VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF FORESTRY - 2018

Pham Cong Ngoc, M.A – Ho Thị Xuan Hong, M.A

WRITING TERM 1

SENTENCE STRUCTURES AND ERRORS

(Used for the Advanced Curriculum)

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Pham Cong Ngoc, M.A –Ho Thị Xuan Hong, M.A

WRITING TERM 1

SENTENCE STRUCTURES AND ERRORS (Used for the Advanced Curriculum)

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF FORESTRY - 2018

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INTRODUCTION

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WHO IS THIS BOOK FOR?

Sentence Structures and Errors is a short writing coursebook of 30 classroom

hours for the first term students of advanced curriculum who wish to master

general English competence and skills and high scores in exams. It teaches them

not only English language skills with a focus on writing ones but also reading

techniques and background knowledge. In addition, this book is a good guide for

students to study for exams.The units in this book cover many theories of

English sentence construction and errors which help them increase their

sentence writing skills and self correction. Also, this book covers many types of

typical writing tasks which are useful for them to take English writingexams.

WHAT DOES THE BOOK CONTAIN? Obviously, this book deals with theories related to all types of English

sentences including simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence

and compound- complex sentence. Moreover, it covers all kinds of

punctuations that are really helpful for students not only to write English tests

accurately but also to use in their profession in the future. For each part of

theory, there are salient examples with explanation to illustrate the point, so

students can understand it more effectively. Also, the second part of the book

analyzes common errors which are easily committed by students when

writingsentences.Allelaborateexamplesaredesignedtoenhancestudents recognitio

nand understand the sentence errors. In addition, in each unit, there are practice

parts which are intended to consolidate the theory mentionedpreviously.

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PART A: SENTENCE STRUCTURE

UNIT 1: AN OVERVIEW OF SENTENCES

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SENTENCE

DEFINITION

In simple terms, a sentence is a group of words that contains a subject

anda predicate(verband maybe other components)and expresses a

complete thought.

1. A subject: what the sentence is about or the topic of the sentence.

2. A predicate: what is said about the subject.

Look at this example:

<----- sentence ----->

subject predicate

verb

You speak English.

Other examples:

- He is a businessman.

- Speed kills.

- It was hot yesterday.

- Henry looks tired.

- Are you hungry now?

- Who’s in the room?

- The man bought a new car.

- Does his brother live with him?

- Where did you go last night?

- There are some boys in the room.

The above sentences are very short. Of course, a sentence can be

longer and more complicated, but basically there is always a subject

and a predicate.

Look at this longer example:

<----- sentence ----->

Subject Predicate

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verb

Ram and Tara speak English when they are working.

Note that the predicate always contains a verb. Sometimes the

predicate is only a verb:

<----- sentence ----->

Subject Predicate

Verb

Smoke rises.

So we can say that a sentence must contain at leasta subject and a

verb.There is one apparent exception to this – the imperative. When

someone gives a command (the imperative), he/she usually does not

use a subject. He/she does not say the subject because it is obvious -

the subject is YOU! Look at these examples of the imperative, with

and without a subject:

<----- sentence ----->

Subject Predicate

Verb

You

Stop!

Wait a minute!

Look!

Everybody Look!

Remember that a sentence expresses a complete thought. Here are

someexamples of complete and incomplete thoughts:

Sentences Complete thought?

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PRACTICE

Recognizing

sentences

He opened the door.

YES Come in, please.

Do you like coffee?

People who work hard.

(There is no predicate)

NO

A fast-moving animal with big ears.

(There is no verb)

Hot weather.

(There is no verb)

The man bought.

(This is not a complete thought)

Because it is rained.

(This is not a complete thought)

Is very handsome?

(There is no subject)

Every morning before breakfast.

(There is no subject or verb)

Also remember that a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends

with a full stop or a question mark or an exclamation mark. Look at

these examples:

- People need food.

- How are you?

- Look out!

Work with a partner:

Read each group of words out loud.

Decide which ones are complete sentences and which ones are not.

Write YES next to the complete sentences and NO next to the non-

sentences.

Explain why the non-sentences are not sentences.

EXAMPLES:

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SUBJECTS

AND VERBS

__NO__ Is very cold today?(……..There is no subject………………….)

__YES__ It is very cold today? (……………………………………)

1. ______ My new boss from Britain. (………………………………)

2. ______ She speaks four foreign languages fluently. (……………..)

3. ______ Was very difficult to say. (……………………………… )

4. ______ When we first arrived here. (……………………………..)

5. ______ Henny wants to start her own business. (…………………)

6. ______ The girl isn’t married.(……………………………………)

7. ______ Enjoys many sports, especially basketball. (………………)

8. ______ Don’t worry! (……………………………………………)

9. ______ Help! (…………………………………………………….)

10. _____ They don’t like. (…………………………………………)

11. _____ Because we are new comers. (……………………………)

12. _____ They don’t want. (………………………………………)

13. _____ If you were me. (…………………………………………)

14. _____ Here you are. (…………………………………………….)

15. _____ Flying in the sky like a bird. (……………………………)

Subjects and verbs are the most important parts of a sentence. In

English, the subject of a sentence is always expressed except in

imperative sentences.

The subject tells WHO or WHAT does something (sometimes it

is called “DOER” of the action). It is a noun or pronoun.

Examples:

- My roommate lost the key to his car.(Who lost the key? – My

roommate)

- The car hit the pedestrian.(What hit the pedestrian? –the car)

- Skiing and snowboarding are my favorite winter sports.

(What are my favorite winter sports? –Skiing and snowboarding)

The verb often tells us the action (action verbs). However,

sometimes a verb doesn’t tell an action but links the subject

with the rest of the sentence. (liking verbs)

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PRACTICE:

Finding

Subjects and

Verbs

Action verbs examples:

- The car hit the pedestrian.

- My family lives in two-bedroom apartment.

- My roommate lost his car keys.

- His girlfriend found them.

Linking verbs examples:

- Snow skiing is my favorite winter sport.

- I feel sick.

- You look hungry.

- I am lucky that my roommate is a good cook.

The most common linking verbs are be, become, feel, look, seem,

smell, find, turn, sound, and taste.

Exercise 1: Work with a partner.

1. Underline the subjects with one line.

2. Underline the verbs with one line and use bracket for it.

3. Write S or V below each underlined word.

Examples:

- My little brother (is) in the fifth grade.

S V

- He (watches) TV and (does) his homework at the same time.

S V V

1. My best friend is single.

2. He likes his job but hates his boss.

3. He didn’t go to work yesterday.

4. This semester, he is studying English and computer science.

5. He and I don’t have any classes together.

6. He speaks and understands English very well.

7. The boys have disappeared in the bush behind the old house.

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OBJECT

8. We couldn’t finish the task in due time.

9. Those species are so rare in nature.

Our friend got a nice well-paid job.

Object in a sentence is a noun or a noun phrase that appears after the

main verb (to do). An object can be a single word (football) or a

phrase (thedoor to the dining room). There are two types of

objects: direct and indirect objects:

Direct object

A direct object answers the question "what?" or "whom?"

Examples:

- David repaired hiscar → his car is the direct object of the

verb repaired. ( What did David repair?)

- He invited Mary to the party → Mary is the direct object of the

verb invited. (Whom did he invite?)

Indirect Object

An indirect object answers the question "to whom?", "for whom?",

"for what?"...

An indirect object is the recipient of the direct object, or an otherwise

affected participant in the event. There must be a direct object for an

indirect object to be placed in a sentence. In other words an indirect

object cannot exist without a direct object.

Examples:

- They sent him a postcard.- him is the indirectobject of the

verb sent. (To whom did they send a postcard?)

-He bought his sona bike. - his son is the indirect object of the

verb bought. (For whom did he buy a bike?)

PRACTICE

Subject,

Direct or

Indirect

object?

Exercise 2: Decide whether the words in bold are subjects, direct

objects (Od) or indirect objects (Oi)

1. She sent her friend an email.

2. [….…………..]

2. Sally will help you with your housework.[….…………..]

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3. Where did you put the keys?[…….………..]

4. He gave them a bag full of money.[……….……..]

5. Alice wrote a book on the French revolution. [………….…..]

6. I need your help. [………….…..]

7. He offered her a flower[…….………..]

8. My father bought us a new TV set.[……………...]

9. John sold me his car.[……………...]

10. I wish you good luck. [………….…..]

SENTENCE

TYPES

In grammar, clause structure refers to the classification

of sentences based on the number and kind of clauses in their syntactic

structure.

The four basic sentence structures are the simple sentence,

thecompound sentence, the complex sentence, and the compound-

complex sentence.

A simple sentence consists of only one dependent clause.

It was a sunny day.

A complex sentence has one independent and one or more dependent

clauses. A comma is needed if the dependent clause comes first.

Because it was a sunny day, we went to the beach.

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses.

It was a sunny day, so we went to the beach.

A compound-complex sentenceconsists of at least one dependent

clause and at least two independent clauses.

It was a sunny day, so we went to the beach which was 20 km away

from the city center.

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UNIT 2: SIMPLE SENTENCES

DEFINITION

PRACTICE

Simple sentence

patterns

A simple sentence is a sentence that has one subject-verb combination

The subject in a simple sentence may be compound (My brother and

I are completely different).

The verb may also be compound (They laughed and cried at the

same time).What is important is that there is only one subject-verb

combination in a simple sentence.

These are simple sentences. Notice that no commas are used in them.

a. My younger sister speaks English very well.

b. My mother and father speak English very well.

c. My older brother is a lawyer and has a good job.

d. My mother and father speak and write English well.

The simple sentences above can be written as formulas.

a. SV-simple subject with simple verb

b.SSV-compound subject with simple verb

c. SVV-simple subject with compound verb

d. SSVV- compound subject with compound verb

The following sentences are not simple sentences because they have

two subject-verb combinations. They are compound sentences, and

their formulas look like this: SV,(connecting word)SV.

My brotherlives in New York, (and) my sisterlives in Hanoi.

My elder brotheris a university graduate, (but) hecan’tfind a job.

Itwasraining heavily, (so) westayed at home and had some games.

Youcanfly to Can Tho, (or) youcango by coach.

You will learn more about compound sentences in Unit 3.

Exercise 1. Work by yourself or with a partner. Identify the

pattern in the following simple sentences.

1. Underline the subjects with one line.

2. Underline the verbs with two lines.

3. Write S or V above each underlined word.

4. Finally, write the formula for the sentence in the

numbered space below.

Example:

S V V

My grandfather loves to fish and often takes me

with him to his favorite fishing place.

Formula: SVV

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SUBJECT

VERB

AGREEMENT

My grandfather 1My grandfather is old in years but young in spirit. 2Every day, he

swims a mile and works in his garden.3 He and my grandmother

were married fifty years ago. 4They have four children and ten

grandchildren. 5My grandfather loves parties and invites our entire

family to his house for a big dinner on his birthday. 6All twenty of us

eat and tell stories half the night. 7He never gets tired and is always

the last to go to bed. 8On his last birthday, my brother and I gave him

a present. 9We all put our money together and bought him a video

game system. 10Now he wants us to come over his house every

weekend.

1……. 3……. 5……. 7……. 9……...

2……. 4……. 6……. 8……. 10…….

Exercise 2:Work first by yourself, and then with your partner.

1. Write six simple sentences about your family or family

member. Use each of these patterns twice: SV, SSV, SVV.

2. Show your sentences to your partner. Ask your partner to

identify the pattern in each sentence.

Example:

SSV - My older brother goes to the college and works part-time.

……1. - …………………………………………………………

……2. - …………………………………………………………

…… 3. - …………………………………………………………

…… 4. - …………………………………………………………

…… 5. - …………………………………………………………

…… 6. - …………………………………………………………

You already know that subjects and verbs must agree in number.

You should write:

My sister is married. (singular)

My sisters are married. (plural)

My brother and my sister are single. (plural)

Sometimes students make mistake in subject-verb agreement when

the subject has a prepositional phase following it. For this reason,

you should learn to recognize prepositional phrases.

A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a

prepositional and ends with a noun. A prepositional phrase usually

tells where, when, how, or why.

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COMPLEMENT

from Mexico City in the morning

on December 25 of my sisters

to my best friend around the room

by bus because of the weather

A prepositional phrase may come after the subject of a sentence, but

it is not part of the subject. Therefore, you should ignore it most of

the time when you are trying to decide which verb form to use.

Here are some examples:

Singular subjects:

- One of my brothers is a musician.

- Neither of my parents is living.

- Much of my time is spent in the library.

- Each of my brothers wants his own car.

- Either of my sisters can babysit for you tonight.

Plural subjects:

- Both of my parents are teachers.

- Several of the teachers speak my languagereally well.

But sometimes telling a singular subject from a plural subject isn’t

easy. A few words can be either singular or plural. In these cases,

you must refer to the noun in the prepositional phrase.

- Some of the money was missing. (singular)

- Some of the students were missing. (plural)

- All of my time is spent in the library. (singular)

- All of my brothers are singer. (plural)

- Most of the ice was melt. (singular)

- Most of the ice cubes were melt. (plural)

- A lot of the work was too easy. (singular)

- A lot of the people were angry. (plural)

A sentence may also have a complement (it is not always a

compulsory element). The complement completes the meaning of

the verb or adds more information to the sentence. There are many

types of complements. A complement in a simple sentence may be a

noun, pronoun, adjective, or adverb.

Subject Verb Complement

I study English. (noun)

I don’t understand you. (pronoun)

His girlfriend is pretty. (adjective)

It isn’t raining now. (adverb)

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PRACTICE

Identifying

Subjects

Verbs

Complements

A complement may also be a noun phrase, a verb phrase, or a

prepositional phrase.

My father owns his own business. (noun phrase)

My girlfriend wants to get married. (verb phrase)

The students are readingin the library. (prepositional phrase)

A complement may also be a combination.

I study English at Rolling Hills College. (noun+ p.p)

She wants to get married soon. (verb phrase + adverb)

Exercise 3: Underline the subjects, verbs, and the complements

in the following sentences and write S, V or C above them. Also,

put parentheses around prepositional phrase.

Example:

S V C

My cousin’s nameisRoberto Sanchez.

1. I was born (on September 21st, 1996) (in the city of San Juan).

2. My oldest sister is married and has two children.

3. I am a student at Green Hills College in Boston,

Massachusetts.

4. Boston is the capital of Massachusetts.

5. Some of my classes are difficult.

6. Some of the homework is boring.

7. Most of my classmates are friendly.

8. None of my classmates speaks Spanish.

9. A lot of my classes are in Dante Hall.

10. A lot of my time is spent in the student lounge.

11. I am from Puerto Rico.

12. My native language is Spanish.

13. My father works in an office.

14. I have four brothers and two sisters.

15. None of us is married.

16. All of us are single.

17. My youngest brother and sister are still in high school.

18. My oldest brother studies in the morning and works in the afternoon.

19. In the evening I watch television or play cards.

20. My father understands English but doesn’t speak it.

Exercise4:Rewrite each sentence to make the subject compound.

Don’t forget to make the verb plural!

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PRACTICE

Making compound

or simple subjects

1. Akiko is studying electrical engineering.

Akiko and Roberto are studying electrical engineering.

2. My brother lives in an apartment in Paris.

……………………………………………………………

3. My mother speaks six languages.

……………………………………………………………

4. English is my favorite subject.

…………………………………………………………......

5. Food is very important to people’s health.

…...………………………………………………………

Exercise 5:In these sentences, make the subject singular. Don’t

forget to make the verb agree with the subject!

1. My girlfriend and I want to get married next summer.

My girlfriend wants to get married next summer.

I want to get married next summer.

2. My oldest brother and my youngest sister are married.

……………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………

3. My mother and my father live in Rome.

……………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………

4. My friends and I eat lunch in the student cafeteria.

……………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………

5. His mother and father work hard from early morning to night.

……………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………

Exercise 6: Rewrite each incomplete sentence and add the

missing element: subject, verb, or complement.

1. My roommate’s name Alex.

My roommate’s name is Alex.

2. Is from the East Coast.

He is from the East Coast or Is he from the East Coast?

3. Alex’s family lives

Alex’s family lives in Boston.

4. Alex and I in the room.

……………………………………………………………

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PRACTICE

Making

simple

sentences

5. Our room very small.

……………………………………………………………

6. Our Schedules different.

……………………………………………………………

7. I like to sleep late, but Alex gets up.

……………………………………………………………

8. Tries not to wake me up.

……………………………………………………………

9. Is a very considerate roommate.

……………………………………………………………

10. He is.

……………………………………………………………

11. In the afternoon we.

……………………………………………………………

12. Alex speaks.

……………………………………………………………

13. Alex me with my homework.

……………………………………………………………

14. We often to.

……………………………………………………………

15. was often much water in the reservoir.

……………………………………………………………

CONNECTING

WORDS

and/or

Often you need to connect words or groups of words in a simple

sentence. One way to do this to use a connecting word. Connecting

words are call conjunctions.

There are many conjunctions in English. Some of the most common

ones are and, or. They have different meanings.

And joins two or more similar things in positive sentences.

- I like Chinese and Italian food.

- Swimming and waterskiing are my favorite summer activities.

- We have class on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays.

Or connects two or more similar things in negative sentences.

- I don’t like British or American food.

- We don’t have any classes on Tuesdays or Thursdays.

- I can’t play tennis, ride a horse or roller skate very well.

Or also connects two or more choices or alternatives

-I would like to go to Hawaii, Tahiti, or Fiji on my next vacation.

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(I can’t go to all three places. I will choose one.)

- My father or my mother will meet me at the airport.

(This sentence means that only one person will come to the airport.

Compare: My father and my mother will meet me atthe airport.

(This sentence means that two people will come to the airport.)

Use this chart to help you remember the meanings of and and or

+ + andjoins two or more positives

I love tacos, pizza, and egg rolls.

_ _ or joins two or more negatives

I don’t like hot dogs or hamburgers.

T? F? oralso connects choices

Is this sentence true or false?

Sentence combining is an exercise to improve your sentence-writing

skills. When you do an exercise like the following ones, you

combine several short sentences into one longer sentence. All the

long sentences together make a paragraph. Your final product should

be a paragraph.

There may be several correct ways to combine the sentences.

However, there are a few rules to follow.

1. Don’t repeat words if possible. For example, in the first

sentence below, don’t repeat I am. You may omit words, but

don’t omit any important information.

2. You may change words. For example, you may change a

noun to a pronoun or make a singular word plural.

3. You may add words. For example, in the second sentence

below, you need to add the connecting word and.

Your goal is to write a smooth, grammatically correct sentence that

contains all the information but does not repeat any words.

Example:

1. a. I am a figure.

b. I am famous.

2. a. I have white hair.

b. I have long white beard

->I am a famous figure. I have white hair and a long white beard.

I am a figure and I am famous is a grammatically correct sentence,

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PRACTICE

And/or

but a native speaker would not write it because he would not repeat

the word I am.

Another possible sentence is I am a figure who is famous, but this

sentence contains unnecessary words.

You must keep the word white in the expression long white beard

because it is important information.

Exercise 7:Work with a partner. Combine the two sentences in

each part to make one sentence. Use and or

according to the meaning. Try not to repeat any words.

Example: I like chocolate ice-cream. I like coffee ice-cream.

I like chocolate and coffee ice-cream.

1. I can speak English. I can understand English.

……………………………………………………..…………

2. I can’t speak Tagalog. I can’t speak Vietnamese.

………………………………………………………....……

3. Blue is my favorite color. Yellow is my favorite color. (Be sure to

make the verb plural)

…………………………………………………………….…

4. Would you like soup? Would you like salad? (You can have only

one).

……………………………….………………………………

5. You can have rice with your meal. You can have potatoes with

your meal. (You can have only one).

……………………...…………………………………………

6. Helen Keller, a famous American woman, was blind. Helen

Keller, a famous American woman, was deaf.

…………………….…………………………………………

7. She could not see. She could not hear.

………………………………………………………………

8. There hasn’t any rain for a month. There hasn’t cool wind for a

week.

………………………………………………………………

9. I loved Vietnamese food. My cousins also like Vietnamese foods.

………………………………………………………………

10. Did you phone them last night? Did you email them?

………………………………………………………………

Exercise 8:Work with a partner.

1. Combine the sentences in each group to make one

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sentence. There may be more than one possible correct

way to combine each group.

2. Then write your new sentences in paragraph form. Do not

number the sentences, and do not write them in a list.

Write them as a paragraph.

WHO AM I

1. a. I am a figure.

b. I am famous.

2. a. I have white hair.

b. I have long white beard.

3. a. I always wear a suit.

b. The suit is red.

4. a. Adults like me.

b. Children like me.

5. a. Every year I take a trip.

b. The trip is long.

c. I do this on a special night.

6. a. I travel in a sleigh.

b. The sleigh is magic.

7. a. The sleigh doesn’t have wings.

b. The sleigh doesn’t have an engine.

8. a. It is pulled through the night sky.

b. It is pulled by reindeer.

c. There are eight reindeers.

9. a. I fly all over the world.

b. I visit houses where children live.

10. a. I know if the children have been good during the year.

b. I know if the children have been bad during the year.

11. a. I bring candy and toys to the good children.

b. I bring pieces of coal to the bad children.

I am a famous

figure…………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………….

……………………………..…………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………….

UNIT 3: COMPOUND SENTENCES

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In the previous unit, you learned to write simple sentences.

However, if you write only simple sentences, your writing will seem

to be choppy and childish. Using other kinds of sentences will make

your writing more sophisticated and mature. One other kind of

sentences is a compound sentence.

Remember that a simple sentence has only one S-V combination. A

compound sentence has at least two S-V combinations– two

independent clauses joined by a comma and a coordinating

conjunction.

In this unit, before compound sentences are generated, independent

and dependent clauses will be mentioned.

INDEPENDENT

AND DEPENDENT

CLAUSES

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. There

are two kinds of clauses in English: independent clauses (or main

clauses) and dependent clauses (or subordinate clauses).

Independent clause (IC) It rained

Dependent clause (DC) ….because it rained…

An independent clause has one S-V combination and expresses a

complete thought. It can be a sentence by itself. A simple sentence is

an independent clause.

Examples:

- Paris has excellent art museums.

- It was cold and windy yesterday.

- We finished our homework and cleaned up the kitchen.

A dependent clause is an independent clause with a subordinating

conjunction added to the beginning of it.

Examples:

…because it has excellent art museums…

…although it was cold and windy yesterday…

…after we finished our homework and cleaned up the kitchen…

A dependent clause does not express a complete thought, so it is not

a sentence by itself. It needs to be joined to an independent clause to

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Subordinating

Conjunctions

make sense.

Independent clauses Dependent clauses

- Art students should visit Paris because it has excellent art museums.

- We went on a hike although it was cold and windy yesterday.

- We watch TV after we finished our homework and cleaned up the

kitchen.

There are many subordinating conjunctions. Some introduce

reasons, some introduce times, and others introduce contrasts and

conditions. Some of the most common conjunctions are listed below.

Contrast clauses Although, though, even though, while,

whereas

Reason clauses because, since, as

Place clauses where, wherever

Purpose clauses so that, in order that

Result clauses So, so…that, such….that

Time clauses when; once; whenever; before; after;

since; while; as; as soon as; by the time;

until

Conditional clause If, unless, as long as, providing that,

provided that

Relative clause Who, whom, which, that, whose

Examples:

- We cancelled our picnic because it rained.

- Wait for a green light before you cross the street.

- I will go straight to bed after I finished this exercise.

- Where were you when I called?

- My neighbors were having a party while I was trying to sleep.

- John doesn’t speak English well although he lived in England for

many years.

- I will be happy if I win the lottery.

Notes

A few subordinating conjunctions are also prepositions.

- After my accident. (preposition)

- After I had an accident (subordinating conjunction)

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PRACTICE:

Independent and

Dependent

Clauses

PRACTICE

Subordinating

conjunctions

- Before class (preposition)

- Before class begins (subordinating conjunction)

Because is a subordinating conjunction. Because of is a two-

word preposition.

- Because of my accident (preposition)

- Because I had an accident (subordinating conjunction)

Exercise 1: Work with a partner.

1. Write IC (independent clause) or DC (dependent clause) in

the space to the left of each group of words.

2. If it is a DC, circle the subordinating conjunction.

Example:

…DC… while the class was taking a test.

………. 1. I take a walk around the block.

………. 2. Before I go to work.

………. 3. This exercise wakes up my body and clears my mind.

………. 4. It’s hard to do this in the winter.

………. 5. Because it is still dark when I go to work.

………. 6. Although I try to get up early even on weekends.

………. 7. I sometimes sleep late on Saturdays.

………. 8. When it is raining, of course

………. 9. I never go out.

………. 10. If I don’t exercise for several days.

Exercise 2: Complete each of the following sentences using

the subordinating conjunction from the parenthesis:

1. I visit the Grand Canyon …………………. I go to Arizona.

(once, whenever, wherever)

2. This is the place …………………. we stayed last time we visited.

(where, when, how)

3. …………………. you win first place, you will receive a prize.

(Wherever, If, Unless)

4. You won’t pass the test …………………. you study. (when, if, unless)

5. He closed the window………………….the cat could not come in

(because, so that, once)

24

6. ……………………they tried their best, they didn’t succeed in the

tests. (Because, Although, So)

7. She picked up her kids from school…………………she finished

typing the report (when, after, whenever)

8. He didn’t get the latest news…………………..he didn’t watch the

news on TV. (as, so, although)

9. ………………….she doesn’t give up smoking, she can suffer

from some respiratory diseases. (Providing that, If, Unless)

10. ………………we came to the party, everyone showed up. (If,

Because, By the time)

COMPOUND

SENTENCES

COORDINATING

CONJUNCTIONS

And/ but/ or/ so

A compound sentence is a sentence that has at least two independent

clausesjoined by coordinating conjunctions. There is no dependent

clause in compound sentences. The coordinating conjunctions used to

join independent clausesare “for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so”. Independent

clauses can also be joined by a semicolon (;). A comma may or may

not be used before the conjunction in compound sentences.

The two independent clauses in compound sentences are joined by:

A. a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so),

B. a semicolonalone.

Examples:

- I like an apple but my brother likes a mango.

- I helped him and he became happy.

- He failed two times yet he is not disappointed.

- I asked him a question; he replied correctly.

Here is the formula for a compound sentence:

A. Independent clause, coordinating conjunction independent

clause.

B. Independent clause; independent clause.

A coordinating conjunction is a type of connecting word. There are

only seven coordinating conjunctions in English. In this unit, you will

practice four of them: and, but, or, andso.

These are compound sentences:

Independent Clause Coordinating Independent Clause

Conjunction

25

My family often goes camping, andwe usually have fun.

They went camping at Blue Lake, but they had a terrible time.

Next year we will take a cruise, orwe may stay at home.

We want to go to Hawaii soon, sowe need to save money.

1. And connects two clauses with similar ideas; the clauses can be

positive or negative.

- My roommate is an art student, and her boyfriend plays in a rock

band.

- She doesn’t like rock music, and he doesn’t like art.

2. But connects two clauses with contrasting or positive ideas.

- She likes classical music, but she doesn’t like rock.

- She also likes country music, but he hates it.

3. Or connects two clauses that express alternatives or choices.

- Every Friday night, they go to a classical concert, or they visit an

art gallery.

- Then on Saturday night, he practices with his board, or they go to

hear another rock group.

4. So connects a reason and a result.

Reason Result

- They both like jazz, sothey go to jazz concerts together

- He works every night, sothey don’t go out very often

- He can’t practice at his apartment, sohe uses hers.

It is possible to connect three independent clauses. (However, do not

connect more than three, and do not use the same conjunction twice.)

Example:

Correct: We love to camp, but last year we didn’t enjoy it, so this

year we will do something different during our vacation.

Incorrect:We love to camp, and last year we had a good time, and

we want to do it again, but we may go to Disney World instead.

Compound Sentences versus Simple Sentences with Compound

Verbs

Caution: Do not confuse a compound sentence with a simple sentence

that has a compound verb. Remember that a simple sentence has only

one S-V combination. However, the subjects in a simple sentence can

26

also be compound (My brother and I won). The verbs can also be

compound (We swam and fished). A compound sentence has two SV

combinations.

Compare the two pairs of sentences below. The first of each pair of

sentences is simple and doesn’t need a comma. The second one is

compound and requires a comma.

1.Simple sentence with

compound verb

My family goes

camping every

summer and usually

has fun.

SVV

2.Compound sentence

My family goes

camping every

summer, and we

usually have fun.

SV, and SV

3. Simple sentence

with compound verb

Last year we went

camping, but had a

terrible time.

SVV

4. Compound sentence Last year we went

camping, but we had a

terrible time.

SV, but SV

5.Simple sentence with

compound verb

Next year we will take

cruise, or go to a Club

Med.

SVV

6. Compound sentence Next year we will take

a cruise, or we might

go to a Club Med.

SV, or SV

PRACTICE:

Simple

versus

Compound

Exercise 3:Work by yourself or with a partner. The sentences in

this exercise explain some of the rules of American football.

1. Underline the subjects with one line and the verbs with two

lines.

27

Sentences 2. Write ‘simple” or “compound” in the space at the left of

each sentence.

Example:

…simple.. One team kicks the ball to the other team to start

the game

1. ………… The quarterback is the most important player on the team.

2. ………… The quarterback can throw the ball or run with it.

3. ………… The quarterback can throw the ball, but the other players

can only run with it.

4. ………… Then the other team gets the ball, and it is their turn to

try to make a touchdown.

5. ………… The offensive team can also kick the ball between the

goal posts of the other team to score points.

6. ………… This play is called a “field goal.”

7. ………… A touchdown is six points, and a field goal is three points.

8. ………… A football is oval in shape and it is made from pigskin.

9. ………… Football players wear helmets on their heads and protect

their shoulders with strong shoulder pads.

10. ………… Players wear protective clothing, but injuries still happen.

Exercise 4:Work by yourself or with a partner.

1. Analyze each sentence in the following paragraphs.

Underline the subjects with one line and the verbs with two

lines.

2. Write simple or compound in the numbered spaces.

3. Then write the formula for reach sentence: SV, (and) SV;

SVV; SSV; and so forth.

4. Add a comma to each compound sentence. Sentence

number six is a command, so the subjects are not

expressed. (You will need to add a total of five commas in

the two paragraphs.)

How to Clear Your Ears in an Airplane 1Sometimes passengers’ ears hurt in an airplane. 2This pain can be

quite strong. 3It is caused by unequal air pressure outside and inside

your ears. 4The air pressure in the airplane may be at 15,000 feet but

the air pressure inside your ears is still at ground level. 5Airlines

28

PRACTICE:

Making

Compound

sentences

recommend the following techniques to stop the pain. 6Pinch your

nose closed with your fingers and pretend to blow your nose. 7This

action makes the pressure equal and usually stops the pain. 8You can

also yawn several times or you can swallow hard. 9Children can chew

gum and babies can suck on a bottle or a pacifier.

1. …simple… …SV…

2. .................... ……….

3. …………… ……….

4. …………… ……….

5. …………… ……….

6. …………… ……….

7. …………… ……….

8. …………… ……….

9. …………… ……….

How to Cure Hiccoughs 10My father has an interesting method of stopping hiccoughs. 11First,

he takes a glass and fills it with water. 12The water can be warm or

cold. 13Next, he takes the glass in one hand and pinches his nose with

the other hand. 14Then he bends forward at his waist and drinks the

water in very small tips from the opposite side of the glass. 15This is a

little difficult to do but it usually works.

1. …………….. ………….

2. …………….. ………….

3. …………….. ………….

4. …………….. ………….

5. …………….. ………….

6. …………….. ………….

Exercise 5:

1.Connect the two simple sentences in each pair to make a

compound sentence. Connect them with and, but, or, or so –

whichever best fits the meaning. (There may be more than one

possible choice.)

29

2. Be sure to add commas.

Example:

Canada has two official languages. Government documents are

printed in both English and French.

Canada has two official languages, so government documents are

printed in both English and French.

LANGUAGE FACTS

1. There are several hundred languages in the world. Not all of them

have a written form.

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

2. Language uses symbols for sounds. They use symbols for ideas.

(Use or)

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

3. English uses sound symbols. Chinese uses idea symbols.

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

4. Chinese is spoken by more people. English is spoken in more

countries.

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

5. Russian is the third most spoken language in the world. Spanish is the

fourth.

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

6. There are about one million words in English. Most people only

use about ten thousands of them.

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

7. Chinese has many different dialects. Chinese people cannot always

understand each other.

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

8. French used to be the language of international diplomacy. Now

English is used more than often.

…………………………………………………………………………………

30

…………………………………………………………………………………

9. International companies are growing. They will soon need more

bilingual workers.

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

10. Young people should know a second language. They will be at a

disadvantage in the international job market.

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

Exercise 6: Make compound sentences by adding a S-V

combination to each of the following.

Example:

A good boss has a sense of humor, and he (or she) is always fair.

1. A good husband comes home from work in a cheerful mood,

and……………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

2. A good wife has a part-time job, but…………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

3. An ideal teacher gives take-home test, or……………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

4. Good parents want to raise healthy children, so………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

UNIT 4: COMPLEX SENTENCES

DEFINITION

A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and at

least one dependent clause joined by subordinating conjunction

(because, although, since, when, unless etc) or relative pronoun (that,

31

PRACTICE

who, which etc).

(See independent clauses again in Unit 3 if necessary)

Examples:

- I met the boy who had helped me.

- She is wearing a shirt which looks nice.

- You can’t pass the test unless you study for it.

If a complex sentence begins with an independent clause, a comma is

not used between clauses in a complex sentence. If a complex

sentence begins with dependent clause then a comma is used after the

dependent clause in a complex sentence. See the following example.

The clause in a complex sentence can be in any order. If the

dependent clause is first, put a comma after it.

Examples:

- Marta always gets A marks because she studies hard.

- Because Marta studies hard, she always gets A marks.

- I will quit my job immediately if I win the lottery.

- If I win the lottery, I will quit my job immediately.

- We went home after the dance ended.

- After the dance ended, we went home.

We can write the formulas for simple, compound, and complex

sentences as follow:

Simple sentence= IC

Compound sentence=IC,coord. conj.IC

Complex sentence =ICsub. Conj. DC

OrSun. conj. DC,IC

A complex sentence can contain more than one dependent clause:

Example:

Although she has always lived in France, she speaks fluent

English because her mother was American and her father was Nigerian

Althoughshe has always lived in France (dependent clause),

she speaks fluent English (independent clause)

because her mother was American (dependent clause)

and her father was Nigerian (dependent clause).

Exercise 1:

1.Underline the independent clauses with a solid line and the

32

Identifying

Dependent and

Independent

clauses

PRACTICE

Making

complex

sentences

dependent clauses with a broken line.

2. Draw a circle around the subordinating conjunction.

3. Add a comma if it is needed.

Example:

1. After I won the lottery last year, my wife and I travel around the

world.

2. We were very excited when we won the lottery.

3. After we got our first payment we started planning our trip.

4. We decided to visit Italy first because our parents came from there.

5. Before we left on our trip we wrote to our cousins in Rome.

6. Although we didn’t know our Italian cousins they invited us to

stay with them.

7. We had studied Italian for several months before we left on our trip.

8. Although we could understand a little Italian we couldn’t speak it.

9. Of course, our Italian cousins couldn’t speak Italian although they

could understand it.

10. When we arrived in Rome they met us at the airport.

11. They waited outside while the Italian officials checked our

passports and luggage.

12. Finally, after we got suitcases we went outside and met our

relatives.

13. It was very confusing because no one could understand any more.

14. However, before we left Italy we could speak a little more Italian.

15. If we go Italy again we won’t be so nervous.

Exercise 2:Combine a dependent clause from column A with an

independent clause from column B to make complex sentences.

You can write the clauses in either order, but be sure to

punctuate them correctly.

A

1.Before my two brothers and I

got to the lake

2.Because we forgot ourfishing

licenses

B

a. I always get seasick.

b. It was almost noon.

c. I wasn’t catching.

d. It started to rain hardto go

33

3. When I am on a boat

4. If my brothers invite me

5.After we had been fishing for a

while

6. Before we could get back to

the shore

7.While my brothers were

catching fish after fish.

8. Although my brothers love

fishing

fishing again.

e. we had to drive backten miles

and buy new ones.

f. I hate it.

g. I will say “No, thanks!”

h. We were wet from head to

foot.

1. ………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………

2.. ……………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………

3.. …………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………

4.. …………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………

5.. …………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………

6.. …………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………

7.. …………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………

8.. …………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………

……....................................................................................................

Exercise 3: From the given sentences, write complex sentences by

combining the given independent clauses, using asuitable

subordinate conjunction for each sentence.

Example:

He studied very hard.He got the best mark in his exam.

34

He studied hard, so he got the best mark in his exam.

( or Because he studied very hard, he got the best mark in his exam)

1. I take a walk around the block.I go to work.

…………………………………………………………………

2. It’s hard to do this in the winter. It is still dark when I go to work.

…………………………………………………………………

3. I try to get up early even on weekends.I sometimes sleep late on

Saturdays.

…………………………………………………………………

4. It is raining, of course. I never go out.

…………………………………………………………………

5. I become moody and depressed.If I don’t exercise for several days.

…………………………………………………………………

6. She cannot go to work. She fully recovers from her illness.

…………………………………………………………………

7. You give full attention to your studies. You will not succeed.

…………………………………………………………………

8. I wanted to go with them very badly. My father would not let me go

…………………………………………………………………

9. He walked out of the room very angrily. He slammed the door hard

…………………………………………………………………

10. We were walking to the other side of the island. We found a small

stream.

…………………………………………………………………

UNIT 5: COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES

DEFINITION

A compound-complex sentence contains a combination of two types

of sentence structures: a compound and a complex sentence. In

other words, acompound-complex sentence consists of at least two

35

PRACTICE

Identifying

sentence

structures

independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. It is also

sometimes called complex-compound sentence.

Compound- complex sentence is the most sophisticated type of

sentence you can use. Understanding how to construct a compound-

complex sentence will help you take your writing to a new level of

complexity.

Examples:

Although I like to go camping, I haven't had the time to go lately,

and I haven't found anyone to go with.

- Independent clause: I haven't had the time to go lately

- Independent clause: I haven't found anyone to go with

- Dependent clause: Although I like to go camping

We decided that the movie was too violent, but our children, who

like to watch scary movies, thought that we were wrong.

- Independent clause: We decided that the movie was too

violent

- Independent clause: our children thought that we were

wrong

- Dependent clause: who like to watch scary movies

Exercise 1: Work with your partner

1.Underline all independent clauses with a solid line and all

dependent clauses with a broken line.

2. Decide whether the following sentences are simple sentences

(S), complex sentences (C), compound sentences (CP) or

compound-complex sentences (CC)

Example:

Some people like to relax and do nothingwhen they take a vacation.

(C )

1. Pauline and Bruno have a big argument every summer over

where they should spend their summer vacation.

2. Pauline loves to go to the beach and spend her days sunbathing.

3. Bruno, on the other hand, likes the view that he gets from the log

cabin up in the mountains, and he enjoys hiking in the forest.

4.Pauline says there is nothing relaxing about chopping wood, swatting

36

PRACTICE

Making

compound

complex

sentences

mosquitoes, and cooking over a woodstove.

5. Bruno dislikes sitting on the beach; he always gets a nasty

sunburn.

6. Bruno tends to get bored sitting on the beach, watching the

waves, getting sand in his swimsuit, and reading detective novels

for a week.

7.This year, after a lengthy, noisy debate, they decided to take separate

vacations.

8. Bruno went to the White Mountains of New Hampshire, and

Pauline went to Cape Cod.

9. Although they are 250 miles apart, they keep in constant contact

on the Internet.

10. Bruno took the desktop computer that he uses at work, and

Paulinesits on the beach with her laptop computer, which she connects

to the Internet with a cell phone.

Exercise 2: Combine the two sentences to make one compound-

complex sentence using the suggested conjunctions in the blank.

1. (where, and)

Hartford is the capital of Connecticut.My brother is living in Hartford.

It is the second largest city in the state.

Hartford where my brother is living is the capital of

Connecticut; and it is the second largest city in the state.

2.(because, who)

Hartford was once known as an industrial center.It was the home of

several manufacturers.They made firearms, typewriters, bicycles,

and even cars.

………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………

3. (whenever, or)

I usually use a pick.I play the guitar.I just use my fingers.

………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………

4. (if, but)

Barack Obama is re-elected this November.He'll serve another four

years.It won't be an easycontest to win.

37

………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………

5. (however, although)

He prefers to eat with a fork.He chooses to use chopsticks in

Chinese restaurants.They aren't easy to use.

………………………………………………………………………

6. (because, and)

Jim’s mom went to the store.It’s his birthday.She bought him a

present.

………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………

7. (which, and)

Jennifer sat in her chair.Which was a dark red recliner.She read all

evening.

………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………

8. (before, so)

Those clouds promise rain. We should hurry.We get caught in a

flash flood.

………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………

9. (but, who)

The route can be changed.I know several people.The people will not

like the change

………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………

10. (after, but)

The tornado had hit the area.My house was gone.My neighbor's

house was not touched.

………………………………………………………………………

PART B: SENTENCE STRUCTURE ERRORS

UNIT 1: ERRORS IN SENTENCE STRUCTURES

Definition of the Sentence Error:

38

A sentence-structure error is an error in which some aspects of the grammatical

structure of a sentence is incorrect.There are some common types of sentence structure

errors: sentence fragments, run-on sentences, comma splices, mixed constructions,

faulty parallelism, etc.

You need to be aware that sentencestructure may also have other errors, but your

instructor may choose not to mark them. For instance, in the sentence: “There is

questions concerning the possible dangers of this machines may bring” a relative

clause is needed after dangers (dangers that these machines may bring). In addition,

the sentence contains a subject-verb agreement error (there is questions), a number

error (this machines), and a word-choice error (bring). The most serious of these

problems is the incorrect sentence structure.

Importance of Mastering Sentence Structure in Writing

Sentence-structure errors are global (more serious) issues. As such, they not only cause

readers great difficult in understanding a piece of writing but also are highly noticeable

to readers. In the sentence The thought of my writing will put smile on people’s faces

motivates me to write well, the readers has to go back and replace of my writing with

that my writing to comprehend the sentence. Thus the reader must edit the text while

reading its content. Sentence-structure errors are also highly noticeable to readers of

formal written English because they expect writers in academic and professional

worlds to have good controls of sentence structure. Thus, ESL writers who are having

difficulty with sentence-structure errors will want to give high priority to reducing

these errors in their writing.

Suggestion for Mastering Sentence Structure

Try to determine if there is a pattern in the sentence-structure errors you are making. A

good strategy is to examine your essays and ask yourself whether your sentence-

structure errors are of one particular type or several different types. If you cannot

determine whether your errors are similar to any types covered in this unit, you will

need to ask your instructor or a tutor to help you discover the kind(s) of sentence-

structure errors you are making.

Once you know what your sentence-structure problems are, you can study specific

rules in the next unit. If you need a more detailed analysis of a particular point than the

next unit provides, you can look up that particular point in an advanced ESL grammar

book.

39

You can also understand the errorsyou are making better by trying to figure out why

you are making them. For example, perhaps you are having difficulty in leaving out or

repeating the subject of a sentence because such a structure is permitted in your native

language. Another strategy that is very effective, although you may not notice its

impact on your writing immediately, is reading extensively in English. Reading will

help you become more familiar with English sentence structure and improve your

ability to use them correctly in your own writing.

Questions for discussion

After you have read this unit, write answers to the following questions. Share your

answers with another student.

1. What is a sentence-structure error? Explain in your own words.

……………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

2. What are some types of sentence-structure errors that ESL writers may make?

……………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

3. Why should ESL writers pay particular attention to sentence-structure errors?

……………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

4. Do you think you make sentence-structure errors when you write? If so, what

kind do you make?

……………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

5. How can you improve your command of English sentence structure?

……………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………..

UNIT 2: IDENTIFYING AND ELIMINATING COMMON ERRORS IN

SENTENCE STRUCTURES

Sentence structure errors make writing difficult to understand.

When your readers cannot follow what you are saying, your

pointgets lost. Effective structure creates clarity and

40

professionalism in your writing. Identifying the most common

sentence structure errors is the first step toward correcting them

and avoiding them in your writing. Some of the most common

errors in sentence structures will be discussed in this unit.

SENTENCE

FRAGMENTS

Definition: A sentence fragment (or incomplete sentence) is

almost a sentence but lacks a subject, a verb, or a completed

thought. Sentence fragments are one of the serious structure

errors. Often, but not always, sentence fragments begin with

"That," "Because," or an "–ing" verb, so you should look for

"sentences" that begin with one of these words and "sentences"

that lack a completed thought.

Examples of fragments:

- Working on his homework all afternoon.

- Because she was new in town and had not met any of her

neighbors.

- That the dog would have to be put outside while the house

was fumigated.

- Although the result of the study was inconclusive.

How to Correct: You can correct a sentence fragment by

supplying one or more of the missing elements: the subject, the

finite verb, or the completed thought. Also, a sentence

fragment can often be corrected by using a comma instead of a

period to separate the incomplete sentence from the sentence

that comes before it or after it.

Correct sentences:

- He worked on his homework all afternoon.

- Because she was new in town and had not met any of her

neighbors, she had nothing to do Saturday night.

- The dog would have to be put outside while the house was

fumigated.

- Although the result of the study was inconclusive, the

committee decided to implement the policy.

RUN-ON

SENTENCES

Definition:A run-on sentence occurs when two or more

sentences are brought together with no punctuation between

the sentences. Remember that the term "run-on sentence" does

not refer to a long sentence!

Examples of run-on sentences:

41

- We listened to music all night my favorite song was "Boogie

Fever."

- I took English 1001 last spring it was a great class.

- He used to work at Burger Palace now he works at Taco

Land.

How to Correct: It is helpful to read your written work aloud.

When you speak, you will make natural pauses to mark the end

of your sentences or clauses.If there is no corresponding end

punctuation mark in your writing, you can be almost certain

that you have written a run-on sentence. You should separate

the complete sentences with a period, a semicolon, or a comma

followed by a conjunction (such as "but," "and," or "so").

Correct sentences:

- We listened to music all night. My favorite song was

"Boogie Fever."

- I took English 1001 last spring, and it was a great class.

- He used to work at Burger Palace, but now he works at

Taco Land.

COMMA

SPLICES

Definition: A comma splice occurs when a comma separates

two complete sentences.

Examples of comma splices:

- He could not answer the question, he asked his teacher for help.

- We all watched Titanic, it was a great movie!

- Susan was overwhelmed with work, however she was able

to complete her work before she left the office.

How To Correct: Comma splices can be corrected in several

different ways, including

using a period instead of the comma,

using a semicolon instead of the comma, and

adding a conjunction (such as "or," "but," "and," "if")

immediately after the comma.

Correct sentences:

- He could not stand the long hours, so he quit his job.

- We all watched Titanic. It was a great movie!

- Susan was overwhelmed with work; however, she was able

to complete her work before she left the office.

MIXED Definition: Mixed construction occurs when one part of a

42

CONSTRUCTION sentence does not logically or grammatically follow another

part of the sentence.

Examples of mixed construction:

- In Alice Walker’s "To Hell with Dying" is about the love the

narrator shares with Mr. Sweet.

- Because of pollution is one reason so many animals are

endangered.

- I like the book which my mother bought it in the new

bookshop.

How to Correct:Most often, mixed construction can be

corrected if you consider the subject and the verb of the

sentence in which mixed construction occurs. For instance, in

the first example above, the subject of "is about" is Alice

Walker’s “To Hell with Dying," not "In Alice Walker’s ‘To

Hell with Dying.’" Mixed construction can often be corrected

simply with the deletion of a word or two words.

Correct sentences:

- Alice Walker’s "To Hell with Dying" is about the love the

narrator shares with Mr. Sweet.

- Pollution is one reason so many animals are endangered.

- Ilike the book which my mother bought in the new bookshop.

FAULTY

PARALLELISM

Definition: Faulty parallelism occurs when parts of a sentence

that are either inbalance or parts of a series are not presented

with the same (or parallel) grammatical structure.

Examples of faulty parallelism:

- He likes to listen to music, to watch movies, and going

swimming.

- She understood how to change the oil and replacing the

air filter.

- The assignment required students to identify an important

character in the novel, to describe this character’s

actions, and explaining how the character’s actions influence

the plot.

How to Correct: To correct faulty parallelism, you first must

recognizethat you are balancing items in the sentence or

presenting two or more items in a series. Separating the

different parts of the sentence should help, as in the example

43

below:

The assignment required students . . .

to identify an important character in the novel,

to describe this character’s actions, and

explaining how the character’s actions influence the plot.

Now the item causing the "faulty parallelism" becomes clear.

To correct faulty parallelism, rewrite the sentence so that all of

the different items are presented in the same way. In the

example above, "explaining" should be changed to "to

explain."

Correct sentences:

- He likes to listen to music, to watch movies, and to swim.

- She understood how to change the oil and how to replace

the air filter.

- The assignment required students to identify an important

character in the novel, to describe this character’s

actions, and to explain how the character’s actions

influence the plot.

LACK OF

SUBJECT-VERB

AGREEMENT

Definition: Lack of subject/verb (S-V) agreement occurs when

a verb does not agree in number with its subject.

Examples of lack of subject-verb agreement:

- One of my teachers are in the office.

- Neither Frank nor Elizabeth are here today.

- No one in the crowd of 10,000 spectators watching the

football game seemto understand why the player was

penalized.

How to Correct: To correct a lack of subject/verb agreement,

you must identify the subject of the verb and then change the

verb to agree with that subject. Do not be fooled by words that

may come between the subject and the verb. For instance, in

the last example above the subject of "seem to understand" is

"no one": "in the crowd of 10,000 spectators watching the

football game" is simply clarifying the identity of "no one."

Correct sentences:

- One of my teachers is in the office.

- Neither Frank nor Elizabeth is here today.

- No one in the crowd of 10,000 spectators watching the

44

football game seems to understand why the player was

penalized.

PRONOUN

ERRORS

Definition: Pronouns (such as "he," "they," "their," "it") are

used to replace nouns, and pronouns must agree in number and

person with the noun they are replacing (the words that

pronouns replace are called "antecedents"). In other words,

"he" must refer to one male, and "they" must refer to two or

more people or things. Lack of pronoun agreement occurs

when the pronoun does not agree in number or person with its

antecedent. Pronoun errors also occur when the writer uses a

pronoun whose antecedent is missing, is ambiguous, or is too

far removed from its antecedent.

Examples of sentences with pronoun errors:

- When a student gets behind in the course, they have a

difficult time completing all of the assignments.

- Judy asked Marie if the instructor wanted to see her.

- If people can control their stress, it can play a beneficial

role in their lives.

How to Correct: To correct a problem with pronoun

agreement, you must identify the antecedent of the pronoun,

and then you must change the pronoun or the antecedent so

that each agrees in number and person with the other. If the

antecedent may be unclear to readers, you can replace the

pronoun with its antecedent, or you might have to rewrite the

sentence to clarify your meaning.

Correct sentences:

- When a student gets behind in the course, he or she has a

difficult time completing all of the assignments/ When

students get behind in the course, they have a difficult

time completing all of the assignments.

- Judy asked Marie if the instructor wanted to see Marie.

- If people can control their stress, it can play a beneficial

role in their lives.

Note: A common error is the use of a plural pronoun ("they"

or "their") to refer to a singular indefinite pronoun (anybody,

anyone, everybody, everyone, nobody, no one, one, somebody,

and someone.) Each of these indefinite pronouns is singular,

45

meaning a singular pronoun must be used to refer to it. Also,

phrases beginning with "every" and "each" are singular, never

plural. The following sentences contain errors because of a

lack of pronoun agreement:

- Everyone is expected to bring their books to class.

- No one can be blamed for their lack of experience.

To avoid sexist language, "he or she" or "her or his" should be

used instead of "he" or "his," but such phrasing is awkward and

wordy. Often, a better alternative is to change the antecedent to

a plural noun and to use a plural pronoun to refer to it.

- Everyone is expected to bring his or her books to class.

- Students are expected to bring their books to class.

- No one can be blamed for her or his lack of experience.

PRACTICE

Exercise1:The following sentences contain sentence-

structure errors. First, decide whether a sentence is correct

(C) or incorrect (IC). Then correct the mistake by rewriting

the complete sentence correctly below the original sentence.

Examples:

1. Molecular genetics is a field that is progressing very fast.(C)

2. To know their native language should be proud instead of

embarrassed.(IC)

To know their native language, they should be proud

instead of embarrassed.

3. Whenever I see the colors red and green, which always

remind me of Christmas.

………………………………………………………………

4.Most children I know who grew up in strict families have

become successful.

…………………………………………………………………

5. She wonders whether studying so hard worth it.

…………………………………………………………………

6. Wong is a Chinese woman who grew up in the United States

finds hernative language very difficult.

…………………………………………………………………

7. Engineering 10 is the course that I spend the least time on it.

.…..………………………………………………………………

8. Room 194 Chemistry I, one of the largest classrooms on my

46

campus, that can hold around 500 students.

…..………………………………………………………………

9. There are two reasons for scary of writing English.

..…………………………………………………………………

10. To go to school and working full time is hard.

…………………………………………………………………

11. The teachers read aloud the new words, then writing it on the board.

…………………………………………………………………

12. I was late to school again yesterday. For the third time this week.

…………………………………………………………………

13. I can't help you I have to be home by 4 o'clock.

…………………………………………………………………

14. I know him, he's in grade 6.

…………………………………………………………………

15. After getting home late. John had something to eat and went to bed.

…………………………………………………………………

16. If you do that again.

…………………………………………………………………

17. I drink coffee, and my brother drinks tea.

…………………………………………………………………

18. I'm hungry. I could eat a horse!

…………………………………………………………………

19. The plants in the garden were all dead when we returned

from holiday, they hadn't rained in six weeks.

…………………………………………………………………

20. She would have been killed when she fell off her bicycle. If

she hadn't been wearing his helmet.

…………………………………………………………………

Exercise 2:Read the following sentences, some of which have

parallel-structure problems. Correct any problems in

parallel structure by rewriting the incorrect sentences.

1. That Jack arrived late to the meeting and his not being

prepared angered his supervisor.

…………………………………………………………………

2. I hope to introduce you to Dr. Wood, my thesis advisor and

who chairs the Chemistry Department.

…………………………………………………………………

3. In college, what classes you take and when you take them is

47

generally your own decision.

…………………………………………………………………

4. For many scientists, the results of their researches, do

experiments, and observing phenomena are the things that they

believe in.

…………………………………………………………………

5. Water, exchanging substances and some minerals are really

necessary for the growth of plants.

…………………………………………………………………

Exercise 3: Give plural or singular form of the verbs given

in the bracket

1.Carlos is the only one of those students

who………………..lived up to the potential described in the

yearbook. (have)

2. The International Club, as well as the Choral Society and the

Rowing Club, ……………….. to submit a new constitution.

(hope)

3. Howard and Vincent, who ……………….. a copy center in

town, have decided to expand their business. (run)

4. Each and every student and instructor in this

building……………….. for a new facility by next year.

(expect)

5. Rice and beans, my favorite dish, ……………….. me of my

native Puerto Rico. (remind)

6. A large number of voters still ...………….. along straight-

party lines. (vote)

7. Four years……………….. a long time to spend away from

your friends and family. (be)

8. Neither Luis nor his parents……………….. the least bit

interested in keeping in touch with he (be)

9. Finding good jobs in big cities ………………..not easy. (be)

10. His family …………….in the suburb of Hanoi capital (live)

APPENDIX A:

SYMBOLS FOR CORRECTING YOUR MITSTAKES

SYMBOL EXAMPLE MEANING

I went school yesterday.I’m teacher.

Something is missing

Wo WO Wrong order

48

Where Paul does work? wo

I like very much this.

Ag

Ag He like coffee.

Ag He’s got two car.

Wrong agreement

Ww

Ww My employment is interesting.

ww I knew him at a party.

Wrong word

T

T I buy last week

T I go to Bangkok next week.

Wrong tense

Sp

Sp My hoose is beautiful.

Sp It is also comfortable.

Wrong spelling

P

P What is it

P My names Huong.

Wrong punctuation

Wf

wF Her English is very well.

wF I like go to the cinema.

Wrong form

Φ

Φ I saw a man and I asked him the way.

He’s got long and blonge hair.

Not necessary

Illegible

!

! The had a party.

! I saw there house

Carelessness

? ?

But the old man the back now. I don’t understand. What do you mean?

APPENDIX B:

CAPITAL LETTERS

Capital letters are used:

1. At the beginning of a sentence.

2. For the first person singular, I.

3. For the main words in titles of people, films, books, essays, plays, ships, aircraft, etc

A Day in the Country James the First (usually written James I)

49

Alfred the Great The Mill on the Floss

A Strange Adventure

4. For the abbreviations of titles, degrees, etc.:

B.A. M.P. Ph.D.

5. For the opening word of direct speech:

She said, ‘It is unreasonable to expect such a thing.’

A capital letter is not used , however, when the direct speech is merely a continuation

of a sentence.

‘It is unreasonable,’ she said, ‘to expect such a thing.’

6. For the names and followers of religions and religious denominations:

Christianity, Buddhism, Muslims, Jew, Hindu.

7. For the names of political parties and their followers:

The Conservation Party, the Labour Party, the Liberal Party; Socialist, Whigs,

Tories, Liberals, Independents, Conservatives.

When parties are referred to as Left or Right, capitals are used.

8. For salutations and forms of address:

Mr Miss Mrs

Dear Sir,

Yours faithfully,

9. For the first letter of each line of most poems. Some modern poets use capitals

only as required by the sense. When quoting verse, quote the lines exactly as the

poet has written them.

10. In personification (in poetry):

‘Gather ye rosebuds while ye may,

Old Time is still a-flying.’

Notes:

1. (i) Words denoting races of people require a capital letter: Chinese, Melanesian,

African.

(ii) When the distinction is one of the color of the skin or other physical

characteristics, a capital is not normally used: albino, pygmy.

2. (i) Small letters are used for directions according to the points of the compass:

We decided to travel east

(ii) Capitals are needed when it is the recognized name for an area or the

abbreviated form is used:

He decided to settle in the East.

N. S. E. W.

3. (i) The names of the months, days of the week, religious festivals, and special

holidays are written within a capital:

Chinese New Year’s Day All Saints’ Day

The first Monday in July

50

(ii) The names of the seasons are written with a small letter unless they are

personified:

The summer was hot and wet.

4. Words like bishop, queen, master, mistress need capitals only if the full title is given.

The Bishop of Bombay King Arthur Mr Smith

But it has become usual to use a capital for king and queen when the definite

article or some other clue indicates a particular monarch.

The Queen arrived back on 13th October.

5. (i) Capitals are used for proper nouns and adjectives derived from the nouns:

Shakespeare Shakespearian

(ii) Capitals are not used for verbs derived from proper names:

Louis Pasteur pasteurize

6. Words like judge, chairman, headmaster, principal, secretary, etc., are written

with a small letter except within the group where the holder occupies a particular

position:

Present at the meeting were: the Principal of the College; the Chairman of the

Governors, etc.

7. (i) School subjects (except languages, which are always written with a capital)

are normally written with small letters:

I prefer History to Geography.

(ii) A capital may be used if school subjects are thought of as part of a

curriculum or as examination subjects, e.g. in letters of application and essays:

In the Scholl Certificate Examination I passed in the following subjects: History,

English Language, Mathematics, Geography, and Chemistry.

8. (i) When a prefix is hyphenated to a word which has a capital letter, the word

itself retains the capital but the prefix has no capital:

non-Catholics, pro-British, anti-Russian, etc.

(ii) When the prefix is part of the full title, both prefix and word have capitals:

Anti-Slavery League, etc.

9. Certain trade and proprietary names have become general and are not spelt with

a capital letter: aspirin, thermos, plasticine, bovril, meccano, etc. Other trade

and proprietary names which, however well known, have not become general

are spelt with the initial capital letter: Consul, Kodak, Players, Biro, etc.

APPENDIX C:

PUNCTUATIONS IN SENTENCES

COMMAS

Commas are used to make the meaning of sentences clearer and are the

most common punctuation marks. A comma is used to indicate a minor

51

pause, and thus the use of commas may vary from writer to writer,

depending upon the interpretation of this pause. These few rules may

prove helpful in giving an idea of the different uses of the comma.

1. A comma is used to separate words or phrases in a list:

- The soldier proved himself reliable, fearless, and intelligent.

- When I last saw Mr Thomson, he was wearing a blue suit, a red tie

with yellow dots, brown socks with holes in them, and a pair of old

slippers.

- Silently, quickly, and carefully he cut the wire leading to the alarm.

Some writerS omit the comma before and in a list; a number of

publishing firms also adhere to this practice of omitting the comma.

However, it is often desirable to include the comma in such a list to

indicate a pause and also to avoid ambiguity. The conjunctions are used,

no comma tends to link the last two words in the list more closely than

the previous words. Note that usually when two or more conjunctions

are needed:

- The soldier is reliable and fearless and intelligent.

A comma is used in the following sentence because the pairs of nouns

are specially connected:

- I have ordered fish and chips, and bread and butter.

2. A comma is generally used to separate adjectives preceding a noun:

- He was a reliable, fearless, intelligent soldier.

However, when the adjective immediately preceding the noun is in

closer relation to the noun than the other one(s), omit the comma:

- He was a brave little boy.

3. a. A comma is used to separate clauses in complex sentences when

a pause

- If you decide to come with us, please let me know as soon as possible.

When he was on his way to the bank, he met an old friend.

The two subordinate clauses are adverbial clauses, and a comma is

generally used when the adverbial clause precedes the main one. When

an adverbial clause follows the main clause, however, a comma is not

usually needed:

- He met an old friend when he was on his way to the bank.

b. A comma is used to separate a co-ordinate clause from the main

clause if there is a change of subject:

- The school is closed now, and everyone has a holiday.

BUT

- The school is close now, and will not re-open until September.

52

c. Commas are used to enclose non-defining adjectival clauses.

If commas are omitted, a non-defining adjectival clause will become a

defining one, and the whole sentence will take on a new meaning:

- The miners, who were on strike at the time, did not receive any pay.

4. Commas are used to mark off direct speech:

- ‘Will you come,’ ask Timothy, ‘if I promise to look after your dog?’

- The principal said, ‘I am proud of the form’s results in the examination.’

5. Commas are used to mark off words used in addressing people:

- Come to see our family, John, whenever you are in this district again.

6. Words and phrases (but not clauses) in apposition are enclosed by

commas:

- Mr Smith, the architect, is retiring next month.

- India, one of the largest countries in the East, is a member of the

Commonwealth.

7. A comma is used to mark off a participial phrase when a pause

would naturally be required when reading:

- Having arrived early, I began to look around for something to do.

- The old gentleman, realizing that he had missed the bus, sat down on a

bench and took out a newspaper.

8. Commas are frequently used to mark off words and phrases like

therefore, however, nevertheless, moreover, of course, in fact, for

instance, no doubt, etc…, in their usual function as sentence adverbs,

modifying a sentences as a whole.

- He was, however, justified in his actions.

- It would appear, therefore, that something has prevented our friend

from coming.

- The man was, in fact, a complete rogue.

- Of course, I would like to accept your kind invitation

FULLSTOP

1. A full stop is used to denote the end of a statement (a complete

thought or a set of thoughts in logical order).

2. A full stop is used after abbreviations.

- Org., Gov. , St. , Add. , Ltd. , L.A.

3. The position of the full stop

3.1. The full stop, like other punctuation marks, rightly belongs to the

group of words which immediately precedes it:

- (i) ‘I don’t know,’ he said, ‘what you mean by that,’

The full stop precedes the closing of the inverted commas in this case.

The whole of person’s spoken words are, I don’t know what you mean

by that. Thus, the whole of the sentence, including the full stop, is

53

enclosed in the inverted commas.

- (ii)You should have used the word “talent”, not “genius”.

Note that the full stop (like the comma) is placed after the close of the

inverted commas, which are here used to mark off single units in a

sentence.

- (iii) John said he knew the name of the author of ‘Davis Copperfield’.

You will see some printed name in which full stops and commas in both

(ii) and (iii), but you are advised not to copy this.

3.2. The full stop is placed after the sign denoting the close of a bracket,

if the words within the bracket are NOT a separated sentence.

- These men died for freedom (or liberty).

- We are proud of our own nation’s soldiers (heroes).

COLONS

Colons are used as follows:

1. To separate two statements when the second statement explains or

amplified the first; it means that is to say, therefore:

- Joe has all the qualities needed in perfect: he is conscientious, loyal,

and obedient, and he commands the respect of teachers and pupils alike.

- Both of us are the best candidates for the job: one is good at public

speaking and PR; the other has a good head of numbers and planning.

2. To separate two statements when the second gives the reason for the

first and the word because is omitted:

- I was late for school again this morning: the bus was full and I had to

walk.

3. To introduce a number of items in a list such asin this case, it means

namely, viz. (i.e.),as follows:

-The use of the following stops must be thoroughly learnt: full stops,

colons, semicolons, and commas.

4. Occasionally to introduce a quotation, especially a length quotation:

-The principal then addressed the gathering: ‘I am…’ (Then follows the

rest of his speech.)

-This is clear from Portia’s speech on mercy:

‘The quality…’ (The whole speech or several lines quoted.)

SEMICOLONS

A semicolon denotes a longer pause than that indicates by a comma, but

does not break off the thought as a full stop would do. It is used to mark

off clauses and other groups of words.

1. To separate co-ordinate sentences when no conjunction is used:

- I like tennis; I hate cricket. (Antithesis)

- He was a natural runner; he trained hard; naturally, he won several

races at the sports. (Accumulation).

54

2.Before words like yet, therefore, however, nevertheless, also,

otherwise, and occasionally so. These words join sentence, but the

relationship between the sentences is not so firm as when using a word

like and, so a stronger pause is often needed:

- He tried his best; nevertheless he failed in the examination.

- He did very little work; yet he was top of the form.

3. To separate a series of subordinate clauses when they are all

dependent on one verb:

- In his address, the principal said that he was very satisfied with the

examination results of the previous year; that there had been a marked

improvement in the numbers of students taking part in extra-curricular

activities; that the number taking advanced work was the highest in the

history of the school; that the school was in fact a healthy, vigorous,

growing unit.

Notes: A number of modern writers dispense with the semicolon,

others make such less use of it than writers in the last century. In

particular, modern writers would not use a semicolon in a context like

the following:

‘Now,’ said Wernmick, ‘questioning being over.’ Which he emphasized

and repeated for my guidance; ‘I come to…’

4. As an alternative to a comma or no stop at all to give stronger force

to the second part of a sentence:

- I told him that he was sure to fail, and he did.

I told him that he was sure to fail; and he did.

- We pressed the bell and the door slowly opened.

We pressed the bell, and the door slowly opened.

- We pressed the bell; and the door slowly opened.

5. To separate groups of words, thus avoiding an excess of commas:

- The drawing- room contained a three-piece suite, a cabinet, and a

writing desk; in the dinning- room, four chairs, and a table; the

bedroom, a bed, a chair, a chest of drawers, and a wardrobe. There

were, of course, other smaller items of furniture in each room.

REFERENCES

1. Ascher, A 1993, Think about editing: a grammar editing guide for ESL writers,

Heinle and Heinle Publishers, Massachusetts.

2. D.L Driscoll. (2012, October 8). Parallel structure. Purdue Online Writing Lab.

55

3. Huddleston, Rodney (1984). Introduction to the Grammar of English. Cambridge

University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29704-2.

4. Lee Brandon and Kelly Brandon, Sentences, Paragraphs, and Beyond, 7th ed.

Wadsworth, 2013

5. Random House Webster's Pocket Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation, 2007.

6. R. Rambo. (2012, May 22). Identifying and eliminating common errors in

writing. English Composition 1.

7. UniLearning 2000, accessed 10 June 2000,

8. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/623/01/

<http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/main.html>.

University of New South Wales, 2009.

9. http://www2.ivcc.edu/rambo/eng1001/eng1001_identifying_errors.htm

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART A: SENTENCE STRUCTURES .......................................................................... 5

Unit 1: An overview of sentences .................................................................................. 5

Unit 2: Simple sentences ............................................................................................... 12

56

Unit 3: Compound sentences ......................................................................................... 21

Unit 4: Complex sentences ............................................................................................ 31

Unit 5: Compound-complex sentences ......................................................................... 35

PART B: SENTENCE STRUCTURE ERRORS ......................................................... 38

Unit 1: Errors in sentence structures ............................................................................. 38

Unit 2: Identifying and eliminating common errors in sentence structures .................. 40

APPENDIX ................................................................................................................... 48

REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 55