Recent Preservation Initiatives for the Fortifications of Famagusta

City of Empires

City of Empires: Ottoman and British Famagusta Edited by Michael J. K. Walsh This book first published 2015 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2015 by Michael J. K. Walsh and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-7463-9 ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-7463-2

TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements .................................................................................... ix Introduction: Into the Silent Centuries ...................................................... xii Michael J. K. Walsh Series Editor’s Introduction .................................................................. xxxvi Part I: Ottoman Famagusta Chapter One ................................................................................................. 2 Famagusta in Early Ottoman Sources Vera Costantini Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 13 The Re-Enactment of the Siege of Famagusta at the Ottoman Imperial Circumcision Festival of 1582: A Performance That Never Was? Tamás Kiss Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 26 Gascoigne’s Device for a Masque: An Anglicized “True Report” of the Siege of Famagusta William Spates Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 44 Corsair Tactics and Lofty Ideals: The 1607 Tuscan Raid on Cyprus Marios Hadjianastasis Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 73 Imports from Istanbul: Ottoman Exiles to Famagusta and their Tombs Ünver Rüstem Chapter Six .............................................................................................. 103 The Transformation of Famagusta after the Siege in 1571 Ege Uluca Tümer

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Part II: British Famagusta Chapter Seven .......................................................................................... 134 Charles Diehl and Famagusta: From the Discovery of the City to the Theatre Critic Lucie Bonato Chapter Eight ........................................................................................... 167 Famagusta during the Great War: From Backwater to Bustling Andrekos Varnava Chapter Nine ............................................................................................ 210 Detainees in British Famagusta: Refugees and Ships Danny Goldman Chapter Ten ............................................................................................. 241 Bertram John Weston and the Emergency in Famagusta (1955-1959) Jan Asmussen Part III: Protecting a Historical Legacy Chapter Eleven ........................................................................................ 260 Recent Preservation Initiatives for the Fortifications of Famagusta Hülya Yüceer Chapter Twelve ....................................................................................... 282 Famagusta, Cyprus: A Future Outside the World Heritage Club Carlos Jaramillo Chapter Thirteen ...................................................................................... 314 “A Silent Witness”: Seismic Activity and the Structural Integrity of Saint Nicholas’ Cathedral, Famagusta, Cyprus—Some Recent Investigations Zehra Çağnan and Michael J. K. Walsh Chapter Fourteen ..................................................................................... 343 The Conservation of a Wall Painting Representing the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste on the South Wall of the Church of Saints Peter and Paul in Famagusta Werner Matthias Schmid Contributors ............................................................................................. 355

CHAPTER ELEVEN

RECENT PRESERVATION INITIATIVES FOR THE FORTIFICATIONS OF FAMAGUSTA

HÜLYA YÜCEER

Introduction The fortifications of Famagusta have generated much interest among researchers and scientists who have examined their historical background and architectural features while also considering their conservation and possible revitalization. Although few preservation initiatives have been realised at this time, the studies that have been carried out during the last decade are presented in this chapter, which also highlights some of the challenges in implementing these projects, such as problems of ownership status and the sustainability of completed projects. Most of the studies discussed herein were carried out in cooperation with overseas organizations, and this paper focuses on two of these important initiatives: a set of projects conducted by the United Nations Development Programme, Partnership for the Future (UNDP-PFF) office in Nicosia; and the planned restoration of the Sea Gate, by the Municipality in cooperation with the Global Heritage Fund (GHF).

The study by the UNDP-PFF offers a broad holistic approach, while the one for the Sea Gate is a project dealing specifically with one bastion of Famagusta’s fortification system. This essay will concentrate primarily on the former; that is, the projects by the UNDP-PFF, including the unpublished “Study on Cultural Heritage in Cyprus”, which deals with the walled city of Famagusta. In this study, inventory charts for heritage sites in Famagusta were designed to be presented through a web-GIS system for easy accessibility and constant updating. Eleven sites, including the fortifications, were assigned by the bi-communal committee for further study in order to develop an implementation plan for their conservation. Thus, the fortifications of Famagusta went through a technical assessment process, whereby a record of structural and material damage was created,

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as was a further list of repairs to be carried out in priority order. Costs for proposed repairs were also estimated.

By providing coherent information about the management of conservation processes, and their implementations for the Sea Gate in particular, the paper also aims to contribute to further initiatives, both for the preservation of Famagusta’s fortifications, and for heritage sites in conflict areas elsewhere.

On Famagusta’s Fortification System

The fortification walls and moat encircling the historic town of Famagusta play a significant role in the city’s formation and identity. The massive stone walls are essentially trapezoidal in shape and contain seventeen bastions (including the bastions of the castle in the northeast corner), two of which were once the main gates to the city: the Porta del Mare (Sea Gate) and the Ravelin (Land Gate; see Fig. 1).1 The walls have a total circumference of approximately 3.6 km, a maximum height of 15m, and a thickness of 8m.2 In their earliest manifestations, they date to the Lusignan, medieval era, but were heavily rebuilt and modified by the Venetians in the late 15th and through the 16th century. Although the fortifications are currently surprisingly intact, many parts of the walls and bastions present some structural challenges which urgently need to be addressed. There is a castle, popularly known as “Othello’s Tower”, which is located on the north-eastern part of the urban fortifications. It was strategically positioned to oversee the port, and was adapted and added to over the years to increase its effectiveness. The castle dates from the Lusignan period, and consists of a rectangle approximately 57m by 35m with four circular towers, one on each corner. The towers were connected through four aisles located around the inner courtyard. However, only the northern aisle has been preserved until today, while the eastern and western aisles have been damaged (Fig. 2). The castle functions as an open-air museum, and is managed by Department of Antiquities and Museums.

1 There is a general account of both the castle and its fortifications in Allan Langdale, In a Contested Realm. An Illustrated Guide to the Archaeology and Historical Architecture of Northern Cyprus (Glasgow: Zeticula, 2012), 405-431. 2 The data is based on the site surveys of the author during the “Study on Cultural Heritage Cyprus” by UNDP-PFF, where she acted as team coordinator for the Famagusta Chapter in the summer of 2010.

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Fig. 1. Map showing the bastions, bulwarks, gates and cavaliers of the fortifications of Famagusta

Fig. 2. Sketch plan of the castle and a view from the courtyard looking north-west


A Brief History of the Fortifications

Due to its strategic position on the trade routes and its proximity to Anatolia, Africa and the Middle East, Famagusta has been controlled by different regimes throughout its history. It is known that there were light fortifications in 1211 but the information about them is limited.3 It is also known that in 1191 the island passed to the former Crusader King of Jerusalem, Guy de Lusignan. It is thought that the castle and eastern wall were begun around 1300, with a mole running from the castle into the harbour.4 This mole still exists. By the end of the 14th century, the fortifications had been extended around the city and included the dry moat. One of the benefits of the location was the existing outcrop of rock which formed large sections of the landward walls, making the defences virtually impossible to undermine.5 However, in 1373 the Genoese attacked, and the Lusignans lost the city for almost a century, even while they continued to control the rest of Cyprus.6 It is likely that the Genoese did work on the fortifications, but it is thought that their investment was limited, and added only minimally to the defences.7 Moreover, they did not look after the city, and upon re-capturing it in 1464 the Lusignans found it in a state of deprivation which was at odds with the thriving city they had lost almost a century before.8

The Venetians gained control of Cyprus in the late 15th century, and began extensive work on the fortifications beginning in the early 1490s. This included the building of new walls and bastions, which reflected developments in armaments, such as cannons, which by this time had more mobility and range.9 Consequently, the fortifications had to allow artillery to be rapidly moved around as required. During the same period, the castle was also altered to advance its use in case of war, and the south entrance was enlarged by the first Venetian prefect, Nicolo Foscarini, in 1492, as inscribed on the marble slab with the winged lion over the

3 Allan Langdale, “At the Edge of Empire: Venetian Architecture in Famagusta, Cyprus”, Viator: Medieval & Renaissance Studies 41, no. 1 (2010): 159. 4 Ibid., 160. 5 Ibid. 6 Ibid. 7 Ibid. 8 Leontios Makhairas, “Recital concerning the Sweet Land of Cyprus entitled «Cronicle»”, ed. Richard M. Dawkins (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1932), 142. 9 Allan Langdale, “At the Edge of Empire: Venetian Architecture in Famagusta, Cyprus”, Viator: Medieval & Renaissance Studies 41, no. 1 (2010), 160.

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entrance gate.10 Much of the work on the fortifications was virtually complete by about 1560.11 Many eminent architects and engineers were engaged in the design and construction of the fortifications: Giacometto da Novello (1520), Cav. Orologi (1536), Ercole Martinengo (1555), Michele Sanmicheli, Giangirolamo Sanmicheli, Luigi Brugnoli, Agostino Chisone, Gian Battista Zanchi (1561), Ascanio, and Giulio Savorgnano with Giovanni Maganati (1562).12

Current Conservation Status of the Famagusta Fortifications

The Famagusta fortifications are built entirely from the local stone. They are founded on natural bedrock with the same geological features, most visible at the base of the western sections. Used as the main construction material for the other monuments in Famagusta, this stone—locally simply called “yellow stone”—is a porous sandy limestone that is susceptible to water absorption and erosion. From a general review of the fortifications, it is evident that the eastern section, including the castle, exhibits severe damage when compared with the other sections, considering its proximity to the sea. In particular, the structure of the Diamante and Signoria bastions and the wall section between them are in relatively poor condition, with large areas of heavy erosion on the external face (Fig. 3). The loss of the external face on these parts of the walls could be due to structural deformations, in combination with other factors such as humidity. Considering that the walls here are not as wide as the rest of the city walls, an insufficient section and progressive stone reduction may have resulted in excessive compression forces on the rubble stone, adding pressure to the external face that finally detached from the core and fell apart. This has to be verified by a detailed structural assessment, which will also assess the consequences and propose reinforcement measures. Another factor causing deterioration of the stonework is humidity, mainly coming from the ground. Since the walls are very close to the sea in this section, the rising water contains salts; these dissolve together with the 10 George Jeffery, Description of the Historic Monuments of Cyprus: Studies in the Archaeology and Architecture of the Island (Nicosia: Government Printing Office, 1918), 105. 11 Gianni Perbellini, “The Venetian Defences of Cyprus,” Fort 16 (1988), 38. 12 Gianni Perbellini, “Military Architecture of Venetian Famagusta”, in Medieval and Renaissance Famagusta: Studies in Architecture, Art and History, eds. Michael J. K. Walsh, Nicholas Coureas and Peter W. Edbury (Surrey: Ashgate, 2012), 191.


internal salts of the stone masonry and evaporate through the base of the walls in dry seasons. In the long term, this process has the effect of disaggregating stone components, which finally exfoliate and lose their mechanical properties, endangering the stability of the whole structure. In addition to ongoing physical decay, this section (the northern part of east walls) is not cleaned of litter; adjacent to the walls there are cars that have been left there for many years since they were not approved by the customs office; and the newly added wall separating the commercial harbour and customs is inappropriately attached to the walls, making the Diamante bastion inaccessible (Fig. 4).

Fig. 3. The Signoria Bastion (left) and the walls between the Diamante and Signoria bastions (right)

Fig. 4. The wall separating the Diamante Bastion

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Although in relatively good condition when compared with the east section of the fortifications, there are several parts with heavy erosion of the south, west and north sections of the walls. Some vertical cracks are visible in the bedrock layer of the western section, which does not seem to have greatly affected its stability. This is particularly evident in the eastern sections where the ashlar stonework comes in direct contact with the ground. Following the loss of these lower courses, the ashlar higher up has disintegrated, leaving successive courses with no support. A similar process is affecting the lower stone courses laid on bedrock in certain sections. The stone masonry has severely deteriorated in the eastern sections of the southern walls, particularly at the base due to rising moisture, endangering the stability of the upper layers. In order to minimize water absorption, drainage work along the base must be carried out, followed by stabilization of the deteriorated stonework.

Further deterioration of the stonework is taking place due to weathering, erosion, vegetation, and animal (burrowing) invasions. The effects of these corrosive actions should be minimized by cleaning and consolidating the stonework, including stone reintegration, joint repointing, drainage works, and adding waterproof foundations to susceptible sections of the walls. In order to find an adequate treatment and optimal conservation method, in situ diagnosis of stone masonry in different sections of the fortifications is essential, since the problems are not the same for all sections of the walls. The eastern sections, for example, are right beside the sea, and salts and salt water may be percolating into the fabric of these walls. A few of the bulwarks, some of which are constructed directly onto bedrock, have also deteriorated through stone erosion and loss. The elevated gun platforms or cavaliere which rest on the terrepleins are constructed from compressed earth faced with stone, and some of these are in relatively good condition, having been restored in the mid-twentieth century. However, some, especially in the south side, have partly collapsed and require almost complete reconstruction. The counterscarp of the moat is in similar condition—i.e. stonework on natural bedrock. In view of the degradation to structure and fabric, and the general lack of maintenance over the years, it is important now to monitor and repair the walls. The Ravelin Bastion and the Castle are particularly under threat if this work is not carried out (Fig. 5).


Fig. 5. The structures left unprotected in the Ravelin Bastion (left) and the Castle (right)

Responsible Authorities: Who owns the fortifications?

Before introducing the preservation initiatives, it will be helpful to look at how the preservation process works within the planning system in Northern Cyprus. Following the establishment of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), political ambiguity and the non-recognition of the new Republic led to serious problems with respect to property tenure and the protection of heritage sites. In some cases, newly established governmental institutions were given the duties of former ones, while others continued to operate under the same name but with different staff. The Department of Antiquities and Museums has been assigned to the designation and protection of heritage sites. In terms of the ownership of public heritage buildings, those that had previously belonged to the Ottoman religious Vakf Institution, as well as churches that had once been converted to mosques, continued to be administered by the Cyprus Evkaf Foundation after 1974. In addition, following the displacement of communities, the abandoned churches in the northern part of the island were assigned to be administered by Cyprus Evkaf Foundation. Most of the other public heritage buildings and archaeological sites were given over to the Department of Antiquities. In the case of the Famagusta fortifications the ownership status is even more complicated. As shown in Fig. 6 (see centrefold), there are four authorities who act as “owners” of the fortifications, which is one of the main factors obstructing conservation projects: the Department of Antiquities, the Directorate of Civil Defence, the Department of Harbours, and the Evkaf Foundation. It is often difficult for these competing entities to come to agreement regarding the objectives and budgets for conservation projects.

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The Department of Antiquities and Museums

This department is a continuation of a similar institution previously existing during the British colonial and independence periods. Under the authority of the British Director of Antiquities, Turkish and Greek Cypriots had worked together; later, after independence in 1960, the Turkish Cypriot staff was side-lined, and following the partition in 1974, most of the records and archives were made inaccessible to them.13 The lack of experienced staff and documentation of heritage sites is one of the main problems behind the decline of conservation practice in Northern Cyprus. Today the Department of Antiquities and Museums acts under the authority of the Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Culture of the TRNC. It is the responsible authority for the protection of cultural heritage in Northern Cyprus, and also responsible for the designation, grading and control of heritage sites. Thus, any conservation project should get approval from the Department of Antiquities and Museums before it is implemented. In the case of the Famagusta fortifications, the Department of Antiquities and Museums has adapted some parts of the fortifications for use as museums. While the Castle and the Ravelin are essentially open-air museums, the interior spaces of the Arsenal (Canbulat) bastion are used as a museum with displays about Famagusta’s conquest by the Ottomans; inside the bastion there is the tomb of Canbulat Pasha, who died during the battle for Famagusta. These parts—the Castle, the Ravelin, and the Canbulat Museum—are subject to an entrance fee and accessible only on certain days and at certain hours assigned by the Department.

TRNC Directorate of Civil Defence Organization

Although the Department of Antiquities and Museums seems to be the responsible authority for the fortifications, the largest portion of the fortifications is still under the use of the Civil Defence Organization, which is directly connected to the Presidency of the TRNC; the section starting from the Arsenale bastion and extending to the Martinengo bastion, excluding the Ravelin, would supposedly function as a shelter in the case of war. Indeed, the cavities in these sections of the walls and bastions were used as shelters during the 1974 conflict, when the residents

13 Anthony D.C. Hyland, “Ethnic Dimensions to World Heritage: Conservation of the Architectural Heritage of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus”, Journal of Architectural Conservation 5, no. 1 (1999), 68.


Fig. 7. Interior of the Diocare Bastion

Fig. 8. Cannon balls inside the wall section between the Camposanto and Andruzzi bastions

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of Famagusta nestled inside the tunnels and rooms of the fortifications. Thus, this section of the walls is currently inaccessible to the public. During my visit to these interior rooms, there were movable and immovable partitions constructed inside the tunnels, creating shelters (Fig. 7). Unfortunately, these alterations obstruct ventilation through the interior and thus lead to further damage in the stone material, which is porous and susceptible to humidity. Apart from the harmful effects, such a use obstructs access to historical information about the fortifications and Famagusta’s past; it is evident that any research on the organization of interior spaces and the untouched remnants of past events will help enrich existing studies and the future of Famagusta (Fig. 8).

Department of Harbours—Directorate of Gazimağusa Free Zone and Harbour

During British rule, the harbour docks were constructed in front of the east walls, and arched gateways were opened in the walls in order to facilitate the transfer of goods between ships and warehouses and the town itself, an activity that continues today. Apart from obstructing a holistic conservation project for the Famagusta fortifications, the presence of another institution—the Department of Harbours—has long been protested by the residents of Famagusta, since it is a kind of a barrier between the city and the sea,14 and the goods that are unloaded in the harbour, such as cement and agricultural fertilizers, also present a health threat.15 Some of these toxic and corrosive goods, including unbagged chemicals, are unloaded and left adjacent to walls, giving rise to further damage to stone masonry.16 Regarding the proximity of this section of the walls to the sea, there has already been ongoing erosion in the stone masonry due to the rising dampness: the harmful effects of salt crystals, together with the improper activity in the harbour, gave rise to structural defects in the lower

14 “Gazimağusa Limanında Protesto”, Havadis, 13 Sep. 2013, http://www.havadiskibris.com/Haberler/kibris/gazimagusa-limaninda-protesto/10584. 15 Ahmet İlktaç, “ Gazimağusa Limanındaki Bu Soruna Bir çare Bulunsun”, Gündem Kıbrıs, 9 Nov. 2013, http://www.gundemkibris.com/gazimagusa-limanindaki-bu-soruna-bir-care-bulunsun-69008h.htm. 16 Ahmet İlktaç, “Sağlıkları Tehdit Altında”, Kıbrıs Gazetesi, 8 Jan. 2012, http://www.kibrisgazetesi.com/print.php?news=132319. Ahmet İlktaç, “Liman Çok Kirli”, Kıbrıs Gazetesi, 14 Sep. 2013, http://www.kibrisgazetesi.com/popup.php/cat/2/news/165259/PageName/Ic_Haberler.


parts of the walls, which were later very poorly repaired by the Department of Antiquities and Museums (Figs. 9 and 10).17 Relocating the commercial activities from Famagusta’s old harbour and replacing them with touristic and social activities, including the harbour’s integration with the city, is still on the agenda, according to the current Minister of Public Works and Transportation.18

Fig. 9. Inappropriate intervention for the restoration of the eastern walls of the Famagusta fortifications

Fig. 10. A view of the interior eastern walls after the implementation

17 The extensive use of cement plaster, inappropriate details and surface treatment for the eroded parts of the wall section was observed on May 2009. This implementation ceased following the on-site analysis by Naciye Doratlı and Hülya Yüceer, and briefs given to local newspapers by Naciye Doratlı. See Kıbrıs Gazetesi, 22.05.2009, http://www.kibrisgazetesi.com/popup.php/cat/2/news/71997/ PageName/Ic_Haberler. 18 “Mağusa Limanı Taşınıyor”, Daily Kıbrıs, 22 Sep. 2013, http://www.dailykibris.com/haber/magusa-limani-tasiniyor-992.html. “Kaşif: Dünyaya açılmak için limanlar çok iyi olmalı”, Kıbrıs Postası, 11 Sep. 2013, http://www.kibrispostasi.com/index.php/cat/35/news/114174/PageName/KIBRIS_HABERLERI.

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The Cyprus Evkaf Foundation

The Cyprus Evkaf Foundation (Kıbrıs Vakıflar İdaresi) was established in 1571, after the Ottoman conquest of the island, as a pious foundation which since then has accumulated properties appropriated for religious and charitable uses. Nobody has the right to sell Vakıf properties, and they can only be rented for periods of up to ten years, longer with the approval of the parliament.19 In the case of the Famagusta fortifications, there are two properties that officially belong to the Cyprus Evkaf Foundation, but they are administered by the Department of Antiquities. One of them is the Akkule (White Tower) Masjid (small mosque), which was built adjacent to the Ravelin’s entrance inside the fortification walls. As soon as they entered the city in 1571, the Ottomans constructed this small masjid to serve as a praying space for the soldiers. Today it functions as the tourism information office, and is run by the Department of Antiquities. The other part of the walls that is controlled by the Evkaf is the tomb of Canbulat Pasha in the Arsenal bastion, known today as the “Canbulat Bastion”. Any conservation work on these two properties also requires approval from the Cyprus Evkaf Foundation.

Recent Preservation Initiatives

The number and scale of preservation initiatives in Northern Cyprus accelerated in 2003, at a time when neither Greek nor Turkish Cypriots were allowed to cross the buffer zone that divides the island into two zones. In 2003, after the easing of border restrictions, people began to cross the island's dividing line for the first time in nearly thirty years. Visiting their former houses and those of their neighbours before displacement, they witnessed the impact of abandonment on the physical remnants of their pasts. A series of goodwill initiatives ended with the adoption of the proposal made by the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (the subcommittee on cultural heritage) for the establishment of an international foundation for the protection of the cultural heritage of Cyprus.20 The proposal was inspired by the need to protect the cultural heritage of the whole of Cyprus, and provides for 19 Netice Yıldız, “The Vakf Institution in Ottoman Cyprus”, in Ottoman Cyprus: A Collection of Studies on History and Culture, eds. Michalis N. Michael, Matthias Kappler and Eftihios Gavriel (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2009), 151. 20 Council of Europe, Resolution 1628, 1 October 2008, available at http://assembly.coe.int/Mainf.asp?link=/Documents/AdoptedText/ta08/ERES1628.htm (last accessed 8.9.2013).


Figs. 11a, 11b. Metal gates drilled into the stones of the Martinengo Bastion (2013) cooperation with the Turkish Cypriot side; in this context, international organizations and governments have assisted in the protection of heritage sites as a tool for peace-building.21 In addition, several attempts to get help

21 The international organizations contributing to the peace-building process in Cyprus and implementing cultural heritage projects in the northern part of the island, such as UNDP-PFF and USAID-SAVE can be found at http://www.undp-pff.org/ http://www.usaid.gov/cy/ http://www.save-irg.com/.

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for the walled city of Famagusta were launched by academics from local and international universities, the Municipality of Famagusta, and several NGOs.22 These resulted in an assurance of support from several international organizations. However, all property owners within the fortifications are responsible for the care of the section under their authority, together with the Famagusta Municipality, which is responsible for the regular cleaning of vegetation and trash. Some of the work carried out in good faith, however, can lead to damage if carried out without consulting experts. A case in point is when the Famagusta Municipality removed the later additions to the Martinengo Bastion. After the military forces left the northern quarter of Famagusta walled city, including the Martinengo Bastion, the area was left abandoned and thus became a living place for homeless people. As a result of complaints from residents, the municipality decided to remove the later additions by using mechanical diggers. Metal gates were installed to keep squatters out, but also making it impossible for tourists to visit the most interesting parts of the historic bastion. The bolts for these metal gates also damaged the original masonry of the bastion, since holes had to be drilled into the stones (Figs. 11a, 11b).

Projects carried out in cooperation with UNDP-PFF

An important initiative worthy of inclusion here has been administered by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) under its “Partnership for the Future” (PFF) programme. This is an Island-wide initiative funded by the European Union (EU) under its Aid Programme for the Turkish Cypriot Community, and comprises a number of discrete projects which together aim to contribute to the peace-building process in Cyprus. The PFF was established in 2001, and since then has developed a diverse range of projects under common aims and objectives. Some of these have been bi-communal projects, such as the Nicosia waste-water treatment plant, and the de-mining of the buffer zone; while others have included infrastructure projects at various locations throughout the island. These have incorporated community development initiatives, including

22 Three documentary films have been made with the support of the Famagusta Municipality: The Stones of Famagusta: the Story of a Forgotten City, DVD, directed by Dan Frodsham and Allan Langdale (2008); Against the Clock, DVD sponsored by the Famagusta Municipality (Gazimagusa Belediyesi), directed by Dan Frodsham, (2009); and The Forty, DVD sponsored by the Famagusta Municipality (Gazimagusa Belediyesi), directed by Dan Frodsham, (2012).


public-private partnerships (PPPs) and operational support to the Committee on Missing Persons (CMP) in Cyprus.

In April 2008, the UNDP-PFF established seven Technical Committees, one of which is dedicated to protecting the rich and diverse cultural heritage of the island. Like the others, it is comprised of both Greek and Turkish Cypriots, and clearly demonstrates that both sides can work productively together. An Advisory Board oversees the work of the Committee and ensures that it is carried out in accordance with best practice; the Board is made up of architects, art historians, town planners and archaeologists from both communities. Importantly, the work incorporates the development of implementation mechanisms for ongoing maintenance.

Famagusta Walled City Revitalization Plan

Protection measures for the walled city began during the British period in 1931, with the preserving and listing of the monumental buildings, primarily those under the authority of the Department of Antiquities. In more recent years, there has been the declaration of the fortifications and the moat as special conservation areas (1989), and the preparation of inventories for 346 buildings (1999).23 Attempts to protect the walled city were enhanced by the “Famagusta Walled City Revitalization Plan” in 2005, with the collaboration of the UNDP-PFF, UNOPS and the Municipality of Famagusta. The plan supported studies that began on April 2005 and ended in December 2005. It must be noted that the aim of the revitalization plan is to put forward a holistic approach rather than solely looking at individual projects. In order to determine different character zones and define the priorities in application, there are some sub-projects within the content of the holistic plan. The plan comprises nine zones, where one zone is reserved for the fortification walls, moat and surroundings.24 It also proposes fifty-eight projects supporting the revitalization, eight of which relate to the fortification walls as follows:25

23 Naciye Doratlı, “The fortified city of Famagusta, then and now”, Famagusta in Cyprus, ed. Gianni Perbellini (Venice: Biblion Edizioni, 2011), 75. 24 Famagusta Municipality, Famagusta Walled City Revitalization Plan Summary Report, Gazimağusa Türk Belediyesi, Surlariçi Canlandırma Planı Özet Rapor, unpublished report, (2005), 11. 25 Famagusta Municipality, Famagusta Walled City Revitalization Plan Report III—Proposals, Gazimağusa Türk Belediyesi, Surlariçi Canlandırma Planı Rapor III-Öneriler, unpublished report, (2005), 26.

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a) Project 1.4. Martinengo Multipurpose Fair, Arts and Cultural Centre

b) Project 1.8. Sea Gate Exhibition and Concert Hall c) Project 1.10. Restoration of Othello Citadel and Promotion of

Cultural Activities d) Project 1.11. Preparation of Inventory Forms of Bastions and

Cavaliers and Determination of Compatible Uses e) Project 4.1. Moving of Conventional Harbour f) Project 5.1. Landscape Project of Moat as an Archaeological Site

and Recreation Area g) Project 5.2. Landscape Project of Martinengo Bastion and its

surroundings as a park and sports activity area h) Project 5.5. Landscape Project Ravelin (Akkule)

Fig 12. Interior of the Sea Gate (2010) Some of these projects were initiated, but not maintained. For instance, the conservation work that was carried out on the Sea Gate’s interior was left unfinished in 2010 (Fig. 12). Later, the implementation was given to another contractor, who has so far not shown any progress on the project. In fact, there are other rehabilitation projects that have been implemented


to date within the Famagusta walled city; these projects have followed the proposed individual projects in the revitalization plan, with some updates according to the conditions and status at the time the projects were carried out. Yet there are some attempts being made to produce new projects, without even awareness of the existence of such a plan. These attempts can be considered among the problems hindering the preservation of Famagusta’s heritage sites and resulting in delays. It would be helpful if the plan were updated, published, and made available to possible patrons and funding entities.

Upgrading of the Street between the Castle and the Canbulat (Arsenal) Bastion

In 2001, the EU contributed to the realization of seven urban upgrading and rehabilitation projects, that were implemented and completed by the UNDP-PFF in 2006. The projects’ aims were not only to improve the living conditions in Famagusta (by providing sustainable access to water and modernizing the waste collection system), but also to make the walled city more liveable for its citizens and visitors (by rehabilitating public spaces and preserving the original urban pattern of the city). Within the framework of other interventions for the revitalization of the walled city, in 2008 the UNDP-PFF gave input for a new EU-funded project for the upgrading of the street between the Castle and the Canbulat Bastion, the Yeşil Deniz Caddesi. The project began in 2008, and was concluded in December 2009. It included the following sub-projects: upgrading of the pedestrian pavements with coloured slabs; pedestrianization of the road between the Sea Gate and the castle; the cleaning of the stone walls; the illumination of the roads, pavements and walls; the provision of street furniture (i.e. benches) and entrenchment of electricity and telecommunication cables. This was one of the projects undertaken and completed, and it resulted in a more liveable city centre where people could better appreciate and engage more with their cultural heritage.

The Study on Cultural Heritage in Cyprus

In 2009, the “Technical Committee on Cultural Heritage” agreed to compile a study of the immovable cultural heritage of Cyprus. The “Study on Cultural Heritage in Cyprus” aims to produce a number of Technical Assessments that will help in setting up a forum that identifies and unifies, rather than differentiates, the people of Cyprus through the assessment of common cultural heritage.

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The study involves a range of stakeholders, including local communities and experts, and international organizations, in a network of tasks and responsibilities that would require an independent article to understand. The “Study on Cultural Heritage in Cyprus” is organized in three chapters: the Famagusta chapter, the chapter on Ottoman architecture, and the chapter on the Northern part of Cyprus.26 Each chapter incorporates the management and design of the project, the database and field work, and the priority ranking and web GIS application. Each building has its own inventory chart that identifies a team of professionals doing research, and listing the basic data including location, name, category, historical period, basic background, bibliographic resources, photographs, sketch plans and elevations. An example of one of these charts, this one for the Ravelin, gives a general idea of the outline (Fig. 13 Centrefold). Sites in more critical condition were the subject of more detailed work incorporating additional data and photographic records. A ranking methodology was developed, which prioritises the buildings in each section. In total, more than 2300 heritage sites were identified, and 700 of these generated inventory charts, listing relevant information such as a short historical summary, site details, sketches and photographs. From these charts, 121 technical assessments were prepared, which contained a more detailed condition survey and restoration costs.27

After the completion of data collection and the technical assessment phase, the web-GIS team from Italy started to work in Famagusta in late November of 2010. The study was carried out by SiTI (Istituto Superiore sui Sistemi Territoriali per l’Innovazione [Higher Institute on Territorial Systems for Innovation]) as a main contractor and ITHACA (Information Technology for Humanitarian Assistance, Cooperation and Action) as the sub-contractor.28 The resulting report, “Web GIS application containing a 26 Under the supervision of UNDP-PFF program manager Tizzina Zennaro, and with technical supervision by Carlos Jaramillo, each chapter had a team coordinator working with ten students of architecture from local universities. The team coordinators for each chapter are: Hülya Yüceer (Famagusta Chapter), Huriye Gürdallı (Ottoman Architecture Chapter), and Michael Walsh (North Cyprus Chapter). 27 UNDP-PFF hired three specialists for technical assessment of the whole “Study on Cultural Heritage in Cyprus”: Paulo Vitti, Eleni Chelpa, and Fransisco Montanes, who prepared the technical assessment for the Famagusta fortifications. 28 SiTI is a non-profit association set up in 2002 between the Politecnico di Torino and the Compagnia di San Paolo, to carry out research and training oriented towards innovation and socio-economic growth (http://www.siti.polito.it/index.php?l=ENG). ITHACA (Information Technology for Humanitarian Assistance, Cooperation and Action) is a non-profit association,


survey on cultural heritage sites in Cyprus Project”, creates a WEB-based GIS application containing information on Cyprus’s cultural heritage. A database was designed which has the capacity to store, process, and classify a large amount of information. Initially, an analysis of available surveys was carried out to validate and add to this information. Geographical coordinates were then loaded into the WEB GIS application; this will allow a detailed field survey programme and protocol to be compiled. The final phase of the project will be a training programme for all stakeholders, which will teach them how to get the most out of the final web GIS programme. This initiative has the potential to give Cyprus a realistic starting point with which to engage the international community and seek support for the repair of these important monuments. In addition, it would solve one of the main problems regarding heritage preservation in Northern Cyprus—that is, the difficulty of accessing continuously updated data accessible on the web. However, the application has yet to be activated after three years.

Projects carried out in cooperation with Global Heritage Fund

The Global Heritage Fund (GHF) is a non-profit organization based in the United States. It aims to protect, preserve and sustain the most significant and endangered cultural heritage sites in the developing world. It was first engaged in Famagusta’s cultural heritage through a project initiated by Michael Walsh, who at the time was working as a lecturer at Eastern Mediterranean University in Famagusta. The GHF was active in Turkey already; and in line with their interest in Famagusta, they wanted to help with one of the projects on the agenda. The restoration of the Sea Gate project as an exhibition hall was proposed by the Famagusta Municipality, but very soon after work began it was halted. A firm working on GHF projects in Turkey—PROMET—prepared the application, and although the project has not yet begun, an agreement on the conceptual design of the new flooring of the Sea Gate was signed by PROMET, the Municipality, and the Department of Antiquities. The implementation project also includes the following:

founded in November 2006 by the Politecnico di Torino and the Higher Institute on Innovation Territorial Systems (SiTI). The different competences characterizing ITHACA are related to the acquisition, management and elaboration of geographic and cartographic data (http://www.ithacaweb.org/).

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a) Repair of the old wooden gate on the city side which was taken to the Nicosia antiquities depot in poor condition;

b) Repair, cleaning and protection of the existing portcullis; repair of the existing old gate on the harbour side;

c) Replacement of the already completed but sub-standard moulding to the stone inside the tower;

d) Cleaning dirt from the interior surface of the dome and the walls; e) City-side exterior flooring is already done, yet the drainage system

does not work properly and it floods the interior. Apart from this project, GHF is also willing to help in capacity-building, through the training of masons, technicians and architects in conservation techniques, and assessment of potential project sites such as the Ravelin and Martinengo Bastions, while continuing with the restoration of the Sea Gate. According to my own conversations with the staff of the Municipality, the General Director of the GHF and the architect of the firm, the delays in the implementation were due to the firm’s busy schedule of projects it carries out in Turkey. Actually, this is an important outcome or lesson to be learned: that it is hard to carry out preservation projects only with the help of imported aid and technical assistance. It is evident that both financial support and technical support from international organizations and experts are valuable; but training of the local actors is essential in order to achieve sustainable conservation projects.

Concluding Thoughts

The significance of the Famagusta fortifications should be seen not only within the context of the city itself, but as part of defensive systems that were developed throughout the Mediterranean during the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries. Their historical and scientific value, and the importance of their preservation, should therefore be seen in an international context. On a more local level, the restoration works will clearly have a positive effect on local communities by impacting local economies through the creation of employment and training, and improving tourism opportunities in Cyprus. Moreover, the work can be promoted as part of a larger initiative within the walls being carried out by other agencies, including a range of urban renewal and economic development projects. In order for this to be sustainable, it will require private finance and the involvement of a wide range of stakeholders. Public agencies can provide the analysis, but the community will need to be engaged in the implementation.


Though there have been some proposals and funding available for the Famagusta fortifications, as underlined previously, one of the most important issues obstructing these attempts is the issue of ownership of the fortifications, or who has the right to make decisions about what should be done. The answer to these questions of ownership, accountability and future maintenance is complex, but must be resolved in order to satisfactorily conclude the projects. The other issue is the lack of experienced technical assistance and permanent staff, as exemplified in the yet to be implemented web-GIS and Sea Gate restoration projects. Based on my experience in both projects, obtaining financial aid is not the primary problem to be overcome in the protection of Famagusta’s heritage. Famagusta needs a permanent, experienced and well-organized technical team who will work with dedication and manage the relationship with other governmental and non-governmental organizations. Finally, as the primary requirement of all multi-stakeholder projects, trust should be built among all stakeholders for the sake of Famagusta.

Recent Preservation Initiatives for the Fortifications of Famagusta

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