................................................................... 27

3.5. Proteus 8 software .............................................................................................. 28

3.6. Explanations of the tools are used in research ................................................... 29

3.6.1 Component of circuit in Software (Proteus) .................................................... 29

3.6.1.1 Arduino-UNO based ATmega-328P. ............................................................ 29

3.6.1.2 Light dependent Resistor: ............................................................................. 30

3.6.1.3 Servo motor ................................................................................................... 31

3.6.1.4 Ultrasonic sensor ........................................................................................... 32

3.6.1.5 LED and DC motor ....................................................................................... 32

3.6.2 Component of circuit in Hardware ................................................................... 33

3.6.2.1 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR module) ..................................................... 33

3.6.2.2 Servo motor (micro servo 9g) ....................................................................... 33

3.6.2.3 Solar panel ..................................................................................................... 34

3.6.2.4 Arduino UNO ................................................................................................ 34

3.6.2.5 Ultrasonic sensor (HC-SR04) ....................................................................... 35

Chapter Four: Result in Proteus and Hardware ..................................................... 37

4.1. The design of circuit in Proteus ......................................................................... 37

4.2 Results of Proteus ................................................................................................ 37

4.2.1 Case 1 in Proteus: ............................................................................................. 37

4.2.2 Case 2 in Proteus: ............................................................................................. 38

XI

4.2.3 Case 3 in proteus: ............................................................................................. 39

4.3 The design of circuit in Hardware: ..................................................................... 41

4.4 Results of hardware ............................................................................................. 41

4.4.1 Case 1 in hardware: .......................................................................................... 41

4.4.2 Case 2 in hardware ........................................................................................... 42

4.4.3 Case 3 in hardware ........................................................................................... 42

Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendation .................................................... 43

Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 43

Recommendation ....................................................................................................... 43

References .................................................................................................................... 44

APPENDIX(A) code of project..............................................................................a

APPENDIX(B) equipment cost……………………..……………………………e

6

Chapter One

Introduction

1.1. Introduction

Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain,

tides and geothermal heat which are renewable (naturally replenished). Renewable energy

technologies range from solar power, wind power, hydroelectricity/micro hydro, biomass and

biofuels for transportation.

Renewable energy is energy that is generated from natural processes that are continuously

replenished. This includes sunlight, geothermal heat, wind, tides, water, and various forms of

biomass. This energy cannot be exhausted and is constantly renewed.

The sun is a powerful source of renewable energy for our planet. This solar energy can be

harnessed through Photovoltaic (PV) systems to produce electricity for subsequent uses. The

energy harnessed from the sun is known as solar energy and is considered as the most reliable

resource among the available renewable energy sources.

Solar energy can be used to pump water and these solar-powered pumping systems are

particularly ideal for remote locations. [1]

1.2. Background

Shreyasi Chakrabory, Nilanjana Mukherjee, Rashmi Biswas, Tanushree Saha, Astika

Mohinta, Neha Kumari Modi and Dip Prakash Samajdar they have discussed about the

solar tracking system that they have designed using some LDR’s (light dependent

resistances), micro-controller (AT89S52), comparator using OPAMP’s, a crystal

oscillator, stepper motor and stepper motor driver.[2]

The basic idea behind this work is that the intensity of light will be sensed by the LDR’s

separated by a certain angular distance, the comparators will compare the incident

light intensity with the intensity of perpendicular incidence. The micro-controller will

rotate the stepper motor by the desired angle depending on the output of the comparators via

a stepper motor driver circuit to maximize the efficiency. [2]

7

In the result The designed prototype is tested in the laboratory using a torch light as

the light source. The comparator output connected with the east most LDR becomes

high when the light is incident on the LDR and the prototype orients itself in the east most

direction from its reset position.[2]

This system can work properly irrespective of weather conditions and location.

however, the designed prototype of the solar tracker is a miniature of the main system

and so there are a number of limitations. They recommended that the number of LDRs

should be increased for the practical case. Moreover, we have considered one-

dimensional rotation of the tracker. So we aim to increase the degrees of freedom of this

tracker in future course of work. [2]

B. Eker has discuss about agricultural technology and how its change rapidly and how PV

solution becomes the best solution for remote area. He make comparison between using fuel

and using solar panel to drive motor and pumping water. He mentioned some significant

drawbacks of using diesel [3].

He proved that for many agricultural needs, the alternative is solar energy. Because it is

Modern, well-designed, simple-to-maintain solar systems can provide the energy that is

needed where it is needed, and when it is needed [3]

He discussed about basic types of solar-powered water pumping systems, battery-coupled and

direct-coupled [3].

Battery-coupled water pumping systems consist of photovoltaic (PV) panels, charge control

regulator, batteries, pump controller, pressure switch and tank and DC water pump. The

electric current produced by PV panels during daylight hours charges the batteries, and the

batteries in turn supply power to the pump anytime water is needed. [3]

In direct-coupled pumping systems, electricity from the PV modules is sent directly to the

pump, which in turn pumps water through a pipe to where it is needed. This system is

designed to pump water only during the day. The amount of water pumped is totally

dependent on the amount of sunlight hitting the PV panels and the type of pump. [3]

Arnab Samanta ,RachitVarma , Shrikant Bhatt , they designed system with a view to track

the position of the sun by the solar panel so that rays of the sun always fall

perpendicular on the panel. As only perpendicular rays can produce maximum intensity

8

of solar energy. In this way concentrated solar rays can be made available throughout

the day [4]. PIC18252 micro-controller is set of a predefined value, so that it will be active

only for a certain period of time. This is done with the help of in-built Timer1 present in the

Mc. For this much period of time motor will be active and rotate the solar panel. [4]

The project recommended a futuristic fission in harvesting of solar energy in a more

efficient and suitable way. The project has developed a small prototype which can

open the doors of advancing the utilization of solar energy in near future at affordable

prices. The solar tracker will help in future to make bigger systems which can

be chronologically operated and helped in efficient tracking the position of the sun. [4]

The energy harvested can be used in number of home application, driving engines which

use electricity or diesel, or even in driving cars and micro-light aircraft.

Implementation of this model on large scale will ensure that bigger models can be

implemented using better and bigger motors.[4]

Bugała, G. Frydrychowicz-Jastrzębska, they have determined a receiver positioning in the

east west axis allows to follow the daily movement of the Sun across the sky. The

mechanical system uses a turntable with a DC motor to change the position of the

photovoltaic module in the range of 0 -170°.[5] The angle of incidence of the solar radiation

can be adjusted by changing the spatial orientation of the PV receiver.

The measurements conducted in real conditions were carried out from June 2013 to July

2014. Based on the obtained values of current, voltage and DC power, the current – voltage

and power – voltage characteristics were determined for different weather conditions like

clear sky, medium cloud cover and heavy clouds.[5]

P.Ramya1,R.Ananth M.E,(Ph.D.)2,“the implementation of solar tracker using Arduino with

servomotor” they have discussed about consuming the maximum solar energy through solar

panel , Power output from a solar cell will be maximum when it is facing the sun, The

components they used for its construction are servo motor, Arduino and LDR. The active

sensors continuously monitor the sunlight and alternate the panel towards the direction where

the intensity of sunlight is maximum. [26]

In this project, it’s divided by two categories; hardware and software. In hardware part, 2

light dependent resistors (LDR) have been used to trace the synchronize of sunlight by

9

detecting brightness level of sunlight. For rotation part, one standard servo motor has been

selected. In software part, the code is constructed in C programming language and inserted in

Arduino. This project is designed for low power and portable application.[26]

Result of this project was, when light falls on the LDR, its resistance varies and a potential

divider circuit is used to obtain corresponding voltage value (5v) from the resistance of LDR.

The voltage signal is sent to the Arduino microcontroller. Established on the voltage signal, a

corresponding PWM signal is sent to the servo motor which causes it to rotate and to end

with attains a position where intensity of light falls on the solar panel is maximum.[26]

1.3. Problems statement

The main problem people are facing in the region is the lack of water because of low and

inconsistent rainfall. Gradually decreasing energy sources and increasing demand for energy

in recent years, makes more efficient and positive use of current water resources together

with global warming and drought. [6]Energy of pumps used for the agricultural irrigation is

generally provided from electrical energy or fossil fuels. Since fossil fuels commence to

annihilate besides its increasing of prices and hazards to environment alternative energy

seeking efforts has become inevitable also in agricultural sector. Since the sources utilized for

the purpose of producing electricity are limited and their prices gradually increase researches

for new alternatives for irrigation systems become more important. [6]

1.4 Objectives

To overcome the above problem and to improve water availability in the rural area, there is a

need to design a simple solar powered system for water abstraction. Solar system will address

their problems through the use of solar tracking system and submersible solar water pump.

The solar powered system for water abstraction uses the readily available renewable energy

i.e. solar energy. Therefore, the stakeholders will not incur the daily cost for diesel engine

pump. The cost incurred through human labour will also be minimised.

1.5. Thesis Layout

This project divided to five chapters as following:

Chapter one contains the Problem statement, General objective of research, and the

Methodology.

10

Chapter two discussed History of solar energy ,Solar energy definition, Solar energy system,

Solar photovoltaic cell , Solar panel ,Arduino ,Light dependent resistor ,Servo motor, Pumps ,

Storage tank , Ultrasonic sensor.

Chapter three contains Component of circuit in proteus and in hardware.

Chapter four contains Circuit design in proteus and hardware and Results.

Finally chapter five contains the Conclusion and Recommendations.

11

Chapter Two

Theory and Literature Review

2.1. Literature Review

Renewable energy is energy which originates from natural source such as sunlight, tides,

wind rain, wave and etc. Solar Energy is the energy consequent from the sun through the

form of solar radiation. Solar energy is a very large, inexhaustible source of energy. Today

solar energy is the major eco-friendly & pollution less method of producing the electricity.

The power from the sun interrupted by the earth is approximately 1.8*1011MW, which is

many thousands of times larger than the current consumption rate on the earth of all

commercial energy sources.

At the present time, clean renewable energy sources attract a great attention as an essential

mean for solving the energy crisis around the globe. Solar energy is frequently offered free of

charge all over the world although it is not a continuous energy source. One of the most

promising renewable energy sources characterized by a huge potential of conversion into

electrical power is the solar energy.

This project include solar control system using Arduino based solar tracker. This solar tracker

system uses the Arduino board, Four LDR and motor to rotate the solar panel towards the sun

or a source of light. In this project LDR was selected since it has no polarity, and easy to

interface with circuit, cheap, reliable and is described by high spectral sensitivity.

2.2. Development of Solar energy

The history of solar energy is as old as human kind. In the last two centuries, we started using

Sun's energy directly to make electricity.

In 1839, 19-year old French physicist Alexandre Edmond Becquerel discovered that certain

materials would produce small amounts of electric current when exposed to light. This basic

physical process of using light to generate an electric current is known as the photovoltaic

effect. [7]

However, it would be more than 100 years before engineers would develop a photovoltaic

cell capable of converting enough solar energy into electricity to run electrical equipment. [7]

https://www.solar-energy-at-home.com/what-is-solar-energy.html

12

The breakthrough came in 1954 when physicists at Bell Labs discovered that a Silicon

semiconductor was able to convert light into electricity with 4to6% efficiency. Compared to

earlier materials which were less than 1% efficient, this was a major accomplishment. [7]

2.3. Solar energy definition

Solar energy is any type of energy generated by the sun. Solar energy is created by nuclear

fusion that takes place in the sun. Fusion occurs when protons of hydrogen atoms violently

collide in the sun’s core and fuse to create a helium atom. [8]

The energy that Earth receives from the sun, primarily as visible light and other forms of

electromagnetic radiation. The term solar energy often refers to processes that use this energy

to generate heat or electricity for human use.

2.4. Solar Energy System

Solar energy is the cleanest and most available renewable energy source. The Modern

technology can harness this energy for a variety of uses, including producing electricity,

providing light and heating water for domestic, commercial or industrial application.

Solar energy can also be used to meet our electricity requirements. Through solar

photovoltaic (SPV) cells, solar radiation gets converted into DC electricity directly. This

electricity can either be used as it is or can be stored in the battery. [7][8]

13

Figure No (2.1) Solar Energy System.

2.5. Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) Cell

A solar photovoltaic or solar cell is a device that converts light into electric current using the

photoelectric effect. SPVs are used in many applications such as railway signals, street

lighting, domestic lighting and powering of remote telecommunication systems.

It has a p-type of silicon layer placed in contact with an n-type silicon layer and the diffusion

of electrons occurs from the n-type material to the p-type material. In the p-type material,

there are holes for accepting the electrons. The n-type material is rich in electrons, so by the

influence of the solar energy, the electrons move from the n- type material and in the p-n

junction, the combine with holes. This creates a charge on either side of the p-n junction to

create an electric field. [7]

So in dark, the solar cell behaves like a reverse biased diode. When light falls on it, like diode

the solar cell forward biases and current flows in one direction from anode to cathode like a

diode. Usually the open circuit (without connecting the battery) voltage of a solar panel is

14

higher than its rated voltage. For example a 12 volt panel gives around 20 volts in bright sun

light. But when the battery is connected to it, the voltage drops to 14to15 volts. Solar

photovoltaic (SPV) cells are made of extraordinary materials called semiconductors for

example silicon, which is presently the most generally used. Essentially, when light strikes

the cell, a certain bit of it is absorbed within the semiconductor material. This means that the

energy of the absorbed light is transferred to the semiconductor. [9]

Solar PV cells also all have one or more electric fields that act to force electrons freed by

light absorption to flow in a certain direction. This flow of electrons is a current and by

placing metal contacts on the top and bottom of the SPV cell, we can draw that current off to

utilize remotely. The cells voltage defines the power that the solar cell can produce. The

process of converting light into electricity is called the solar photovoltaic (SPV) effect.

Figure No (2.2) Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) Cell.

2.6. Solar Panel

A solar panel is a collection of solar cells. The solar panel converts the solar energy into

electrical energy. Solar panels are the main components used for driving the solar pump.

Several solar panels connected together in arrays produce DC electricity, interconnections are

made using series or parallel combinations to achieve desired voltage and power for the

pump. [10]

15

Figure No (2.3) Solar Panel configuration.

2.6.1. Working Principle of Solar Panel

Simply put, a solar panel works by allowing photons, or particles of light, to knock electrons

free from atoms, generating a flow of electricity. Solar panels actually comprise many,

smaller units called photovoltaic cells. (Photovoltaic simply means they convert sunlight into

electricity)

Photovoltaic (PV) (or solar electricity) is the process that converts sunlight into electricity.

PV modules (some may know them to be solar panels) are comprised of small photovoltaic

cells that are all wired together and sealed underneath a tempered glass cover. [10]

2.7. Arduino

An Arduino board is a one type of microcontroller based kit. The first Arduino technology

was developed in the year 2005 by David Cuartielles and Massimo Banzi. The designers

thought to provide easy and low cost board for students, hobbyists and professionals to build

devices. Arduino technology is used in many operating devices like communication or

controlling. [11]

http://www.edgefxkits.com/blog/simple-electronic-project-circuits-for-final-year-engineering-students/

16

Figure No (2.4) Arduino Uno Board.

2.7.1. Arduino Architecture

Arduino’s processor basically uses the Harvard architecture where the program code and

program data have separate memory. It consists of two memories- Program memory and the

data memory.

The code is stored in the flash program memory, whereas the data is stored in the data

memory. The Atmega328 has 32 KB of flash memory for storing code (of which 0.5 KB is

used for the boot loader), 2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM and operates with a clock

speed of 16MHz.[11]

2.7.2. Arduino Pin Diagram

A typical example of Arduino board is Arduino Uno. It includes an ATmega328

microcontroller and it has 28-pins as it shown below.

The pin configuration of the Arduino Uno board is shown in the above. It consists of 14-

digital I/O pins. Wherein 6 pins are used as pulse width modulation o/ps and 6 analog i/ps, a

USB connection, a power jack, a 16MHz crystal oscillator, a reset button, and an ICSP

header. Arduino board can be powered either from the personal computer through a USB or

external source like a battery or an adaptor. This board can operate with an external supply of

7to12V by giving voltage reference through the IORef pin or through the pin Vin. [11]

17

Figure No (2.5) An Arduino pin diagram based on ATMega-328 Microcontroller.

Digital I/Ps

It comprises of 14-digital I/O pins, each pin take up and provides 40mA current. Some of the

pins have special functions like pins 0 & 1, which acts as a transmitter and receiver

respectively. For serial communication, pins-2 & 3 are external interrupts, 3,5,6,9,10,11

pins delivers PWM o/p and pin-13 is used to connect LED.

Analog I/Ps: It has 6-analog I/O pins, each pin provide a 10 bits resolution.

Aref: This pin gives a reference to the analog i/ps.

Reset: When the pin is low, then it resets the microcontroller.

2.7.3. Programming an Arduino

The most important advantage with Arduino is the programs can be directly loaded to the

device without requiring any hardware programmer to burn the program. This is done

because of the presence of the 0.5KB of Boot loader which allows the program to be burned

18

into the circuit. All we have to do is to download the Arduino software and writing the code.

[11]

2.8. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or a photo resistor is a device whose resistivity is a

function of the incident electromagnetic radiation. Hence, they are light sensitive devices.

They are also called as photo conductors, photo conductive cells or simply photocells. They

are made up of semiconductor materials having high resistance. There are many different

symbols used to indicate a LDR. One of the most commonly used symbol is shown in the

figure below. The arrow indicates light falling on it. [12]

Figure No (2.6) Photo Resistor

2.8.1. Types of light Dependent Resistors

Based on the materials used they are classified as:

Intrinsic photo resistors (Un doped semiconductor): These are made of pure

semiconductor materials such as silicon or germanium. Electrons get excited from valance

band to conduction band when photons of enough energy fall on it and number charge

carriers is increased.

Extrinsic photo resistors: These are semiconductor materials doped with impurities which

are called as dopants. Theses dopants create new energy bands above the valence band which

are filled with electrons. Hence this reduces the band gap and less energy is required in

exciting them. Extrinsic photo resistors are generally used for long wavelengths. [12]

https://www.electrical4u.com/types-of-resistor-carbon-composition-and-wire-wound-resistor/

19

2.8.2. Working Principle of LDR

A light dependent resistor works on the principle of photo conductivity. Photo conductivity is

an optical phenomenon in which the materials conductivity is increased when light is

absorbed by the material. When light falls i.e. when the photons fall on the device, the

electrons in the valence band of the semiconductor material are excited to the conduction

band.

These photons in the incident light should have energy greater than the band gap of the

semiconductor material to make the electrons jump from the valence band to the conduction

band.

Hence when light having enough energy strikes on the device, more and more electrons are

excited to the conduction band which results in large number of charge carriers.

The result of this process is more and more current starts flowing through the device when

the circuit is closed and hence it is said that the resistance of the device has been decreased.

This is the most common working principle of LDR. [12]

2.8.3. Characteristics of LDR

LDR’s are light dependent devices whose resistance is decreased when light falls on them

and that is increased in the dark. When a light dependent resistor is kept in dark, its resistance

is very high.

This resistance is called as dark resistance. It can be as high as 10^12 Ω and if the device is

allowed to absorb light its resistance will be decreased drastically. If a constant voltage is

applied to it and intensity of light is increased the current starts increasing.

Figure below shows resistance vs. illumination curve for a particular LDR. [12]

Figure No (2.7) Characteristic curve.

20

Photocells or LDR‟s are nonlinear devices. There sensitivity varies with the wavelength of

light incident on them. Some photocells might not at all response to a certain range of

wavelengths. Based on the material used different cells have different spectral response

curves. [12]

2.8.4. Construction of a Photocell

The structure of a light dependent resistor consists of a light sensitive material which is

deposited on an insulating substrate such as ceramic. The material is deposited in zigzag

pattern in order to obtain the desired resistance and power rating. This zigzag area separates

the metal deposited areas into two regions. Then the ohmic contacts are made on the either

sides of the area. The resistances of these contacts should be as less as possible to make sure

that the resistance mainly changes due to the effect of light only. Materials normally used are

cadmium sulphide, cadmium selenide, indium antimonide and cadmium sulphonide. The use

of lead and cadmium is avoided as they are harmful to the environment.[12]

Figure No (2.8) Construction of photocell.

2.8.5. Applications of LDR

LDR’s have low cost and simple structure. They are often used as light sensors. They are

used when there is a need to detect absences or presences of light like in a camera light meter.

Used in street lamps, alarm clock, burglar alarm circuits, light intensity meters, for counting

the packages moving on a conveyor belt, etc. [12]

21

2.9 Servo motor

A servo motor is an electrical device which can push or rotate an object with great precision.

If you want to rotate and object at some specific angles or distance, then you use servo motor.

It is just made up of simple motor which run through servo mechanism. If motor is used is

DC powered then it is called DC servo motor, and if it is AC powered motor then it is called

AC servo motor. [14]

Servo motors are used for various applications. They are normally small in size and have

good energy efficiency. The servo circuitry is built inside the motor unit and comes with a

positionable shaft that is fitted with a gear. The motor is controlled with an electric signal that

determines the amount of shaft movement. [13]

Figure No (2.9) Servo motor inside features.

2.9.1 Components of the servo motor

Inside the servo there are three main components; a small DC motor, a potentiometer and a

control circuit. Gears are used to attach the motor to the control wheel. As the motor rotates,

the resistance of the potentiometer changes so the control circuit can precisely regulate the

amount of movement there is and the required direction.

When the shaft of the motor is at the desired position, power supply to the motor is stopped.

If the shaft is not at the right position, the motor is turned in the right direction.

The desired position is sent through electrical pulses via the signal wire. The speed of the

motor is proportional to the difference between the actual position and the position that is

desired.

Therefore, if the motor is close to the desired position, it turns slowly. Otherwise, it turns fast.

This is known as proportional control. [13]

22

2.9.2 Controlling the servo

Servos are sent through sending electrical pulses of variable width, or pulse width modulation

(PWM), through the control wire. There is a minimum pulse, maximum pulse and a repetition

rate. Servos can usually turn only 90 degrees in either direction for a total of 180 degrees

movement. The neutral position of the motor is defined as that where the servo has the same

amount of potential rotation in both the clockwise and counter-clockwise direction. The

PWM sent to the motor determines the position of the shaft, and based on the duration of the

pulse sent through the control wire the rotor will turn to the position that is desired.

The servo motor expects to see a pulse after every 20 milliseconds and the length of the pulse

will determine how far the motor will turn. For instance, a 1.5ms pulse makes the motor to

turn in the 90 degrees position. If the pulse was shorter than 1.5ms, it will move to 0 degrees

and a longer pulse moves it to 180 degrees. This is shown below. [13] [14]

Figure No (2.10) Variable pulse width control servo position.

For applications where there is requirement of high torque, servos are preferable. They will

also maintain the torque at high speeds, up to 90% of the rated torque is available from servos

at high speeds. Their efficiencies are between 80 to 90%.

A servo is able to supply approximately twice their rated torque for short periods of time

offering enough capacity to draw from when needed. In addition, they are quiet, are available

in AC and DC, and do not suffer from vibrations. [13] [14]

23

2.9.3. Advantages and disadvantages of servo motors

For applications where high speed and high torque are required, servo motors are the better

option. While stepper motors peak at around 2000 RPM, servos are available at much faster

speeds. Servo motors also maintain torque at high speed, up to 90% of the rated torque is

available from servos at high speeds. They have an efficiency of about 80-90% and supply

roughly twice their rated torque for short periods. Furthermore, they do not vibrate or suffer

from resonance issues.

Servo motors are more expensive than other types of motors. Servos require gear boxes,

especially for lower operation speeds. The requirement for a gear box and position encoder

makes the designs more mechanically complex. Maintenance requirements will also increase.

[13]

2.10. Pumps

Solar water pumping systems in its simplest way, have the solar panels connected

directly to the small DC motor that drives the water pump.

Solar water pumps are designed to use the direct current (DC) provided by a PV array.

DC water pumps in general use one-third to one half the energy of conventional AC

(alternating current) pumps. Solar pumps are available in several capacities depending upon

the requirement of water.

There are two types of DC pumps namely surface pumps and submersible pumps. All Surface

pumps are centrifugal, while submersible pumps can be both centrifugal and helical rotor

pumps.

Surface pumps are more accessible for maintenance and less expensive than submersible

pumps, but they are not well suited for suction and can only draw water from about 20

vertical feet. Surface pumps are excellent for pushing water long distances.

Most submersible pumps have high lift capability, but they are sensitive to dirt/sand in the

water and should not be run if the water level drops below the pump.

24

Brief definition of each type of pump:

Surface pumps, located at near the water surface, are used primarily for moving water

through a pipeline. Some surface pumps can develop high heads and are suitable for moving

water long distances or to high elevations.

Submersible pumps, placed down a well or sump, are highly reliable because they are not

exposed to freezing temperatures, do not need special protection from the elements, and do

not require priming.

Centrifugal pumps use a spinning impeller that adds energy to the water and pushes into the

system, similar to a water wheel.

Helical rotor pumps is a positive displacement pump, the rotor has an eccentric movement

which when rotating inside the stator effectively squeezes water through the pump on every

rotation.

This positive displacement action means that water is pumped when the pump is running at

very low speeds and that high pressure can be created making it able to pump water at high

lifts. [15]

2.11. Storage Tank

Solar water systems most likely use tanks to store water. The size should be able to keep

roughly 3 days of water or 2 to 3 days depending on the variation in the sun. Too much water

should not be kept too long because of diminishing quality due to growth in algae.

2.12. Ultrasonic Sensor

An Ultrasonic sensor is a device that can measure the distance to an object by using sound

waves. It measures distance by sending out a sound wave at a specific frequency and listening

for that sound wave to bounce back. [16] By recording the elapsed time between the sound

wave being generated and the sound wave bouncing back, it is possible to calculate the

distance between the sonar sensor and the object. [17]

25

Figure No (2.11) Working of ultrasonic sensor.

26

Chapter Three

Component in Proteus and Hardware

3.1. Block diagram

The following block diagram explain solar tracking system that is done by Light Dependant

Resistor (LDR). In addition an ultrasonic sensor is used to sense water level inside tank. The

inputs are from values of LDR and ultrasonic sensor, Arduino as the controller and the DC

motor will be the output. The DC motor will move the solar panel to the position of the high

intensity LDR that was in the programming.

Figure No (3.1) The Block Diagram of the system.

3.2. Explanation the Flow Chart

The principle of the solar tracking system is done by Light Dependant Resistor (LDR). Four

LDR’s are connected to Arduino in analog pins from A1 to A4 that acts as the input for the

system. The built-in Analog-to-Digital Converter will convert the analog value of LDR and

convert it into digital. The inputs are from analog value of LDR, Arduino as the controller

and the DC motor will be the output. (LDR1, LDR2), (LDR3, LDR4) and (LDR2, LDR3) are

taken as pair there labels in code are A, B and C respectively. If one of the LDRs pair gets

more light intensity than the other, it will send to the respective Arduino to take necessary

action. The servo motor will move the solar panel to the position of the high intensity LDR

that was in the programming. Furthermore an automatic water indicator of tank level will

work by using an ultrasonic sensor. The ultrasonic sensor is placed at the top of water tank

for demonstration. This sensor module will read the distance between sensor module and

27

water surface. It means we are here measuring empty distance or volume for water instead of

full water level.

When empty water level reaches at distance about 15 cm then Arduino turn ON the water

pump, any value of distance less than 15 cm Arduino turns pump OFF.

3.3. Flow Chart

Figure No (3.2) The Flow Chart of the system.

3.4. Algorithm

Step1: Start the program.

Step2: Initialize all the values.

Step3: Calculate the summation of LDRs pair.

Step4: If (LDR1+LDR2)>> (LDR3+LDR4)>> (LDR2+LDR3) Vertical servo motor go

down..

28

Step5: If (LDR3 +LDR4) >> (LDR1+LDR2)>> (LDR2+LDR3) Vertical servo motor go up.

Step6: If (LDR2+LDR3)>> (LDR1+LDR2)>> (LDR3+LDR4) Horizontal servo motor go

right.

Step7: Ultrasonic send pulses and check its echo.

Step8: Fill the Tank depending on ultrasonic sensor read and Arduino program.

Step9: End the program.

3.5. Proteus 8 software

Proteus 8 is a Virtual System Modelling (VSM) that combines circuit simulation, animated

components and microprocessor models to co-simulate the complete Arduino microcontroller

based designs. [18]

This is the perfect tool for engineers to test their micro controller designs before constructing

a physical model in real time. This program allows users to interact with the design using on-

screen indicators, LED and LCD displays and switches.

In summary, Proteus 8 is the program to use when you want to simulate the interaction

between software running on a micro controller and any analog or digital electronic device

connected to it.

In this research has been use a number of components, each of them has a specific target to

obtain a successful design. [18]

29

Figure No (3.3) Overview of Proteus

The components from library are

Arduino “UNO”, LDR, Ultrasonic sensor “HC SR-04”, LED and Servo motor.

3.6. Explanations of the tools are used in research

3.6.1 Component of circuit in Software (Proteus)

3.6.1.1 Arduino-UNO based ATmega-328P.

In our research the software design was done using Arduino ONO which was used for the

programming. The program was written using the C language in Arduino IDE software. The

Proteus circuit editing software was used for drawing the circuit.

Our board was connected four LDRs in analog pins from A1 to A4 respectively also

connected two servo motors (horizontal and vertical) in digital pins 5 ,6 respectively ,

ultrasonic sensor was connected their pins trig and echo to pin 9 and 10 respectively.

Last thing is LED which connected to pin 13 as indicator to pump working.

30

Figure No (3.4) An Arduino board in Protoeus8.

3.6.1.2 Light dependent Resistor:

LDR alight dependent resistor, otherwise known as photo-resistor, photoconductor, or

photocell, is a variable resistor whose value decreases with increasing incident light intensity.

An LDR is made of a high-resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device is of high

enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons adequate

energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electrons conduct electricity,

thereby lowering resistance.

In our project four LRDs is used to measure the light intensity during day time and rotate the

solar to follow bigger amount of lights. Four LDRs was connected in analog pins from A1 to

A4 respectively. [25]

31

Figure No (3.5) The 4 LDRs connection.

3.6.1.3 Servo motor

In this research two servo motors have been used first one is vertical motor is move solar in

vertical movement by limited angle, the second is horizontal servo is move the solar in

horizontal movement. Their connection to Arduino are in pins 9, 10.

Figure No (3.6) Connection of Horizontal and Vertical servo motors when it ON and OFF.

32

3.6.1.4 Ultrasonic sensor

The Ultrasonic Sensor with Arduino used to calculate distances among Tank. It has 4 pins

connecting with peripheral device. The 4 pins related Power, Ground, Trigger and Echo

respectively. Trigger and echo was connected to pin 9, 10 respectively.

To start the detection ranging, first: a pulse with 10uS is needed to trigger the input. Second:

An 8 cycle at 40 kHz of ultrasound will sent and raise its echo. The pulse width is an empty

distance of Tank.

The formula used to calculate the distance of the time interval between sending trigger signal

and receiving echo signal is:

Distance= duration*0.034/2

Figure No (3.7) Ultrasonic sensor connection in proteus.

3.6.1.5 LED and DC motor

LED is connected to pin 13 (digital pin) to work as Dc water pump.

Figure No (3.8) LED which indicate pump.

33

3.6.2 Component of circuit in Hardware

3.6.2.1 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR module)

LDR are also named as photo conductors (or) photo resistors. Which works on the principal

of photo conductivity. LDR resistance decrease with increase in light intensity and vice versa.

LDR s are mainly used for sensing purpose in order to catch the solar energy and provide

analog input to Arduino. [19] [20]

Figure No (3.9) The LDR module.

3.6.2.2 Servo motor (micro servo 9g)

Servo motor is three wired dc motor which works on the principal of servo mechanism. Servo

motor can rotate up to maximum angle of 180degrees. In our proposed project 5v motor is

used. Since it is dual axis system two servo motors are used vertical and horizontal

respectively. Servo motors are powered by PWM output received from the Arduino. [21]

Figure No (3.10) Servo motor

34

.

3.6.2.3 Solar panel

Solar energy is the photovoltaic cell which convert light energy received from sun into

electrical energy. The name behind “solar” panel is they grab high powerful energy emitted

from the sun. The solar panel finds its applications in street lights, domestic and industrial

areas.

Figure No (3.11) Solar panel.

3.6.2.4 Arduino UNO

Arduino is the type of microcontroller. The purpose of microcontroller is to control the

position of motor. So Atmega 328p microcontroller is used. Arduino consist of 6 analog

inputs and 14 digital I/O ports out of them 6 acts as PWM signals. In addition to this it

consist of 16 MHZ crystal oscillator, a USB cable through which program is dumped. And

Arduino get powered by the power jack. Advantages of Arduino is low cost, robust

construction and platform independent. [22][23]

35

Figure No (3.12) An Arduino board.

3.6.2.5 Ultrasonic sensor (HC-SR04)

The ultrasonic sensor module works on the natural phenomenon of ECHO of sound. A pulse

is sent for about 10us to trigger the module. After which the module automatically sends 8

cycles of 40 KHz ultrasound signal and checks its echo. The signal after striking with an

obstacle returns back and is captured by the receiver. Thus the distance of the obstacle from

the sensor is simply calculated by the formula given as:

Distance= (time x speed) / 2

Here the product of speed and time was divided by 2 because the time is the total time it took

to reach the obstacle and return back. Thus the time to reach obstacle is just half the total time

taken.

The Ultrasonic Sensor with Arduino used to calculate distances among objects. It has 4 pins

Connecting with peripheral device. The 4 pins related Power, Ground, Trigger and Echo

respectively.

Ultrasonic sensors use sound vibrations to estimate the distance between a source (sensor)

and a given target. The echo of the emission is used to calculate the desired distance.

For the proposed system, the sound reflection in the water mirror is considered for the

calculus. [24]

36

Figure No (3.13) An Ultrasonic Ranging Module HC-SR04 Sensor.

37

Chapter Four

Result in Proteus and Hardware

4.1. The design of circuit in Proteus

Shown in figure 4.1, the complete circuit of the model connected (LDRs to analog inputs, Ultrasonic

sensor, Servo motors and pump LED to digital inputs), then linked all together to virtual serial port

through transmit and receive pins.

Figure No (4.1) The design of circuit in Proteus.

4.2 Results of Proteus

4.2.1 Case 1 in Proteus:

In the first case it was assumed that the summation of (LDR1 +LDR2) has the higher light

intensity by concentrating torch light on them. They indicate that it is summer season and sun

starts rising from east in the beginning of the day. The virtual terminal represented LDRs

readings and explains the direction of solar panel. In this case the summation of (LDR1

+LDR2) has the higher intensity of light.

38

Notice that A= LDR1+LDR2.

Figure No (4.2) Case 1 when A has higher light intensity.

4.2.2 Case 2 in Proteus:

In the second case it was assumed that the summation of (LDR3 +LDR4) has a higher light

intensity by concentrating bulb light on them. They indicate the time of sunset. Therefore

solar panel directly rotates to west direction as to follow the sun movement.

39

The virtual terminal represented LDRs readings and the direction of solar panel. In this case

the summation of (LDR3 +LDR4) has the higher intensity of light.

Notice that B=LDR3 + LDR4

Figure No (4.3) Case 2 when B has much light intensity.

4.2.3 Case 3 in proteus:

In the third case it was assumed that the summation of LDR2, LDR3 has a higher light

intensity by concentrating torch light on them. They indicate winter season when the sun

40

tends from the first axes (in summer) to be moved on the south. Solar panel directly moves to

south direction. As to follow the sun movement.

The virtual terminal represented LDRs reading and the direction of solar panel .in this case

the summation of (LDR2 +LDR3) has the higher intensity of light.

Notice that C=LDR2+LDR3

Figure No (4.4) Case 3 when C has much light intensity.

41

4.3 The design of circuit in Hardware:

Figure No (4.5) The design of circuit in hardware.

4.4 Results of hardware

4.4.1 Case 1 in hardware:

In the first case it was assumed that the summation of (LDR1 +LDR2) has the higher light

intensity by concentrating torch light on them. They indicate that it is summer season and the

sun starts rising from east in the beginning of the day.

Figure No (4.6) Case 1 when the light intensity in A bigger than B and C.

42


In the second case it was assumed that the summation of (LDR3 +LDR4) has a higher light

intensity by concentrating bulb light on them. They indicate the time of sunset. Therefore

solar panel directly rotates to west direction as to follow the sun movement.

Figure No (4.7) Case 2 when the light intensity in B bigger than A and C.


In the third case it was assumed that the summation of LDR2, LDR3 has a higher light

intensity by concentrating torch light on them. They indicate winter season when the sun

tends from the first axes (in summer) to be moved on the south. Solar panel directly moves to

south direction. As to follow the sun movement.

Figure No (4.8) Case 3 when the light intensity in C is higher than A and B.

43

Chapter Five

Conclusion and Recommendation

Conclusion

An Arduino solar control system was designed and constructed in the current work. And it

works successfully as expected. LDR sensors were used to sense the intensity of the solar

light occurrence on the photo-voltaic cells panel. Also an ultrasonic sensor were used to sense

the tank level to automatically fill the tank depending on ultrasonic sensor output.

Conclusions of this project is summarized as, the existing tracking system had successfully

sketched the light source even it was a small torch light, in a dark room, or it is the sun light

rays. The Arduino solar tracker with servo motor and tank level control is employed by

means of Arduino ATmega328p microcontroller. The essential software is developed via

Arduino Uno and verified in Proteus. The cost and reliability of this solar tracker creates it

suitable for the rural usage. The purpose of renewable energy from this project offered new

and advanced idea to help the people.

Recommendation

For future work, one may consider the use of more efficient sensors, but which are cost

effective and consume little power. For more efficient control of irrigation system it is

suggested to add soil moisture sensor. This would further enhance efficiency. For more

protection it is suggested to use AC solar pump (submersible pump) with inverter to take

advantages of the pump protection system located in inverter. Battery can also be used to

increase the power backup time and in lighting. If there is the possibility of further reducing

the cost of this project, it would help a great deal.

44

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https://howtomechatronics.com/author/howtom12_wp/

a

Appendix (A)

Code of project

int val1;

int val2;

int val3;

int val4;

int A,B,C;// direction of the soler cell

#include<Servo.h>

Servo horizontalservo;

Servo verticalservo;

int ldr1=A1;

int ldr2=A2;

int ldr3=A3;

int ldr4=A4;

int trigPin = 9;

int echoPin = 10;

int led = 13;

long duration;

int distance;

void setup()

{

horizontalservo.attach(5);

verticalservo.attach(6);

pinMode (led, OUTPUT);

pinMode(trigPin, OUTPUT);

pinMode(echoPin, INPUT);

b

Serial.begin(9600);

}

void loop() {

digitalWrite(trigPin, LOW);

delayMicroseconds(2);

digitalWrite(trigPin, HIGH);

delayMicroseconds(10); // Sets the trigPin on HIGH state for 10 micro seconds

digitalWrite(trigPin, LOW);

duration = pulseIn(echoPin, HIGH); // Reads echoPin, returns the wave travel time

distance= duration*0.034/2;

Serial.print("Distance: ");

Serial.println(distance);

Serial.println( );

// if condition for pumping water

digitalWrite(led,LOW);

if (distance>15)

{

digitalWrite(led,HIGH);

Serial.println("ledhigh");

delay(1000);

}

c

int val1=analogRead(ldr1);

int val2= analogRead(ldr2);

int val3=analogRead(ldr3);

int val4= analogRead(ldr4);

A = val1+val2 ;

B= val3+val4 ;

C = val2+val3;

if(A<B && A<C)

{

verticalservo.write(45);

delay(1000);

horizontalservo.write(0);

Serial.println("A");

}

//delay(1000);

else if(B<A && B<C){


delay(1000);


Serial.println("B");

}

//delay(1000);

else if(C<B && C<A){


delay(1000);

d


Serial.println("C");

}

//delay(1000);

Serial.println(val1);




}

e

Appendix (B)

Equipment Cost

Equipment Cost SDG USD

Breadboard 60 SDG 1.76 USD

Jumper Wires 120 SDG 3.53 USD

LDR Sensor Module 200 SDG 5.88 USD

Servo Motor 300 SDG 8.8 USD

Ultrasonic Sensor 180 SDG 5.3 USD

LED 4 SDG 0.12 USD

Table 1: Table of equipment cost.

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