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ResearchMethodology

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF BASICRESEARCH, APPLIED RESEARCHAND DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Samidha Kumar Naik

UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI

A PROJECT ON

“COMPARATIVE STUDY OF BASIC RESEARCH, APPLIEDRESEARCH AND DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH”

MASTER OF COMMERCE PART –II

SEMESTER-III

2014-2015

SUBMITTED BY

“SAMIDHA KUMAR NAIK” PROJECT GUIDE

“ PROF.SHOBHA KAMBLE ”

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SANKAR NARAYAN COLLEGE OF ART& COMMERCE

BHAYANDAR (EAST), THANE – 401105

DECLARATION

‘ Samidha Kumar Naik ’ student of

M.COM-II ( Semester-III) .SANKAR NARAYAN COLLEGE OF ART & COMMERCE

hereby declare that we have completed this project on

“ Comparative study of Basic research, Applied research

and Descriptive research ” in the academic year 2014-

2015.

I declared that the projectreport is my original work and it has not beensubmitted by me in part or full to any otheruniversity/institution/statutory body for the award ofany degree/diploma/certificate.

Name Of Candidate: Samidha Kumar NaikSing.

Place: Date:

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CERTIFICATE We certify that the above declaration is true to thebest of our knowledge and belief.

Project Guide Coordinator

Prof. Shobha KambleProf. Ajit Jadhav

Date:Date:

SHANKAR NARAYAN COLLEGEOF ART & COMMERCEBHAYANDAR (EAST) NAVGHAR ROAD THANE-401105

CERTIFICATE

This is certify that Samidha Kumar Naik has completed the project titled Comparative study ofBasic research, Applied research and Descriptiveresearch under the guidance of Prof.

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‘Shobha Kamble’ in practical fulfillment of therequirement for the award of ‘Master of Commerce part-II’ studies degree for academic period ‘2014-2015’

PROJECTGUIDE PRINCIPAL

Dr. V.N. Yadav

EXTERNAL GUIDE CO-ORDINATOR

Prof. Ajit Jadhav

Date:

PLACE:

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TABLE OF CONTENT

SR. No. PARTICULARS Page No.

1 Concept 5

2 Meaning of Research 7

3 Historical Perspectives 10

4 Scientific method in research 12

5 Basic types of research 14

6 Research Cycle 17

7 Different kinds of Research 21

8 Basic Research 27

9 Applied Research 29

10 Descriptive Research 31

11 Importance of EducationalResearch

33

12 Comparison between types ofresearch

35

13 Case Study 37

14 Conclusion 40

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COMPARATIVE STUDY OF BASIC RESEARCH,APPLIED RESEARCH AND DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

ConceptThe study of research methodology gives the student the necessarytraining in gathering material and arranging or card-indexing them, participation in the field work when required, and also training in techniques for the collection of data appropriate to particular problems, in the use of statistics, questionnaires andcontrolled experimentation and in recording evidence, sorting it out and interpreting it. In fact, importance of knowing the methodology of research or how research is done stems from the following considerations:

For one who is preparing for a career of carrying out research, the importance of knowing research methodology and

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research techniques is necessary as the same constitute the tools of his trade. The knowledge of methodology provides good training specially to the new research worker and enables him to do better research. It helps him to develop disciplined thinking or a ‘bent of mind’ to observe the field objectively. Hence, those aspiring for career in research must develop the skill of using research techniquesand must have thorough understanding of the logics behind them.

Knowledge of how to do research will inculcate the ability to evaluate and use research results with reasonable confidence. In other words, we can state that the knowledge of research methodology is helpful in various fields such asgovernment or business administration, community developmentand social work where persons are increasingly called upon to evaluate and use research results for action.

When one knows how research is done, then one may have the satisfaction of acquiring a new intellectual tool which can mould the perspective of looking at the world. Accordingly, it enables use to make intelligent decisions concerning problems facing us in practical life at different points of time. Thus, the knowledge of research methodology provides tools to took at things in life objectively.

In this scientific age, all of us are in many ways consumersof research results and we can use them intelligently provided we are able to judge the adequacy of the methods bywhich they have been obtained. The knowledge of methodology helps the consumer of research results to evaluate them and enables him to take rational decisions.

The Objective of this course to pay attention to the most important dimension of Research i.e. Research Methodology. It will enable the Researchers to develop the most appropriate methodology for their Research Studies. The mission of the course is to impart research skills to the beginners and help improve the quality of Research by the existing researchers.The Course Structure is designed in a way that the learning of Research Methodology can move from Mugging up syndrome tofun-practical method; from a teaching process to an experimental process, from memorizing to brainstorming,

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from clearing the examination to feedback learning, from knowledge transfer to knowledge creation, from competitive learning to collaborative learning. 

The Participants of the Course will start the course by reading the provided literature at the end of the course they will find themselves equipped enough to author a book or two themselves.

Meaning of Research

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The term ‘research’ has been viewed with mystique by many people.It is seen to be the preserve of academicians and professional elite. In most people’s minds, the word ‘research’ conjures up the image of a scholar, laboratory work, university or other ‘academic’ setting. But research is simply the process of asking questions and answering them by survey or experiment in an organized way. It should not be confined to academicians alone. Every thinking person has the capacity and should do research. The fundamental requirement for research is an enquiring mind in order to recognize that there are questions that need answers. The quest for knowledge then is the basic idea behind research.The acquisition of knowledge is a continuous process from birth; an individual exploring the environment and asking questions. Information is provided by parents, associates and teachers. It is supplemented by books, magazines, newspaper, journals and the media. As an individual’s knowledge increases, questions become more complex and answers are sought from experts, reference booksand specialized journals. Research is the examination of these limits of knowledge; assessing what is known up to that point, defining unanswered questions and devising ways of answering themin an organized and meaningful way.Research has been defined differently by different people. It is perhaps best understood through a clear description of its key characteristics. A few definitions are presented below followed by the key characteristics. Research is a systematic, formal, rigorous and precise process employed to gain solutions to problems or to discover and interpret new facts and relationships. (Waltz and Bausell, 1981). Research is the processof looking for a specific answer to a specific question in an organized, objective, reliable way. (Payton, 1979).Research is systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena. (Kerlinger, 1973). Research isthe pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment; the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solutions to a problem(Kothari, 2006).

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When these definitions are consolidated, it can be said that research is the systematic activity directed towards objectively investigating specific problems in order to discover the relationships between and among variables. It seeks to answer specific questions.

Purpose of ResearchResearch in whatever field of inquiry has four purposes, i.e. describing, explaining and predicting phenomena and ultimately controlling events.

Describing and explainingThis is the attempt to understand the world we live in. Research is concerned with acquiring knowledge, establishing facts and developing new methods. The way this understanding is shown is through the theories developed and their efficacy at explaining the world in which we live.

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PredictionIn research, predictions are usually stated as hypotheses, i.e. clear unambiguous statements which can be subjected to scientificverification or refutation. When the hypotheses are accepted or rejected, we are able to make generalizations or theories concerning various situations. We are able to say that given these conditions then this is likely to happen.

ControlThis follows from our knowledge and the successful verification of hypotheses. Control represents the way in which research can be applied to real problems and situations, thus helping us to shape our environment. When we understand the relationship between variables we are able to control our environment to suit our interests. This can be exemplified by research to find effective ways to deal with indiscipline in schools. Once identified, the effective strategies can be employed to reduce the incidence of indiscipline in schools and thus improve achievement. People do research for different reasons. In doing aparticular research, a researcher may be motivated by one or moreof the following among others reasons:

to fulfill an academic requirement for example as partial fulfillment for the award of a doctorate degree.

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in an effort to solve practical problems of the society; for example to find a teaching approach that yields best performance in a given subject among students.

for enjoyment; some people enjoy the intellectual challenge ofcreative work

delegation by some authority; a researcher may be called upon to study a specified phenomenon by some higher authority. For example, the minister of education can commission a group to carry out research to find out why and how examination irregularities occur and what can be done to reduce their incidence.

to generate new theories, confirm existing ones or disapprove them.

to be informed; to contribute to the existing body of knowledge. This is mainly triggered by curiosity about a subject.

The increasingly complex nature of our society has focused attention on the use of research in solving operational problems.Research as an aid to policy and planning has gained importance, both in government and business. Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. In this context, research becomes a tool for policy decision making.Research is equally important for social sciences in studying social relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems. It is concerned both with knowledge for its own sake and for what it can contribute to practical concerns. Research inthe social sciences then is increasingly being looked to for practical guidance in solving immediate problems of human relations.

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Historical PerspectivesMan is the unique product of his creation and evolution. In contrast to other forms of animal life, his more highly developednervous system has enabled him to develop sounds and symbols thatmake possible the communication and recording of questions, observations, experiences and ideas. Man’s greater curiosity has led him to speculate about the operation of the universe and other forces beyond his control. Over the years he begun to develop what seemed to be plausible explanations.First there was the attribution of the forces of nature to the working of supernatural powers. Whatever could not be rationally explained with the existing body of knowledge was attributed to the supernatural powers; that the gods at their whims manipulatedthe sun, stars, wind, rain, lightning etc. Then there was the medicine man or the priest who claimed special channels of communication with the gods. They claimed religious authority andwere consulted on the unknown phenomena. Their explanations were in terms of mysticism and the authority of priesthood. This system of explaining the unknown became rooted for centuries. Gradually, man began to observe that the forces of nature were not as capricious as he had been led to believe. He begun to observe an orderliness in the universe; certain cause-effect relationships. He observed that under certain conditions, events could be predicted with reasonable accuracy. However, these explanations were often rejected if they seemed to conflict with

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the dogma of religious authority. Curious people who raised questions were often punished and even put to death when they persisted on alternative explanations. The reliance on empirical evidence or personal experience challenged the sanctity of vestedauthority and represented an important step in the direction of scientific inquiry. Initially the pragmatic observations were unsystematic and limited by the lack of an objective method.The first systematic approach to reasoning, attributed to Aristotle and the Greeks, was the deductive method. This system of reasoning established a logical relationship between a major premise, minor premise and a conclusion. The major premise is seen as a self-evident assumption, previously established by a metaphysical truth or dogma concerning a relationship. The minor premise is a specific case related to the major premise. The logical relationship between the two premises leads to an inescapable conclusion. Such logical arguments in which one proposition (the conclusion) is inferred from two others (the premises) came to be known as syllogisms.A typical Aristotelian categorical syllogism follows:

Major premise: All men are mortal Minor premise: Socrates is a man Conclusion: Socrates is mortal (Best, 1970)Deductive reasoning moves from general assumption to the specific. Although this was an important step in the development of modern problem solving, it was not fruitful at arriving at newtruths. Another shortcoming was that the major premise was sometimes false or incomplete; based on old dogmas and unreliableauthority and thus leading to error.Centuries later, Francis Bacon advocated the application of direct observation of phenomena, arriving at conclusions or generalizations through the evidence of many individual observations. This came to be known as inductive reasoning. It advocated a system of reasoning that used specific observations to form logical generalizations or conclusions. But the inductivemethod alone did not provide a completely satisfactory system forthe solution of problems. Random collection of individual observations without a unifying concept or focus merely confused

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investigations and therefore rarely led to a generalization or theory.The deductive and inductive methods were fully integrated in the work of Charles Darwin in the 19th century. In his approach, a hypothesis provided a focus for the investigation. According to Darwin, the major premise of the older deductive method was gradually replaced by an assumption or hypothesis which was subsequently tested by the collection and logical analysis of data. This integrated method is now recognized as the scientific approach which is the basis of modern research.

Scientific Method in Research

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The scientific method is the result of recognizing that personal and cultural beliefs influence both our perceptions and our interpretations of natural phenomena. Through the use of standardprocedures and criteria, it is possible to minimize those influences when developing a theory. The term scientific method denotes the principles that guide scientific research and experimentation, and the philosophical bases of those principles.The scientific method of inquiry is characterized by the following convictions:

that the process must be objective to reduce bias in methods and interpretation of results.

that the process should be systematic in that it ought to involve certain standard procedures.

enquiry should be conducted through a process of systematic observation that can be verified by experience (empiricism).

There should be careful recording, documenting, archival and sharing of all data and methodology (full disclosure) to make it available for scrutiny by other researchers, thereby allowing them to verify results by attempting to reproduce them.

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Characteristics of the Scientific Method

1.It involves gathering new data or using existing data for a new purpose. It is not merely reproducing information such as would be produced by a student when asked to ‘research’ on a topic and write a paper.

2.It is directed towards the solution of a problem. The ‘problem’ is the focus of the whole research process in that the entire design aims at how the problem can be solved or how the research question(s) can be answered.

3.It relies on empirical evidence, i.e. on events or data thatcan be verified by observation. This distinguishes formal research from informal research whose findings and conclusions are based on popular belief, dogma, hearsay, hunches, guess work and other subjective methods that people resort to when seeking answers to questions.

4.It is systematic in procedures of planning, collection of data, analysis and reporting. It follows clearly stipulatedprocedures. All these must be carefully recorded and described. Research ethics require that terms are defined, limiting factors stated, procedures described, references

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given and results reported faithfully. The report should also be availed for scrutiny by other interested researchers.

5.It aims at generalizing findings to larger groups by discovering general principles that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences. This calls for careful sampling procedures to ensure that the sample is representative of the larger group.

6.It requires careful and accurate observation and description.

7.It is logical and objective; every possible step is taken toensure validity of procedure, tools and conclusions. The researcher strives to eliminate personal feelings and bias.These could be intended or unintended. The emphasis is on testing rather than proving the hypothesis.

8.Research findings are sometimes contrary to popular belief. That not withstanding, the researcher should always report findings as they are. At times this requires courage. Copernicus is the 16th century was condemned by the church authorities when he announced his conclusions concerning the nature of the solar system. His findings were counter to what was popularly believed at the time, Best (1970).

Similarly, the researcher may at times find him/herself under pressure from the research sponsor to report findings in a particular way. Courage is then required to report faithfully.

Basic Types of ResearchResearch the systematic, rigorous investigation of a situation or problem in order to generate new knowledge or validate existing knowledge. Researchin health care takes place in a variety of areas and has many potential benefits; the areas include professional practice, environmental issuesaffecting health, vitality, treatme

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nts, theory development, health care economics, and many others. Health care research can be conducted byone group of professionals for generation of knowledge specific to that group, or by a diverse group of researchers collaborating on a givenhealth care problem.

Classification of research can be based on different considerations. Thus we can base our classification on the natureof the dominant data (qualitative or quantitative), the purpose of the research (applied or basic) or the type of analysis that will be carried out (descriptive or analytical). The attempt to classify research into these categories is somewhat misleading since most research has elements of all the categories. It shouldbe said that it is only an aid to broad understanding of the different types of research rather than distinct categories.The different characteristics of researchResearch May be Applied or Basic. The purpose of applied researchis to solve an immediate, practical problem. Basic Research (Pure) adds to the existing body of knowledge; doesn't necessarily provide results of immediate, practical use. ResearchMay be Obtrusive or Non-Obtrusive Obtrusive research - where the researcher introduces conditions that influence participants. Where the researcher manipulates the environment. Non-obtrusive research - where researcher avoids influencing subjects in any way and tries to be as inconspicuous as possible.

Four Main Types of Research

Historical research –Describe what was mostly non-obstructiveDescriptive research – Describe what is mostly non-obstructiveCorrelation research –makes comparison, looking for trends ortendenciesExperimental research - Describe what will be mostly obstructive

Historical ResearchA systematic process of searching for information and fact todescribe analyze or interpret the past Value can provide

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prospective for decision making about current problems issuesare often better understood if we understand the historicalperspective. Sources must have good backed sources to protectfrom criticism most common sources are past recordsDescriptive ResearchDescribes, interprets, and clarifies what in the present often done with surveys may be done by observation or an observational instrument Developmental Research is one common type of descriptive research which involves the study of changes in behavior over a period of time

Correlation ResearchThe purpose is to find relationships between two or more variableso to: - Better understand the conditions and events that we encounter (what goes with what) - To predict future conditions and events. - Correlations do not show cause and effect

Experimental ResearchAn experiment is a research situation where at least one independent variable, called the experimental variable, is deliberately manipulated or varied by the researcher. Variable element or characteristic being studied. Parameter element that remains unchanged (age, number of subjects)

Evaluation of SourcesPrimary sources-original or first-hand account of event or experience, persons involved, documents, records or relics Secondary sources-an account that is at least once removed persons not involved directly with an event but has close knowledge (parents, relatives) newspaper

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External Criticism -evaluates the validity of the document who, when, where it was produced is the document genuine, authentic status of author (primary or secondary?) Internal Criticism-evaluates the meaning, accuracy and trustworthiness of the content (comes after external Criticism).Both external and internal criticism is important to establish validity.Sampling Terms and Procedures. Population-inclusive group definedby researcher Sample-representative subset of population -should contain essential elements of population Random Sampling-process of sampling which assures that any subject in the population has an equal probability of being in the sample. Systematic counting-uses list to choose every nth person from the population. Stratified Random-used when researcher believes the population has distinct subgroups Ex: population has 45% men, then we make sure sample is 45% menVariables and LimitationsIndependent Variable-experimental or treatment variable (it is the cause) -what we are studying -it is what we are manipulating in our study Dependent Variable-is what is measured to assess the effects of the independent variable -it is thought to be dependent on the independent variable Delimitations-choices the experimenter makes to affect a workableresearch problem

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Objectives of Research to discover new facts to verify and test important facts to analyse an event or process or phenomenon to identify the

cause and effect relationship to develop new scienti c tools, concepts and theories tofi

solve and understand scienti c and nonscienti c problemsfi fi to nd solutions to scienti c, nonscienti c and socialfi fi fi

problems and to overcome or solve the problems occurring in our every day

life.

Motivations to get a research degree (Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.))

along with its bene ts like better employment, promotion,fiincrement in salary, etc.

to get a research degree and then to get a teaching positionin a college or university or become a scientist in aresearch institution

to get a research position in countries like U.S.A., Canada,Germany, England, Japan, Australia, etc. and settle there.

to get a knowledge of Research Grants and how to writeResearch Grant Proposals

to solve the unsolved and challenging problems curiosity to nd new thingsfi

Key Learnings Article Writing Essay Research Paper Book Review

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Laboratory Research Marketing Research Legislative Drafting Thesis; Dissertation Book Citation Methods and Styles Research Grant Proposals

RESEARCH CYCLE

The Research ProcessThe research process consists of a number of closely related activities necessary to effectively carry out research. The activities overlap continuously and are not mutually exclusive events. They do not necessarily follow each other in any specificorder. The order presented here is only a useful procedural guideof the research process. In the following section, a brief mention is given of what each stage in the research process entails. Detailed discussion of each stage will be presented in other sections.

1.Identify and formulating the research problems2.Extensive literature review3.Developing the hypothesis, objectives or research questions4.Preparing the research design5.Determining the sample6.Collection of data7.Analysis and interpretation of data

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Research ProblemIdentifying and FormulatingThis involves the identification of a general topic and formulating it into a specific research problem. It requires thorough understanding of the problem and rephrasing it in meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.Types of Research Projects

those that relate to states of nature those which relate to relationships between variablesIn understanding the problem, it is helpful to discuss it with colleagues or experts in the field. It is also necessary to examine conceptual and empirical literature on the subject. Afterthe literature review, the researcher is able to focus on the problem and phrase it in analytical or operational terms. The task of defining the research problem is of greatest importance in the entire research process. Being able to define the problem unambiguously helps the researcher in discriminating relevant data from irrelevant ones.

Extensive literature reviewReview of literature is a systematic process that requires careful and perceptive reading and attention to detail. In the review of the literature, the researcher attempts to determine what others have learned about similar research problems. It is important in the following ways:

specifically limiting and identifying the research problem andpossible hypothesis or research questions i.e. sharpening the focus of the research.

informing the researcher of what has already been done in the area. This helps to avoid exact duplication.

“If one had the literature and exercised enough patience and industry in reviewing available literature, it may well be that his problem has already been solved by someone somewhere some time ago and he will save himself the trouble.” Nwana (1982).

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Providing insights into possible research designs and methods of conducting the research and interpreting the results.

Providing suggestions for possible modifications in the research to avoid unanticipated difficulties.

The library is the most likely physical location for the researchliterature. Within the library there is access to books, periodicals, technical reports and academic theses. Other sourcesare the Education Index and the Educational Resources informationcentre (ERIC). Computer-assisted searchers of literature have become very common today. They have the advantage of comprehensiveness and speed. They are also very cost-effective interms of time and effort although access to some of the databasesrequires payment. Irrespective of the sources of the literature, ethics of research require that the source is acknowledged through a clear system of referencing.

Developing a working hypothesisA hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. It provides a focal point for the research. It also affects the manner in whichtests must be conducted in the analysis of data. Hypotheses are based on discussions, examination of records, and review of similar studies or personal investigations. Occasionally there may not be need to have a working hypothesis. This is the case especially in exploratory of formulative research which does not aim at testing a hypothesis. In such cases it is usual to work with specific objectives or research questions.

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Preparing a Research DesignA research design is the conceptual framework within which the research will be conducted. Some scholars have called it the blueprint of the research. The research design is meant to ensure efficiency of the research project. It ensures collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. The design used is dependent upon the purpose or objectives of the research. Research may be done for exploration,description, diagnosis or experimentation. Preparation of a research design is influenced by the following factors:

means of obtaining the information skills of the research personnel time available for the research resources available to the researcher size of the sampleThe major types of research designs include the randomized or true experiment, quasi-experiment and non-experiment. A more detailed discussion of designs will be done at a later stage. For

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now it should suffice to say that the design is used to structurethe research; to show how all the major parts of the research project - the samples or groups, measures, treatments, methods ofassignment - work together to address the central research question.

Determining the sampleAn inquiry in which the entire population under study is considered is referred to as a census inquiry. ‘Population’ here refers to all the members or items under consideration. Very often it is not possible to study the entire population due to considerations of cost, time, energy, volume of data etc. In suchcases the researcher often resorts to sampling. A sample is that part of a population that is actually considered in a study. Effort should be made to ensure that the sample is not biased andis as representative of the population as possible. Sampling designs are used for this purpose. Samples can either be probability or non-probability samples.

Collecting the dataThis is the stage where appropriate information for answering theresearch question is collected. The researcher should select the most appropriate methods of collecting data and the required datacollection tools. This calls for consideration of the nature of the investigation, the respondents, objectives and scope of the inquiry, resources available, time and the desired degree of accuracy.

Analysis and interpretation of dataAnalysis of data involves the application of raw data into categories through coding and tabulation. The unwieldy data is condensed into manageable categories for further analysis. The researcher attempts to classify the raw data into some purposefuland usable categories. In coding, the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Use of computers is helpful especially when dealing with large amounts of data. Analysis work after tabulation is usually based on computation of various statistical measures. Data entry and analysis software such as SPSS, EPI info, Excel and Access are

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helpful at this stage. In analysis, relationships or differences that support or conflict the original hypothesis are subjected totests of significance to determine the validity with which conclusions can be made. If there are no hypotheses, the researcher seeks to explain the findings.

Preparation of the reportThe scientific method of inquiry requires that the researcher should document all details about his study. This helps other researchers who might want to repeat similar studies to confirm the findings. The research report should be detailed enough to communicate all aspects of the investigation. Aspects to be covered should include a statement of the problem under investigation, methodology used, scope of the study and the limitations. The report should also communicate the findings, conclusions and the recommendations arrived at. All the elements in a research report should be presented in a logical sequence and broken down into readily identifiable sections.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF RESEARCHGrounded theory:- it is an inductive type of research,based or grounded in the observations of data from which it was developed;it uses a variety of data sources, including quantitative data, review of records, interviews, observation and surveys V. Historical research:-it allows one to discuss past and present events in the context of the present condition, and allows one toreflect and provide possible answers to current issues and problems. Eg:-the lending pattern of business in the 19th century.In addition to the above, we also have the descriptive research Fundamental research, of which this is based on establishing various theoriesAlso the research is classified in to 1. Descriptive research 2. Analytical research 3. Fundamental research 4. Conceptual research 5. Empirical research 6. One time research or

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longitudinal research 7. Field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research 8. Clinical or diagnostic research 9. Exploratory research 10.Historical research 11.conclusion oriented research

Human beings like to categorize things. We don't like amorphousgroupings of ideas floating around. It just makes things difficult to comprehend. I'm not going to shock anyone when I say that one thing that is divided into categories is research.One way to make research topics more manageable is dividing thetopics by asking the question 'What will this be used for?'Applied research is one type of research that is used to answera specific question that has direct applications to the world. This is the type of research that solves a problem. We will look at an example later.Basic research is another type of research, and it is driven purely by curiosity and a desire to expand our knowledge. This type of research tends not to be directly applicable to the real world in a direct way, but enhances our understanding of the world around us. So the real difference between the two types of research is what they will be used for. Will the research be used to help us understand a real world problem andsolve it, or will the research further our general information.Marketing research can be divided into two types. The first type,basic research, is the type of research that academicians do; forexample, when I study consumers and write an article for a professional journal. The second type, applied research, is the type of research marketing consultants and corporate marketing research departments do. The goal of this type of research is to help managers choose among viable alternative courses of action.

The goal of basic marketing research is to expand the limits of marketing knowledge. When I conduct a study for publication in a professional journal, I’m not interested in providing a solution to a pragmatic problem that’s currently facing a manager. Instead, I’m interested in trying to expand marketing knowledge, which ultimately may help managers with practical problems.

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Here’s an example of basic research, or at least a basic research question: Do consumers experience cognitive dissonancein low-involvement situations? Cognitive dissonance also is referred to as post-purchase dissonance, which is an after-the-fact worry by consumers that they should have purchased an alternative that might have provided a more satisfactory solution. People have little ego involvement with low-involvement products like toothpaste and soap. Low-involvement for consumers tends to be consumer specific. For example, I might not be highly involved in purchasing a digital camera because my photography aspirations are limited to snapshots of my children. In contrast, photography buffs may be very involved with purchasing and operating such equipment. This basic question about consumers and dissonance and involvement makes perfect sense to study if I want to publish an article inthe Journal of Consumer Research, a highly regarded scholarly journalAs defined here, applied research is inspired by a real-life problem confronted by a real-life manager who needs to make a real-life decision in a timely fashionA real-life applied research question that a fast-food-restaurantowner might confront: Should I add pasta dinners to my menu? Given current competition in the fast food industry, pasta might be a great idea. Alternatively, the current low carb craze and popularity of Atkins-type diets suggestions otherwise. Another example: Should Procter and Gamble add home teeth bleaching kits to its product line? Dentists currently supply such services during office visits. Typically, such bleaching costs several hundred dollars and may take several hours. There are competing home-based products, some supplied by dentists and others by competitors. Had I been the Procter and Gamble product manager incharge of dental health products, I might have wondered if it wasa wise idea to introduce Crest White Strips, especially at the originally suggested retail price of $44.00 per kit.

Whether we’re considering basic research or applied research, many of the same marketing research methods can be applied. Forsurveys, experiments, secondary data, observation, or qualitative research, it’s never that some methods are appropriate to one type of research but inappropriate for

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another type. The application of these methods strictly dependson the problem at hand, rather than if it’s a basic research problem or an applied research problem.In marketing research, as in other types of research, we talk about three basic types: (1) exploratory research, which includes qualitative research, depth interviews, and observations; (2) descriptive research, which predominantly is survey-based research; and (3) causal research, which predominantly relies on experiments to establish cause-and-effect relationships. With exploratory research, we’re trying to understand the research environment a bit better, with the goal of helping us design better descriptive studies. With descriptive research, we’re trying to describe the environment;we’re merely examining whether the characteristics of things orphenomena tend to be associated with one another; for example, if males are more likely than females to purchase a certain product or if the predominant purchaser of a certain product isyounger or older. All three types of research constitute separate and substantial topics in this course.Exploratory research often—but not always—is preliminary to conclusive research. Descriptive and causal research fall under the heading of conclusive research. Such research is meant to provide managers with sufficient evidence for making more informed decisions. Descriptive research is more survey based andcausal research is more experiment based. Descriptive research may rely on cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.

Whether causal, descriptive, or exploratory research is conducteddepends on the level of uncertainty about the research environment. If you’re very uncertain about the research problem and research questions, or if you’re unaware of the ways that your customers think about your product or the language they use to describe it, then exploratory research can help to reduce youruncertainty. Alternatively, if your research problem and researchquestions already are well understood, then a survey of reasonable quality could be designed and fielded. Once you’ve conducted enough descriptive research to get a good sense for possible cause-and-effect relationships, then you might want to conduct an experiment to test those relationships. For example, you might want to determine how much your sales would increase if

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you increased your advertising budget by $1 million. The bottom line: Whether you do exploratory research or more conclusive research depends on your understanding of the research problem and related research questions.

Here’s a cartoon that illustrates the kinds of questions managers have about research they may order. When the manager—the guy with his feet on the desk—asks the question “Why did our sales sag?” he doesn’t understand the possible causes; if so, then exploratory research is warranted to help identify possible causes. If the manager’s research question is “How many people in town are aware that we sponsor a sports team?” or “Who are the heavy user segments in his market?” then research that describes the market is needed. Well-conceived survey research should help to answer such questions. If the manager’s question is about the possible efficacy of a new ad theme, then a cause-and-effect relationship should be established through an experiment. Finally, if the manager is interested in forecasting next year’s sales, then he needs predictive research. Predictive research isn’t one of the basictypes—like exploratory, descriptive, and causal—but it indicates a type of research problem experienced by managers. Hence, this cartoon illustrates the different kinds of researchquestions that managers face.Here’s a figure to help you understand the different kinds of research approaches. There are different types of problems that amanager might confront. In exploratory research, the manager is basically unaware of the true nature of the problem. He or she might ask questions about sales declining and be totally unaware of the cause, or ask questions about possible consumer segments that might be interested in the purchase of a new product. If themanager is aware of the problem, then descriptive research is a more sensible approach. Some questions that lend themselves to descriptive research: Who tends to buy our product? Who are our competitors? What features do buyers prefer in our product? Finally, if the problem is clearly defined, then causal research is appropriate. The questions you see here are “Will buyers buy more of our product in a new package format?” or “Which of two advertising campaigns are more effective?” These types of research problems lend themselves to experimental designs. We

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could test two alternative ad campaigns with samples of differentrespondents to get some sense of which campaign might be more effective.

Here’s another exhibit to help you understand how research problems, which here is referred to research purpose, relate to aset of research questions and ultimately a set of hypotheses to be tested formally.

At this point, I’ll talk a bit more in depth about the basic types of research: exploratory, descriptive, and causal.

As this slide indicates, exploratory research is intended as initial research and is conducted to clarify and define the nature of a marketing research problem. Exploratory research is not intended to provide conclusive evidence upon which managers base their decisions. The assumption of any researcher conductingexploratory research is that subsequent, more conclusive evidence, will be provided by subsequent research. This is one ofthe major problems managers have with focus groups. Focus groups are a type of exploratory research that I’ll discuss in more depth in subsequent lectures. Some managers who order focus groups erroneously believe these groups provide some grand sense about consumers’ thoughts and expectations, so they mistakenly fail to order the additional research that’s needed.

Here are two of the many types of exploratory research. Secondaryor historical data is considered a type of exploratory research. Given the growing prevalence of the internet, this may be the dominant kind of research you’re involved with during the next thirty to forty years. Secondary data is previously collected data. For example, the U.S. Government, with the Census, collectswhat we refer to as secondary data that might help you to make better marketing decisions. Both the business literature targetedat academicians and the literature targeted at practitioners may provide meaningful insight into the directions that managers may choose to take their companies. Another type of exploratory research is called a pilot study. As you might suspect, a pilot study is a small-scale study meant to give both managers and researchers a better sense for a larger full study they might runsubsequently.

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The name descriptive research is very indicative of this type of research. Descriptive research is intended to describe the characteristics of a population or a phenomenon. A population could be potential customers for your product. A phenomenon couldbe the shifting economic reality, nationally or globally. The point of descriptive research is to provide some, although not absolute, understanding about the nature of a problem.

Here’s an example of what a marketing researcher might discover about the average Weight Watchers customer. Doing a survey of Weight Watchers customers might indicate that the typical customer is a woman who’s roughly 40 years old, with a household income of roughly $50,000, who’s had at least some college education if not a college degree, and who’s trying to juggle thedemands of children and a job. Knowing that Weight Watchers’ typical customer had a profile like this one would help Weight Watchers’ managers to more effectively modify and target their products to the group interested in purchasing their meals and services.

Here’s another example of what a researcher might discover by doing a descriptive study. In this case, it’s the men’s fragrancemarket. If we were to look at secondary data, we might discover this market is only 1/3 the size of the women’s fragrance market.We assume by 1/3 the size here, we’re talking about dollar volume, but it may be unit sales. We would discover that this market, although smaller than the women’s market, is growing at asignificantly faster pace, so sales growth over time might suggest whether or not it’s worthwhile to pursue this market. Perhaps the most interesting thing, from a marketing perspective,is that women buy 80% of the fragrances intended for men. If we think in terms of designing and targeting advertising, even if it’s for men’s fragrances, we’d want to target women because they’re typically purchasers, but not the consumers, of men’s fragrances.

As the name clearly implies, causal research is intended to identify cause-and-effect relationships. If we do X, then will the result be Y? That’s what we’re trying to determine out when we’re trying to establish the existence of a cause-and-effect relationship.

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It’s impossible to prove definitively that a cause-and-effect relationship exists because alternative explanations for a phenomenon may be true. Even though we may try in an experiment to control for all the external explanations, it’s impossible to do so. However, for the purposes of understanding what we hope toestablish, when we’re trying to provide evidence of causality, the three conditions listed here are critical.

In summary, how does exploratory research differ from conclusive (meaning descriptive and causal) research? This table summarizes those differences fairly well. The objective of exploratory research is to provide insights and understanding. The objective of conclusive research is to test specific hypotheses and to examine specific relationships between or among variables. The characteristic of exploratory research includes the information needed is only loosely defined; hence, the research approach mustbe flexible and unstructured. Such research entails small samplesand makes no effort to draw representative samples from the larger population of interest. Analysis via exploratory research tends to be qualitative rather than quantitative. In other words,it tends to be in terms of words instead of numbers. In contrast,the characteristics of descriptive or causal research are that the information needed is better defined. The research process isfar more formal and structured because we know what questions we want answered. The samples we draw from are large and we try to make those samples representative so we can project the results from our sample to a larger population. The data analysis for conclusive research is quantitative; in other words, it tends to be numbers oriented. As far as findings, results, and outcomes for exploratory research, those are tentative. We’re at the

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beginning of the research process and we’re trying to get a handle on the research environment and the research problem, whereas in conclusive research we’re hoping that the findings andresults are more definitive. The outcome for exploratory researchis that more research is needed. The results of exploratory research are to help support the design of conclusive research like a survey or an experiment. We hope the outcome of conclusiveresearch is that the finding can help a decision maker make a more informed decision.

Finally, I want to differentiate longitudinal research from cross-sectional research. Longitudinal research examines trends, changes, and shifts over time. For example, we might want longitudinal research if we’re interested in monitoring the efficacy of a new ad campaign to increase our sales. Research at a single point in time can’t help in this case because it can’t provide a sense about whether the advertising was beginning to kick in and increase sales. The only way to assess that is to take some measures of advertising awareness and efficacy in period 1 and in period 2 and in period 3 and in period 4 to see if the changes over time are acceptable given the expense of the advertising.

In contrast, cross-sectional research is designed to look at differences between groups at a given point in time. Cross sectional research is thought of as a snapshot of research, whereas longitudinal research would be thought of as a movie. Think ofit this way…A flip book with a picture on each page and if you flip the pages it would simulate the character walking across thescene. Longitudinal research is multiple snapshots and cross sectional research is a single snapshot. In a cross sectional research, the goal is to compare groups. If I’m doing longitudinal research, the goal is to look for changes over time.

To recap the goals for this lecture, I’d hoped to introduce you to three topics:

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The two types of research, basic and applied; The three types of research designs that pertain to basic or

applied research, exploratory (which often is qualitative research), descriptive (which often is survey-based research), and causal (which typically is experiment-based research); and

the differences between longitudinal and cross-sectional research, which can be thought of as a snapshot versus a movie.

BASIC RESEARCHWe have an idea of what applied research does, but how does basic research fit into the broader world of research? If it costs money, time and other precious resources, but does not

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have a direct application, then why bother? Because basic research feeds applied research, and applied research feeds basic research. Basic research is a little less direct than applied research, so we will look at two different examples.The first basic research example is a common type: evaluation. For example, program evaluation is a meticulous look at the benefits, costs and outcomes of a program. Let's say we are program evaluators at a substance abuse rehabilitation facility, or rehab, and we want to know if they are rehabilitating substance abusers.

The research which is done for knowledge enhancement, the research which does not have immediate commercial potential. The research which is done for human welfare, animal welfare and plant kingdom welfare. It is called basic,pure,fundamental research. The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research. Basic research lay down the foundation for the applied research. Dr.G.Smoot says “people cannot foresee the future well enough to predict what is going to develop from the basic research” Eg:-howdid the universe begin?

Basic research (also called pure research or fundamental research) is a systematic study directed toward greater knowledge or understanding of the fundamental aspects ofphenomena.[1] Basic research is executed without thought of a practical end goal, without specific applications or products in mind.[1] It includes all branches of science andengineering.[2]

Basic research has been described as arising out of curiosity.[3] Basic research is contrasted with applied research, which is research focused on a particular problem or application. Basic research lays the foundation for advancements in knowledge that lead to applied gains later on, occasionally as a result of unexpected discoveries.[3]

The International Council for Science, in a December 2004 position statement, urged support for and adequate public

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investment in basic research, stating that basic science,innovation, and development are intertwined.[4]

In the United States, pure research is mainly carried out by universities and institutes financed by the government.

OverviewBasic research advances fundamental knowledge about the world. Itfocuses on refuting or supporting theories that explain observed phenomena. Pure research is the source of most new scientific ideas and ways of thinking about the world. It can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory; however, explanatoryresearch is the most common. Basic research generates new ideas, principles, and theories, which may not be immediately utilized but nonetheless form the basis of progress and development in different fields. Today's computers, for example, could not exist without research in pure mathematics conducted over a century ago, for which there was no known practical application at the time. Basic research rarely helps practitioners directly with their everyday concerns; nevertheless, it stimulates new ways of thinking that have the potential to revolutionize and dramatically improve how practitioners deal with a problem in the future.

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APPLIED RESEARCHAs mentioned before, applied research is something that we can use. Here is a simple question: 'How should a student study?' There are many ways to go about answering this question, and the ones we will look at have a direct and applicable finding. For example, what can research tell us about how a student studies?Most people like to study in their bedroom, laying on their bedin some weird posture. They collect all their notes and spread them haphazardly across the bed. Just reading is boring, so they may have the radio on. Some people have both the radio andthe television on. Then people have to talk to their friends sotheir phone isn't far off. And pets are usually somewhere in the paperwork. However, research has found that a quiet room, without music, animals or television improves concentration.Sitting like you will take the test creates a state of consciousness similar to taking the test. And instead of takingall the notes and trying to cram before the test, it should be spaced out. When proper study habits are applied, they can

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increase scores on tests and allow a person to retain the information longer. In other words, we researched the best way to study and will now apply our findings - this is applied research.

Applied research is designed to solve practical problem of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge’s sake. The goal of applied research is to improve the human condition. It focuses on analysis and solving social and real life problems. This research is generally conducted on large scale basis, it is expensive. As such, it often conducted with the support of some financing agency like government, public corporation, World Bank, UNICEF, UGC, Etc. According to hunt, “applied research is an investigation for ways of using scientific knowledge to solve practical problems” for example:- improve agriculture crop production, treat or cure a specific disease, improve the energy efficiency homes, offices, how can communication among workers in large companies be improved? Applied research can be further classified as problem oriented and problem solving research. Problem oriented research:- research is done by industry apex body for sorting out problems faced by all the companies. Eg:- WTO does problem oriented research for developing countries, in India agriculture and processed food export development authority (APEDA) conduct regular research for the benefit of agri-industry. Problem solving:-this type of research is done by an individual company for the problem faced by it. Marketing research and market research are the applied research. For eg:- videocon international conducts research to study customer satisfaction level, it will be problem solving research. In short, the main aim of applied research is to discover some solution for some pressing practical problem.

Applied research Targeted research that applies results to a specific problem-e.g., studying the effects of different methods ofantihypertensive therapy on rates of myocardial infarction. Applied research data are used in the real world, and often ask questionsraised by policy makers.

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Applied research is a form of systematic inquiry involving the practical application of science. It accesses and uses some part of the research communities' (the academia's) accumulated theories, knowledge, methods, and techniques, for a specific, often state-, business-, or client-driven purpose. Applied research is contrasted with pure research(basic research) in discussion about research ideals, methodologies, programs, and projects. Applied research deals with solving practical problems and generally employs empirical methodologies. Because applied research resides in the messy real world, strict research protocols may need to be relaxed. For example, it may be impossible to use a random sample. Thus, transparency in the methodology is crucial. Implications for interpretation of results brought about by relaxing an otherwise strict canon of methodology should also be considered. Since Applied Research hasa provisional close to the problem and close to the data orientation it may also use a more provisional conceptual framework such as working hypothesis or pillar questions  The OECD's Frascati Manual describes Applied Research as one of the three forms of research, along with Basic research & Experimental Development.Due to its practical focus, applied research information will be found in the literature associated with individual disciplines. The military is an organization that performs a lot of applied research. For example, they may want to know about the efficacy of soldier training, how well recruitment practices work, how best to deal with host nationals in times of war, how to use the internet to reduce home grown terrorists, and the effectiveness of operational styles. 

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DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCHDescriptive research is used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied. It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred. Ratherit addresses the "what" question (What are the characteristics ofthe population or situation being studied?)  The characteristics used to describe the situation or population is usually some kindof categorical scheme also known as descriptive categories. For example, the periodic table categorizes the elements. Scientists use knowledge about the nature of electrons, protons and neutronsto devise this categorical scheme. We now take for granted the periodic table, yet it took descriptive research to devise it. Descriptive research generally precedes explanatory research.For example, over time the periodic table’s description of the elements allowed scientists to explain chemical reaction and makesound prediction when elements were combined.Hence, research cannot describe what caused a situation. Thus, Descriptive research cannot be used to as the basis of a causal relationship, where one variable affects another. In other words, descriptive research can be said to have a low requirement for internal validity.The description is used for frequencies, averages and other statistical calculations. Often the best approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is to conduct a survey investigation. Qualitative research often has the aim of description and researchers may follow-up with examinations of

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why the observations exist and what the implications of the findings are.Sometimes an individual wants to know something about a group of people. Maybe the individual is a would-be senator and wantsto know who they're representing or a surveyor who is looking to see if there is a need for a mental health program.Descriptive research is a study designed to depict the participants in an accurate way. More simply put, descriptive research is all about describing people who take part in the study.

Types of Descriptive Research Methods : In the present unit, the following descriptive research methods are described in detail: 1. Correlational Research 2. Causal-Comparative Research 3. Case Study 4. Ethnography 5. Document Analysis 6. Analytical Method.

Educational researchAccording to Gay (1981), the distinction between educational research and other types of research is the nature of the phenomena they study. Educational research encompasses many different studies all of which attempt to better understand and improve the learning and educational process. It is a rigorous and systematic attempt to define and investigate significant problems involved in teaching and learning in and outside the school and at various school systems, (Ali, 1990). Educational research concerns itself with both theoretical and policy and practice issues. It tries to understand these practical concerns,explain them and recommend best ways of dealing with them to maximize benefits of education. Nwana (2005), attempted to definethe categories into which educational research can fall. He came up with the following categories:

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1.Psychological; e.g. learning theories, factors that affect learning, remembering and forgetting, motivation, maturation, growth and development etc.

2.Philosophical e.g. worthiness of education, educational aims, moral judgements, methods of reasoning, meaning, nature and sources of knowledge etc.

3.Evaluation e.g. continuous assessment, test instruments, examinations, item analysis, students’ report cards, curriculum evaluation etc.

4.Curriculum content e.g. the choice of school subjects, factors affecting choice of curriculum content, curriculum organization, curriculum implementation etc.

5.Methodological e.g. methods of teaching, teacher effectiveness, instructional resources, teaching practice, micro-teaching etc.

6.Administrative e.g. school financing, discipline, school records, classroom management, leadership styles, recruitment and deployment of staff etc.

7.Sociological e.g. school-community relations, teacher-pupil relations, interpersonal relations within the school, #lassroom behavior of students, students’ unrest, cultism etc.

8.Historical e.g. history of institutions, progarmmes, places or persons of educational interest.

Importance of educational researchThe role of research in informing policy decisions in Kenya has gained prominence in the recent past. This is evident in government policy documents such as Sessional Paper Number 1 of

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2005, KESSP and Kenya Vision 2030. Educational research may be carried out by the scholar, the teacher trainee, practicing teacher, administrator, curriculum specialist, policy maker, or indeed anyone with a specific issue to resolve. The paramount significance of educational research is that it leads to improvement in teaching and learning situations. For instance when a study is done to establish the most effective strategies of teaching a given subject, there can be an improvement in achievement when teachers are encouraged to adopt the methods found to be effective.Research requires a high level of alertness in planning, executing, observing, recording, and reporting. Educational research therefore develops in the researcher scientific attitudes of objectivity, curiosity and critical outlook. For theteacher trainee and practicing teacher it provides professional growth through a deeper understanding of pedagogical practices and psychology of learning. It also equips them with problem-solving and leadership skills. This is achieved through the rigours that go with the research process.For the education planner such as curriculum designers and policymakers, educational research provides useful baseline data that can be used for planning purposes and policy decision making. Forexample, in the development or review of any curriculum, the content to be included has to be identified through a careful research process. This often involves a needs assessment survey to allow stakeholders to give their views. Document analyses haveto be done such as on educational psychology books in order understand the psychology of learning. Current materials also have to be analyzed so as to know about current trends and information.

Applied research scientific investigations conducted to answer specific clinical questions or solve practice-related problems.

1. Basic research scientific investigation that involves the generation of new knowledge or development of new theories; its results oftencannot be applied directly to specific clinical situations.

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2. Correlational research the systematic investigation of relationships among two or more variables, without necessarily determining causeand effect.

3. Descriptive research research that provides an accurate portrayal of characteristics of a particular individual, situation, or group. Thesestudies are a means of discovering new meaning, describing what exists, determining the frequency with which something occurs, andcategorizing information.

4. Ethnographic research the investigation of a culture through an in-depth study of the members of the culture; it involves the systematiccollection, description, and analysis of data for development of theories of cultural behavior.

5. Experimental research objective, systematic, controlled investigation for the purpose of predicting and controlling phenomena andexamining probability and causality among selected variables.

6. Exploratory research studies that are merely formative, for the purpose of gaining new insights, discovering new ideas, and increasingknowledge of phenomena.

7. Grounded theory research a research approach designed to discover what problems exist in a given social environment and how thepersons involved handle them; it involves formulation, testing, and reformulation of propositions until a theory is developed.

8. Historical research research involving analysis of events that occurred in the remote or recent past.

9. Phenomenological research an inductive, descriptive research approach developed from phenomenological philosophy; its aim is todescribe an experience as it is actually lived by the person.

10. Qualitative research research dealing with phenomena that are difficult or impossible to quantify mathematically, such as beliefs,meanings, attributes, and symbols; it may involve content ANALYSIS.

Quantitative research research involving formal, objective information about the world, with mathematical quantification; it can be used todescribe test relationships and to examine cause and effect relationships

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COMPARISON BETWEEN TYPES OF RESEARCH

Basic and applied researchBasic research (also called fundamental or pure research) is mainly concerned with generalizations and the formulation of theory. It is driven by curiosity or interest in a subject. The main motivation is to expand man’s knowledge, not to create or

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invent something. Many scientists believe that basic research lays the foundation for the applied research that follows.Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the society. It can be argued that the goal of applied research is toimprove the human condition. An example of applied research couldbe a study to find out how the school feeding programme has affected school enrolment rates in drought-prone districts.Applied research is increasingly gaining favour as it is helps toaddress the problems facing the world today such as overpopulation, pollution, depletion of natural resources, drought, floods, declining moral standards and disease. Action research is a unique form of applied research. It is a reflectiveprocess of progressive problem solving. It is also called "practitioner research" because of the involvement of the actual practitioner in real life. Action implies that the practitioner is involved in the collection of data, analysis, and the interpretation of results. He or she is also involved in implementing results of the research and is thus well placed to judge the effectiveness of the interventions.

Descriptive and analytical researchDescriptive research attempts to determine, describe, or identifywhat is. It uses description, classification, measurement and comparison to describe a situation. The main characteristic is that the researcher has no control over the variables. He only reports the situation as it is at the time. The term ex-post facto is usually used for descriptive research studies in social sciences. The survey method is commonly used in descriptive research. Analytical research attempts to explain why and how. Itusually concerns itself with cause–effect relationships among variables. The researcher attempts to analyze the situation and make critical evaluation.

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Qualitative and quantitative researchQualitative research deals with designs techniques and measure that do not produce discrete numerical data. It involves extensive narrative data in order to gains insights into phenomena. Data analysis includes the coding of the data and production of verbal synthesis (inductive process). Examples include historical research, ethnographic research, participant observational research and the case study. Quantitative research includes designs, techniques and measures that produce discrete numerical or quantifiable data. Data analysis is mainly statistical (deductive process).It is characterized by:

causal-comparative correlational experimental descriptive research

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CASE STUDY

Fundamental Concepts in Management Research and Ensuring ResearchQuality: Focusing on Case Study Method University of Strathclyde, Strathclyde Institute for Operations Management 

This paper was presented in 8th Annual European Academy of Management (EURAM) Conference, Slovenia, 14-17 May 2008. The paper is also based on Aylin Ates’s PhD thesis and the reader should bear in mind that the article has a particular focus on case study method 

Acknowledgment

The author would like to thank EPSRC (Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council) for funding this research project.

ABSTRACT

The aim of this research is to develop an appreciation of the wide range of methodological choices available to management researchers, including an overview of their approaches to data collection, principles of data analysis and theory building. Thisstudy will expand on issues and debates common to many of the approaches and will conclude with demonstrating the ability to

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explain a chosen research approach. This paper has a significant contribution by clarifying how to ensure research quality, which is crucial to pursue auditable data collection and analysis and consequently to generate reliable knowledge in particular to casestudy research.

INTRODUCTION

Research methodology has a central role in any kind of management research if the research aims to demonstrate credibility. A lack ofconsideration of the philosophical nature of the research might seriously affect the quality of the outcome of the research. The way the researchers understand and interpret the reality of the world will influence the research process followed and in consequence the results and findings. Hence, the philosophical assumptions will help the researcher to choose the right researchstrategies and techniques. These are some benefits of understanding various research approaches highlighted by(Easterby-Smith, Thorpe, & Lowe, 2004):

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Design process of the research is clearer.

Understanding the characteristics of the different philosophicalparadigms may helpthe researcher to foresee which research design may work and which may not.

It may help the researcher to identify and create research designs that might be unknown for him/her.

Helps the researcher to develop a research identity.

 This paper focuses on case study research because since 1990s, it is becoming highly popular to conduct management and business research in specific contexts and in particular situations (Siggelkow, 2007).

SCOPING THE FIELD IN RESEARCH PARADIGMS

“…and those who were seen dancing were thought to be insane by those who could not hear the music ”Friedrich Nietzsche.

 Nietzsche’s quote is very timely to mention here as it beautifully lays the grounds for a

debate on research philosophies and researcher’s positions around those debates. What is in the world and how we know what is in the worldare broad questions to elaborate in research philosophies debates. Consequently management researchers are schooled in different paradigmsdue to their choices to look at the social world from various lenses. The following section refers an in depth literature review onresearch philosophies and approaches in management research.

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DEBATE AROUND RESEARCH PHILOSOPHIES

Management and business research deals with social world issues and generally those issues involve human interactions and therefore are messy. In management research there are different approaches to conducting research. (Meredith, Raturi, Amoako-Gyampah, &Kaplan, 1989) highlights two dimensions as key criteriafor philosophical modeling of the management research. The first is rational/existential dimension, which defines whether there isjust one reality and independent to the researcher, or this reality is subjective and socially constructed. These different approaches can be explained through four dimensions i.e. ontology, epistemology, methodology and methods/ techniques. The next sections will aim to clarify debates on the status and nature of social science and management research by introducing alternativepositions and epistemologies and exploring implications for choicesin research design.

Ontology is related to the nature of truth in world. This can be subjective or objective and thus explained as “assumptions that wemake the nature of reality” (Easterby-Smith et al.,2004: 31). Science and social science debates around ontology have been different from each 5other. Social science does not follow a traditional approach and therefore richer in philosophical debates. Main ontologies are (Easterby-Smith et al., 2004; Scholarios, 2005):

Objective

ontology (physical sciences approach; deals with facts, causality, fundamental laws, reductionism, measurement and objective reality; the truth holds regardless of who the observer is; aim is to discover what is there)

Subjective

ontology (constructed; the nature of what is there is not solid but shifting; truth depends on who establishes it and facts are

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all human creations; aim is to understand people’s interpretationsand perceptions)

 EPISTEMOLOGY

Epistemology is related to the way we see the nature of reality in world. We look at social world issues from different lenses wegained through our background, education, personal and professional experiences. Hence, it is a “general set of assumptions about the best ways

Of inquiring into the nature of the world”(Easterby-Smith et al., 2004: 31). Four key epistemologies in social sciences consideredin this study are:

Positivism

Critical realism / Relativism

Interpretivism / Social Constructionism / Phenomenological Approach

Action Research There are different philosophical debates amongst business and management researchers who favor different paradigms. Meredith et al. (1989) highlights two dimensions as key criteria for philosophical modeling of the management research. The first is rational/existential dimension, which defines whether there is just one reality and independent to the researcher, or this reality is subjective and socially constructed. The following sections endeavor to describe distinguishing characteristics of each paradigm. It is worth to note here that epistemology and paradigm are used as interchangeable terms here. Paradigm represents a theoretical framework, within which research is conducted (Beech, 2005).

Conclusion

The process of research can be painstakingly time consuming.  It can involve the overcoming of many obstacles and may

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unfortunately need to be revised several times as you progress through the steps.  By completing your study in the correct orderand making sure you don’t forget important tasks, your progression from theory to publication will occur much more smoothly.  For this reason, most graduate programs require that you work under the supervision of an experienced researcher for anumber of years before beginning your own independent study.  Thefinal project in any Ph.D. program will be a dissertation, which is a culmination of your knowledge in the subject matter and yourability to do research that adds to the knowledge base in your field.This book will look at each of the areas discussed in this chapter in more detail and provide an overview of research methods.  The goal is to give you a solid understanding of the different types of research, ideas for completing your own research, and a method for avoiding a tragic ending to a graduatecareer.  Studies have shown that a large percentage of doctoral students complete their coursework but leave school prior to completing the required research.  The reasons include running out of time, failing to progress in a logical order, becoming discouraged with obstacles, and simply fearing the research process.

By having a solid understanding of research methods and statistical inference, your chances of completing a research project are greatly enhanced.  Remember that nobody knows everything about doing research and that asking questions and getting advice along the way is not only accepted, it is highly recommended.  Look at research as a global phenomenon and preparefor the whole gestalt of your project but always make sure you are proceeding in a logical and organized fashion.  If you work hard and work smart, you’ll soon be published and will be adding to the knowledge base in your specialty area.  Once published, you are considered an expert and your research may someday appearin a college textbook or as a resource in someone else’s researchpublication.

Because this text is designed to focus on the methods of research, a basic understanding of statistics is assumed.  As a refresher, however, and to better critique the results section ofa research report, a discussion of descriptive and inferential statistics is included.  During the course of reading this text,

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it may be wise to refer to these sections to clarify any statistical information presented in earlier chapters.  By the end of this text, you should have a solid understanding of research methods and be able to intelligently analyze and critique a research report.

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