Project Ifotaka 2001 Final Report to BP Conservation Programme

Project Ifotaka 2001 Final Report to BP Conservation

Project Ifotaka 2001 was supported by a Follow Up Award from the BP Conservation Programme

Executive Summary

Project Ifotaka 2001, winner of the BP Conservation Programme Follow-up Award conducted research, conservation education, and community development initiatives from June 2001 through August 2002. The work conducted was focused in the Ifotaka region of southern Madagascar's Spiny Forest. Collaborations between Durham University (UK) and five institutions based in Madagascar (PBZT, CNRE, WWF, CEL, University of Tulear) facilitated the effective running of this work. Research Programme - Students and researchers from a range of institutions conducted studies on the biodiversity and anthropology of the forest region of Ifotaka. Ecological investigations of a new forest site in Ifotaka produced populations density estimates of Verreaux's Sifaka, an Ornithological Inventory and an investigation into plant diversity. Anthropological study examined the dynamics and social norms surrounding Antandroy Forest Resource Use. An Ethnobotanical investigation extended an inventory of traditional medicinal plants and established the framework for laboratory valorisation of medicinal plants. Project Ifotaka also provided assistance to studies by researchers from Hamburg, Tubingen and SIT. Conservation Education Programme - In collaboration with CEL, WWF Madagascar and VSO, Project Ifotaka developed a range of conservation education tools. These included the first educational video in the Tandroy Dialect targeted at rural people, the production of a conservation education poster using childrens art, running the second environmental festival in Ifotaka, the development of a school environmental education resource pack. These efforts in Madagascar were supported further by UK-Ifotaka schools link project where cultural and biological diversity were used to illustrate pertinent conservation issues through exchanges between primary schools in the UK and Madagascar. Community Development Programme - Various initiatives were developed under the theme of community development. Participatory planning for community forest management was implemented along with support for WWF/CEL teams engaged in forest management transfers using new Malagasy legislation (GCF). A Formal Training Programme for Local Guides was implemented along with a support for a locally led brick making training. Institutional Development - Probably the most significant output from the BP Conservation Programme's investment in Project Ifotaka 2001, has been the benefit in terms of institutional capacity development. In March 2002 Project Ifotaka was formally established as a UK Charitable Trust the Tandroy Conservation Trust. The BP funding has levered further financial support in excess of $100,000 for the TCT initiated collaborative programmes from the Rufford Award, The Association for Cultural Exchange and the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund. Contact - Barry Ferguson, 60 Ballyrogan Road, Newtownards, County Down BT23 4ST email - [email protected]

Key Recommendations

Research • The importance of the remnant gallery forest identified between Mangily

and Amboetsy has been noted and has been added to the network of gallery forests being managed by Project Beza Mahafaly for WWF's 'Ala Maiky' Programme. A Plan for the Conservation of this area must be produced as a priority.

• The sighting of the Freshwater Turtle Engmnochelys madagascariensis which has also been orally confirmed by local population should be confirmed by a survey during the wet season when this species will be more easily detected.

• Unconfirmed sightings of three species not known from the region should be confirmed by a profesional ornithologist. (Apperts Greenbul Phyllastrephus apperti; Green Jery Neomixis viridis; Stripe Throated Jery Neomixix striatigula).

• Following census of Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi in three distinct areas in 1999 (Ferguson et al), 2000 (Humbolt) and 2001 (Martin et al) it is suggested that repeat censuses should be conducted in order to monitor population change.

• The capacity of research students engaged in fieldwork in the region should be carefully considered when designing future student research programmes. Sufficient taxonomic expertise, professional methodological guidance and ample research materials are all important considerations.

Education • Following the success of the forest festival, it is asserted that educational

programmes should continue to embrace visual and performing arts, particularly traditional forms with which the rural population can engage with most effectively.

• Requests from local community members for adult literacy interventions, presents an excellent opportunity to integrate this worthwhile activity with environmental education. The development of resources for this should be a priority.

• The durability of any education programme will depend on effective partnerships and on a shared vision. The establishment of a consortium of organisations and the development of a vision for education in the region should be a priority.

Development • The diversity of interests and needs of the local community must be the

priority when designing community conservation and development interventions.

• Non-destructive income generating initiatives such as 'bee-keeping' and 'community ecotourism' provide opportunities for locally driven conservation efforts.

• The advantages of Community Empowerment in Forest Management (CFM) must be realistically evaluated, meeting the natural resource needs of the rural population is considered the top priority.

• Interventions aimed at introducing CFM should consider the available skills of the community and the forest ministry and be designed accordingly (ie field interventions and education not requiring literacy, capacity raising activities meeting strategic needs).

Key Outputs - Project Ifotaka 2001/2002

The outputs achieved from the support of the BP Conservation Programme Follow-up Award in terms of project and process outputs are presented below:

Research & Training • Plant and Ornithological Inventories compiled for previously

unsurveyed forest between Mangily and Amboetsy. • Census of Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi populations completed

for a previously unsurveyed site. • The Ethnobotanical Database from Ifotaka extended and support

for laboratory analysis of key medicinal plants underway by CNRE. • An investigation into the resource use practices undertaken by

forest dwelling Antandroy People. • Research Training and Experience provided to 7 Students of the

DEA in Biodiversity and Conservation from Tulear • 7 Graduates/Students from Durham University provided with field

research experience. • Support and Advice given to 5 independent researchers to conduct

studies in the Ifotaka region. Education • The first educational video in the Tandroy dialect produced (20

mins) and shown across the Ifotaka commune. • An Educational poster prepared using childrens wildlife art to

describe the importance of sustainable forest management. • A schools link between UK and Ifotaka Primary Schools involving

over 800 pupils and 29 schools developed and reinforced. • An environmental festival implemented with visitors from 7

partner organisations and all the fokontanys in the commune attending. Estimated attendance >600.

• Production of a Classroom Resource Pack for environmental education with WWF and associated training of teachers.

Development • Establishment of formal Local Forest Management Committees in

collaboration with WWF for 10 fokontanys. • Information meetings held at both the Commune Level and

Fokontany level to advance the procedure of transfer of forest management.

• Delimitation of terrain for three fokontanys completed by July 2002.

• Training and Language courses provided to local guides. • Two months of locally led training in brick production conducted. • Development of a consortium of organisations to use aerial

photography to catalyse and monitor community forest management across Androy. A successful funding application completed (CEPF).

Partnership Development • A Range of Institutional Collaborations have been strengthened and

new ones established between the TCT and Malagasy Governmental and Non-governmental organisations. These include PBZT; CEL; UT; WWF; ALT; CIREF; CNRE; FAFAFI; ASOS & KIOMBA. These strength of these relationships are demonstrated by collaborative funding applications already developed by the Tandroy Conservation Trust (the successor to Project Ifotaka).

Further Investment Attained • Direct investment in project proposals developed with the support

of the BP Conservation Programme has already been awarded by The Rufford Award; The Association for Cultural Exchange and the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (this exceeds US$100,000).

• Indirect Investment for programmes supported by Project Ifotaka include the financing of a rural health clinic for Ifotaka by the Japanese and Malagasy Governments. The clinic will be developed by CNRE with local support from the TCT and will encourage the appropriate use of valorised medicinal plants from the region.

Publicity and Awareness • The activities of Project Ifotaka have been widely publicised

through the news media including BBC News Website; London Radio Service; BBC World Service; BBC Local Radio; British Satellite News; Local and Regional Newspapers; A National Magazine; and local radio in Madagascar.

• The Creation of a Website for the Tandroy Conservation Trust is ensuring the ongoing dissemination of the work that was seeded in 2001. This can be found on http://www.tandroyconservation.org.uk

Plate 3

The team including cooks, guides, porters and families at Avarampincaratse, the base camp for the Ecology team

Students from Durham and Tulear, staff from Parc Tsimbazaza and the local guides from Amboetsy and Mangily (August 2001).

Publicity and Awareness Presentations

Promotional Activity in 2001 Location Presentation at WWF Madagascar Spiny Forest Ecoregion Programme Steering Committee

Madagascar

A poster at The Royal Geographical Society (with IBG) expedition forum

UK

Presentation to the British and Foreign Schools Society

UK

Display of posters at Parc Tsimbazaza, The University of Tulear and Libanona Ecology Centre

Madagascar

Impressive video footage was taken of the currently unprotected forest

Madagascar

Radio – national and international Station/Programm

eDate Project / interview

details Countr

yBBC Radio Cambridge May 2001 Project Ifotaka - Interview

with Tom Koe UK

London Radio Service 12 February 2002

Project Ifotaka

UK

BBC World Service ‘People and Places’ ‘One Planet’

14 March 2002 (2030 GMT)

Repeats:

15 March 2002 (0230, 1530

GMT) & 18 March 2002 (1030

GMT)

Project Ifotaka included in series entitled ‘Songs of the Earth’ & ‘The Nature of Islands’ – interview with Barry Ferguson and reports on flora & fauna of the Ifotaka forest and anthropology of Tandroy community

UK & Abroad

Television – national and international Station/Programm

eDate Project / interview

details Countr

y

British Satellite News 13 June 2001 Project Ifotaka – Interview with Barry Ferguson, Marianne Dunn and Nigel De Winser at the RGS (IBG)

UK

Web (Internet) Station/Programm

eDate Project / listings details

BBC News Online 16 January 2002 Project Ifotaka included in feature ‘Madagascar biodiversity threatened’

Print Media

UK Regional PressPublication Date Circulation

Driffield Post 4 May 2001 25,180

Gloucester Citizen 5 May 2001 30,984

Cambridge Weekly News 5 May 2001 169,785

Cheltenham Independent 10 May 2001 82,342

Beverley Advertiser 11 May 2001

22 November 2001 156,248

Kentish Express 17 May 2001 104,834

County Down Spectator 17 May 2001

24 May 2001 5 Sept 2001 11 Oct 2001 28 Feb 2002

15,714

Newcastle Journal 19 May 2001 47,146

Newtownards Spectator 17 May 2001

15,714

Newtownards Chronicle 10 May 2001 28 Feb 2002

10,572

Total Circulation 658,519

Total Opportunity to See (Circulation x3) 1,975,557

Specialist publicationsMagazine Date Details

Circulation

Green Futures March/April 2001

Award Winners 2001 12,000

BBC World Service ‘On Air’

February 2002 Project Ifotaka included in feature surrounding ‘The Nature of Islands’ series

24,000

Total Circulation 36,000 Total Opportunity to See (Circulation x3) 108,000

Programme partner publicationsPublication Date Details on content

Horizon May 2001 Project Ifotaka – Top Follow-up

Award

Horizon June 2001 BP Conservation Awards 2001

Fauna & Flora Magazine

April 2002 Project Giant Otter & Project Ifotaka

Report Outline Structure This report has been compiled to summarise the activities and achievements of Project Ifotaka as supported by the BP Conservation Programme between June 2001 and April 2002.

The introductory section summarises the project, its recommendations, key outputs and publicity generated. Next, reports from the research team are presented by the students from Tulear University, Durham University1 as well as a record of the other research projects to which Project Ifotaka provided logistical and supervisory assistance.

Reports from the Education team are then presented, detailing the initiatives developed in Madagascar and the UK-Madagascar education project explaining the schools link project.

The activities of the community development programme are then presented explaining the procedures adopted and institutional relationships developed through the project as well as the local guide-training programme.

Abbreviations

1 The research reports produced by the Durham University Students are shown as extracts from Martin T, et al, 2002, Durham University Expedition to Madagascar - Final Report, London, UK.

ACE – Association for Cultural Exchange ALT – Andrew Lees Trust ANGAP – Association Nationale pour la Gestion des Aires Protegees ASOS – Action Sante Organisation Secours CEL – Centre Ecologique de Libanona (Libanona Ecology Centre) CEPF – Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund CFM – Community Forest Management ChefZAP – Chef de la Zone Administratif et Pedagogique CI – Conservation International CIREF – Circonscription des Eaux et Forets CNRE – Centre Nationale de la Rechereche sur l’Environment DEA – Diplome d’Etude Approfondu (equivalent to MPhil) EC – European Commission FAFAFI – Malagasy National Rural Development NGO GCF – Gestion Contractualisee des Forest (Contracted Forest Management) GEF – Global Environment Facility

GIS – Geographical Information Systems MEF – Ministere des Eaux et Forets NGO – Non Governmental Organisation ONG – Organisation Non Governmantale (NGO) PBZT – Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza PI – Project Ifotaka (the forerunner to the Tandroy Conservation Trust) PN – Parc Nationale (National Park managed by ANGAP) PSDR – Projet de Soutien pour la Developpement Rurale RS – Reserve Speciale (Special Reserve protected by ANGAP) TCT – Tandroy Conservation Trust TCT-CLI – Tandroy Conservation Trust – Comite Locale d’Ifotaka TCT-MAC – Tandroy Conservation Trust – Malagasy Advisory Committee UEA – University of East Anglia UT – Universite de Toliara (Tulear University) WCS – Wildlife Conservation Society WWF – World Wide Fund for Nature

Citation - Ferguson, H.B., 2003, Project Ifotaka 2001 Final Report, Report to the BP Conservation Programme.

Acknowledgements The success of Project Ifotaka 2001has been due to the efforts of many dozens of people both across Madagascar and elsewhere. Thanks must be extended to all the team members, the staff, students, volunteers and partners. Roger Voriandro, Daniel Ralaivo, Mily Velomila, Clarisse Mahafety, Josoa Manatsoa, Maner-Solotiana Johnson, Antoine, Christian and Manonarivo all played an important part in ensuring the project was aligned with local interests and in efficiently implementing the education and development activities against the odds, for all their long treks, charette journeys and bike rides they deserve congratulations and thanks. Per Ola Wold Olsen, Natalie Hutton, Joe Wood, Henry Frost all made a personal investment in and endured hardships for the project and deserve thanks and recognition for their efforts. The trustees and officers of the Tandroy Conservation Trust have also played a vital role in the work in the field and the preparation of this report my thanks to Caroline Hotham, Owen Beaton, Kareen Holliday, Tom Bartlett, Tamsin Morrison and Rob Lanfear, without them the project would no longer exist. The students from Durham and Tulear, their partners from PBZT and guides from Amboetsy and Mangily deserve individual mention, Dutel, Christale, Myria, Rodine, Jackie, Viel, Jatanne, Tom M, Tom K, Ian, Helen R, Helen G, Caroline, Janta, Prosper, Mavu, Njara, Tsimangovy, Mahafaly, Marolahy, Maharitse, Mahavisora, Voartafki, Suziani and Sapiti - thank you. The financial support from the BP Conservation Programme was the most important factor, I would like to offer my sincere thanks to Marianne Dunn and Paul Matthew as well as the Final Selection Committee for allowing the project the opportunity to carry out its activities. I would also like to take this opportunity to thank the Rufford Award, The Association for Cultural Exchange and the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund for their ongoing financial support. Excellent advice in the field has been provided by a range of people, to Mark Fenn, Felix Rakotondraparany, Emmilienne Mananjarasoa, Pierre-Jules Rakotomalaza (Coca), Martin Nicoll, Frank Hawkins, Joanna Durbin, Sylvain Eboroke, Yvonne Orengo, Pascal Andriamanambina, Fanja Lantoarimanga, Lucien Rafararano, Flavien Rebara, Victor, Harinesy, Tompotamy Remanintsy, Damy Mahasoa, Charles Martial Andrianantenena and Manahira I extend my warmest gratitude. Most importantly the community of the Commune of Ifotaka and the neighbouring communes of Ebelo, Antanimora, Behara and Tranomaro have had great patience with all of us, we hope that the ongoing efforts of all involved will fulfil our eventual goal: To ensure that sufficient forest endures in the region, firstly to support the Tandroy people and to then to ensure that Androy's unique and threatened biodiversity is sustained.

Barry Ferguson

January 2003

Children from Analoalo Primary School Performing an Environmental Song/Dance composed by their teacher for the Festival of the Forest in 2001

Institutional Descriptions Tandroy Conservation Trust (Project Ifotaka until 2002)The TCT is the successor to Project Ifotaka, the organisation under which the work presented in this report was led and facilitated. The TCT is a UK based charitable trust with the aim 'Working with the Tandroy of Southern Madagascar to promote sustainable development and conserve biodiversity'. To meet this aim the TCT runs programmes under the general themes of Research, Education and Development. The Trust maintains a website with more information: www.tandroyconservation.org.uk

Contact - Barry Ferguson, Field Co-ordinator, TCT, BP42, Fort Dauphin - 614, Madagascar Email: [email protected] Tel 00 261 92 212 42 Libanona Ecology Centre (CEL)CEL is the Malagasy NGO partner of the TCT, established in 1995 to address the research and training needs of the region, CEL runs university level courses in various subjects related to the environment. Equipped with teaching facilities, a GIS capacity and accommodation the CEL acts as a hub for research, conservation and development interest groups across the Anosy and Androy regions of south-eastern Madagascar. CEL has a website with more information www.libanona.org

Contact - Sylvain Eboroke, Director, Centre Ecologique de Libanona, BP42, Fort Dauphin - 614, Madagascar Email: [email protected]

Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza (PBZT)Parc Tsimbazaza is Madagascar's National Zoological and Botanical Park, the park has teams devoted to both ex-situ and in-situ conservation. As well as its living plants, herbarium and fauna collections PBZT is engaged in field research with a wide range of partners both from within Madagascar and from Europe, North America and Japan. PBZT is part of the Malagasy Ministry of Higher Education. Contact - The Director, Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza, BP4096, Antananarivo-101, Madagascar. Email - [email protected]

Centre Nationale de la Recherche Sur l'Environnement (CNRE)CNRE as part of the Malagasy Ministry for Scientific Research is engaged in a range of work with environmental implications. The Environmental Microbiology Laboratory has been engaged in enthobotanical field research and associated laboratory valorisation in collaboration with Project Ifotaka and the TCT. Contact - Dr Emilienne Manajarasoa, LME, CNRE, BP1739, Antananarivo - 101, Madagascar. Email - [email protected]

Project Ifotaka 2001 Expedition Report

University of Durham Expedition to Madagascar: 11th July – 23rd September 2001

A Collaboration between: The University of Durham, Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza and The Libanona Ecology Centre

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Project Ifotaka 2001 was a three-month conservation research expedition in the Ifotaka Forest in southern Madagascar running from July to September 2001 and was a direct follow-up of the work done by Project Ifotaka 1999. The project was an anglo-malagasy collaboration between the University of Durham (UK), Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza (Madagascar) and The Libanona Ecology Centre (Madagascar). The team of 18 people worked in the villages of Ifotaka and Amboetsy and in a patch of spiny forest identified by the WWF as containing great wealth of biodiversity.

Ecological, anthropological and ethnobotanical research was complemented

by an education project linking primary schools in the Durham area (UK) and schools in the villages of the Ifotaka forest in Madagascar. All work was carried out by kind permission of the Departement des Eaux et Forets of the Malagasy Government and Mr. Tompotamy Remaninisy, Mayor of the rural community of Ifotaka.

Research topics were grouped as follows:

1. Lemur Ecology – The population density of Propethicus v. verreauxi in undisturbed forest was estimated at 7.74 individuals per sq Km using point counts and transect walks

2. Vegetation Survey – A quadrat survey recording density and cover abundance of trees recorded 112 species in 17 families with the most common being Euphorbiacae.

3. Ornithology – A total of 50 species of birds were found in the area and relative abundances were calculated. Among these was Appert’s Greenbull, Phyllastrephus apperti, which is globally threatened and was not thought to be in the area. In addition, two near threatened species, Verreaux’s coua (Coua verreauxi) and The Madagascar pond heron (Ardeola idea) were also identified in the area.

4. Anthropological Investigation – Living in an Antandroy village for five weeks, two team members conducted participatory observation, expanding on the work of Project Ifotaka 1999, focussing on the social pressures for the villagers and on their resources. Quantitative assessment of the amount and sources of firewood was also carried out. Results show the importance of consideration of seasonal variation, traditional versus more modern belief systems and, crucially, of integrated discussions centred around key social aspects of everyday life.

5. Ethnobotanical Investigation – Working with six local healers (Ombiasy)both interviewing them and collecting plants with them, 194 species were documented spanning 64 different diseases. The species concurring between healers were valorised as a collection in the Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza.

6. Education Project – A four phase education project was conducted with visits to primary schools in the Durham area (UK) and in the local villages in

Madagascar. The children in both the English and Malagasy schools were encouraged to draw pictures of their local wildlife. The team strengthened an exchange between the two sets of schools and performed conservation orientated plays for the whole villages. The team also conducted language lessons with our local guides and sex education talks were requested by the people of Amboetsy during our stay.

Authors of Expedition Report:

Thomas Martin (Editor), Tom Koe, Caroline Hotham, Natalie Wilson, Helen Riley, Ian McLean, Helen Gray, Dutel Ravoninjatovo, Jaqui Youssef, Claudia Rodine, Cristale Razafindrahova, Muria, Viel Razafindratsojasoavahiny and

Martine Marimanpivmana

MANAGEMENT THEMES

The consideration of the themes developed by the 1999 team, modified by us and outlined below should contribute to the development of a management plan for the Ifotaka Forest. It is vital that this plan is implemented through collaborations between government agencies and conservation and development NGO’s and it is incorporated into National and Regional Environmental Action Plans (Hannah et al.1998). It is important to consider not only biological data but also economic and socio-cultural factors, which are central to tropical forest conservation (Brown and Brown, 1992) a point clearly made by this project. The list here is not exhaustive but simply highlights some of the issues that became apparent during this expedition. In addition, the ideas here are expanded in the relevant results sections in this report.

1. Conservation of Ethnobotanical Wisdom – The people of the Ifotaka area and in particular the local healers, have a huge amount of knowledge about the local medicinal plants. This knowledge should be documented and encouraged as, coupled with local taboo, it was found to be the major influence in the abundance of Sifakas. New ideas should be encouraged and started from the villagers such as schemes outlined in Swerdlow (2000) where local healers work alongside practitioners of western medicine as clinical herbalists.

Further studies into the medicinal properties of the plants of the area should be carried out as this is of great importance (Prance, 2000). The intellectual property rights of the ethnobotanical knowledge of the Antandroy people must be respected (Dobson, 1985).

2. Population Growth – The problem of population growth is two fold. Firstly

demand is increased for firewood trees and for timber used in building construction and secondly an increasing population necessitates increased areas for cultivation and grazing needed to produce food for the population.

3. Sustainable Agriculture – The methods employed at the present time are non-sustainable and should be considered in future work.

4. Vegetation Status Surveys – Conservation work in the area would benefit from the determination of the extent of the primary and secondary forest, scrub vegetation and cleared area cover in the Ifotaka area. Arial photographs coupled to ground-truthing surveys would allow assessment of this information.

5. Allocation of Areas for Restricted Use – This is one approach used extensively in the past and which as such has been highly scrutinised. This method can be highly effective if it is monitored and controlled efficiently which makes it high input. A scheme such as this should always be based around the local inhabitants. This approach is dependant upon the results of a vegetation status survey (see point 4).

6. Promotion and Development of Sustainable Uses for the Forest – The possibilities of Ecotourism and the use of non-timber forest products e.g.

medicinal properties should be considered. In addition, the planting of alien tree species for timber and firewood should be taken into account.

7. Further Research – Research into the following areas would provide information to implement the management plan:

• Investigate the effects of degradation on plant and animal communities and identify the vulnerable species.

• Conduct further vegetation surveys and identify any species unique to the Ifotaka area.

• Investigate the dependence of any other animal taxa on mature forest e.g. reptiles and amphibians, other lemur species and small mammals.

• Investigate the role of natural predators such as the Fosa (Cryptoprocta ferox) in stabilising the populations of lemurs and other animals and birds as well as in local folklore and in the predation on livestock and assess the threat of local hunting on these species.

• Monitor the population densities of Propethicus v. verreauxi in other parts of the Ifotaka forest.

• Investigate the links between local taboo and the conservation of certain indicator species of plants and animals.

• Study the importance of the local healers (Ombiasy) and determine how this relates to the Christian religion and western medicine.

• Investigate the most optimal way of introducing eco-tourism into the area in a minimum-impact sense.

A local Antandroy woman returning from collecting firewood

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The members of Project Ifotaka 2001 would like to thank all the people whose

support made the expedition possible: The University of Durham sub-Committee on

Expeditions; The British and Foreign Schools Society, Sarah Walker Legacy Fund; The

Royal Geographical Society; The BP Conservation Award; The Gilcrest Educational Trust;

The Duke of Edinburgh Trust; The Aspinall Foundation, Friends of Howlett and Lympie;

Simons Charity; The Trevelyan College Marion Zunz Travel Bursary; Trevelyan College

JCR Expeditions Committee; The College of St. Hild and St. Bede Caedmon Coelfrid Trust;

The College of St. Hild and St. Bede Nina Joachim Trust; Mr. R Wilson; Mr. D Riley; Mr. J

Martin and Ferry & Mannim.

In addition to the financial support there were many individuals who provided

invaluable help, advice and encouragement throughout the 15 months of planning and

research: Tripartite Commission and Department of Eaux et Foret, Madagascar for their

permission to carry out research; Barry Ferguson; PBZT, Felix Rakotondraparany, Prosper,

Janta and Mavu; CNRE, Njara, Mr.Luciano; University of Durham, Dr. Nigel Dunstone,

Professor Bob Allison, Professor Robert Layton, Dr. Rus Hoezal, Dr. Bob Baxter, Dr. and

Mrs. De Ruiter, Ms. Janet Cutmore; WWF Madagascar, Mark Fenn; Libanona Ecology

Centre, Sylvain, Pascal, Maca and his wife for always making us feel at home; The Royal

Geographical Society, Nigel Winser, Shane Winser and all those involved in Explore 2000,

The Swedish University of Agricultural Studies, Ms. Kathy Rozel Farnworth, Eucare

2001, Al Harris; Inspiring Performances, Mr. Paul Bennett; ISIS PR, Tamsin, Jane and

Geena; Mrs. D Watton; The Staff of Trevelyan College, Durham; The Staff of St. Hild and

St. Bede College, Durham; Mr. M and Mrs. G Riley; Mr. And Mrs. KD Gray; Mr. GBR Gray;

Mr. And Mrs. RA McLean; Miss L McLean; Admiral Sir William and Lady O’Brien; Mr. And

Mrs. A Koe and friends; Mr. And Mrs. JWR Martin, Miss Pip Bell and Miss Jen Barnes.

Above all, we would like to thank all the people of the

Ifotaka region for all their understanding and help,

especially our guides and Barry Ferguson. Without them, it

would not have happened. This report is for them.

Project Ifotaka 2001 was a three-month conservation research expedition in the Ifotaka Forest in southern Madagascar running from July to September 2001 and was a direct follow-up of the work done by Project Ifotaka 1999. The project was an anglo-malagasy collaboration between the University of Durham (UK), Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza (Madagascar) and The Libanona Ecology Centre (Madagascar). The team of 18 people worked in the villages of Ifotaka and Amboetsy and in a patch of spiny forest identified by the WWF as containing great wealth of biodiversity. Ecological, anthropological and ethnobotanical research was complemented by an education project linking primary schools in the Durham area (UK) and schools in the villages of the forest in Madagascar. All work was carried out by kind permission of the Departement des Eaux et Forets of the Malagasy Government and Mr. Tompotamy Remaninisy, Mayor of the rural community of Ifotaka. Le projet Ifotaka 2001 était une expédition, pendant trois mois (juillet – septembre 2001) pour un programme de recherche pour la conservation, dans le foret d’Ifotaka au sud de

Madagascar. C’était un projet anglo-malagasy dans le cadre de la collaboration entre l’Université de Durham (Royaume-Uni), Parc Zoologique et Botanique de Tsimbazaza (Madagascar) et le Centre Ecologique Libanona (Madagascar). L’équipe, composée de

dix-huit membres a effectue ses observations dans une zone de foret épineuse 15km nords du village d’Ifotaka. Cette zone a été identifiée par le WWF dans le sud de Madagascar.

Les études écologiques, ethnobotanique et anthropologique ont été complotées par des activités d’education-conservation visant à mettre en contact des écoles primaires de

Durham (Royaume-Uni) et d’Ifotaka (Madagascar). Les études ont pu être effectuées grâce aux louables autorisations du Departement des Eaux et Forets malagasy et de

Monsieur Tompotamy Remanintsy, Maire de la commune rurale d’Ifotaka.

Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza BP 4096 Antananarivo 101 Madagascar E-mail : [email protected]

Centre Ecologique de Libanona BP 42 614 Fort-Dauphin Madagascar E-mail : [email protected]

Institutional Addresses

Contact : For further information on the project or for further copies of the

report please contact:

Pour de plus amples informations sur les différents aspects du projet ou

pour des copies de ce rapport, veuillez contacter :

Project Ifotaka 2001, C/O Tom Martin, 42 Alleyn Road, Dulwich, London, SE21

8AL, United Kingdom

E-mail : [email protected]

University of Durham Science Laboratories South Road DURHAM DH1 3LE United Kingdom

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Madagascar, situated 300km east of the African Continent 19 Figure 2. Madagascar showing Fort Dauphin, Tulear and Antananarivo 19 Figure 3. The Ifotaka Forest 19 Figure 4. Sifaka Transect count Graph 33 Figure 5. Diagram to show the distribution of canes for the small mammal survey 35 Figure 6. The dispersal of species in the 3 different habitats studied 41 Figure 7. Modified Map of the Ifotaka Forest 43 Figure 8. Graph Appendix G 49 Figure 9. Type of Wood in Bundle 55 Figure 10. Weight of wood in bundle 56 Figure 11. Estimated volume of wood bundle 57 Figure 12. Estimated number of days wood will last 58 Figure 13. Firewood Collection Data 68

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Plant Diversity at study sites 24 Table 2. Vegetation density and height results 25 Table 3. Sifaka point count survey results 30 Table 4. Mouse Lemur measurements 35 Table 5. Bird Species Inventory 36 Table 6. Ornithology Comparative Study Results 38 Table 7. An inventory of the medicinal plants collected 95

PLATE INDEX

Plate 1. A local Antandroy woman returning from collecting firewood 6

Plate 2. Spiny Forest near Avarampincaratse, the base camp for the Ecology team

14

Plate 3. The team including cooks, guides, porters and 19

Plate 4. Two local Antandroy men in Ifotaka 16

Plate 5. A family of Verreaux’s Sifaka 2km from the Ecology team base camp

17

Plate 6. Mahafaly – One of the Ecology team guides 21

Plate 7. Team members carrying out the tree survey 22

Plate 8. A deforested patch of the Ifotaka forest 24

Plate 9. A team member with Microcebus murinus, the Grey Mouse Lemur 33

Plate 10. Weighing a Grey Mouse Lemur 34

Plate 11. Polyboroides radiatus. The Madagascar Harrier Hawk 41

Plate 12. A young Goat-herder from Amboetsy 60

Plate 13. Grandmother, mother and son in Amboetsy 63

Plate 14. Men from Amboetsy carrying part of a recently slaughtered Zebu 64

Plate 15. The Ethno botany team prepare plant species, for valorisation 94

Plate 16. The Ethno botany team with Fiodina, an Ombiasy 112

Plate 17. Children in Amboetsy drawing for counterparts in England 113

Plate 18. Relationship building in the forest 114

Plate 19. A young Malagasy at school 114

Plate 20. Role-playing in Amboetsy 115

Plate 21. Rice and Beans – The diet of the team during the research phases 123

CONTENTS

Project Collaborators Web Address Executive Summary Management Themes Acknowledgements Publishing Details Contents 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Conservation of the Spiny Forest 1.2 Background to Project Ifotaka 1.3 Background to the Ifotaka Area 1.4 Aims of Project Ifotaka 2001 1.5 Project Impacts 1.6 Maps 1.7 Personnel 2. ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH REPORT 2.1 Vegetation Survey 2.1.1 Introduction 2.1.2 Methods 2.1.3 Results 2.2 Sifaka Survey 2.2.1 Summary 2.2.2 Introduction 2.2.3 Methods 2.2.4 Results 2.2.4 Discussion 2.3 Small Mammal Survey 2.3.1 Introduction 2.3.2 Methods 2.3.3 Results 2.4 Ornithology 2.4.1 Introduction 2.4.3 Discussion Appendix A: Similar names list Appendix B: Density data Appendix C: Shrubs Appendix D: Tree species by vernacular name Appendix E: T-square Method of Density Estimation Appendix F: Survey Sites by GPS Appendix G: Heptofauna Survey Appendix H: Mammals observed

3. ANTHOPOLOGICAL RESEARCH REPORT 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Methodology 3.3 Discussion 3.3.1 Identity and image 3.3.2 Relations with vazahas – the outside 3.3.3 Education and prospects 3.3.4 Wood use 3.3.5 Shifting cultivation 3.3.6 The damage of goat herding 3.3.7 Resource use for cash 3.3.8 Demonstration of wealth 3.3.9 Variations in activity according to type of resident group 3.3.10 Existing forest protection 3.3.11 Territorial management of the forest 3.3.12 Christianity’s impact on the spiny forest 3.3.13 Understanding Christianity & the spiny forest 3.3.14 Inter-Tandroy relations 3.4 Conclusion and recommendations Appendix A : Firewood Collection Data Appendix B : Firewood Collection Data – Key Appendix C : Ethnography Appendix D : Global Positioning System (GPS) References 4. EHTNO BOTANICAL RESEARCH REPORT 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Background of the Collaborating Local Healers 4.4 Discussion 5. CONSERVATION EDUCATION PROJECT REPORT 5.1 The Project in England 5.2 The Project in Madagascar 5.2.1 First Phase 5.2.2 Second Phase Bibliography Medical Report Logistics Report Planning and Expedition Schedules Expedition Accounts

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Conservation of the Spiny Forest

Madagascar, the fourth largest island in the world, is renowned for its diversity of natural ecosystems and its unique flora and fauna. High levels of endemism followed isolation from the African continent between 65 and 100 million years ago. It is estimated that as much as ninety per cent of Madagascars’ flora and fauna are found nowhere else on earth (Durell, 1992). Madagascar supports an estimated 7000 – 12000 plant species, 109 mammal species, 250 bird species, 26 reptile species and 150 amphibian species (Harcourt, 1990). Madagascar has been identified as one of the top three global biodiversity hotspots (Myers et al, 2000).

The island is perhaps known, however, for its more than 30 species of lemur, representing the highest level of primate endemism (93.5%) in the world (Mittermeier, 1992). In less than 2000 years, following the arrival of man, six genera and at least 14 species of lemur have become globally extinct (Harcourt, 1990). Habitat loss and hunting continue to threaten lemur populations, with ten species considered ‘Endangered’ by the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) and a further fifteen ‘Rare’ or ‘Vulnerable’ (Harcourt, 1990). Assessing the conservation status of each species is particularly difficult in the absence of complete population census data; currently no lemur species has been accurately censused outside of protected areas (Simons, 1997). It is commonly recognised that all lemur species are declining annually. The significance of lemurs as indicators of habitat quality and seed dispersers has also been inadequately researched.

The unique semi-arid southern domain of Madagascar is characterised by thickets and forests of xerophytic vegetation, dominated by members of the Euphorbiacae and Didereaceae, it is estimated to have 48% generic and 95% species based endemism (Jenkins, 1987). Madagascar’s dry forest supports a number of lemur species of which Lemur leucopus (White-footed sportive lemur), Lemur catta (Ring-tailed lemur) and Propethicus verreauxi verreauxi (Verreaux’s Sifaka) are restricted to the spiny forests of the southern domain. Only a small number of studies have investigated the population density and ecology of these lemurs outside the protected areas of Berenty, Andohahela and Beza Mahafaly.

Current rates of human population expansion, habitat destruction and decline in lemur population numbers make Madagascar the world’s highest primate conservation priority (Harcourt, 1990). The IUCN and the WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature) have, consequently, requested research support in order to appreciate the geographical and ecological limits on existing lemur populations (Mark Fenn, 1998; Harcourt, 1990; Mettermeier et al., 1992).

Plate 2 Spiny Forest near Ankazopingaratra, the base camp for the Ecology team

1.2 Background to Project Ifotaka

During a reconnaissance visit to southern Madagascar in September 1998, Barry Ferguson and Chris Perceval approached Mark Fenn, (Technical Co-ordinator to WWF Madagascar) requesting a topic of study for a conservation expedition the following summer. He suggested a study on the lemurs and vegetation of the Ifotaka forest, one of the areas identified by the WWF Eco-region Programme/Dry Forest as holding significant conservation potential. The subsequent visit to the village of Ifotaka and its adjacent forest led to the creation of Project Ifotaka 1999. The Ifotaka area has also been identified as a priority area on the map in Hannah et al. (1998), which was produced during the development of Madagascar’s National Environmental Action Plan. Ifotaka was highlighted because of the lack of knowledge of its biodiversity.

A protocol of Collaboration was established between Durham University and Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza (PBZT) with the project providing field experience for two technicians from the park and fieldwork in exchange for the permission for the research being arranged by PBZT. A collaboration was also established between Durham University and the Libanona Ecology Centre (LEC) in Fort Dauphin, this involved LEC making arrangements for student collaborations from the University of Tulear and providing accommodation for the R&R periods in exchange for fieldwork equipment.

Project Ifotaka 1999 was run successfully and work was begun. In June 2000, Barry Ferguson formed a follow-up team and a proposal was set up for Project Ifotaka 2001. The aims were focused around expanding on the work done in 1999 and as such the themes of study were much more socially orientated with a small anthropology team living in Amboetsy for the entire duration of the project. The ecological work was a follow-up of the work done in 1999 in a different study site based along a transect between the villages of Amboetsy and Mangily, 15kn north of Ifotaka. The ethnobotanical research extended and continued the data collected and the relationships forged in the previous expedition. The conservation education project was expanded and the 2001 team taught language and sex education in addition to strengthening old links between primary schools in the UK and in Madagascar.

Prior to out departure for Madagascar, a team was selected to run the next phase of Project Ifotaka, named Operation Kintso. The work will be based on the findings of this report and will be located in the village of Kintso, 20km north of Amboetsy.

Plate 3

The team including cooks, guides, porters and families at Avarampincaratse, the base camp for the Ecology team

1.3 Background to the Ifotaka Area

The rural community of Ifotaka, with an estimated population of 17 000 (Remanintsy, 1998), is located approximately 42km north of the village of Amboasary-Sud in the centre of southern Madagascar. The ethnic group to which the people belong in the Antandroy (Jenkins, 1987). The local economy is largely based on agriculture. The major livestock includes Zebu cattle, goats and sheep; the dominant cultivated crops are Maize, Manioc, Sweet Potato and Beans (Ferguson et al., 2000).

The Mandrare River traverses the community and provides the major source of water for many of the villages along it’s banks. The climate in the region is hot from August to March with rainfall in this period typically being in the region of 200mm. The colder season from April to July is typically very dry with only very rare rainfall (Remanintsy, 1998).

The Ifotaka Forest on the northern side of the Mandrare river is estimated to be 30 000 hectares in size (Ferguson et al., 2000) and is currently unprotected. It has numerous small settlements within its boundaries. Much of the forest has been affected to some degree by human activities (Ferguson et al., 2000), though a significant amount of forest is still in relatively pristine condition. The forest ranges in altitude from 60 – 520m and contains a small number of areas protected from exploitation by ‘fady’ (local taboo). It also houses ancestral tombs from the surrounding population.

Plate 4

Two local Antandroy men in Ifotaka

1.4 Aims of Project Ifotaka 2001

The expedition had one principle aim and nine supporting objectives. Principle Aim: To estimate the population densities of two species of lemur inhabiting the Foret d’Ifotaka and to assess cultural habits, investigating how they influence forest resource use, in particular the use of medicinal plants by local healers. Supporting Objectives:

To work alongside Malagasy scientists, establishing new links and strengthening old ties between the University of Durham and research institutions in Madagascar leading to the development of a long-term project involving students from both countries.

To investigate the ecology and behaviour of Propethicus verreauxi verreauxi in an alternative study site to 1999.

To estimate the population density of Propethicus verreauxi verreauxi using observational techniques.

To estimate the population density of Microcebus mirinus using live-trapping techniques in a small mammal survey, allowing us to investigate this species` dependence on mature forest.

To carry out a detailed survey of the woodland to the northern area of the forest to investigate diversity, density and basal area of both the total and the constituent tree species in this area in order to identify any associations unique to the Ifotaka area.

To quantify and assess the extent of forest resource use within a remote Antandroy village.

To consider and analyse the social aspects of Antandroy village life to establish a context for the forest resource uses indicated.

To document the reported medicinal properties of forest plants, thereby adding to the database of current knowledge compiled during Project Ifotaka 1999 and to collect voucher specimens for a herbarium collection in Antananarivo.

To strengthen old links and to forge new ties between primary schools in Durham and in the Ifotaka region based around the conservation of natural resources.

Plate 5 A family of Verreaux’s Sifaka 2km from the Ecology team base camp

1.5 Project Impacts

Management issues relevant to the Ifotaka Forest expanded on from Project

Ifotaka 1999 and presented to the ongoing conservation initiative of Project

Ifotaka.

Final report containing scientific information distributed to all sponsors,

advisors, British copyright libraries and conservation and development NGOs

interested in Madagascar.

Training of seven British and seven Malagasy students, four technicians and

six guides in ecological, anthropological and ethnobotanical field techniques.

Implementation of the second stage of a collaboration between the

University of Durham (UK), Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza

(Madagascar) and The Libanona Ecology Centre (Madagascar).

Strengthening of education links between primary schools in Durham and

Ifotaka and forging of new links between more schools in Durham (UK) and

schools in the villages of Amboetsy and Mangily in Madagascar.

Posters presented at the Royal Geographical Societies Field Research Forum

Extensive media coverage from various local and regional newspapers.

Establishment of an ongoing conservation initiative in Ifotaka with the

selection of a further team to work in the forest in the summer of 2002.

1.6 Maps and Location of the Study Sites

Fig 1. Madagascar. Situated 300km east of the Fig.2. Madagascar showing African continent the position of Fort-

Dauphin, Tulear and

Antananarivo

Fig.3 The Ifotaka Forest showing the position of Ifotaka, Amboetsy and Mangily

Figure 3 to the left here shows the Ifotaka forest, modified from a satellite image.

The map shows the extent of the remaining forest and the Mandrare river (map kindly supplied by the WWF). The Ifotaka forest is located at 24050’S, 46010’E.

Almost all of the Ifotaka forest is located north of the Mandrare and is accessed by wading through in the dry season

Fort Dauphin

Tulear

Antananarivo

Mandrare River

x

(May – October) and by pirogue in the wet season (November – April).

Project Ifotaka 1999 based its research at Mahavelo, marked X in the map. Our expedition carried out the ecological research 15km north of Mahavelo along a 12km transect between the villages of Amboetsy and Mangily. Ethnobotanical research was carried out in Ifotaka village and the Anthropology team worked in Amboetsy. A good topographical map is available for the area from the FTM office in Antananarivo – Sheet K61 (Ebelo), L61 (Tranomaro), K62 (Ambovombe) and L62-63 (Amboasary-Atsimo) are needed to cover the whole forest. Although the topography is clear and well marked, the maps are out of date, produced in 1956/57. Using GPS we have modified the maps, adding settlements and areas of deforestation (See ecology section) as suggested by Project Ifotaka 1999. 1.7 Personnel Tom Martin, 22, Expedition Leader University of Durham, UK BSc(Hons) Zoology Ecological Research TeamTom Koe, 22, Ecological Research Coordinator University of Durham, UK BSc (Hons) Zoology Helen Gray, 21, Logistics and Training Officer and Expedition Photographer University of Durham, UK Natural Sciences Undergraduate Helen Riley, 21, Education Project Leader University of Durham, UK Natural Sciences Undergraduate Ian McLean, 21, Medical and Fundraising Officer University of Durham, UK Zoology Undergraduate Dutel Ravoninjatovo Tulear Team Leader and Interpreter University of Tulear, Madagascar MSc Student Jaqui Youssef Project Ecologist and Interpreter University of Tulear, Madagascar MSc Student Claudia Rodine Project Botanist University of Tulear, Madagascar MSc Student

Viel Razafindratsojasoavahiny Project Botanist University of Tulear, Madagascar MSc Student Martine Marimanpivmana Project Ethnobotanist and Translator University of Tulear, Madagascar MSc Student Prosper Lemur Ecologist Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza, Madagascar Janta Botanist Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza, Madagascar Anthropological Research TeamCaroline Hotham, 22, Anthropological Research Coordinator University of Durham, UK BA (Hons) Anthropology Cristale Razafindrahova Project Anthropologist and Translator University of Tulear, Madagascar MSc Student Ethnobotanical Research TeamNatalie Wilson Ethnobotanical Research Co-ordinator University of Durham, UK Plant Science Undergraduate Mavu Ethno botanist Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza, Madagascar Njara Ethnobotanist Centre National de Recherche sur L’environment, Madagascar Project Support TeamTsimangovy, President of the Commune of Mangily Guide and Porter Maharitse Guide and Porter Mahavisora Guide and Porter

Mahafaly Guide and Porter Voratafki Guide and Porter Mahavaro Guide and Porter Suziani Cook Sapiti Cook

Plate 6

Mahafaly – One of the Ecology team guides

2. ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH REPORT

2.1 VEGETATION SURVEY

2.1.1 Introduction The Eco-region Conservation Programme in south and southwest

Madagascar identified the Forest of Ifotaka as a particularly valuable area in terms of biological diversity. The 30 000 hectares that make up this unique habitat have become subject to scrutiny as the traditional local practices are causing a threat to the flora and fauna (Ferguson, 1999). Project Ifotaka ‘99 initiated a vegetation survey in co-ordination with WWF and the Etablissement Superieur de Science of the University of Tulear and, in 2001, this research was continued to cover further areas of the forest, north of the areas studied in 1999.

The research programme provided some field experience for both Tulear and Durham research students and allowed us to explore the following objective: • To carry out a detailed survey of the woodland to the northern area of the

forest to investigate diversity, density and basal area of both the total and the constituent tree species in this area in order to identify any associations unique to the Ifotaka area.

We also carried out a soil survey to try to determine any associations between the vegetation and the soil types present.

Plate 7

Team members carrying out the tree survey

2.1.2 Methods

The 14 sites surveyed included the areas used for the small mammal survey. 32m x 16m (Ferguson, 1999). Each quadrat measured 30m x 40m was geographically referenced using a Global Positioning System (GPS) – see Appendix F. An inventory of the local and scientific names of all trees greater than 2.5cm diameter at breast height (dbh) was recorded, along with estimation of the tree density and heights.

Tree Inventory:

Tree samples from within the sites were collected and identified using local

vernacular names and, where known, the scientific names as well. These were

stored in presses for transportation to PBZT, Antananarivo, for formal

identification.

Tree Density:

This was estimated using the T-square method (Sutherland, 1996), which is

described in Appendix E. From the data this method produced an Index of Density

was produced as follows:

Index of Density (IDC)

x – 0 individuals hectare-1

0 – <1 individuals hectare-1

1 – 1-4 individuals hectare-1




5 – >100 individuals hectare-1

Tree Heights: This was estimated by eye using one of the students, whose height was known as a guide. Soil Survey:

Within the sites a core measuring 10cm X 10cm X 15cm was taken using a

spade. Whilst every effort was made to ensure the random selection of the

sample within the site, the rocky nature of the terrain tended to dictate the actual

placing. Each sample was placed into a bag for testing in Tulear.

2.1.3 Results

The research found 112 tree species were collected of which 107 trees were

identified vernacularly. Of these, 94 species were found in gallery forest; 76

species in the spiny forest areas. 20 species were found only in the Spiny forest

and 23 species were found in only gallery forest.

Of the 17 families represented, Euphorbiacae was the most common (10 species)

followed by Fabaceae (9) and Rubiaceae (7). The highest median densities over

both types of forest were recorded for Commiphora humberti (Burseraceae),

Allaudia procera (Didieraceae) and Alluaudia ascendens (Didieraceae), each

scoring 5.

Tree Density: The average total density of trees in the area in estimated at 1870 trees hectare-1.The average tree density in gallery forest is estimated at 2020 trees hectare-1.

The average tree density in spiny forest is estimated at 1720 trees hectare-1.

Statistical analysis of the results showed that the trees are randomly distributed.

Frequency of occurrence: Table 1. This table indicates to us the diversity found in the study sites i.e. that

in the forest, 38 species were not found in any more than one site, 14 in two sites,

17 in 3, etc.

Frequency of

occurrence1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Total

Number of species 38 14 17 8 6 2 4 6 8 3 2 3 2 0 112

Soil Survey:

The soil samples were taken to Tulear to see if they could be analysed. At

the time of writing, this had not been possible.

Plate 8

A deforested patch of the Ifotaka forest

Table 2. Density and Height results

Key:

Index of Density (IDC)

x – 0 individuals hectare-1

0 – <1 individuals hectare-1





5 – >100 individuals hectare-

M: Median of overall forest

S: Spiny forest area

G: Gallery forest area

N/A: Not applicable – see Appendix C

Scientific Name Vernacular

name IDC

ID Family Genus Species M

S G

Average height

1 Burseraceae Commiphora humberti Darosike 5 5 5 5.0 2 Didieraceae Allaudia procera Fantsilotse 5 5 5 7.5 3 Didieraceae Alluaudia ascendens Sognone 5 5 5 7.0 4 Meliaceae Cedrelopsis grevei Katrafay 4 5 4 5.5 5 Apocynaceae Pachypodium lamerei Vontake 4 4 4 4.0 6 Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia leucodendron Befohitse 4 4 4 3.8 7 Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia plagiantha Fihane 4 4 4 5.0 8 Euphorbiaceae Securinega capuronii Hazomena 4 4 4 5.5 9 Fabaceae Indigofera tineteria L Hazomboatango 4 4 4 4.5

10 Hernandiaceae Gyrocarpus americanus Sirosiro 4 4 4 6.5 11 Loganiaceae Strychnos madagascarien

sis Relefogne 4 4 4 5.0

12 Burseraceae Commiphora simplicifolia Sengatse 4 4 2 3.5 13 Ebenaceae Diespyres humbertinas Maintefo 4 4 2 4.0 14 Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia intisy Herotse 4 3 5 3.5 15 Loganiaceae Strychnes decussata Dagoa 4 3 4 5.0 16 Ebenaceae Diospyros cupulifera Forofoke 4 2 4 5.0 17 Burseraceae Commiphora sp. Darotandroke 3 3 3 3.0 18 Combretaceae Terminalia cynocarpa Fatra 3 3 3 4.0 19 Fabaceae Dalbergia trichocarpa Magnary 3 3 3 5.5 20 Tiliaceae Grewia saligne Andapary 3 3 3 5.5 21 Sterculiaceae Hildegardia sp. Vinoagne 3 3 1 5.5 22 Combretaceae Terminalia mantaly Talibe =

Talihazobe = Talintivoke = Taly

3 2 3 9.5

23 Plumbaginaceae Operculicarya hyphenoides Sakoandalitse 3 2 3 5.5 24 Capparidaceae Tylachium sp. Keleogne 3 1 4 6.0 25 Passifloraceae Adenia sp. Lazagne 3 1 4 1.8 26 Mimosaceae Albrizzia sp. Kolohoto 3 1 3 5.0 27 Meliaceae Quivisianthe papinae Valiandro 3 0 4 6.5 28 Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia intisy Famata 3 x 4 4.0 29 Rutaceae Vepris elliotii Ampolibe 3 x 4 4.5 30 Didieraceae Alluaudia humbertii Sognombarike 2 3 1 3.3 31 Meliaceae Cedrelopsis microfoliata Maninjo 2 3 1 6.0 32 Rubiaceae Enterospermu

msp. Marandoha 2 3 0 3.5

33 Malvaceae Hibiscaus ambovombensis

Magne 2 2 3 5.5

34 Ancardiaceae Eperculicarya decaryi Jabihy 2 1 3 5.0 35 Fabaceae Baudiuhinia fluggeiformus Lambina 2 1 3 4.5 36 Rhopalocarpacea

eRhopalocarpu

slucidus Tsiongake 2 1 3 4.0

Scientific Name Vernacular name IDC


S G

Average height

37 Tiliaceae Grewia microcycles Tabarike 2 1 2 3.5 38 Apocynaceae Tabernaementa

na coffeoides Feka 1 2 1 3.0

39 Fabaceae Tetrapterocarpon

geayi Vaovy 1 2 1 5.0

40 Meliaceae Neobeguca miahafaliensis Handige = Hazolava

1 2 x 8.0

41 Cesalpiniaceae Delonix sp. Malamasafoy 1 1 2 5.0 42 Spocynaceae Roupellina boivini Hetogne 1 1 2 4.5 43 Alacaceae Anacolosa pervilleana Falafika 1 1 1 6.0 44 Ancardiaceae Rhus perrieri Tarantana 1 1 1 5.0 45 Bignoniaceae Stereospermum hematacarpum Hiligne 1 1 1 8.5 46 Burseraceae Commiphora sp. Daronaombe 1 1 1 6.0 47 Burseraceae Commiphora sp. Daronaomby 1 1 1 5.0 48 Didieraceae Allaudia dumosa Rohondrohogne 1 1 1 4.0 49 Fabaceae Dalberzis emirnensis Manary 1 1 1 5.5 50 Fabaceae Gagnebins sp. Avoha 1 1 1 5.5 51 Melastomataceae Memecylon delphinense Hazontsokina 1 1 1 4.0 52 Mimosaceae Albizzia greviana Sandrahigne =

Mendoravina 1 1 1 7.5

53 Mimosaceae Mimosa delicatula Kirava 1 1 1 4.5 54 Pedaliaceae Uncarina sp. Farehitsy 1 1 1 2.5 55 Rubiaceae Enterospermum sp. Mantsake 1 1 1 4.5 56 Rubiaceae Euclinia suavissima Voafotake 1 1 1 3.5 57 Rubiaceae Hymenodictum decaryi Beholitse 1 1 1 4.5 58 Rubiaceae Hypericanthus ambovombensis Voanoro 1 1 1 4.0 59 Rutaceae Zanthoxylum decaryi Manongo 1 1 1 4.0 60 Unknown 1 1 1 7.0 61 Bombacaceae Adansonia sp. Zagne 1 1 0 4.0 62 Capparidaceae Bescia longifolia Somangipaky 1 1 x 4.3 63 Capparidaceae Boscia madagascariensi

sHororoke 1 1 x 6.0

64 Combretaceae Terminalia divaricata Taliforokoko 1 1 x 5.5 65 Crassulaceae Kalanchoe beharensis Mongy 1 1 x 2.5 66 Fabaceae Bauhinia pervilleana Farohirosy 1 1 x 6.5 67 Moraceae Ficus sp. Kotrigne 1 1 x 4.0 68 Moringaceae Moringa drouhardi Hazomalagne 1 1 x 5.0 69 Tiliaceae Grewia sp. Taslakafotse 1 1 x 7.5 70 Halomboromahalo 1 1 x 5.0 71 Euphorbiaceae Creten barorum Somorogne 1 0 3 4.0 72 Tsivokontsifake 1 0 3 3.5 73 Unknown 1 1 0 2 3.0 74 Pedanus Unkown 6 1 0 1 4.0 75 Rubiaceae Enterospermus sp. Tsipopolahy 1 0 1 5.5 76 Sterculiaceae Dombeya sp. Vala 1 0 1 9.0 77 Tsimalagnilamba 1 0 1 6.0 78 Tsimarefy 1 0 1 4.0 79 Unknown 2 1 0 1 4.5 80 Unknown 3 1 0 1 4.0

81 Unknown 4 1 0 1 5.0 82 Salvadoaceae Salvadora sp. Sasavy 1 x 3 3.5 83 Celastraceae Mystroxylon aethopicum Kope 1 x 2 4.5 84 Kalavelo 1 x 2 7.0 85 Didieraceae Allaudia humbertii Somerambarike 1 x 1 3.0

Scientific Name Vernacular name IDC


S G

Average height

86 Euphorbiaceae Croton sp. Hazomby 1 x 1 3.0 87 Malvaceae Hibiscus bojeranus Magne be ravina 1 x 1 5.0 88 Tiliaceae Grewia lavanalensis Sely 1 x 1 4.0 89 Anakarake 1 x 1 4.0 90 Andapogna 1 x 1 4.0 91 Eronymopsis sp. Fatidronono 1 x 1 4.5 92 Rhigozum madgascariensis Hazontange 1 x 1 4.0 93 Tamarindus indica Kily 1 x 1 6.5 94 Euphorbiaceae Bridelia pourilleana Kitata 0 1 x 4.0 95 Oleaceae Noronhia myrtyoides Retsilaitse 0 1 x 3.0 96 Sapindaceae Doratoxylon chouxi Tsingena 0 1 x 4.5 97 Avolahy 0 1 x 4.0 98 Nato 0 1 x 5.0 99 Tsingarifare 0 1 x 3.0 100 Somotsoigne 0 0 1 4.0 101 Unknown 5 0 0 1 4.0 102 Tiliaceae Grewia androyensis Taolakafotro 0 0 x 6.5 103 Erythroxylaceae Erythrexylum aff geriardi Lahitsivagno 0 x 1 4.0 104 Fabaceae Albizia polypyhlla Halomborombe 0 x 1 9.0 105 Meliaceae Astrostrichilia elliotii Sesilahy 0 x 1 3.0 106 Rubiaceae Pyrostria media Kitsigne 0 x 1 6.0 107 Magnarimbato 0 x 1 4.0 108 Mimosaceae Mimosa sp. Roipitike 0 x 0 3.0 109 Malaimpery 0 x 0 4.0 110 Euphorbiaceae Croton sp. Andriambolgotsy x x x N/A 111 Euphorbiaceae Croton sp. Tagnatagnanala x x x N/A 112 Lythraceae Pemphis madgascariensis Pisopiso x x x N/A

2.2 SIFAKA SURVEY

2.2.1 Summary • The population of Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi, Verreaux’s Sifaka, was

estimated as 7.74 individuals per square kilometre from a point count survey.

• The population of Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi, Verreaux’s Sifaka, was estimated as 4.99 individuals per square kilometre from a transect count survey.

• Point counts are a more reliable method of population survey for Sifakas (Ferguson, 1999) so the estimate of 7.74 individuals per square kilometre is recommended by this study.

• In the region covered by the study area a total of 33 Sifaka groups were observed, comprising of 87 adults. The largest groups were observed to contain up to 7 individuals.

2.2.2 Introduction

In 1999 the research team of Project Ifotaka carried out a population and

density estimation for Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi, Verreaux’s Sifaka. They

studied the ecology of the lemurs in the forest habitat to provide estimates of

numbers outside a protected or managed area – something which had not

previously been done (Simons, 1997). As a prelude to the recent research

undertaken by the 2001 initiative, they tested two methods of census taking in

the forest area, point counts and transect counts. They found that the point

counts were more reliable by a comparison of the mean coefficients of variation

(Ferguson, 1999). The initial approach for this report was to use both methods

for the estimation. However, the topography of the study area restricted the

validity of both methods to a few sites within the study area. The transect counts

did allow us to familiarise ourselves with our subjects and to train the researchers

to in group detection for use in the point count surveys. Information from

both methods has been combined to produce an estimate for the density in the

area. A combination of visual estimation and the use of GPS and maps was used

to determine the area surveyed for both methods.

The principle objectives of this survey were as follows:

• To estimate the population density of Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi using observational techniques.

• To investigate the ecology and behaviour of Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi in an alternative study site to 1999.

The data collected allowed satisfied only the first objective above. It was felt that little could be added to the information previously presented in the ’99 report. Project Ifotaka 1999 provides a good coverage of the literature in a review concerning this lemur but additional information concerning this primate, and others, can be found in Mammals of Madagascar (Garbutt, 1999)

2.2.3 Methods

2.2.3.1 Point Counts

The point counts were performed over a period of 20 days. The sites were

chosen for their vantage views of the surrounding area. Both sites were surveyed

for 6 days and the first site was surveyed for an additional 8 days to monitor the

variation as the survey period was increased. All groups in the area of view were

noted and their change in position recorded every 15 minutes, if they moved.

Two areas between Amboetsy and Mangily 8 were surveyed using binoculars and

the data recorded onto sketch maps orientated to distinctive features on the

landscape. The positions for the counts, PC 1 and PC 2 are to be found in

Appendix F. Position 2 covers much of the area surveyed by the transect count.

The survey area covered was determined using FTM map K-61 and the visual

estimations of the furthest points from the observation point. This gives

estimates of 2.1km-2 and 2.9km-2 for PC 1 and 2 respectively. GPS data was also

recorded for part of the visual area of Position but this was found not to cover the

extremities of the visual range.

2.2.3.2 Transect Counts

The transect walk was performed over a period of 10 days. The survey

team walked the entire distance between the camp site and Mangily 8 each day,

observing the area to the left and right of the path. Whenever a group was

spotted, the team stopped, recorded their position using GPS and estimated the

distance to the group; the total number of Sifakas visible, the bearing from

their position to the group and the time of sighting. The team would remain at

the point and observe the area for more groups for a further 15 minutes before

moving on. One person was responsible for each side of the path.

The data produced has allowed an estimation of the density as well as a

count of the groups within the study area itself. The area observed was mainly

spiny forest although some small areas of gallery forest could be found. The area

beyond Mangily 8 was not surveyed as the vegetation beyond this point consisted

of low height scrub and shrubbery – the Sifakas were found to depend on either

mature stands of trees or those of larger species of tree (Ferguson, 1999).

2.2.4 Results 2.2.4.1 Point counts

It was possible from the observations to produce an estimate of the total numbers of Sifakas in the area from the data recorded. The number of Sifakas in the area is estimated at 87 Sifakas in 33 groups. There are 11 groups estimated between Avarampingcaratse and Amboetsy and 22 groups estimated between Avarampingcaratse and Mangily 8.

The point count surveys, illustrated in Table3, produced mean estimates of the density of the Sifakas from 4.68 to 10.80 individuals per square kilometre with a mean of 7.74 (SE 3.06) of the two sites surveyed.

Table 3.

Site Day One

Day Two

Day Three

Day Four

Day Five

Day Six

Mean SD SE Coefficient of Variation (%)

PC 1 3.33 2.86 2.38 6.19 6.67 6.67 4.68 2.03 0.83 43.34 PC 2 3.79 9.31 7.24 10.69 11.38 22.41 10.80 6.31 2.58 58.42 Mean 3.56 6.08 4.81 8.44 9.02 14.54 7.74 3.93 1.60 50.73 SD 0.33 4.56 3.44 3.18 3.33 11.13 4.33 10.66 SE 0.23 3.23 2.43 2.25 2.36 7.87 3.06 7.54 The additional surveys carried out for a further 8 days at PC 1 are detailed in

Table 2. The mean estimate from this varies from 2.86 to 10.48 individuals per

quare kilometre as the survey continued.

Site Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6

Day 7

Day 8 Day 9

PC 1 3.33 2.86 2.38 6.19 6.67 6.67 10.00

10.00 10.48

Mean 3.33 3.10 2.86 3.69 4.29 4.68 5.44 6.01 6.51 SD 0 0.34 0.48 1.71 1.99 2.03 2.73 3.00 3.18 SE 0 0.24 0.27 0.86 0.89 0.83 1.03 1.06 1.06 Coefficient of Variation

0 10.88 16.67 46.37 46.48 43.34

50.23

49.91

48.81

PC 1 Day 10

Day 11

Day 12

Day 13

Day 14

Mean SD SE Coefficient of Variation (%)

Mean 10.48 8.10 8.57 5.24 7.14 7.01 2.80 0.75 39.93 SD 6.90 7.01 7.14 7.00 7.01 SE 3.25 3.10 2.99 2.91 2.80 Coefficient of Variation (%)

1.03 0.94 0.86 0.81 0.75

2.2.4.2 Transect count

The transect walked was approximately 3.5km in length and the area

surveyed estimated at 0.51km-2. This translates as an average visual range of

77.5m to either side of the pathway. The actual range of viewing possible varied

from 20m to 650m depending on the topography and vegetation. The majority of

groups were seen on the eastern side of the path where the visual range was much

greater. From this information a density estimate of 4.99 individuals per square

kilometre was calculated.

2.2.5 Discussion 2.2.5.1 Point counts

The density estimated for Propithecus v. Verreauxi was significantly lower than the estimate produced in 1999 (37.25 individuals per sq. Kilometre) as opposed to this project’s estimate (7.74). given that one might expect a similar result. The most favoured species of tree used by the Sifakas, Fantsilotse (Allaudia procera), compares favourably in terms of the density recorded compared with 1999. There are several areas of deforestation within the study area (See Fig. 7). In addition to this, several members of the research team observed areas of forest that were not ‘deforested’ but did show evidence of thinning of the trees. In 1999 areas that showed signs of disturbance i.e. agricultural fields or deforested areas had significantly reduced densities of Sifakas. Whilst these areas were observed in the course of the study it was not possible for the vegetation survey to cover the whole study area and hence provide sufficient data to provide a confident association between the respective densities of the lemur and vegetation surveys. PC1 was the point the particular thinning was noticed and the hillside under observation and the estimate (4.68) is much lower than that of PC2 (10.80), an area in which deforestation and thinning was observed but not to the same extent as the former area.

The trees favoured by the Sifakas are Fantsilotse (A. procera), Sirosiro (Gyrocarpus americanus) and Kolohoto (Albizzia sp.) (Ferguson, 1999) with density index scores of 5, 4, and 3 respectively. A better characterisation of the vegetation distribution throughout the whole area would allow surveys of the animal species to provide a greater depth of information with relation to their ecology. As the results stand, it is hoped that the information presented will provide a preliminary basis for future research to build upon.

2.2.5.2 Transect counts Whilst not strictly comparable to the point count surveys, the result

produced by this method (4.99 individuals per sq. Kilometre) is very low. The result was included but the data that produced this estimate was not complete due to misunderstandings about the required information to be recorded. This meant that over half the data was not included to produce the estimate. Much of this data included the larger group sizes. Inclusion of those numbers gives an estimate of 5.31 but this must still be viewed as biased as it was not possible to combine these number with the other data on account of it not being possible to determine which area they belonged to. Furthermore, without the positional data for these groups and individuals, it was not possible to assign any grouping to the observations. It had been intended to use all of the positional data from the course of the study (positions were recalculated using the estimated distance and bearing from the observer) to produce an estimate of the number of groups and the actual number contained within the groups. Sifakas are known to have a home range of 7-8 hectares in spiny forest and about 3 hectares in gallery forest (Garbutt, 1999) and from the data, it was not possible to distinguish any clear groupings (illustrated in Figure 4).

Figure 4. Graph showing the distribution of all the valid positions recorded for Sifakas during the transect counts.

2.3 SMALL MAMMAL SURVEY

2.3.1 Introduction The intention of this survey was to census the small mammal population of

the study area and combine the results with the data generated from the vegetation survey to investigate, in particular, the ecology of the Grey Mouse Lemur, Microcebus murinus. This animal was observed during the research phase of the 1999 project and whilst common enough, exact population figures are not known. However, as many as 360 individuals per square kilometre have previously been recorded in spiny forest (Garbutt, 1999).

The survey also intended to investigate the other small mammals that may be present in the forest. Unfortunately, the timing of the survey programme, coupled with the inexperience of the research group has resulted in a poor return for the effort put in. In short, too few traps were used (40) for periods of time that were not long enough and the survey was conducted at the wrong time of year for catching small mammals as many of them were hibernating. We did catch the start of the awakening from dormancy (September) but any future studies would be recommended to carry out their research during the Malagasy summer. Another sticking point was the traps themselves. Although we were successful on one occasion in actually trapping a mouse lemur, the trees were not suitable for securing traps in and the stony ground presented difficulties for bedding in and concealing the traps. Camouflage of the traps in the trees was not possible at all.

It is possible to conduct a successful small mammal trapping survey (a German researcher some 100km north of us was in the middle of a survey that was turning out some data at the same time as our project) but the level of experience available to this project was not sufficient.

The experience that the exercise did provide has contributed to the project by allowing the students from Tulear to learn more about field techniques and that not all field research is completely successful.

Plate 9

The Ecological research co-ordinator with Microcebus murinus, the Grey Mouse Lemur

2.3.2 Methods

The small mammal survey used 40 Extra-Large Kangaroo-Rat Sherman

Traps measuring 7.7cm X 7.7cm X 30.5cm.

They were laid in a square grid marked

with canes at 10m spacing. This is shown

in Fig.5. At each cane, two traps were set,

one on the ground and one in a tree. The

positioning was a close to the cane as

suitable positioning allowed. The traps

were baited each evening with banana and peanut butter and bedding was

provided using dry leaf matter from within the site. The traps were checked the

next morning for any success and closed for the day. The timings were 1530h to

1730h, approximately, for setting the traps and 0700h to 0900h, approximately,

for checking them (Ganzhorn & Schmid 1998). For all trapped animals, standard

morphometric measurements were taken, the animals were identified, sexed

weighed, marked and released. The marking was achieved by the removal of a

clip of guard hair. Each mouse lemur was given its own unique ‘clip’. The number

of trapping nights at each site was four for the first two sites and seven for each

site thereafter. The total number of sites used was six. There was an additional

test site at which the traps were set for one night for demonstration purposes.

In addition to the trapping programme, searches for the Grey Mouse Lemur were

conducted by M. Prosper. These were performed during both the day and night

40m

30m 10m

Cane

Fig.5

with the help of both students and local guides. Where possible the lemurs

were caught and the information collected as for the trapping programme.

Plate 10

Weighing a Grey Mouse Lemur

2.3.3 Results

It was not possible to produce a density estimation from the data as too few

animals were caught. For the whole survey period there were 2 catches, 1 mouse

lemur and 1 snake. The mouse lemur data has been presented in Table 4.

Table 4

Site found Sex Total length/mm

Body length/mm

Tail length/mm

Hind limb

length/mm

Fore limb

length/mm

Ear length/

mm

Weight/g

24° 40.801 S 046° 09.061 E

F 292 136 156 32 29 19 67

24° 40.953 S 046° 08.697 E

F 266 123 143 32 23 19 47

24° 40.641 S 046° 08698 E

F 276 118 158 34 25 21 47

24° 40.781 S 046° 08.650 E

F 270 121 149 30 19 25 49

Avarampingcaratse

M 221 96 125 38 32 N/A 45

8 Trap site M 224 81 143 27 23 N/A 58 24° 40.617 S 046° 08.958 E

M 175 55 120 32 22 22 55

24° 40.953 S 046° 08.697 E

M 283 124 159 34 24 23 52

Mean (F) 276 97.75 151.5 31.5 24 21 53 Mean (M) 225.8 89 136.8 32.8 25 23 53 Mean 250.9 93.38 144.1 32.1 25 22 53 Chi2 tested significance (Sig.)

0.025Sig.

0.522not Sig.

0.385not Sig.

0.88not Sig.

1not Sig.

0.8not Sig.

1not Sig.

The results show that of the animals found, the males are significantly smaller in size to the females in actual body length . The other measurements show no significant differences between the sexes including weight.

2.4 ORNITHOLOGY 2.4.1 Introduction

In the first phase of the fieldwork a general species inventory was carried

out primarily by Ian McLean, though the other members of the team would also report sightings. Using Morris and Hawkins guide, “birds of Madagascar” for identification we compiled a list of 38 bird species and discovered their local Malagasy names using our guides. This survey was undertaken between 24th July and 18th August at the same time as other fieldwork was being achieved. In the second phase a comparative study of the relative abundance of species was undertaken in 6 areas on the transect by Ian McLean, Dutel Ravoninjatovo and Mahavaru (a local guide), the results of which can be seen later in the section. In all we recorded 49 species of bird, including Phyllastrephus apperti (Apperts Greenbul) that is Globally threatened, classed as vulnerable and was not thought to be in the area. We also recorded 3 birds with a near threatened conservation status, Accipter Madagascariensis, Coua verrauxi and Ardeola idea while also backing up the sightings by the 1999 ifotaka team of Terpsiphone mutata, Ardeola idea and Phalacrocorax africanus which were not recorded in the WWF survey of the area in 1999. Of the 49 species recorded, 26 are endemic, 14 are regionally endemic (species only occurs in Madagascar and small outlying islands) and 9 are non endemic. One of the species, Ardeola Idea is a regionally endemic breeder, while Egretta dimorpha only breeds in Madagascar. Table 5: Shows a full inventory of species recorded throughout both phases,

Scientific Name English (Madagascar = M.)

Malagasy Conservation Status

Accipter francesii Frances Sparrowhawk

Fiandiaokibo Regional endemic

Accipter madagascariensis M. SparrowHawk Fiandiaokibo Endemic Agapornis canus Grey Headed

Lovebird Kareake Endemic

Ardeola idea M. pond Heron --- Reg. End. breeder

Artamella viridis White headed Vanga

Vanga Endemic

Buteo brachypterus M. Buzzard Hindrio Endemic Calicalicus madagascariensis

Red tailed Vanga --- Endemic

Centropus toulou M. Coucal Kotiohoka Regional Endemic

Cisticolla cherina M. Cisticolla --- Regional endemic

Copsychus albospecularis winterbottomi

M. Magpie Robin + Pitse Endemic

Coracina cinera pallida Ashy cuckoo Shrike +

--- Regional endemic

Coracopsis nigra Lesser vasa Parrot Vaza Regional endemic

Corvus albus Pied Crow Koakia Not endemic Coua cristata Crested Coua Tivoke Endemic Coua cursor Running Coua Arefy Endemic Coua ruficeps Red capped Coua Aliotse Endemic Coua verrauxi Verraux’s Coua Tivoke Endemic Dicrurus forficatus Crested Drongo Lovy Regional

endemic Egretta dimorpha Dimorphic Egret --- Endemic

Breeder Falco newtoni M. Kestrel Hitikitike Regional

Endemic Foudia madagascarensis M. Red Fody Fody Endemic Hypsipetes madagascarensis M. Bulbul Tsikomina Regional

endemic Leptopterus chabert Chaberts Vanga. Voronantake Regional

endemic Merops superciluisus M. Bee-eater --- Not endemic Milvus aegyptius Yellow billed Kite Tsimalako Not endemic Mirafra Hora M. Lark Jirioke Endemic Motacilla flavientris M. Wagtail Tsiotrio Regional

endemic Nectarinia soiumanga Soiumanga’s

Sunbird Soimanga Regional

endemic Neomixis striatigula Stripe thoated Jerry Tsirotse Endemic Neomixis tenella Common Jerry Tsimitse Endemic Neomixis viridis Green Jerry Tsimitse Endemic Newtoni archboldi Archbolds

Newtonia Anlaebakia Endemic

Newtonia brunneicauda Common Newtonia Aridobakia Endemic Ninox superciliaris White-browed Owl Virondolo Endemic Numida meleagris Helmeted

Guineafowl Akanga Not endemic

Oena capensis Namaqua Dove Tolkoloto Not endemic Otus rutilus M. scops Owl Tooruk/Ron

dul* Regional endemic

Phalacrocorax africanus Long-tailed Cormorant

--- Not endemic

Phyllastrephus apperti Apperts Greenbull --- Endemic Ploceus sakalava Sakalava Weaver Folinoja Endemic Polyboroides radiatus M. Harrier Hawk Bevorotse Endemic Pterocles personatus M. Sand Grouse Hatrakatrake Endemic Scopus umbretta Hammerkop Takatse Not endemic Streptopelia picturata M. turtle Dove Deho Regional

endemic Terpsiphone mutata M. paradise

Flycatcher Remaly Regional

endemic Turnix nigricollis M. Buttonquail Kibo Endemic Upapa marginata M. Hoopoe Tsikodana Endemic

Vanga curvirostris Hook billed Vanga Tsilovango Endemic Xenopirostris xenopirostris Lafresnayes Vanga Fiokak Endemic

+ C.a.winterbottomi and C.c.pallida are the only subspecies recorded.

* The presence of two names is due to there being Western and eastern forms of The Scops owl. Both forms were recorded in the area.

Where there is no local name our guides were unable to tell us.

2.4.2 The Relative abundance of species in differing areas of The Ifotaka forest.

Using Mackinnon lists (Mackinnon and Phillips, 1993. cited in Bibby et al,

1998) we compared three different habitats of the study area to examine the number and species found and their relative abundances. We examined two areas of prime Spiny forest, Gallery forest and scrub land to give six sites of study altogether. Lush Gallery Forest: Lush in comparison to surrounding dry forest. Consisting of large canopied deciduous trees(>20m in height) and wide leafed bushes. Dry Scrubland: Each area was situated near one of the main villages of the transect and showed extensive deforestation. There was little vegetation above 2 metres in height and it consisted mainly of dry bush and some cacti. Dry Spiny forest: The areas we examined were as close to being untouched, primary forest as we could find in the area.

The sites were of a similar size and the surveys were conducted at similar times of day (7:30am-10:30am, 4:00pm-5:15pm). The lists were completed between 30/8/01 and 15/9/01.

When the lists were being completed the observer group would slowly walk the area studied.

For each list ten separate species were recorded from the first bird seen. Once one list was complete the process would start again with ten separate species.

Ten lists would be completed in each of the six sites. If a bird was recorded in each list it would have a Abundance index of 1 (This is the abundance index, Dividing the number of lists the bird was in by the total number of lists).

All lists were undertaken by Ian McLean, Dutel Ravoninjatovo and Mahavaru (a guide) to reduce observer bias. This group had already become accustomed to the identifying of birds in the area.

Table 6 : Results from the Comparative study from the differing habitats.

Species. Site 1 Galler

y

Site 2 Galler

y

Site 3

Scrub

Site 4Spiny

Site 5

Scrub

Site 6

Spiny

Total

Abud

Index

Dis

1

Dicrurus forficatus

9 7 10 9 10 9 54 0.90 █

2 Coua cristata 10 7 8 7 10 7 49 0.81 █3 Nectarinia

soiumanga 3 3 6 9 10 10 41 0.68 █

4 Oena capensis 6 10 10 3 7 4 40 0.66 █5 Newtonia

brunneicauda9 7 7 7 3 5 38 0.63 █

6 Coracopsis nigra

9 4 4 6 7 7 37 0.62 █

7 Copsychus albospecularis winterbottomi

7 7 3 3 7 5 32 0.53 █

8 Streptopelia picturata

6 9 4 1 2 3 25 0.42 █

9 Leptopterus chabert

5 3 2 8 -- 2 20 0.33 █

10 Pterocles personatus

-- -- 7 4 9 -- 20 0.33 █

11 Neomixis tenella

1 2 1 6 2 7 19 0.32 █

12 Agapornis canus

1 4 4 -- 3 4 16 0.27 █

13 Ploceus sakalava

2 10 2 -- -- -- 14 0.23 █

14 Corvus albus 3 1 6 2 2 -- 14 0.23 █15 Foudia

madagascarensis

-- -- -- 1 8 4 13 0.22 █

16 Xenopirostris xenopirostris

2 -- 1 5 -- 4 12 0.20 █

17 Upapa marginata

2 4 2 3 -- 1 12 0.20 █

18 Terpsiphone mutata

3 -- -- 2 -- 5 10 0.16 █

19 Polyboroides radiatus

3 1 4 -- 2 -- 10 0.16 █

20 Hypsipetes madagascare

nsis

2 1 -- 2 -- 5 10 0.16 █

21 Neomixis viridis

-- -- 1 2 1 6 10 0.16 █

22 Falco newtoni -- -- 4 1 3 1 9 0.15 █23 Buteo

brachypterus 1 2 -- 4 1 1 9 0.15 █

24 Newtoni archboldi

6 1 1 -- -- -- 8 0.13 █

25 Milvus aegyptius

1 -- 5 1 1 -- 8 0.13 █

26 Turnix nigricollis

-- 3 2 1 -- 1 7 0.12 █

27 Coua cursor 1 -- -- 2 -- 4 7 0.12 █28 Coua ruficeps -- -- -- 4 2 1 7 0.12 █29 Artamella

viridis -- -- -- 2 1 3 6 0.10 █

30 Neomixis striatigula

-- -- -- -- 6 -- 6 0.10 █

31 Numida meleagris

-- 5 -- -- -- -- 5 0.08 █

32 Vanga curvirostris

-- -- -- 4 -- 1 5 0.08 █

33 Centropus toulou

-- 1 1 -- 2 -- 4 0.07 █

34 Mirafra Hora -- -- 4 -- -- -- 4 0.07 █35 Calicalicus

madagascariensis

-- 3 -- -- -- -- 3 0.05 █

36 Coracina cinera pallida

2 1 -- -- -- -- 3 0.05 █

37 Scopus umbretta

2 -- -- -- -- -- 2 0.03 █

38 Accipter francesii

2 -- -- -- -- -- 2 0.03 █

39 Unidentified (likely Myna )

-- 2 -- -- -- -- 2 0.03 █

40 Merops superciliosus

1 -- 1 -- -- -- 2 0.03 █

41 Cisticolla cherina

-- 1 -- -- -- -- 1 0.02 █

42 Ninox superciliaris

-- 1 -- -- -- -- 1 0.02 █

43 Accipter madagascarie

nsis

-- -- -- 1 -- -- 1 0.02 █

44 Phyllastrephus apperti

1 -- -- -- -- -- 1 0.02 █

45 Motacilla flavientris

-- -- -- -- 1 -- 1 0.02 █

From the Mackinnon lists we recorded 34 species in the gallery forest, 31 in the scrub areas and 28 in the Spiny forest (overall 45 species were recorded). 5 species recorded in the initial survey were not seen in the lists and this could be due to a relatively lower abundance than those on the list, or that they use alternative habitat (e.g. The M. Pond Heron, Long-tailed Cormorant and Dimorphic egret were all seen by the village of Amboets on the Mandrare river.) In comparison with the 1999 project’s Mackinnon lists, of the 10 most commonly occurring species in both lists, 6 are the same.

Figure 6: The dispersal of species in the 3 different habitats studied.

From the lists we now can examine the dispersal of the species in the three areas (Colour coded for below in far right column).

**Example, there were 5 species recorded in just the Gallery and scrub

2.4.3 Discussion.

The results from the comparative study are surprising in that the spiny forest shows the lowest number of species present. This though could be due to the dense forest which made spotting the birds more difficult. In comparison the Gallery forest was open under the large deciduous trees, and the open scrub areas made recording relatively easy. Another source of bias is in the differing size, plumage, call or behaviour of certain birds, which can make them more easily seen and recorded. Larger and more colourful birds such as Coua cristata (Crested Coua) would be very active in the early morning and so may be seen to have a higher relative abundance than they actually do. Also in the forest there are a number of terrestrial birds and these are easily disturbed and so the abundance may be higher than seen in the surveys. While Predatory birds would spend much of their time either perched on a high area or on the wing above the area, so would be more conspicuous and possibly skewing the results. One final aspect is the timing of the study. We undertook the lists in what is early spring, and we noticed an increase in overall bird activity over this period. This was most noticeable in Foudia madagascariensis (M. Red Fody) with the spring moult in the males giving the birds a brilliant red upper body.

Although the Mackinnon list technique has its limitations, from these results we can start to have some idea on the habitat preferences of bird species in the area. This will become useful in the face of further deforestation as the species most likely at risk can be studied further and impact examined.

In terms of follow up studies it would be of benefit to ascertain the number of species hunted by the local people and see to what extent this is affecting their populations. The most common species hunted seemed to be Numida meleagris (Helmeted Guineafowl) and Turnix nigricollis (Madagascar Buttonquail) though it was seen that several other species were killed, either for sport or food. It is also important to confirm the presence of Phyllastrephus apperti (Appert’s Greenbul) in the area and continue with full population estimates of specific species.

Plate 11

Polyboroides radiatus. The Madagascar Harrier Hawk

Key:= Quartz Mine = Corral = Position of Ecology Team Base Camp

= Tsivah (Settlement) = Modified Extent of Mangily Settlement

= Areas of Deforestation = Position of Amboetsy and Mangily

Figure 7 : Modified M

ap of the Ifotaka Forest

Appendix A: Similar names list

Vernacular name Family Genus Species

Avoha Fabaceae Gagnebins sp. Avolahy Befohitse = Befoetse Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia leucodendron Daronaombe Burseraceae Commiphora sp. Daronaomby Burseraceae Commiphora sp. Farehitsy = Farehitra Pedaliaceae Uncarina sp. Farohirosy Fabaceae Bauhinia pervilleana Fihane = Fihagne Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia plagiantha Forofoke = Forokoko Ebenaceae Diospyros cupulifera Halomboromahalo Halomborombe Fabaceae Albizia polypyhlla Handige = Hazolava = Hazelava Meliaceae Neobeguca mahfaliensis Hazontsokina = Hazontsokena Melastomatace

ae Memecylon delphinense

Keleogne Capparidaceae Tylachium sp. Keleony Capparidaceae Crateva excelse Kitsigne = Kintsigne Rubiaceae Pyrostria media Lahitsivagno = Lahitsivagne Erythroxylacea

eErythrexylum aff geriardi

Lambina Fabaceae Baudiuhinia fluggeiformus Magnary Fabaceae Dalbergia trichocarpa Manary Fabaceae Dalberzis emirnensis Magne Malvaceae Hibiscaus ambovombensi

sMagne be ravina Malvaceae Hibiscus bojeranus Mantsake = Mantsake Rubiaceae Enterospermu

msp.

Relefo Loganiaceae Strychnes decussata Relefogne Loganiaceae Strychnos madagascarien

sis Sandrahigne = Mendoravina Mimosaceae Albizzia greviana Sandrahine Fabaceae Albizia tulearensis Sognone = Sognogne Didieraceae Allaudia ascendens Somerambarike = Sognombarike Didieraceae Allauudia humbertii Tabarike = Tabarika Tiliaceae Grewia microcycles Talibe = Talihazobe = Talintivoke = Taly

Combretaceae Terminalia mantaly

Taliforokoko = Taliforohoho Combretaceae Terminalia divaricata Tarantana = Tarantagne Ancardiaceae Rhus perrieri Vontake = Ventake Apocynaceae Pachypodium lamerei

Appendix B: Density data The value of ‘T’ is determines whether the distribution is significantly regular, random, or significantly clumped. • –1.96<T<1.96: the distribution is random. • T<-1.96: the distribution is significantly clumped e.g. deforestation • T>1.96: the distribution is significantly regular e.g. a plantation. If ‘T’ does fall out side the limits then the density may be biased for whatever reason, including the examples given above.

Site number Forest Type Density m-2 T Distribution 4 G 0.219 -

1.297Random

7 G 0.060 0.259 Random 10 G 0.234 0.009 Random 11 G 0.191 0.718 Random 12 G 0.228 -

1.464Random

13 G 0.256 -1.791

Random

15 G 0.222 -0.004

Random

2 S 0.234 0.408 Random 3 S 0.137 -

0.393Random

5 S 0.145 1.678 Random 6 S 0.126 -

1.908Random

8 S 0.225 0.008 Random 9 S 0.173 0.431 Random 14 S 0.164 -

0.393Random

Avg. Density estimate 0.187 Avg. Density estimate (Gallery) 0.202

Avg. Density estimate (Spiny) 0.172 Density hectare-1

Avg. Density estimate 1870 Avg. Density estimate (Gallery) 2020

Avg. Density estimate (Spiny) 1870

Appendix C: Shrubs

Vernacular

name Genus Species Family

Forest type

Andriambolgotsy

Croton sp. Euphorbiace

ae Gallery

Pisopiso Pemphi

smadgascarien

sis Lythraceae Gallery

Tagnatagnanala

Croton sp. Euphorbiace

ae Gallery

These shrubs were not included in any of the density estimation but have been included on account of the fact that they were very common in the study area.

Appendix D: Tree species by vernacular name

Common Name ID

Ampolibe 29 Anakarake 89 Andapary 20

Andapogna 90 Andriambolgotsy 110

Avoha 50 Avolahy 97 Befohitse 6 Beholitse 57

Dagoa 15 Daronaombe 46 Daronaomby 47

Darosike 1 Darotandroke 17

Falafika 43 Famata 28

Fantsilotse 2 Farehitsy 54

Farohirosy 66 Fatidronono 91

Fatra 18 Feka 38

Fihane 7 Forofoke 16

Halomboromahalo

70

Halomborombe 104Handige = Hazolava

40

Hazomalagne 68 Hazomboatango 9

Hazomby 86 Hazomena 8

Hazontange 92 Hazontsokina 51

Herotse 14 Hetogne 42 Hiligne 45

Hororoke 63 Jabihy 34

Common Name ID Kalavelo 84 Katrafay 4 Keleogne 24

Kily 93 Kirava 53

Kitata 94 Kitsigne 106Kolohoto 26

Kope 83 Kotrigne 67

Lahitsivagno 103Lambina 35 Lazagne 25

Magnarimbato 107Magnary 19 Magne 33

Magne be ravina 87 Maintefo 13

Malaimpery 109Malamasafoy 41

Manary 49 Maninjo 31 Manongo 59 Mantsake 55

Marandoha 32 Mongy 65 Nato 98

Pisopiso 112Relefogne 11 Retsilaitse 95

Rohondrohogne 48 Roipitike 108

Sakoandalitse 23 Sandrahigne = Mendoravina

52

Sasavy 82 Sely 88

Sengatse 12 Sesilahy 105

Common Name ID Sirosiro 10

Sognombarike 30 Sognone 3

Somangipaky 62 Somerambarike 85

Somorogne 71 Somotsoigne 100

Tabarike 37 Tagnatagnanala 111

Talibe = Talihazobe =

Talintivoke = Taly

22

Taliforokoko 64

Taolakafotro 102Tarantana 44

Taslakafotse 69 Tsimalagnilamba 77

Tsimarefy 78 Tsingarifare 99

Tsingena 96 Tsiongake 36

Tsipopolahy 75 Tsivokontsifake 72

Unknown 60 Unknown 1 73 Unknown 2 79 Unknown 3 80 Unknown 4 81 Unknown 5 101Unkown 6 74

Vala 76 Valiandro 27

Vaovy 39 Vinoagne 21 Voafotake 56 Voanoro 58 Vontake 5 Zagne 61

Appendix E: T-square Method of Density Estimation

1. Choose a random point, P. 2. Measure the distance from P to O, the nearest tree. This is recorded

as ‘x’. 3. A line perpendicular to PO is drawn. 4. The distance to the nearest individual on the opposite side of the

line to P is measured and recorded as ‘z’. 10 such pairs of measurements were made in each site and the data

analysed using the following equation:

D: density; m: pairs of measurements A “tree” was designated as a plant whose diameter at 1m 40cm

(breast height) was greater than or equal to 5cm (a circumference of

approximately 15.21cm).

( )∑ ∑=

ii zxmD

828.2

2

Appendix F: Survey Sites by GPS

Site number

Latitude Longitude Forest Type

124° 41.112

S046° 08.788

ES

224° 41.167

S046° 08.790

ES

324° 41.108

S046° 08.952

ES

424° 41.121

S046° 08.524

EG

524° 40.590

S046° 08.706

ES

624° 40.617

S046° 08.958

ES

724° 41.481

S046° 08.018

EG

824° 10.714

S046° 08.972

ES

924° 40.801

S046° 09.060

ES

10 24° 41.157

S046° 08.985

EG

11 24° 41.033

S046° 08.696

EG

12 24° 41.390

S046° 08.329

EG

13 24° 41.839

S046° 07.387

EG

14 24° 41.412

S046° 07.899

ES

15 24° 41.033

S046° 08.696

EG

S = SPINY FOREST G = GALLERY FOREST

Appendix G: Heptofauna Survey

The immediate area around the camp site covered both spiny and gallery forest areas. From casual observations, it was noted that there were a large number of reptiles and amphibians in the area so a record was kept of the species sited. This was then used for a brief observation study of the activity patterns of the reptiles local to the camp area. A species index of the reptiles and amphibians of the area was also compiled as well as brief notes on which species are found at different times during the day.

Graph App G shows the activity periods of all the reptiles and

amphibians observed. The chart follows a fairly standard pattern of moderate early morning activity decreasing throughout the day as it gets hotter. The very high number of active amphibians and reptiles between 1400 and 1600 is not a true reflection of the nature of the animals surveyed. The result comes from the high number of frog species found at this time, collecting at the water hole; a common and easily explained phenomena. The chart has been produced from the following results:

Observation Period Name Initials

0700 - 0900

0900 - 1100

1200 - 1400

1400 - 1600

1600 - 1800

Total seen

(Z.t.) 0 0 0 1 0 1 (O.q.) 0 2 0 17 0 19 (M.e.) 8 5 0 13 0 26 (M.a.) 2 6 0 10 0 18 (L.i.) 0 0 1 0 0 1 (M.g.) 2 2 0 4 0 8 (O.c.) 0 1 0 0 0 1

(O.cu.) 0 1 0 0 0 1 (L.t.) 1 0 0 0 0 1

(M.m.) 0 0 0 0 1 1 (L.m.) 0 0 0 4 0 4 (L.g.) 0 0 0 0 1 1 (G.r.) 9 1 0 0 0 10 (E.m.) 0 1 2 0 0 3 (P.m.) 25 0 0 150 0 175 (M.b) 0 0 0 1 0 1

Total seen 47 19 3 200 2 271

Figure 8. Graph Appendix G:

Species Inventory Key: WH = water hole RP = rocky path DT = dead tree

Lizards and Skinks

Scientific name Common location Sighting notes

Zonosaurus trilineatus (Z.t.) Plated lizard, black yellow

stripes Oplurus quadrimaculatus (O.q.) RP Large Iguana

Mabuya elegans (M.e.) RP / WH Common skink Mabuya aureopunctata (M.a.) RP Half brown, half spotted – v.

Common Lepidodactylus lugubris (L.i.) WH Common small gecko Mabuya gravernhorski (M.g.) RP Similar to M.e. v. common

Opulurus cyclurus (O.c.) DT Spiny tailed iguana small Opulurus cuvien (O.cu.) Spiny tailed iguana big

Snakes

Liophidium torquatum (L.t.) RP Light brown, white stripe on head

Mimophis mahafalensis (M.m.) RP Black zigzag down back Leiohetorodon madagascariensis

(L.m.) RP / WH Large, diurnal, easily handled

Leiohetorodon gaeys (L.g.) DT Yellow back

Tortoises & Turtles

Geoghelone radiata (G.r.) RP / DT Radiated tortoise v. Common

Engmnochelys madagascariensis (E.m.)

WH Aquatic turtle

Frogs

Ptychadema madagascarensis (P.m.)

WH Common frogs

Mamtella betsiles (M.b) WH Small orange frog

Order Suborder Infraorder FamilySub Family

Genusspecies

Vernacularname

O/E

Chiroptera Megachiroptera - Pteropopidae - Eidolondupreanum

Madagascan Straw-coloured Fruit Bat

E –droppingsnear hillsidecaves

Insectivora - - Tenrecidae Tenrecinnae Echinops telfari Lesser HedghogTenrec

O –campsite

Rodentia - - Muridae Nesomyinae Macrotarsomysbastardioccidentalis

Western ForestMouse

O – in campfood

Carnivora - - Viverridae Cryptoproctinae Cryptoproctaferox

Fosa E –footprints inhills

Primates - Lemuriformes Cheirogaleidae - Micorcebusmurinus

Grey Mouse Lemur O – trapped

Primates - Lemuriformes Megaldapidae Lepilemurinae Lepilemurleucopus

White-footedSportive Lemur

O – galleryforestsurvey sites

Primates - Lemuriformes Lemuridae Lemurinae Lemur catta Ring-tailed Lemur O – aroundthe forest

Primates - Lemuriformes Indriidae - Propithecusverreauxiverreauxi

Verreaux’s Sifaka O - survey

Appendix H

:Mam

mals observed (O

) or evidence noted (E) ithin the study areas

3. ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH REPORT

AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDY IN AMBOETSY, COMMUNE D’IFOTAKA, SOUTHERN MADAGASCAR

- The quantification and assessment of the extent of forest resource use within an

Antandroy village.

- The consideration and analysis of the social aspects of Antandroy village life to establish a context and correlations for the forest resource use indicated.

3.1 Introduction

Project Ifotaka 2001’s anthropological research and the publication of its data and discussions aim to provide relevant information to be used as part of the continuing environmental and social conservation issues of the spiny forest of southern Madagascar, addressed by the Project Ifotaka initiative and other parties. It has been established that the principal inhabitants of the spiny forest, the Antandroy, depend heavily on forest resources (Morrison. Project Ifotaka 1999. Final Report & Bartlett. Project Ifotaka 2000. Demographic Survey). “A quantification of what pressures are put on the forest by the people living here and the magnitude of these pressures is (…) a key part to developing a sustainable plan for development and conservation in the area.” (Bartlett. Project Ifotaka 2000. Demographic Survey). The methodology developed during this research aims to offer a preliminary response to this statement.

This report proposes to raise awareness of changing pressures on the Antandroy culture and its physical and social environment. It is imperative to acknowledge such pressures in future development initiatives in the Ifotaka area in order for these endeavours to be sympathetic and sensitive in their nature.

The study, due to the short nature of the fieldwork, must only be regarded as an initial ethnography and discussion of an area where little current knowledge is currently available of such a community. Therefore, it is intended that observations and patterns noted during the months of August and September 20012 will be a catalyst for critique and further investigation; they are a collection of preliminary thoughts and open-ended questions that have arisen. It is acknowledged that many statements gathered during fieldwork are purely ‘leads’ sourced from a small number of informants, they must be confirmed and expanded before they can be accepted as common practice3.

2 This period is the quietest agricultural time of year, suited for availability of informants, but not for observation of activities. 3 The ideal content of anthropological fieldwork can be stated, but the actual undertaking of information gathering is vulnerable to many forms of imbalance, bias, artificial influence, inaccuracy and misrepresentation. The challenge attached to ethnographic research is to carry out systematic and mechanical procedures whilst maintaining detachment from potentially biasing personal involvement.

However, this report does give a clear indication of several directional pressures on forest resource use and how cultural impacts (and their modern manifestations) are crucial in their dictation of current and future patterns of utilisation of the spiny forest in the Commune d’Ifotaka. There are common links between the considerations that follow; the changing power structures, control and entitlements in the specific experiences of the Antandroy of southern Madagascar. The human population of an area noted as a conservation priority cannot be overlooked. As Sussman et al rationalize, ‘conservation efforts must be focused at the fronts of deforestation and ultimately involve a cooperative effort by conservationists and local people to develop means of establishing sustainable use of lands that have already been cleared’ (1994: 340).

3.2 Methodology

One British anthropology graduate and one Malagasy student from the University of Tuléar worked together for five weeks in the village of Amboetsy during August and September 2001. An Amboetsy woman, Toriazy, provided residency in her household. A good working relationship was established between the researchers and the residents of Amboetsy, which allowed the help of primary informants, principally neighbouring family and friends of Toriazy, as well as Toriazy herself. Permission to carry out research was given by relevant local and national bodies and, specifically in Amboetsy, the president of the fokotany (district) kindly accommodated the research.

Methodology during the research period consisted of the following:

1. Analysing the firewood collected and returned to the village - in Toriazy’s family over a period of three weeks. - in Toriazy’s household over a period of four weeks. - for a major part of the village of Amboetsy during one day.

The following data was recorded - the date, the owner’s name, the local name for the

wood, the weight, the volume and number of days the firewood was estimated to last.

2. Participatory observation of firewood collection was conducted and the location of collection areas was briefly described and marked by GPS (Global Positioning System).

3. Areas of cultivation on the periphery of Amboetsy were briefly described

and marked by GPS.

4. The village was surveyed by region, numbers of houses and storehouses were counted.

5. Random samples of zebu (Malagasy cattle) herding locations were noted by GPS.

6. A photographic record of Antandroy culture was compiled.

7. Qualitative interviews were carried out with translation provided by the Malagasy student, which were recorded and transcribed. Informed locals provided the bulk of the information for chosen topics and led to various digressions. Basic participatory observation whilst learning traditional Antandroy livelihood and custom was valuable during the short time period of the research. This method suited addressing large groups and families as well as individuals.

3.3 Discussion

Pertinent aspects of the fieldwork ethnographic data will be included within this discussion. For more detailed ethnographic information collected during fieldwork please refer to the appendix entitled ‘Ethnography’.

“When I was young the forest was good, it has been spoilt as each person plants their food.” (Amboetsy elder)

Resource use for a pastoralist society such as that in the Commune d’Ifotaka is a

dynamic process, carried out by all forest residents and occurring everyday. One characteristic is the Antandroy’s close association with the environment and the direct processing of its resources. It follows that a significant proportion of daily Antandroy activities has a direct impact on the environment used in order to survive. Such a close relationship with the environment leaves little room to spare and means that imbalance of that equilibrium is easily reached – raising the issue of sustainability and the impending lack of it in the Ifotaka forest. 3.3.1 Identity and image

The Antandroy may identify themselves through cattle herding and their ideological systems correlate with such a definition, however in reality their subsistence is much more multifaceted. Antandroy social organisation fits within an integrated economy of subsistence herding, plant-cultivating, hunting, and trade. The typology of cattle herder must be considered in the context of historical change in subsistence systems, but this definition does represent a specific socio-economic system with regard to aspects of social relations.

The Antandroy, as pastoralist cultivators, display a high degree of mobility especially when herding and selling goods, and more recently in travelling to the west of Madagascar for sapphire hunting. This is indicates the willingness and therefore flexibility in Antandroy culture to capitalise on substantial available resources in a large area.

Weaving of mats and baskets is a strong Antandroy identifier. This craft is in the female domain - ‘men must not to be seen to do it!’ illustrating that women also play a part in creating a strong Antandroy identity. 3.3.2 Relations with vazahas – the outside

Current concerns about how outside impact is going to significantly change what is ‘traditional’ Antandroy resource use must acknowledge that the Antandroy have never been a static community. Cultural impacts have occurred over a long period of time. ‘Tandroy history is very much one of migration’ (Parker Pearson et al:1999.406). Rice is part of present day obligatory exchange at ceremonies and celebrations such as funerals. Rice is not a staple food and is not grown locally. How has it become an integral part of Antandroy ceremony? Almost certainly by interaction and influence by ‘the other’.

Stories of the villagers’ ancestors are told today. One of which includes a white ancestor within living memory passing through Amboetsy. Several informants confirmed this. Stories and pointing out what seem to be concrete boundary markings from

(colonial?) surveying confirm historical relations with outsiders (vazahas) –with Malagasy and those further a field. “We’re frightened of vazahas, but that doesn’t change our culture.” (Amboetsy ombiasa)

There is a clear reluctance to discuss forest resource use by villagers with outsiders until vazaha intentions are made clear. This suggests that a threat is felt over how Antandroy forest use is perceived by others. Was previous contact in connection to this well explained, or implemented? There is a local knowledge of problems associated with the forest – but it is currently perceived as being anti-Antandroy. Such perception of blame suggests a sense of subordination in power relations – threat, control by outsiders, and others deeming superiority of the environment over people.

3.3.3 Education and prospects

Primary school attendance reflects the herding traditions of the Amboetsy

community. Fewer boys attended village classes than girls (visible both by eye and on confirmation with the village teacher and parents). Boys being recruited at a young age to herd goats, sheep and zebu in the forest explain this pattern. Such a pattern did not obviously correlate with families of either traditional or Christian belief systems – because for both types, herding is essential for both livelihoods. It would be valuable to examine whether those most successful in livestock trade value education any more greatly than those who are more isolated – this study indicates no such contrast.

What are the incentives to go on to secondary school? Families value their members as labour – the opportunities that formal education can create are not visible or tangible. There is little chance to see alternative possibilities, or for other possibilities to be sought. It was not expressed by villagers that primary school is seen as vital for future stability or a solution for current problems. Parental pressure is consequently very low for school attendance and few children themselves do not see other alternatives to herding, local marriage or work.

3.3.4 Wood use

For the raw data of firewood use in Amboetsy refer to the appendix, ‘Firewood

Collection Data. Amboetsy 2001’. The data of 51 samples gives an indication of the quantities and patterns of firewood use in the village through two approaches: A large sample of households was studied for one day. Our host family (or residents of one parcelle – our term for the group of houses belonging to one set of relatives) was assessed over a period of several weeks.

To look at two groups allows verification of whether the host family studied was typical in its wood use (which it appeared to be). The larger sample of individuals gives a more reliable analysis of average figures. The study of one family gives an indication of patterns over the dynamic of time and avoids the possibility of the larger group being studied on an atypical day.

The data applying to the (host) family living in the parcelle Besakoa highlights that firewood is consistently sourced from a small number of areas and therefore, also, that the species of wood collected are limited to particular types.

The bar chart gives a comparison between percentage proportions of the principal type of wood in the bundles. Hazoboatango is the most popular wood collected, followed by katrafay and teza. In referring to the raw data, these three woods are also the types least likely to be in particularly mixed-type wood bundles.

The graph shows the distribution of weights of bundles in all samples. The overall weight of each wood bundle is variable, however a high number of samples had a weight of over 20kg. It was found through participatory research, that collection of quantities of firewood is responsive to each household’s needs, the availability of suitable wood and the time each woman has free to collect wood.

Type of wood in bundle


Ambilazo

Sofasofa

Zangannpoly

TalySeta

Ondrokondroke

Mangary

TezaTaolakafotra

Voaovy

Hazomena

Katrafay

Hazoboatango

Maentifo

Perc

ent

40

30

20

10

0

Weight of wood bundle (kg)

29.6027.60

24.6023.20

22.2021.80

20.5019.00

18.0017.40

16.8015.00

12.6010.00

9.408.60

7.807.00

4.00

Cou

nt

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

.5

Figure 9

Figure 10.

Weight of wood in bundle

Using a box plot display to compare the primary type of wood with the weight of the wood bundle, it is shown that in addition to hazoboatango being the most popular type of wood collected, its average weight shows it is also one of the heaviest weighing woods in bundles. (This suggests that either its density or quantity is high. By studying the raw data, bundles containing principally hazoboatango have an average volume not significantly greater than the overall bundle volume4 – this suggests the high weight of hazoboatango is quantity-related rather than density-related.) Small sample numbers of each wood type makes the data vulnerable to variation and extremes in results (as the vertical lines show).

4 The average volume for all 51 samples is 5728.2757 cm³, the average volume for Hazoboatango is 6070.2038 cm³.

321112163149161N =


Ambilazo

Sofasofa

Zangannpoly

TalySeta

Ondrokondroke

Mangary

TezaTaolakafotra

Voaovy

Hazomena

Katrafay

Hazoboatango

Maentifo

Wei

ghto

fwoo

dbu

ndle

(kg)

40

30

20

10

0

Estimated volume of wood bundle

100009000

80007000

60005000

40003000

2000

Wei

ghto

fwoo

dbu

ndle

(kg)

40

30

20

10

0

Zangannpoly

Taly

Seta

Ondrokondroke

Mangary

Teza

Taolakafotra

Voaovy

Hazomena

Katrafay

Hazoboatango

Maentifo

Figure 11 Estimated volume of wood bundle

The scatterplot correlating weight to volume of wood bundles shows there is a positive correlation between the two variables. However the breadth of scattering of points means that the connection is weak, most particularly for hazoboatango. Katrafay, the second most popular firewood, has a stronger correlation between volume and weight and more closely follows the average pattern. This suggests that katrafay’s popularity (and significance in the previous box plot) is also quantity-related rather than density-related.

Forethought by women for collecting firewood supplies is normally in terms of only a few days (mostly less than 3 days). Exceptions apply to those with more time to spend searching for greater quantities and, perhaps, relatives who are willing to accompany the women in order to assist them with carrying the bundles home.

The variation in sizes of bundles of wood is clearly shown in considering all data and maximum and minimum extremes of variables. However the number of days owners estimate this wood bundle to last does not vary so significantly, nor does the bundle weight. This correlation supports the supposition that wood quantities per day are mainly dictated by the weight it is possible to carry back to the village on the head.

Estimated no of days wood will last

14 days7 days

6 days5 days

4 days4

3 days2 days

1 dayMissing

Perc

ent

30

20

10

0

Descriptive Statistics

51 4.00 29.60 16.6608 6.8285

51 45.72 165.10 67.4420 18.6472

51 38.10 137.16 85.7384 21.8547

51 2838.70 9806.43 5728.2757 1795.8112

45 1 14 3.31 2.34

45

Weight of woodbundle (kg)Length of woodbundle (cm)Circumference ofwood bundle (cm)Estimated volumeof wood bundleEstimated no ofdays wood will lastValid N (listwise)

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Figure 12. Estimated number of days wood will last

3.3.4.1 Firewood – Cause or Result?

Qualitative data on firewood use per household over a given period of time, assessment of firewood gathering and cultivated areas have provided not only a specific seasonal picture, but also a core around which information has been gathered for patterns throughout the year.

Firewood is reported to be, and confirmed during observation, dead wood. Ostensibly, this is perceived as a lower threat to the integrity of the spiny forest. However this calls for a further question – how does the firewood become dead? Firewood is principally obtained through clearing and deliberate forest destruction in previous seasons. It is clear, on accompanying women on fire-wood collecting trips, that dead wood collected is from areas previously cleared for maize planting or, sometimes herders chopping trees on passing through the forest.

On visiting firewood collection areas (formerly maize cultivation areas) informants explained that the ‘maize crop didn’t work’ hence it being abandoned and used for firewood. In some such areas cactus had been planted as a form of territory maintenance. This appeared only to be a reaction after clearing and that territory marking in these areas seemed to take advantage of planting only once cleared. Is firewood a beneficial accident of forest clearing or an equally valued and symbiotic outcome of forest clearance?

A more positive aspect of wood use derives from the observation of fire burning for cooking and heating. The newer houses and those owned by younger generations have a small separate kitchen annex next to the principal house. Only one household fire is contained in these kitchens for the duration of cooking. The most traditional, older Amboetsy families both cook and sleep in the main house. This style of living was seen to have a fire burning more constantly; the cooking fire was retained for night time heating and therefore more fuel is burnt. It is postulated that less wood is consumed in the new housing design, and the old style appeared to be the minority. However firewood-use quantification data does not clearly differentiate between the type of house, and it must be acknowledged that extra wood is of course used in order to build annex kitchens.

3.3.4.2 House building – predictable and substantial wood use

Construction of houses (as well as their positioning relative to other houses)

follows strict conventions – both in style and use of wood species. ‘So, in the enclosure [‘parcelle’] and in the house, the innumerable static…and dynamic…rules must be…scrupulously respected, they are the heritage of these ancestors, implicitly present in daily actions’ (from Heurtebize:?.31)5.

This detail provides predictable implications for forest resource use for as long as this trend remains. The wood fantiosolotra is of particular interest – although it was not seen to be used as firewood - it is the principal wood in houses, forming the walls and

5 ‘Si, dans l’enclos et dans la maison, les innombrables règles statiques… et dynmaiques… doivent être… scrupuleusement respectées, c’est qu’elles sont l’héritage de ces mêmes ancêtres, présent implicitement dans les gestes quotidiens’ (Heurtebize:?.31).

roof. Only about eight planks of wood can be obtained per tree. At an estimated 130 planks of wood per house (excluding frame, feet and skirting boards), it is possible that perhaps 15 fantsiolotra trunks can be used to construct one house.

Is the high number of houses relative to the number of residents in Amboetsy due to houses being built for adolescent children? It is clearer if houses are differentially defined as chambres (bedrooms) and foyers (households) – clearly as a family matures more and more houses are built per family. The combination of this factor with population growth clearly identifies housing as being, and becoming, a major source of forest resource use.

3.3.4.3 Territorial management closely interrelates with wood use

Discrepancies between naming of village areas, ‘parcelles’, with generic and ‘sub’ labels frequently reflect resident family or group names. Over time as intermarriage and migrations occur clear family divisions according to village areas must diminish – will this reflect territorial divisions of the forest? Due to such complications, over time, inter-group co-operation will be increasingly relied upon. Future fragmentation may threaten such co-operative systems, such as outside disturbances, and environmental un-sustainability and concerns.

3.3.4.4 Remedies; potential repercussions of changes in wood use

Wood use for infusion treatments at childbirth may not be a large consumer of forest resources, but these habits are an integral part of care for mother and child (its importance is reflected in such a long maternity leave after childbirth). Preventions or shortage in specific woods has potential to have repercussions in the social well being of families and social networks. Such a system allows mother and child to bond (biologically and emotionally) and by gathering particular wood treatments a man reinforces his responsibilities to his dependant (wife, daughter or sister).

Extracts of katrafay wood are a nationally renowned remedial treatment. Is there a national market to be supplied by the local community? Could this be a beneficial capital-generating venture (if carefully managed), or a potential environmental threat?

3.3.4.5 Marking of lifecycle stages

Death and funerals dictate a significant amount of wood use. Such use includes coffins and wood burning for cooking fires during celebrations and by destruction of the deceased’s house. Marriage also demands a great quantity of wood for building new houses for the new couple. These processes are relevant in both Christian and traditional ceremonies. The traditionalists’ conventional burning of houses at death is a major contributor to wood use, due to the forced turnover of houses for every life span; this was indicated in 6 weeks of fieldwork on observing the quantities of wood used for building new houses. Mendorave wood is used for coffins (as well as in house construction) and only four planks of wood per tree can be obtained. At least one whole mendorave trunk is likely to be used per coffin.

3.3.5 Shifting cultivation

Informants did not specifically connect fady rules with ‘slash and burn’ or shifting

cultivation (hatsaka), (apart from with the general forest areas defined territorially). This may be due to shifting cultivation being a younger system with less time for cultural rules to be established upon it. On visiting areas previously cleared for cultivation to collect dead wood, the contrast between such places and the intact forest nearby is striking.

3.3.6 The damage of goat herding

Amboetsy goat herds are based in peripheral goat herder settlements. This study has suggested that greater damage to the forest may be due to findings that goats travel greater distances in the forest, through denser, steeper areas, are less easy to confine and often those responsible for them are the least experienced members of the community. Consequently the greater the number of goats herded in the forest, the fewer ‘inaccessible’ parts of the forest benefit from this fortune - of being protected by natural barriers.

3.3.7 Resource use for cash

The following activities are

relatively recent and highlight the need and pressures to acquire cash. Does the search for cash serve as a means to raise social status? Certainly to earn cash allows the buying of zebu.

3.3.7.1 Sapphire extracting.

Men have the self-

determination and freedom from labour obligations to leave their home village for months at a time in order to travel to Ilakaka, near Tulear. Ilakaka is a newly established town established due to the large number of permanent and temporary migrants attracted to the recently discovered sapphire deposits (and the rumours surrounding the chance of earning large sums of money). Antandroy fields and livestock are valuable but attention to them is flexible. This is only possible due to close-knit families and obligations

between individuals. Additionally the need or pressures for cash, rather than purely subsistence, makes the desire to leave great. Conversely, the absence of men creates other pressures – the potential for wives to commit adultery (and the threat of men committing

adultery in Ilakaka, and settling there). Also the man has no assurance of the state of his cattle and other property as he is not physically present to monitor them.

Plate 12

A young Goat-herder from Amboetsy

3.3.7.2 Citrine extracting. On finding and selling citrines, quarried locally, Amboetsy villagers are dependent

on the Antanarivo agent who buys the unprocessed stones. Villagers have no control over the market price. Several villagers were seen to refuse to sell any citrines because they were unhappy with the price offered. This suggests an evident awareness of the worth of stones and reveals an attempt at market control. Citrines (and also amethyst) are storable, a ‘non-perishable’ capital.

3.3.8 Demonstration of wealth

The demonstration of wealth is a key aspect in ceremony and social relations in

Antandroy life. It has been observed that explicit knowledge of an individual man’s wealth is particularly taboo, for example the overt counting of zebu numbers in a herd (the analogy for zebu ownership can be said to be a bank account). There is distrust between individuals over cash management (perceived when the researchers bought produce in Amboetsy), illustrating sensitivity between villagers. Despite categorising the Antandroy as a marginalized, and thereby implying, cohesive group, this does not apply to all aspects of life (house doors are commonly locked in the village when occupants are absent and cattle rustling is a major problem in the area).

“Goats and zebu are the most important things here and so cause a lot of problems.”

(Amboetsy president)

3.3.9 Variations in activity according to type of resident group

House design varies according to ‘ethnic’ group. In Belo, to the north, there is a significant population of Tanosy “who eat everything” (Amboetsy resident) and whose houses do not follow the design uniformity seen in Amboetsy. (This is reflected in differences in conventions and fady rules.) Tomb style may be correlated with settlements of people from the same groups. Villages of equal ‘remoteness’ or uniformity of group membership were said to have the same type of tomb. Ifotaka, known for housing residents of varied southern Malagasy groups has clearly contrasting tomb construction. Amboetsy residents consider their tomb design (a less overt and visible design) as most traditional. This identification leads to discussion of the existence of groups within the Antandroy group.

In Amboetsy, in the case of night time disturbance of the village (for example when individuals are intoxicated) there is a fine of one zebu. This does not occur in Ifotaka. This is not only a reflection of difference in size of villages, but also of the tolerance for ‘modern’ impacts of life. Ifotaka has shops selling alcohol and has a greater mix of communities. Amboetsy’s acceptance of outside influences is lower, or it is still able to exert some social control over its onset. This exemplifies regional disparity in outside impact, reactions to it and the measures taken in response.

3.3.10 Existing forest protection

At their most important utilization, fady taboos maintain central patterns related

to the spiritual sphere's equilibrium. In most cases it is clear that fady is flexible to some extent and reactive to the current environment it is functioning within. The importance of trees for the Antandroy is highlighted by many factors, one of which is the customary mourning for family ancestors at particular trees in the months following bereavement. The forest protection provided by fady (taboo) rules is significant and clearly evident in the quality of forest in the fady area south of Amboetsy. This area is reserved for burial of the dead and beliefs about the presence of ancestors’ spirits in this area prevent the felling of trees or any other damage to the area. Fady discrepancies reflect group distribution; settlements of Ifotaka and Belo are market centres and a mixture of groups is resident there.

3.3.11 Territorial management of the forest

Correlations between family groups (living in particular parcelles in Amboetsy) and

the areas of forest that they use of herding and for cultivation, even burial were observed. Interrelatedness between groups comes into play in periods of hardship, such as occurrence of uneven forest resources, when land areas may be accessed by other groups (maintained by fixed rules of requiring permission). Interrelatedness of villagers and land use is not only through consanguinal (blood) and affinal (marriage) relations but through friendship relationships also. These relationships were seen during funerals by observing which individuals are involved.

3.3.12 Christianity’s impact on the spiny forest

Christian rules of behaviour may be stated as strict, but appear to be less closely

followed. It is observed that Christianity in Amboetsy is a fluid concept that has been incorporated and appropriated into traditional understanding, expectations and aspirations. The absence of a resident minister and the weak infrastructure of the church in the village may make a channelled Christian sentiment in Amboetsy less feasible. Investment from the Lutheran mission of the village school appears to be minimal.

However, Amboetsy’s appropriated Christianity can be said to be nonetheless impacting the forest. Management of herd numbers and their turnover, as well as wider, popularised medicinal plant use are implicated. Christianity does not appear to widen or reduce forest preservation in terms of fady rules, because such systems are broadly maintained; Christian burial areas are also protected.

Christians cannot strictly sacrifice animals, so for turnover increased buying and selling occurs using the local market. Wealth can be achieved, but no demonstration of it is possible during ritual. Respect is earned in terms of monetary wealth, understanding of trade and the wider political system. On solution is to re-direct acquiring social currency to sapphire hunting and citrine digging. Clearly, there is no clear dichotomy between Christians and non-Christians due to the adoption and adaption of beliefs, however there are embryonic and potential effects respecting approaches to, for example, administration

and education. If traditionally the ombiasa determines how long a funeral should last, how and what areas of the forest should be used and when the correct time to bury the body should be – other factors must dictate timing of activities for Christians. This makes ceremonial use of the forest by Christians more vulnerable to whims, dictation by finances, the economic state of the forest (tree availability) or perhaps the sanction of the church minister.

3.3.13 Understanding Christianity & how this impacts the spiny forest and Antandroy health

An Antandroy villager from neighbouring Mangily described non-Christians as

those who “pray with a plant” – ‘fihamy’. Traditional belief systems, once a way life, have become another sort of religion to provide distinction from the new arrival – Christianity. The lack of spirituality involved in Christians’ use of plant remedies was seen to negatively affect population health and recovery. Consultations with a medical doctor occurred only after use of forest plants had been tried without the specialist knowledge of an ombiasa. Next a doctor may be consulted, reserved for ‘serious’ medical health (which requires immediate cash expenditure). This contrasts with previously, when an ombiasa would be consulted for all health issues. Plants used by Christians are less revered, it is suggested, with exclusively functional significance. Further research is needed to know if these plants are still replanted and protected in this changing system. “Yes, the church; those who go and do other things. Those who don’t go to church come to

me. I’m frightened of those who go to church ……………………I don’t go to church, they don’t come here!” (Amboetsy ombiasa)

The motivation to see a medical doctor for Christians is tinted by complications in religious teaching or understanding of it. This means that ombiasa are rejected outright and therefore sometimes, traditional plants are used in only a limited way. Money is involved in both – the ombiasa is currently the most flexible option (payment can be in alternative forms, such as return of obligations or delayed payment). The motivation to see the doctor in Ifotaka, or even in Amboasary is lower – currently this option has lower social significance for Amboetsy residents). However, as religious belief is flexible, so is choice of medical consultation and treatment. One family, of which many members were Christian, debated on the treatment of a bad foot. The choice was between using the doctor or the ombiasa.

The youngest ombiasa resident in Amboetsy deals mostly in love charms. Younger villagers, especially those eligible for marriage frequently ask for him to provide charms. Such consultations are individualised and avoid the involvement of all the community typical of healing ceremonies. As this practice continues, and the suggestion that demands for community healing by ombiasa diminishes if Christian practices increase, does this predict the future of ombiasa work? This type of work requires less knowledge of plants’ physiological, medicinal effects.

3.3.14 Inter-Tandroy relations

The labour-intensive processing of bagada (sweet potatoes) to pika (the slicing and

drying of bageda to preserve large quantities at harvest time) involves the

implementation of reciprocal favours between family groups. This provides enough workers for each group to complete their preparation process. Even if fields are divided according to cultivator, ultimately the processing and consumption is pan-family. During processing the group has a chance to discuss current news – disputes, scandals, and arrangements. Men discuss zebu in front of all – although women are not actively involved. This is one observed assembly where all sections of the community gather. This illustrates that cultivation involves the greatest cross-section of Antandroy society, particularly in gender (even if each sex has a specific job).

3.3.14.1 Female participation in decision-making

To be married, and particularly to have more than one wife is a display of one’s

affluence, due to the prerequisites for a man to have financial and social wealth. Therefore, a woman holds symbolic status as a wife, or potential wife, as a valuable child bearer and partner in labour. Consequently, the role of women in Antandroy society is significant - this allows the consideration of social relations and needs in society, power, expectations and demands – all of which are closely related to resource use.

The numbers of women attending church each Sunday were strong within the congregation, and also amongst those participating in readings, in leading prayers and songs and contributing to debates in the church meeting. It is interesting to compare this with older, traditional male/female relations. The healing ceremony observed in Morafeno, a village in the Ifotaka commune, followed a not dissimilar format from the church services. The ceremony was lead by the (male) witchdoctor, however women formed a creative lead in music and clapping. In both cases women provide an active role in religious activities, even if it is male spirituality that forms the focus. I would like to suggest that any changes of social structure in gender relations are not reflected in ceremonial procedure and what it symbolises. (Rather this may be seen in prescriptive marriage rules, and monogamy practised by some Christians.)

However, it must be remembered people in large groups cannot be considered equivalent to the male/female relationships involved in a marriage. Additionally, if men go to church they are more ‘supple’ or open to new ideas and it possible that less rigid male/female marriage relations may be associated. Can more ‘supple’ marriage relations be reflected in resource use? Does female status strengthen as cultivators, childcarers and wood collectors if women have a verbal input in an official forum (or even an informal, domestic forum)? It would seem that

Plate 13

Grandmother, mother and son in Amboetsy

in monogamous Christian marriage, and therefore no competition between wives, may prevent some of marriage’s accompanying subordinating processes. (Subordination of wives by their husband ensures control and fidelity of wives.)

Food allocation details reflect the position of women in relation to men and the

expected hierarchy in Antandroy society. Women explained on several occasions how they felt they ‘suffered’ in Amboetsy in comparison to the researchers – in terms of quantity of work, requirements for women when family members die and through marriage. If women acknowledge this, but tolerate it - why do they accept it? Does this indicate that such a fundamental awareness may transform to action if certain cultural aspects are unbalanced? For example, changes in workload or resource use as influenced by their availability or economics, or even participation in forest management meetings with the authorities. Can women’s involvement in particular cultural aspects and their awareness of their position contribute to improvements in poverty, and ultimately sustainable forest resource use?

The zebu as a symbol of maleness was illustrated by activities after sacrificing a zebu in order to settle a dispute during the period of an Amboetsy funeral ceremony. Only men were involved in dividing out the meat between villagers and it was with surprise and mockery that a woman briefly attended. Discussions and decisions made over funeral procedures, including meat division and finding wood for the coffin, occur between such an assembly of men. It appears that women have political involvement in less public fora – it is a woman who decides the details of zebu inheritance for her male relatives. Women are primarily involved in caring for a grieving mother. Evidently, conventions over ceremonial responsibilities accord to the gender divide.

Plate 14

Men from Amboetsy carrying part of a recently slaughtered Zebu

A key example of demonstration of status and the importance of social representation between men is in marriage relations and the management of wives. In discussing marriage with the village president, and then with other male and female informants, it is clear that between-male reputation is a central force that dictates how the marriage process occurs. Respect between fellow men is at stake if marriage is not successful or if infidelity surfaces. Polygamy is desired because this is only possible when a man achieves a relatively high degree of wealth. However its maintenance is a careful management of relationships. It was explained that men did not wish for wives to be too friendly with each other, as this would provide a foil for infidelity. To sustain a degree of inter-wife tension, or jealousy, would allow the husband to monitor the merits of each wife by gossip and competition between women. Such a system is a form of control of women by men in the public domain. In this situation female participation in social relations is a less public, covert activity. The prevention of adultery for public ‘face’ is by no means unique to the Antandroy. However the point is relevant for this study because it can be used as an important indicator for the Antandroy cultural systems that may have a bearing on forest resource use.

3.4 Conclusion and recommendations

In assimilating this report’s ethnographic and quantitative data and the discussion of it, some conjectures have been made. Such discourse repeatedly returns to some core themes, including belief systems and the emerging dichotomy of traditional and Christian beliefs. Another key consideration is that of ‘display’ – the importance of social respect, prestige and convention.

The major wood species used by the inhabitants of the village of Amboetsy are, for construction – fantiosilotra and mendorave and, for firewood – hazoboatango, katrafay and teza. However a wide range of tree species are used and this implies that a broad area of the forest is exploited.

If quantities of firewood collected are time and weight dictated, this has negative implications when wood availability reduces and travelling further is increasingly necessary. This may leave time shortages for other essential tasks. The labour-intensive characteristics of Amboesty life augment – to who is this increase in labour demand transferred? It is suggested that some labour requirements will shift to children – could this have detrimental effects on schooling and health issues?

Social respect and prestige as social currency are clearly fundamental in Antandroy culture. The public and the private are closely maintained. It was observed frequently that the demonstration of wealth and capacity (primarily zebu ownership and generosity during ceremonies) was only advertised at certain, defined (and controlled) occasions. Conventions are followed between men and women, between families in territory sharing and during ceremonies in gift exchange. The perpetuation of resource management conventions and the trends demonstrated in interaction with others may be shaped and driven by this feature of ‘public face’ and reputation amongst men.

Those herders who have appropriated Christianity maintain the customary aspiration to own as many livestock as possible – and clearly social prestige is the dominant incentive. However the prohibition of sacrificing zebu during celebrations and ceremonies means that such animals become increasingly commercial rather than simply

symbolically significant possessions. Christian Antandroy men encourage turnover in their livestock, zebu, goats and sheep by only buying and selling, rather than this being a supplement to sacrificing. In this method there is a more rapid turnover of livestock. It may be (according to some observation and also intimations by informants) that such herders have a greater proportion of goats – a property that is easier to deal in (these assets may be traded in smaller fractions, for lower prices and at lower risk than dearer zebu). However it is known that goats pose the greatest risk to the forest in their damaging, extensive grazing patterns. It is recommended that the detailed study of goats and their damage to the forest be prioritised and researched by fieldwork, concentrated in the small, peripheral goat herder settlements in the forest, surrounding the Commune d’Ifotaka villages.

Shifting belief systems within large sections of the Antandroy community can therefore alter forest management. That the reduced or altering scope of the traditional role of the Antandroy ombiasa in everyday life of the population of the Commune d’Ifotaka throws into question his documented influence on the use of the spiny forest. That the forest is increasingly seen, by some, as a commercial and monetary resource rather than, more directly, a social resource correlates with the forest being in more hands. Even if each family still works a forest territory, the ombiasa’s dictation over some families is reduced.

I propose that traditional knowledges intrinsic to the use of the forest under spiritual influence may include (conscious or implicit) conservationist and sustainable practices. It would be valuable to further investigate the routine of replanting forest plants. It has been intimated that although there are individuals who know how to replant trees, this does not appear to be a common practice. Is this because replanting is the responsibility of an elder or ombiasa?

Forest partitioning into family territories has been seen to be significant in organising rights to the forest and activities that occur within it. (Disputes regarding work for the research team’s guides and rights to firewood highlight this). This must be taken into account when assessing forest management strategies. At a regional level, should collective or individual Antandroy rights take priority? At a national level, whilst equal rights are essential, to what extent are special needs specific to the Antandroy significant? Development initiatives must recognise the potential obstacles (or instruments) of territorial legitimacy, leadership and land use.

While quantifying resource use, field work was valuably used to exchange ideas and to help the people of Amboetsy to understand the research project’s goals: For the researchers to learn from the Antandroy in order to help them facilitate their own search for a compromise between conservation of the environment and development for the local population.

The policy of encouragement of awareness of the precarious environmental situation, rather than imposing action to try to address it is one adopted by most development initiatives involved in this region. However in an area whose greatest poverty is in education, the effectiveness of this approach is problematical. Such a policy can only be effective in partnership with efforts that make such suggestions comprehensible and practicable, an example of which is to improve access to and quality of education.

The importance of convention in Antandroy life is displayed in many ways, for example, in house building and burial customs. What are the pressures for change on such conventions and how easily will they alter? I suggest that changes in religious beliefs are an example where alterations to fundamental convention have not directly impacted patterns of wood use. Such moderations may be, however, root causes of other intermediary changes that do have implications for forest resource use. Additionally, direct explanations for behaviours and beliefs are hard to access. No quick understanding of the Antandroy fomba (tradition) is possible - it is implicit not articulated. Therefore prediction of cultural aspects that impact forest resource use is not by any means easy.

This anthropological report has considered various aspects of Amboetsy life as part of an integrated but changing cultural system. It is hoped that the identification of key social aspects, and the discussion of them, will give indications for future debates over the opportunities and vulnerabilities of the forest and its’ inhabitants. To consider Antandroy life as a system acknowledges that changes to one aspect has the potential to impact many others.

Figure 13. Firewood Collection Data

Who Fodder Quantities

Firewood collection

Seasons

State of forestDistances

Quantity Duration Fire

Tree species

Fencing Houses Cattle carts Deadwood

Tools

Economy Market Use of money Sapphire hunting Traditional crafts Ethnic groups

Churches Traditions Funerals Tombs Marriage Childbirth Taboos Ancestors

Diet

History of settlement

Male/Female relations

Knowledge of environment

Areas/DirectionControl Choice Restrictions

Marking fields Village areas Clearing forest

Where Who Groups of people Restrictions

WEIGH CULTIVATION

BUILDING WOOD HERDING

SOCIAL

Case OWNER PA DATE WOODTYPE WEIGHT LENGTH CIRCUM VOLUME AREA WOODT2 WOODT3 WOODT4NO.DAY

1 Behoazy -9 16-Aug-2001 18 Sofasofa 17.0 65.58 65.58 4300.74 -9 3 -9 -9 32 Boatie -9 06-Aug-2001 3 Hazoboatango 17.4 55.88 91.44 5109.67 -9 8 9 10 43 Boatie -9 06-Aug-2001 3 Hazoboatango 23.2 71.12 114.30 8129.02 -9 8 9 10 44 Celina -9 06-Aug-2001 11

Ondrokondroke7.0 76.20 48.26 3677.41 -9 12 -9 -9 1

5 F_Milson -9 07-Aug-2001 5 Hazomena 16.8 165.10 38.10 6290.31 -9 -9 -9 -9 56 Falamboa -9 07-Aug-2001 9 Teza 7.0 50.80 55.88 2838.70 -9 -9 -9 -9 27 Jemete -9 06-Aug-2001 4 Katrafay 21.0 68.58 106.68 7316.11 -9 1 -9 -9 28 Lazateno -9 06-Aug-2001 4 Katrafay 21.0 55.88 106.68 5961.28 -9 -9 -9 -9 69 Limberaka -9 06-Aug-2001 4 Katrafay 13.0 73.66 73.66 5425.80 -9 -9 -9 -9 2

10 Limbisoa -9 06-Aug-2001 4 Katrafay 25.0 106.68 76.20 8129.02 -9 14 9 -9 711 Limbisoa -9 06-Aug-2001 4 Katrafay 17.8 76.20 91.44 6967.73 -9 14 9 -9 712 Loavony -9 06-Aug-2001 8 Taolakafotra 21.8 66.04 106.68 7045.15 -9 -9 -9 -9 713 Marisoa -9 06-Aug-2001 4 Katrafay 15.0 68.58 88.90 6096.76 -9 3 2 -9 214 Mavasoa -9 07-Aug-2001 20 Ambilazo 24.6 66.04 106.68 7045.15 -9 -9 -9 -9 415 Natandry -9 07-Aug-2001 11

Ondrokondroke9.4 50.80 71.12 3612.90 -9 -9 -9 -9 1

16 Perae -9 06-Aug-2001 14 Taly 7.2 55.88 63.50 3548.38 -9 -9 -9 -9 217 Rasoa -9 07-Aug-2001 3 Hazoboatango 16.0 71.12 81.28 5780.63 -9 19 -9 -9 318 Sato -9 06-Aug-2001 13 Seta 16.0 71.12 81.28 5780.63 -9 10 8 -9 119 Soajoro -9 07-Aug-2001 9 Teza 29.0 60.96 137.16 8361.27 -9 10 14 -9 1420 Soananbinina -9 06-Aug-2001 5 Hazomena 12.6 66.04 78.74 5199.99 -9 4 -9 -9 221 Tanahe -9 07-Aug-2001 9 Teza 8.6 50.80 76.20 3870.96 -9 -9 -9 -9 222 Tenitsara -9 06-Aug-2001 3 Hazoboatango 27.6 63.50 109.22 6935.47 -9 10 -9 -9 223 Tiresoa -9 06-Aug-2001 6 Voaovy 29.6 66.04 124.46 8219.34 -9 4 9 -9 724 Unknown -9 16-Aug-2001 9 Teza 20.0 63.50 104.14 7133.59 -9 4 -9 -9 425 Vahoazy -9 16-Aug-2001 20 Ambilazo 16.0 58.42 91.44 5341.92 -9 10 3 -9 326 Voatsangone -9 06-Aug-2001 4 Katrafay 8.8 50.80 71.12 3612.90 -9 -9 -9 -9 127 Zefolay -9 06-Aug-2001 3 Hazoboatango 11.0 60.96 78.74 4799.99 -9 -9 -9 -9 228 Caroline 1 03-Aug-2001 4 Katrafay 8.2 60.00 62.00 3720.00 1 -9 -9 -9 -929 Caroline 1 08-Aug-2001 3 Hazoboatango 5.0 68.58 45.72 3135.48 2 -9 -9 -9 230 Celestine 1 06-Aug-2001 8 Taolakafotra 13.0 96.52 81.28 7845.15 -9 9 10 -9 -9

Appendix A

: Firewood C

ollection Data

31 Christale 1 08-Aug-2001 3 Hazoboatango 4.0 60.96 48.26 2941.93 2 -9 -9 -9 232 Pety 1 05-Aug-2001 5 Hazomena 7.8 52.00 72.00 3744.00 2 3 8 6 333 Soameva 1 08-Aug-2001 16 Zangannpoly 7.8 50.80 71.12 3612.90 2 -9 -9 -9 -934 Soameva 1 13-Aug-2001 4 Katrafay 17.0 81.28 93.98 7638.69 2 3 -9 -9 335 Soameva 1 15-Aug-2001 8 Taolakafotra 25.0 66.04 119.38 7883.86 2 20 -9 -9 336 Soatenile 1 03-Aug-2001 3 Hazoboatango 7.2 50.00 66.00 3300.00 1 -9 -9 -9 -937 Thambo 1 11-Aug-2001 10 Mangary 19.0 71.12 98.02 7045.15 2 3 -9 -9 338 Thambo 1 14-Aug-2001 9 Teza 9.8 45.72 83.82 3832.25 2 3 -9 -9 139 Thambo 1 15-Aug-2001 9 Teza 10.0 58.42 76.20 4451.60 2 10 -9 -9 240 Thambo 1 17-Aug-2001 3 Hazoboatango 23.0 68.58 99.06 6793.53 2 5 -9 -9 441 Tolina 1 05-Sep-2001 3 Hazoboatango 25.0 55.88 86.36 4825.80 2 -9 -9 -9 442 Toriazy 1 05-Aug-2001 5 Hazomena 18.0 53.00 115.00 6095.00 2 3 8 6 343 Toriazy 1 08-Aug-2001 3 Hazoboatango 18.8 76.20 93.10 7094.22 2 -9 -9 -9 244 Toriazy 1 11-Aug-2001 20 Ambilazo 21.0 60.96 71.12 4335.48 2 -9 -9 -9 345 Toriazy 1 17-Aug-2001 3 Hazoboatango 20.5 81.28 104.40 8485.63 2 5 -9 -9 246 Toriazy 1 02-Sep-2001 18 Sofasofa 22.0 71.12 60.96 4335.48 2 20 -9 -9 147 Toriazy 1 03-Sep-2001 3 Hazoboatango 21.0 71.12 109.22 7767.73 2 -9 -9 -9 348 Toriazy 1 06-Sep-2001 2 Maentifo 18.0 68.58 68.58 4703.22 2 15 -9 -9 -949 Vahone 1 03-Sep-2001 3 Hazoboatango 22.2 50.00 105.00 5250.00 1 -9 -9 -9 -950 Vahone 1 15-Aug-2001 3 Hazoboatango 23.0 96.52 101.60 9806.43 1 4 -9 -9 551 Vahone 1 05-Sep-2001 3 Hazoboatango 24.0 68.58 101.60 6967.73 1 -9 -9 -9 4

Appendix B : Firewood Collection Data – Key Variable Codes

• OWNER Owner's name

• PA Parcelle or Village area Missing Values: -9

1 Besakoa

2 Maroringitse

3 Angalavondromaleke 4 Marofo He 5 Beevotse 6 Besangrahange 7 Tsimihy 8 Maroabo 9 Ankilitelo

10 Ankilitelo - Marofoty

11 Ankilitelo - Tesoavy

12 Maroabo - 2 13 Tesoavy 14 Maremainty

• DATE Date of measurement

• WOODTYPE Principal type of wood in bundle Value : Label

1 Ma 2 Maentifo 3 Hazoboatango 4 Katrafay 5 Hazomena 6 Voaovy 7 Fantsiolotra 8 Taolakafotra 9 Teza 10 Mangary

11 Ondrokondroke 12 Mantsake 13 Seta 14 Taly 15 Relefo 16 Zangannpoly 17 Raotse 18 Sofasofa 19 Hazomposa 20 Ambilazo

• WEIGHT Weight of wood bundle (kg)

• LENGTH Length of wood bundle (cm)

• CIRCUM Circumference of wood bundle (cm)

• VOLUME Estimated volume of wood bundle (cm³)

• AREA Area of forest wood derived from

Missing Values: -9 Value : Label

1 GPS S 2441803 E 04606625 2 GPS S 2442569 E 04605521

• WOODT2 Secondary type of wood in bundle


1 Ma 2 Maentifo 3 Hazoboatango 4 Katrafay 5 Hazomena 6 Voaovy 7 Fantsiolotra 8 Taolakafotra 9 Teza 10 Mangary

11 Odrokondroke 12 Mantsake 13 Seta 14 Taly 15 Relefo 16 Zangannpoly 17 Raotse 18 Sofasofa 19 Hazomposa 20 Ambilazo

• WOODT3 Third greatest type of wood in bundle


1 Ma 2 Maentifo 3 Hazoboatango 4 Katrafay 5 Hazomena 6 Voaovy 7 Fantsiolotra 8 Taolokafotra 9 Teza 10 Mangary


• WOODT4 Fourth greatest type of wood in bundle


1 Ma 2 Maentifo 3 Hazomboatango 4 Katrafay 5 Hazomena 6 Voaovy 7 Fantsiolotra 8 Taolakafotra 9 Teza 10 Mangary


• NO.DAYS Estimated no of days wood will last

Missing Values: -9

Value : Label1 1 day 2 2 days 3 3 days 4 4 days 5 5 days 6 6 days 7 7 days 14 14 days

Appendix C : Ethnography

Amboetsy

According to the village’s president the population of Amboetsy is approximately 1200. 37 men are zebu owners.

Zebu ownership Male zebu (omby) ownership is a central feature of Antandroy life. It is the aspiration

of all men to own as many zebu as possible. It is zebus that are used in ceremonies marking major life stages, men regularly discus them in terms of buying and selling, they are the main element of property inherited on death, exchanged at marriage and fined in punishment. A prime offence in the region dealt with by traditional and administrative authorities is cattle-rustling. A man’s zebu herd includes his own (bought and inherited) and those belonging to his wife that were given to her on marriage. The more senior men (and therefore with greatest social standing) do not herd their own zebu but employ younger members of their family – sons and nephews. During August and September a herd included bulls, cows and calves. At this time of year forest fodder is low. The zebus are not taken far away from the village. They will be taken to the Mandrare River at midday for water and then will move away again later on. The animals are left near the village untended at night time (this time of year is considered ‘low risk’). Cactus leaves may be collected as supplementary fodder and heated over fire to remove the spines. Young tree branches, such as from the tamarind (kily), may also be removed for the same purpose. If a suitable pair of zebus are owned these may be used for pulling a cart or charette. Acharette may cost the same price as a zebu bull – over 1,000,000 MGF. It is considered impolite to overtly have knowledge of the exact numbers of a man’s zebu herd. It is demanded by the commune authorities to register zebu herds yearly. However, further counting to gain common knowledge of zebus is unwelcome. Women are either not informed of such details or are not willing to admit their knowledge. One female informant ‘did not know’ how many zebu her brother owned. It is open enquiry of such details that are rejected and it can be interpreted that the exhibition of such details in front of other men that is undesirable. The average estimate of Amboetsy cattle herd is between 25 and 40 animals. The president acts as intermediary between the administration and the herd owners, he stated that in the village of Amboetsy, there were approximately 2500 zebu. If a zebu dies or is injured in the forest, it will be eaten without particular ceremony or conveyance of ‘loss’. The owner, his family and residents of that parcelle will benefit from the meat.

In Amboetsy it is fady to sell zebu milk (ronon’aomby). (It is also the case in the village of Anjemangarena.) [Antak is not prepared while zebu milk is available, if the milk spills on the antak, zebu will die] This is explained by both these villages containing the same Antandroy group – they have a shared ancestor.

Livestock There are approximately 4000 goats (osy). These are herded further away from

settlements and are often not brought back to the village each night. Young boys frequently herd these animals and they travel further each day and are ‘difficult to herd’. Often men who specifically herd goats will live away from the village in the forest.

Chickens are kept in the village and reared by women. These are often taken to the weekly market to sell on – there are common disease problems associated with chicken keeping. Turkeys are also owned by a number of Amboetsy families.

Herding

On accompanying an Amboetsy man’s zebu herd the pattern typical of August herding was observed. In a time of year with little available water, zebu do not travel far from the river Mandrare. During the morning zebu are kept near the village foraging in the peripheral fields. After drinking in the river at the hottest time of day the herd may move a little further into the forest. At night, the cattle are left near the village or in corrals. Security of livestock at his time of year is not said to be a problem.

Goat herding occurs further away from the village. Goats need less reliable and plentiful water supplies. Goats are ‘harder to herd’ because they do not readily come together and forage. They therefore travel faster and are able to pass through denser areas of forest and at greater gradients. As goats penetrate further, former ‘inaccessible’ or protected forest areas are no longer so. Younger, less experienced boys are employed to herd goats because the work is harder and less suited to family obligation of adults.

Cultivation

A major part of Antandroy integrated subsistence economy is crop husbandry. This forms a large part of the workload for both genders, however men and women have different tasks within this. The crops grown by Amboetsy villagers are listed below with their seasonal details, each crop is located in different areas according to soil and aspect suitability:

CROP SEASON LOCATION Maize Nov-Jan

(summer) cleared forest

areas Bageda Sept-Oct

(spring) river flood plain

Manioc Sept-Oct (spring)

peripheral fields

(Not self-sufficient in manioc, some bought in) (Milk; Dec-February) (Some rice and maize also bought in if enough cash) [Mandrare dries up in October, rains arrive late October/November]

Broadly, men are responsible for soil preparation, whereas women will tend most crops. Although at those times when it is essential to harvest produce as efficiently as possible then every family member possible will be involved.

Maize Burning of the forest in order to clear for maize is termed atsaka. There is visible forest damage to the northwest of the village. Maize is principally planted in the forest, however when the bageda season is over some is planted in the river basin sands over the previous bageda crop once the rains have come. The maize that is planted in the forest is planted on less rich soil and so it can only be supported for one or two seasons - then the site is moved – this is shifting cultivation. Maize is consumed for nearly 8 or 12 months year. Maize is also sold at the Fenaivo market. During the maize harvest, maize is eaten morning, afternoon and evening – it may be mixed with hantaka (manioc) or beans or cows milk.

Bageda Bageda and manioc are eaten until the maize season begins. Bageda are planted on the edges of the Mandrare – there are two species:- la savana (small) planted on the edges on the river and bageda planted on the baibo or silt of the Mandrare. During the month of September the bageda harvest peaks. More bagedas are collected than can be eaten at that time; therefore in order to preserve them, they are peeled, sliced and dried as pikas on the east facing side of the houses’ roofs. Women scrape and men cut the bagedas.

Relatives form more distant families will come and help make pikas in order to do the task in a short time span. This creates an obligation for reciprocal help when the helper’s family needs to make pika also. If the specific individual is not able to reciprocate, they will send a member of their family to take their place. Maize, manioc and bageda are all dried and stored in the small storehouses adjacent to each house.

Manioc (hantaka), mixed beans, onions, tomatoes and pumpkin are also planted in the river bed silt. Larger peripheral fields lie to the west of Amboetsy and contain manioc, peanuts and manioc crops. Girls will help their mothers to prepare food and this includes pounding and sifting maize grains as well as collecting crops from the fields. Knowledge of the environment

The indigenous knowledge of the environment extends far beyond domestic husbandry and knowledge of properties and locations of plant and animal species, and is not confined to specialist ombiasa. This is displayed in forest resource use – both of wood and for medicines, remedies and treatments. Examples include plants found while collecting wood and explanations provided. Such explanations are considered common knowledge.

Fio fio - Low growing liana. Lethal if placed on warm, damp skin of if ingested. Katrafay - Used for housebuilding, firewood and its bark is used to treat aching muscles. (This wood is sold widely in Madagascar.) Fantsiolotra - Used an antidote to latex contacting the eyes (latex found within some plants can blind).

Wood UseOn introduction of the research plans to individuals in Amboetsy there was

commonly a pause when it was explained that we were interested in how people live with the forest and its utilisation. There was a keenness to teach me the Antandroy culture, but to explain the rationalisation of forest resource use appears guarded, at least initially. Wood Types cited in Amboetsy Ambilazo Fantsiolotra (Allaudia procera)Hazomboatango Hazomena Hazomposa Katrafay (Cedrolopsis grevei)Ma Maentifo Mangary Mantsake Ondrokondroke

Raotse (Fantsiolotra in plank form) Relefo Seta Sofasofa Taly Taolakafotra (Greveille fatela)Teza Voaovy Zangampoly

Zag Fire Wood

The use of firewood is an incessant daily essential. Fire is needed for cooking and for heating. Consequently a fire may be kept burning all day, or will be lit at least three times a day.

The older houses, those lived in by elders, may have a fire within the house itself. It has been observed that these houses are most likely to have a fire burning all the time, because the fire is a multi-purpose tool – heating as well as cooking.

Those houses without an in-house hearth will have a separate kitchen. This is a small, usually roughly built wooden structure. The kitchen is designed to protect the fire from wind. Some are large enough to eat and cook within, others are small and all other cooking processes happen outside the kitchen. Firewood collection is a task that falls mainly to women, who will leave every two or three days (depending on fire wood use) to collect wood. Young children may help also, particularly girls. If women are not able to go out, or men are in the forest for other purposes, they may bring some wood back also – particularly larger pieces of wood. Women carry the maximum amount of wood possible on their heads. They leave commonly in the afternoon, when food preparation and field-based jobs have been completed. Each family tends to have a regular area that they visit to collect firewood. The benefits of this are a working knowledge of the state of that particular area, and that wood is available. Firewood collected is dead, dry wood. This wood may be left on the ground or part of a dead tree. The use of an axe breaks it into regular length pieces or the use of large rocks to break it up. It is bound with a piece of liana, as cord, and placed on the head with a protective piece of bound-up cloth between it and the head. The types of wood found to be collected for firewood and characteristics of the collection areas are listed in tables in the Appendices, ‘Firewood use in Amboetsy’ and ‘General GPS Locations’. The typical characteristics of the firewood collection areas are of severe forest damage and soil erosion. The areas are less densely treed and rocks are loosened as rains have washed

soil away. Maize or cactus plants are evident in such cleared areas. Maize may be planted one year and then the soil is no longer rich enough to support another crop and is too damaged for tree re-growth. The dead wood is derived from such clearance. The cactus plants are often planted to maintain territory areas and control zebu and goat movement. Houses

An estimated minimum of 130 planks of wood is used in order to construct a house (according to mixed responses from informants - one estimate was as low as 80 planks - and counting planks of typical houses). House building is in the male domain. To build a house is a labour intensive task, carried out by paid specialists, supported by or sometimes solely done by family members. Construction is a highly skilled job, planks are individually smoothed and shaped. Houses are paid for in cash. The builder himself collects the wood, using his working knowledge of where suitable trees are growing. He may travel far into the forest to collect trees and it is this process that may prolong house building. Predominantly, without special permission, wood derives from the forest territory used by the owner’s family. Wood type - Frames’ planks: Mendorave (Hazo mafy)

House ‘legs’: Katrafay/Mangary Walls & Roof Fantiosolotra

Skirting boards Mendorave Also songonge, songobobke Fantiosolotra is used to craft planks of about 2 metres long, each tree gives about 8 planks. Mendorave, for the skirting boards each tree can provide 4 planks. (Note: this wood is also used for coffins.) Building - A house of 4 square metres is made of approximately 130 planks at 500 MGF per plank (Total = 65,000 MGF). Labour costs about 115,000 MGF, approximately 3kg of nails are required and the employer must feed the builder. According to estimates, the total cost is approaching 200,000 MGF. A house of 3 square metres is made of approximately 100 planks.

Design – There is a traditional convention for house building design. All houses in Amboetsy are the broadly same, the differences may be in size or in roof type (some roofs may be thatched if no nails can be bought to make a plank roof). Each house is roughly square and has two doors. The main door always points north, the second, smaller door lies at the southern end of the west side. Doors to the west are Antandroy fomba (traditional). No further explanations or stories were offered. Inhabitants must sleep with their heads pointing north. As with the majority of Antandroy fomba is implicit not articulated. Eight new houses were under construction in Amboetsy during the fieldwork period. Charettes

There are a small number of charettes owned by individuals in Amboetsy. They are made of wooden (two observed had rubber wheels). They were bought in Ifotaka for about 1,000,000MGF which suggests the wood was sourced further south of Amboetsy. Mat making and weaving

The weaving and using of mats is a strong element of Antandroy life. These mats are consistent in style, and the straws (rambo) are derived from reeds (vinda or anivo). Mats are the only form of furnishing in a traditional house – they line the floor and sometimes the walls of houses. Mats may also be mad for decorative purposes – for displaying on walls and

used as special trays for eating from after childbirth, these type are smaller and of finer detail. Mats may be patterned and using coloured straws. Baskets may also be constructed by weaving reeds. Stored produce is kept in baskets – some are large and made out of thicker reeds. Flat plate-shaped basket weaves are also common and used for sorting rice, maize and other foodstuffs. The biggest baskets can be sold at Fenaivo; market for 3,500MGF and it is possible for a weaver to make up to 10 baskets a day.

Weaving is carried out in the quiet seasons, such as during the month of August. Weaving is considered a female activity, young boys may help their mothers. However even if after observation a man knows how to weave he will not be seen to do it. Anivo are collected deep in the forest, to the east of Amboetsy near the waterhole of Akazanampingaratrabe. Vinda are bought at the market. Fenaivo Market

Fenaivo market is located to the south east of Amboetsy and is within 4 or 5 hours walk from Amboetsy. (It is accessible from Ifotaka by taxi, as well as charette and by foot.) The market occurs every Thursday and is attended by a significant proportion of Amboetsy villagers – both men and women. Many will visit seekly. As well as an important financial occasion (a chance to sell on animal and plant produce and buy in supplies that cannot be produced by subsistence) it is admitted to be a social occasion. It is a chance to see family and friends from other villages, a chance to exchange gossip and find potential husbands and wives. The market is quietest ‘out of season’ i.e. during August. The market begins from about 7.30 am Some villagers (particularly those with no livestock or supporting husband) will use the market to buy up goods that can be sold on in the village at a price mark-up. Such good are often those that weigh heavily and will be required at a time when access to a shop is impossible e.g. alcohol such as beer or rum.

There are stalls selling coffee, tea and mofo (bread) and those selling alcohol (beer and rum). Many stalls sell a large cross-section of goods, rather than specialising in one particular type. An area of the market is used for sale of livestock.

Goods observed on 30.8.01 include: Osy (goats) (price approx. 65,000 MGF) Ondry (sheep) (price approx. 65,000 MGF) Omby (zebu) Akoho (chickens) Akanga (guinea fowl) Vorontsilose (turkeys) Bageda (sweetpotatoes) Ravo bageda (sweetpotato leaves) Balahazo (manioc) Hantaka (beans) Vary (rice) Tsako (maize) Siramamy (sugar)

Kafe (coffee beans) Sakay (chilli) Sakaviro (ginger) Sira (salt) black pepper

oil oil

Tsihy (mats) – functional Tsihy (mats) – decorative Cooked fish (fia)

Cooked small wild birds Coke, beer, rum etc (individually and in bulk) Lamba (material) Culottas (shorts) Dresses Underwear Satobory (hats) Capa (flip flops) Savony (soap) Oil lamps Afakasoka (matches ) Sweets Taratasy (paper) Pens Nails, pins etc Thread Dye Vinda (weaving straws)

Sapphire ExtractingSapphire hunting is a recent phenomenon in all of Madagascar. The population

of Amboetsy has not been immune to the lure of Ilakaka south of Toliara for the financial promises of finding a sapphire. There is a noticeable gender imbalance in Amboetsy as many men are absent, having left for several months at a time to search for sapphires. The stories from those few who have been lucky to enough to find and negotiate a good price for a sapphire are incentive enough for others to leave also. The potential price for a sapphire is of such a quantity that the sacrifices made are worth it. One informant had successfully returned with 1,000,000 MGF, enough money to build a house, buy more livestock and support his family. He planned to return to Ilakaka once his second wife had given birth. Both Christians and traditional Antandroy men will leave for sapphire hunting. Informants admitted the experience was overwhelming – distances travelled, the living conditions on arrival and the fact that Ilakaka is a town – an unfamiliar and very large environment. Men are able to leave their village for 6 month to more than a year at a time – their families tend their fields and herd their cattle. Citrine Extracting

The local forest is rich in the semi-precious stone, citrine, and the Antandroy have tapped the market for supplying unrefined citrines to dealers from the capital city Antananarivo. An area to the east of Amboetsy is known for its citrine and the extracting process is particularly noticeable. The soil is dug and rocks are dislodged, the vegetations’ roots are disturbed and plant re-growth is impossible. (Refer to GPS details.) Most villagers spend some time searching for citrines – this is particularly noticeable in quiet seasons when there is less work in the fields. Such a task is not restricted to one gender.

Citrines are stored and then sold in capocs to an agent from Antananarivo who visits the village (his wife comes from the village of Akombay). In the period of fieldwork (end of July to mid-September the agent visited twice, 31st July and 5th September). Citrines are assessed by the agent for their quality and categorised and taken to Amboasary. The premiere qualité may sell for 600,000 MGF per capoc, deuxième qualité for 15,000 MGF. An amount of amethyst (or quartz fumé) is also collected and sold for similar prices. One villager was observed to refuse to sell his stones if he felt the price of 2,500 MGF offered was unreasonably low. Money

The use of cash is habitual in Amboetsy. It is used in the buying and selling of zebus, house construction and payment of ombiasas and donations at church. It is a recognised means of gift-giving at birth, marriage and death. The weekly market at Fenaivo is a central part of productive (and social) Antandroy life. The interactions and exchanges that occur here are money based. It was noticed however that despite the universal comfort with the use of money as a notion, the competence with handling money was restricted to those with regular involvement in market and commercial issues. Some unease with money involved calculation in dealings. However more noticeably there was an element of distrust between families when payment for goods involved arrangements between sellers - to organise change and splitting money between individuals to achieve this. It is expected that women should pay for household goods and food. In modern times with dependence on cash; the use of it has been placed in gendered domains. Material ownershipValuables belonging the average Amboetsy family include:

Women Mats, bowls, cooking pots, spoons, weaving grasses, lamba, woven baskets, hat, axe, pounding stick, knife, bucket, sandals.

Perhaps: Sewing machine, radio. Men Axe, spear, hoe, lamba, hat, knife, sandals. Perhaps: Gun, ladder, lathe, charettes, radio, ToolsTools are made of specific woods: Famaki (Axe handles) - Ambilazo Lefogna (Spear handles) - Menahilike Angady (Hoe) - Katrafay Laonga (Pounding stick) - Hazoboatango or Vaovy Maize pounding vessel - Mendoravy Firelighter - Fantiosilotra and Teza Ancestors and Taboos.Fady

The rule of fady is a widespread rule or taboo used in many situations and implemented at various levels of consequence. At its lower degree, fady is synonymous with the types of fairy tales and parables told in European society to small children in order to teach them manners and skills. At their most important utilization, such a taboo maintains central patterns related to the spiritual sphere's equilibrium.

An example is the extinct fady over killing of the fosa, modern Madagascar’s largest predator. This taboo has had to be made defunct due to the increasing threat to livestock that the fosa now poses. This ‘wild dog’ was considered to be ancestral and therefore untouchable.

A less rigid fady is the rule that it is fady for a man to touch a cooking pot. However this taboo indicates the clear gender divisions in Antandroy society. More rigid – women must not milk or touch a zebu while menstruating.

The most important fadys relate to matters concerning spiritual beliefs and customs, such as leaving undisturbed burial areas of the forest and sacred trees.

Fady foods in Amboetsy are maki (ring-tailed lemurs), sifakas, sokaka (tortoises),and kisoa (pork). Milk must not be sold. These taboos apply to four Antandroy groups – Zafindreavola, Andriamangarigne, Antorano and Amboetse. (Antesomange and Ifotaka do not eat chicken.)

Sacred trees are planted in the village of Amboetsy after the death of an individual. Sometime in the aftermath of death, a relative will have a dream where they will learn what type of tree to plant in memory of the deceased. Such trees are planted near the houses of the family, in the centre of the living area.

Intermarriage between groups is acceptable, however differences in fadys mean that there are certain conventions about maintenance of some taboos. Children to the couple, out of respect for their families, must maintain taboos.

Ancestors

The following was related by Toriazy and expanded by the President and Soatimaro: There are 3 ancestors (rasabe) and one vazaha (‘foreigner’, in this case a white European) ancestor. Tsikanda (the king), Lahiny, Reikerisa (or Fihiampirea according to the President) and the name of the European was not known. The initial three founders of Amboetsy came from Tulear, then lived in nearby Tsivoro (west of Betroka) before settling at this site. Fihampirea was the first to be buried in the now fady area to the south of Amboetsy. Toriazy believed that it was fady for my people to sell milk also;

she assumed the European ancestor was mine also. On passing a square concrete base several weeks later walking to the south of the village, Toriazy pointed it out as my vazaha ancestor’s. She said it marked the surrounding land as my ancestors’ before me and as mine. She said she didn’t know the ancestor’s name and that a group passed through along the river heading north and left the concrete marker. (She stated they had been doing similar things to me.) Toriazy’s brother, Soatimaro, mentioned previously a story of seeing a big lorry of vazahas passing through when he was a small boy – and they employed many.

Village origins

The village of Amboetsy has gradually moved north after successive floodigns when the Mnadrare’s water level rose. The site before today’s is noted in the Appendix ‘GPS references’, number 013. Prior to this location Amboetsy was further south nearer the present location of the southern fady forest.

Christianity

Strict Christian rules may be stated as such but less closely followed. It is observed that Christianity in Amboetsy is a fluid concept that has been incorporated into traditional understanding, expectations and aspirations.

A significant proportion of Amboetsy’s population is Christian and attend the village Lutheran church each Sunday. However the congregation was not consistent at each service, a principle core attended with variation in the numbers who were present to listen to readings and to sing. The broad trend noted was that there were between 30 and 40 individuals at each Sunday service. There were more women and children than men, however the numbers actively leading and participating in hymns, prayers and the collection were approximately equal in terms of gender representation. The common hymn and prayer book (Malagasy translation) is used, a number of regular individuals (those who are literate and confident to read aloud) will read extracts from the bible and the primary school teacher makes a sermon. The hymns are traditional melodies, these are principally led by the women and it is clear this aspect if most enjoyed by the congregation. The service commonly lasts over one hour. The primary school teacher resident in Amboetsy leads the weekly church services. The region’s ordained Minister visits once a month in order to hold communion. The church is a large wooden structure in bad repair; it has a partial roof and narrow wooden planks fashioned into pews. The collection from each service goes to towards the church’s essential expenses. One individual makes a small donation of produce each week (such as manioc or bagedas) and this is auctioned at the end of the ceremony. This money also joins church funds. In order to repair the building it was announced that each male member of the congregation is obliged to obtain and donate two planks of wood to the church, each woman one plank. A church meeting was observed prior to one church meeting. This was to discuss who should be the new committee members for this year, church accounts and how money should be raised. The debate was keenly conducted and it was noted how many present were happy to voice their opinions and this included as many men as women.

Festivity and Ceremony

Celebrations occur at notable life stages in Antandroy life; at circumcision, marriage and death. Such occasions are the only possibility for ritually sacrificing zebu – such assets may not be killed for any other reason, not even in time of food shortage. The extent of such festivity is dependent on the relative of wealth and status of the family and its friends taking part. Goats maybe killed, music, dancing and feasting are major features of such occasions. Guests are obliged to bring gifts to the family of money, rice or meat. This enables food to be shared with the large number of people assembled from all over the region. A celebration may last over several days or weeks. Indeed a zebu may not be killed in the conventional manner of cutting the animal’s throat, but it may be slaughtered using spears to fell the animal and let it fall to its death. The money given by guests and neighbours to the family, used to buy food for guests, also the remainder will be pinned to the clothes of immediate female family members. An extensive ceremony at the peak of its celebrations may also include the use of gunshots. Guns are possessions rarely displayed in Antandroy everyday life. However their exhibition during festivity is another example of demonstration of wealth. Circumcision

This is no longer practised in the community of Amboetsy (the last such ceremony occurred in the living memory of the older generation, about 35 years ago). The circumcision period, or savatse, lasted one month. All boys not yet circumcised were included at such a ceremony that occurred every few years – the frequency of which depended on the agricultural, and therefore financial, success of the community. Each morning a teza tree branch was collected and the mirango dance ensued. Savatse culminated in sambatra. This day, the mother of the boy to be circumcised (the rahin-jaza) carried a parasol, wore a dress and a lambaoany (traditional female wrap) all decorated in paper money (gifts given by the family). At the same time young girls would be daubed in zebu blood sacrificed during the celebrations and then here ears could be pierced. However, today, the expectation that all boys should be circumcised continues, a doctor carries this out at birth. All young girls’ ears are pierced at birth. Funerals

This ceremony was witnessed twice during the months of August and September, 2001 – a traditional ceremony involving a village elder and the burial of a child of a Christian family.

The length and extent of funeral proceedings is dependent on the age and status of the deceased and their family. In addition to sacrifice of zebu (for non-Christians) and killing of goats and cooking for the guests who are present. The build-up to the height of the ceremony – the burial – may take several weeks. The length of time between death and burial is taken up by relatives gathering from various regions, for money to be collected, for wood for the coffin to be found and shaped and for funeral cloths to be bought.

During the weeks of funeral proceedings, the young villagers will sing and dance most dusks. The songs may last several hours and involve the traditional clapping rhythms maintained by the young women, while the young men sing in a typical grunting technique. At dawn as the villagers begin to wake (and sometimes at night as people begin to sleep) a close relative, such as brother, parent or widow of the deceased, will mourn. This is a fusion of crying and singing. A regular, consistent, series of atonal sounds are used to convey words and phrases. (Its similarity to Muslim

music was noted.) This format is used to tell the story of the dead’s life, their character, what they have achieved, to express sadness at their death and to wish them onwards to their life with the ancestors. “She got up early to prepare the manioc…..”. It may be fady for the names of dead relatives to be uttered in certain circumstances and according to personal wish.

On death the house of the deceased must be destroyed (usually burnt). Certain tools may be retrieved in advance – but the house must not be lived in again.

Traditional funeral ceremony.

Between death and burial of the individual, the corpse will be kept inside their house and the skull and horns of one of the family’s sacrificed zebu placed on the outside of the house in serve as an indicator for and protector against the ancestors. At a certain point during the process, the body may be taken to the specified burial area of the forest of that village. The timing of burial and therefore the length of funeral proceedings are dictated by the forecasting by an ombiasa who advises on the best and most advantageous moment for the dead to enter the ancestral world.

Family relations are responsible for finding money to buy funeral cloths. Those who give burial cloths are offered goat and rice by the family. The importance of this is highlighted by a dispute that had to be settled in Amboetsy before funeral cloths would be bought. The settlement involved one of the deceased’s zebu being killed and its meat being distributed amongst the family visiting for the funeral and neighbouring families. Men were only present at the sharing of the meat.

The dead’s zebu herd will be distributed between brothers and sons of the deceased, however it is the wife who decides on the details of distribution.

It is the men who must find suitable trees for coffin construction. Knowledge of appropriate trees in the forest will be due to travelling through the forest while herding or cultivating throughout the year. Once trees of good size and quality are identified, a party will set off to fell and prepare a coffin. The quantity of wood required for such a process is dictated by local convention in burial. The wood must be of Mendorave (Albizzia greviana) and coffin construction requires 2 large pieces. Once piece will consist of the lower ‘container’ hollowed out in order to hold the corpse. The upper piece is shaped as a ‘lid’ to fit over the top of the lower piece. This convention therefore uses a large and mature tree or possibly two if the trunk is not thick enough.

At the death of a close relative the women of the dead are obliged to demonstrate their mourning (mesoana). The most strictly traditional families require this to occur for one year. Hair must be shaved off, the male dome-shaped, woven hat with a black ribbon and black clothes are worn, and those in mourning may not wash for those 12 months. A woman may regularly visit a particular tree in the forest to mourn privately also. Women are involved in caring for those women grieving. This may involve all the related and neighbouring women accompanying a woman to wash while she mourns (as witnessed when a 7 month old baby died). Christian funeral ceremony.

Christian funerals also involve finding wood for a coffin and the burial procedure follows similar lines to traditional convention. However a Christian has no right to be buried in the fady area of forest, reserved for those whose beliefs centre on ancestral concepts, because an animal is not sacrificed. However the type of coffin and tomb remain the same as the traditional types. The Christian area for burial in the forest is adjacent to the fady forest and the same taboos for treatment of the forest are relevant here also. Prayers may be said over the corpse of a body. Gifts of money and burial cloths may be given. At church the family of the dead are remembered in prayers. In this

case, he baby that died was a twin. She was buried with a wooden doll replica of her surviving twin so she would not be lonely with the ancestors. Tombs in Amboetsy.

The primary fady (taboo) forest area for the community living in and around Amboetsy is directly to the south of the village. (There is a fady to the north also. However residents of the northern section of the village use this. The residents of the northern part of Amboetys had less interaction with the fieldwork research.) The forest in the southern region is significantly more intact, and visibly so, than other areas of the forest. The status of Fady for forest due to presence of tombs is a particularly rigid and important taboo. It is absolutely forbidden to disturb the area such as by disrupting the ground, by defaecating or urinating in the vicinity. To controvert this fady is serious enough to warrant a punishment of the penalty of one or more zebu – and a public condemnation of such behaviour. The tombs in Amboetsy share their characteristics with a small number of communities’ tombs, but by no means with all of the area. Settlements containing members of the same Antandroy sub-group shared tomb construction similarities – those villages were also noted for their similarity in isolation and therefore lower mixture with other groups. Antandroy tombs are low and inconspicuous by the principal bulk of the coffin being buried under ground. Little construction is built over this except large stones and rocks being placed over the buried area. (This contrasts significantly with the more visible, and therefore more understood tombs of other communities. Great attention is paid to the construction of a stone structure over the buried individuals. The stones may be secured by cement, and zebu skulls and horns are placed over the structure.)

Marriage

Marriage occurs at the instigation of the man and his family. It is necessary for the father of both partners to give his permission for the marriage to take place.

To marry necessitates the payment to the wife’s family a number of zebus, to the bride herself and also a payment of cash to her for domestic use (such as buying cooking utensils and clothes). On marriage the husband must build a house for his new wife. The greater the social standing of both the man’s and the woman’s family, the greater the number of zebu demanded.

The management and control of wives and marriage by men is evident on consideration of several expectations and conventions.

One Amboetsy man was concerned about the degree of friendship between his two wives. They shared cooking and childcare and the first wife (unable to bear children) made clothes and acted as nurse for the children of his second wife. He therefore prohibited his wives spending time together and their sharing of tasks. Traditional marriage. Those persisting in traditional lifestyles and beliefs permit polygamous marriage. The richer a man, the greater is his ability to marry and support more than one wife. A husband must be able not only to support his wives, but fulfil responsibilities such as give zebu to her family on the occasion of a death. A man’s aspiration to marry several women is largely due to its signification of his ability to generate and manage his wealth.

Traditional marriage involves a fête, an occasion where zebu and goats may be killed, guests will dance and drink alcohol in the new house.

Polygamous marriage was explained by the President of Amboetsy and the schoolteacher: Marrying a second wife is justified in order to circumvent the eventualities of the first wife’s sterility, adultery, general lack of respect for her husband, ‘bad’ character or inadequate work.

A husband encourages competition between wives in domestic and agricultural work. It is welcomed that wives do not get on well because this may encourage gossip with others and therefore prevents secrets being kept. A husband may monitor his wives’ fidelity. This situation must be restrained however, for wives are expected to work together in the family’s fields.

It is the first wife who negotiates the price offered to the family of the potential second wife. In the interests of her own household affluence and children’s comfort sourced from her husband, she will demand for the bride wealth to be as low as possible.

An example of such an arrangement in Amboetsy was recounted by a second wife and consisted of a man offering 800,000MGF of his second wife, a zebu for her mother and a goat for her father. The first wife would not accept this and the offer finally was at 350,000MGF.

If a first wife refuses to recognise a proposed second wife, even after prices have been agreed, the first may be turned out of the house and the second wife may take her place. (See Separation)

Polygamous marriage entails all wives living separately from each other, yet in the same parcelle of a village. It is unusual for a man’s wives to share one kitchen. Sleeping and cooking are isolated activities, confined to the immediate family of each wife. The wives’ husband will strictly divide his time equally between each wife. Both daytime and nighttime spent in each wife’s house is carefully regulated even during her pregnancy and menstruation.

The female informants consulted maintained that the wife would tell her husband whether she wanted sexual relations or not. One informant explained that she did feel ready to have sexual intercourse with her husband for some 10 months after the birth of her most recent child and therefore she slept apart form her husband. This occurred despite him carefully sharing his time between her and his first wife. Christian marriage.

In Amboetsy, a Christian couple’s marriage is not blessed in church by a minister but it is acknowledged as Christian rather than traditional in type by the couple’s church attendance and by the man’s declining to take a second wife. Separation.

Antandroy marriage is not a strictly stable relationship and separation is widespread. A separated woman is most usually past child-bearing age and several informants explained that their husband had left them for a younger woman when she had become ‘too old’. When a man takes a second wife, because the first is unable to bear children, it can result in the first wife separating from her husband and returning to her own kin.

On separation, it is the husband who will instigate such an event and will order his wife back to her home village. His wife has no rights to any of the household belongings either acquired on and during marriage, or brought with her at marriage. She is forced to leave the house with the mat she had slept on and the clothes she is wearing, without ‘even a spoon’.

If a wife is separated from her husband and they have a son, that son must return to the husband’s house when he is old enough to leave his mother. His mother has the right to live with her son at the husband’s home if she desires. This arrangement is not valid in the case of a daughter.

Childbirth

During childbirth women consult Mme Votsobola, an Amboetsy resident and the village’s traditional midwife. During pregnancy she will provide massage for the child’s normal development. She will judge if the foetus is well or not, and may recommend the Amboasary hospital if the baby appears ill. At birth, if the baby is a boy, it is the father’s role to cut the umbilical cord of his son with a sterilised blade. If the baby is girl, the mother’s sister cuts the cord. The midwife is paid one chicken and 5000 MGF. She will not perform abortions.

After childbirth the Antandroy specify that the mother must take 7 months ‘leave’ or rest. No work is carried out at all, from cultivation to wood collection to cooking. During this period the diet does not change but it is increased in volume. Certain forest resources are used during this period. The following tree species are used: Sofa sofa infusion - Taken 1 week after childbirth Hazomena infusion - Taken during the 7 months Vahimasy infusion - Taken during the 7 months Katrafay infusion - Taken during the last week of rest before work is started to

promote milk production. These ingredients are normally collected for the mother by the man responsible for here – her husband, or if not brother or father.

Ombiasa “The ombiasa knows a lot” (Amboetsy woman)

There are at least 4 resident ombiasas in Amboetsy. They and their immediate

families do not attend church. Such individuals are known for their wealth in zebu and are respected by traditional residents. Their activity varies between individuals. Some operate widely in the region, others are more locally based. One young ombiasa finds that most of his work is in love charms for the young, where as other ombiasas are actively involved in advising and predicting for funerals and medicinal treatment.

Wood Use in terms of Ethnobotany

This aspect of wood use was raised and the following uses were mentioned. That these particular examples were raised suggests their importance either in regularity, social prominence or in quantity.

Siro siro Regime against le gale. Fruits are kept for zebu.

Hazomena Taken by women after childbirth. Bark is boiled and drunk and bathed in.

Darosiky Sweet liquid collected from within tree.

Farohiosy Rope is made from bark

Tabarike Root used against diarrhoea in babies Sengatra Taken after childbirth Daro (Euphorbia) Taken after childbirth

Katrofay Used to combat tiredness

Relefogne ‘Cream’ is extracted from the wood using stones and given to babies for hevo (a swollen head or the newborn’s fontanel) Manioc Flour (boiled) is used to treat twisted tendons.

Health

Medicinal plants are either taken directly or, for non-Christians, on the consultation of an ombiasa. Christians sometimes put less emphasis on the use of plants for treatment, but commonly also will not have the motivation to travel to see the doctor in Ifotaka.

Food Allocation

The general rule both observed and explained for allocation of food is that elders always are both served first and given the rice in the ranopango (the broth made from leftover rice). This is in respect for elders. The rest of the family is only fed when the elders are satisfied. If the rice is limited in quantity, then it will be given to the elder man of the family and maize will be given to the women and children. Punishment and Control

If an individual creates excessive disturbance, particularly at night if drunk, they will be fined one zebu. The next morning the zebu will be killed. An Ifotaka informant confirmed that this does occur in Ifotaka.

Identity Cards

All villagers have identity cards. Cards have photographs of the owner on them and are kept safely by villagers. One woman’s card revealed that she was born in about 1915. Identity cards are presented in livestock management and are also the means of registering all individuals. Vazahas – Foreigners

The term vazaha refers to those who are not Antandroy. During one discussion, the term was usedt omean gens des villes, town people. The context was a conversation discussin how early th Antandroy wake up in the morning, this is a postive trait, and to be late is to be like a vazaha ‘who has no zebus’. Those living in Fort Dauphin who get up late are defined as vazahas.

Education

There is a primary school in Amboetsy run by one resident teacher and it is funded by the French Lutheran Mission (FLM). The teacher is paid 100,000 MGF per month. The number of children attending the school is dependent on season and the circumstances of Amboetsy’s families, however the official number registered is 56. There are more girls then boys who attend the school, due to the boys being required by their families to herd zebus and goats. Teaching is carried out in the teacher’s house or, if there are more children than usual, in the church (however the house has a closed roof and wooden floor). The children are divided into 3 classes, T1, T2 and T3. From T4 pupils must go to Ifotaka, Belo or Amboasary. School timetables follow the

national schools’ timetable and calendar. However it was observed that in reality the school holidays are flexible. The teacher’s family is not local to Amboetsy and he therefore leaves to visit them possible.

Location of Village

The village has moved northwards over time as floods have made each location unviable. The northern area of today’s Amboetsy, Maremainty, is located apart as one family moved due to past floods. The most recent last location of Amboetsy is between modern Amboetsy and the southern fady forest. Cactus and small trees grow in the location, there is little undergrowth, but no fields are sited here.

Appendix D : Global Positioning System (GPS) References

Site Ref. GPS location Distance from

Amboetsy (km)

Amboetsy 008 S 2441 591 E 04605 378 0 Vahone’s wood collection area 005 S 2441 803 E 04606 625 2.14 Toriazy’s wood collection area 007 S 2442 569 E 04605 521 1.03 Fields south of Amboetsy 006 S 2442 086 E 04605 397 0.92 Fields north of Marofoty 017 S 2441 276 E 04605 195 0.65 Citrine extracting site 024 S 2441 619 E 04606 883 Akazanampingaratrabe 025 S 2441 073 E 04608 597 Karato’s fields 009 S 2441 406 E 04605 438 Karato’s brother’s fields 010 S 2441 197 E 04605 546 Family of President’s fields 011 S 2441 389 E 04605 669 Rasoa’s fields 012 S 2442 385 E 04605 313 Soatimaro’s fields 014 S 2442 021 E 04605 330 Previous site of Amboetsy 013 S 2442 020 E 04605 329 Teratsoa’s fields 018 S 2442 651 E 04605 294 Retsizak’s fields 019 S 2441 727 E 04605 373 Zebu corral south of Amboetsy 020 S 2441 666 E 04605 377

Zebu herding location 021 S 24 41667 E 04605255

Manerek’s fields 021 S 2441 667 E 04605 255 Maroabo’s fields 022 S 2442 059 E 04605 400 Toriazy’s fields 023 S 2442 555 E 04605 308 Vahone’s fields 026 S 2441 072 E 04605 291 Names given are the family members who showed the researchers the location.

General GPS locations.

Previous site of Amboetsy

013 S 2442 020 E 04605 329

Flat area. Relatively clear soil below tree growth. Remnants of wood block used for the circumcision ceremonies.

Citrine extracting site

024 S 2441 619 E 04606 883

Noted 11.9.01 South-eastern side of Amboetsy en route to Akazanampingaratrabe. High level of environmental damage in large area. Deep holes dug in soil, tree roots and rocks uplifted. Soil no intact. Low potential for tree regrowth.

Akazanampingaratrabe

025 S 2441 073 E 04608 597

Intact forest. High levels of dead wood (natural turnover?) Spring location - cattle and goat herding route.

Firewood collection locations

Vahone’s regular wood collection area

005 S 2441 803 E 04606 625

Noted 3.8.01 40 minute slow walk from Amboetsy south-eastwards. Low density forest. Mixed trees. Dead wood collected – banged on ground to break up = Hazomena

chopped down = Katrafay and Teza (cut previously to kill trees) Wood tied up with (live) Afotse. Vahone explained her need to travel further for wood collection. “The forest has reduced since the village was founded”.

Toriazy’s regular wood collection area

007 S 2442 569 E 04605 521

Noted 5.8.01 45 minute slow walk from Amboetsy southwards on the route to travel to Ifotaka across the Mandrare. Hillside location, evident damage to forest; few old trees are left, only younger trees.. Loose dead wood collected = Hazomboatango, Hazomena, Katrafay, Voaovy Evidence of previous tree felling = Fantsiolotra (for housing) and to clear for maize cultivation. Wood bundle tied with Taolakafotra (cord = ‘hafta’) Strip of cactus (raketa) planted in this area. According to Toriazy, this belongs to one person. ‘It is grown here for its sweetness’. Maize was not successful here ‘because of the zebu’. The cactus acts as fencing. Soil quality is clearly degraded.

Zebu corral south of Amboetsy

020 S 2441 666 E 04605 377

Noted 8.9.01 Southernmost corral in Amboetsy itself of approximately 1 acre. Fenced by cactus – two gate opposite each other, north and south.

Zebu herding location

021 S 24 41667 E 04605255

Noted 10.9.01 Furthest location of Soatimaro’s zebu when herding during the day. Close to river south of the southern fady forest, grazing of maize shoots.

Cultivation

Fields south of Amboetsy

006 S 2442 086 E 04605 397

Noted 5.08.01 Cultivated fields running along the southern section of the Mandrare adjacent to Amboetsy. Manioc is grown here. Preparation of the ground was observed for papaya. (Weeds were being burnt back). Old tamarind trees grow here – their fruit is consumed (kily)One tamarind tree is fady – all the Amboetsy infants’ umbilical cords are buried beneath it.

Fields north of Marofoty

017 S 2441 276 E 04605 195

Noted 5.9.01 NNW side of Amboetsy between the satellite group of houses and northerly group. A fenced road leads between the two large fields. (6 or 7 acres?) Both fields empty at this time of year. North side field belongs to Mananjary – grows maize, manioc and peanuts. South side field belongs to Zotasoa – grows maize.

Karato’s fields

009 S 2441 406 E 04605 438

Noted 13.8.01 Eastern side of Ambeotsy and the Mandrare. Bagedas grown closest to the river as well on the sands. (some less significant growth of maize, onions and manioc). Strip divided into two, southerly side belongs to fatherl,l brother an dsones. The northerly side is principally Karato’s and his brother’s. Karato’s zebu are herded this side of the forest also.

Karato’s brother’s fields

010 S 2441 197 E 04605 546

Noted 13.8.01 See above. Wind and sun drying out the soil considerably. Watering of plants is necessary (particularly onions and tomatoes).

Family of President’s fields

011 S 2441 389 E 04605 669

Noted 13.8.01 Eastern side of Amboetsy and the Mandrare. Bagedas (nearby cactus grown). Cleared land to be planted with maize when rains arrive, previously bageda were grown here). Nearby hole dug in sands to filter river water.

Rasoa’s fields

012 S 2442 385 E 04605 313

Noted 14.8.01 To the south of Amboetsy, adjacent to fady forest. Two further fields belong to this family further south. Principally bagedas, some manioc and beans. Only workable when river level low. Husband herds his zebu to the north of the village.

Soatimaro’s fields

014 S 2442 021 E 04605 330

Noted 17.8.01 To the south of Amboetsy, further inland than above, adjacent to fady forest. A line of cactus separates fields from the forest. Principally bageda, some manioc and beans. (Planted when the river water rises and reaches the fields.) This year had been a bad year – a large area of bare soil where normally bageda would be grown. The fields are divided by small stones – demarcating the areas cultivated by different family members – the wives. Soatimaro’s grandfather established the area. One section of the fields belongs to the President Fokatany – who shares the common grandfather. Soatimaro also owns fields further south next to the Mandrare. Soatimaro herds to the southeast of Amboetsy (near the route to Ifotaka; ref. 005.S 2441 803, E 04606 625).

Teratsoa’s fields

018 S 2442 651 E 04605 294

Noted 8.9.01 Located on the river flood plain near the southerly part of the southern fady forest. The large field area is demarcated by bagedas planted in lines. Some manioc is planted at the periphery. Water holes are dug in the sand for irrigation. Small fires are lit in the fields with sun shades erected for the family to congregate around when resting from work.

Retsizak’s fields

019 S 2441 727 E 04605 373

Noted 8.9.01 Fields close to Amboetsy, to the west of the village. Cleared of scrub, but empty – open and dusty.

Manerek’s fields

021 S 2441 667 E 04605 255

Noted 10.9.01 Large (fallow) maize field west of Amboetsy.

Maroabo’s fields

022 S 2442 059 E 04605 400

Noted 10.9.01 Large (fallow) maize field west of Amboetsy. (Adjacent to above)

Toriazy’s fields

023 S 2442 555 E 04605 308

Noted 10.9.01 Savana fields in sands next to river, opposite fady forest.

Vahone’s fields

026 S 2441 072 E 04605 291

Noted 31.7.01 Bageda fields on sloped riverbank. Beans on lower reaches. Some spring onions (watered). (Bageda plants cleared by the 13.9.01)

Amboetsy Housing

PARCELLE NO. OF USED TOTAL NUMBER (according to inhabitants of each) RESIDENCES OF BUILDINGS N

Besakoa 10 17

Maroringitse 19 27

Angalavondromaleke 9 17 (also Church)

Marofo He 23 32

Beevotse 40 61

Besandrahange 13 19

Tsimihy 12 18

Maroabo 14 22

Ankilitelo 31 (clear division between 2 groups)

Marofoty 18 31

Tesoavy 13 25

Maroabo 5 8

Tesoavy 2 5 (linked to Ankilitelo)

Maremainty 24 30

Eastern neighbours 2 3 (house design fomba

Southern neighbours 7 8 not followed)

4. ETHNOBOTANICAL RESEARCH REPORT 4.1 Introduction

Traditional medicinal knowledge has been around for thousands of years and is

widespread throughout the world. It is frequently linked to the belief system of the culture harbouring the knowledge. The trend towards globalisation means that many of these cultures are now no longer in existence. As modern medicine becomes more accessible to remote communities, it replaces traditional medicinal use. The oral traditions of many communities puts traditional medicinal practices at risk of being lost as the wealth of traditional medicinal knowledge is not passed on to the next generation of healers (Plotkin, 1991). The World Health Organisation has acknowledged the need for an inventory of plants and their therapeutic value for use in primary aid in remote regions where modern doctors and medicines are scarce. The work to build this inventory is struggling to capture this knowledge before it is forgotten due to shifting cultural habits and beliefs.

The potential value of this inventory is often seen in economic terms. Traditional medicinal knowledge often leads to the discovery of new chemicals that can be synthesised into new drugs or sold as herbal extracts. Quinine, used for treating malaria, was first found by South American Indians in the bark of the cinchona tree and subsequently synthesised and sold throughout the world. Similarly, extract from the ginkgo tree, used in China and Japan for thousands of years to treat asthma and other diseases has demonstrated the enormous economic potential for traditional remedies (Plotkin, 1993). Ginkgo and other plant extracts amount to US$2.5 billion in sales annually in Germany alone. In the USA, 25% of all pharmacy prescriptions from 1959 to 1980 contained plant extracts. (Farnsworth, 1984). These figures show the economic and therapeutic importance of traditional knowledge in our own societies.

The indigenous people of the spiny forest in Madagascar rely heavily on the plants of the forest for all aspects of their livelihood and, in particular to this study, as medicines and cures (Final Report, Project Ifotaka 1999). An investigation was carried out over 10 weeks from July to September of 2001 into the traditional medicinal plant uses of the region. The study built on the preliminary ethnobotanical survey carried out by Project Ifotaka in 1999. Since the 1999 research, a university trained doctor has moved into the clinic in the village of Ifotaka yet this study found a majority of people reluctant to trust his methods and visited him only as a last resort. The aim of this study was to provide a comprehensive database of the ethnobotanical knowledge of traditional healers of the region. Some of the healers involved spiritual rituals in their healing practices. These men are known as Ombiasys. Other collaborators did not claim to have spiritual powers but were nevertheless in possession of a wealth of medicinal knowledge. The study also worked with a traditional mid-wife, a Renin-zaza,who was able to expand the scope of the survey to many treatments for women during pregnancy and to newborn children.

The results of this investigation are valuable in the aim to preserve traditional

medicinal knowledge. They are also intended to be used in the clinic in Ifotaka as an alternative or supplement modern medicines under the supervision of the doctor in Ifotaka. The medicines common to many of the healers documented in this study will be assessed for their safety by the National Centre for Environmental Research in Antananarivo, Madagascar. The vision is that this collaboration between traditional

and modern medicines will increase the confidence of the local people in seeking Western style medical attention where needed. It will also help ensure that local knowledge is not left redundant, ensure affordable remedies for minor complaints for the people of the region, and emphasise the value of the native flora to the population in the Ifotaka area as well as the rest of the world.

4.2 Background of the Collaborating Local Healers Surname: Mossa First name: Vonoke Date and place of birth: Around 1949, Ifotaka Formal Education: none Livelihood: Ombiasy, cultivator, raises animals Status: Ombiasy Place of Residence: Andavasaka, Ifotaka Religion: not Christian Taboos: must not eat pig, turtle, chicken, eels, crow, crocodile, goat, hedgehog, and shrew. Also must not carry coffins, must not eat zebu slaughtered for a funeral, must not carry a spear or an axe. Healing methods: Plants, massage, bathing, sikidy (fortune reading with tamarind seeds) Payment: Vonoke is paid for healing in zebu, goats or money Vonoke is a spiritual healer. He has a spirit or Kokolampe associated with him which he must make contact with before prescribing a treatment. He is the half brother of Fiodina, another Ombiasy, by the same mother. He was able to show us many medicinal plants without the aid of his Kokolampe He did, however, consult the spirit extensively before and after collecting plants from the forest. He became possessed by the Kokolampe who showed us many more plant species used in healing ceremonies. He did not believe any of these to affect the physical body although they were used to heal the spirit. Many of the plants shown to us while Vonoke was in a trance were used in potions believed to alter the social or economic status of the patient.

Surname: Tsimangovy First name: -- Date and place of birth: around 1959, Mangily, Ifotaka Formal Education: none Livelihood: cultivator and raises chickens Status: President of Mangily Place of Residence: Mangily Religion: Christian, protestant Taboos: -- Healing methods: plants Payment: Tsimangovy does not ask for payment in return for his prescriptions

Surname: Tsitakalo First name: Madiotsara Date and place of birth: around 1931, Ifotaka Formal Education: none Livelihood: midwife Status: midwife Place of Residence: Tananbao, Ifotaka Religion: not Christian Taboos: must not eat wild pig or turtle Healing methods: plants, massage, bathing Payment: Payment is always in something other than money The Renin-zaza is consulted mainly in the case of problems during pregnancy. Her skills have been largely replaced by a local educated woman who works in the clinic in Ifotaka as a midwife. Many of her techniques involved rituals with cloth. Surname: -- First name: Fanaisoa Date and place of birth: Soamiry, Antanimora Formal Education: none Livelihood: employed by Barry Ferguson as a guard, cultivator raises animals Status: Ombiasy Place of Residence: Ifotaka Religion: not Christian Taboos: -- Healing methods: -- Fanaisoa talked of using different treatments for each patient depending on their date of birth according to the traditional Malagasy calendar. Much of his diagnosis is based on looking at the patients face. Surname: -- First name: Manahira Date and place of birth: -- Formal Education: none Livelihood: -- Status: Pisorana. Manahira is in charge of ceremonial animal sacrifices in the village. Place of Residence: Ifotaka Religion: -- Taboos: -- Healing methods: plants

Manahira was reluctant to talk about the spiritual involvement in his healing treatments. He does not have kokolampe spirit. He did reveal two plants used as love charms after encouragement from the interviewer. Surname: -- First Name: Fiodina Date and Place of Birth: -- Formal Education: none Livelihood: Ombiasy Status: Ombiasy. Well known for his powers throughout a large area of Madagascar. Place of residence: Morafeno, Ifotaka Religion: not Christian Taboos: must not eat chicken or eggs Healing methods: plants, massage, bathing Fiodina is a highly spiritual ombiasy. Like his half brother, Vonoke, he has a kokolampe spirit associated with his healing. During a sabu ceremony, plants were smeared on the attendants for protection against bad spirits. He talked very openly about the spiritual involvement in his healing. He was able to identify many medicinal plants but said that his kokolampe would normally fill a zebu horn, left out overnight, with plants that should be used for a particular patient. A brief interview was conducted with the village doctor to gain insight into his perception of the traditional healers and the perceptions of the local community to his science.

Dr Andrianina was educated in Tulear and holds a state diploma in medicine. He arrived in Ifotaka in February 2001 and is the first doctor to work in Ifotaka. He is not from the same tribe as the people of Ifotaka and because of this believes that many people treat him and his medicine with scepticism. Before he began work in Ifotaka, the mayor of Ifotaka acted as the doctor, prescribing modern medicines despite having no medical training. He has observed that many people still go to the mayor to buy medicines and identified this as a problem in the village as many people come to him having taken unsuitable medicines for their condition. He also said with much desperation and certainty that most people will go to the ombiasy when they fall ill and only seek his help when traditional healing methods are unsuccessful. By the time many people come to him, they are in much greater danger due to the advanced stages of their illness. He suggested that ombiasys have conflicting interests in making a living and curing people. He was nevertheless interested by our survey and believed that medicinal plants could have a useful place in his clinic and would be willing to work in conjunction with the ombiasys.

There are no official statistics of the child mortality rate or average life expectancy of the area. Dr Andrianina said that the most common cause of death in children is amoebic dysentery and the principal cause of death in the whole village is neural malaria. Other common illnesses as respiratory infections, gonorrhoea, syphilis and skin infections.

Plate 15

The Ethno botany team are watched as they prepare plant species, collected for valorisation in Antananarivo

Presence inor Absence

fromHealers

RepertoireDisease Type Name of

DiseaseMalagasy Plant

NameScientific

Plant NameVonoke Manjoval

aManahir

aTsimangov

yFanaisosa Renin-

zazaSexually

TransmittedInfections

Syphilis

Kita +Manongo +

Boroa + +Voantsoy +Sahondra +

Boka +"Pokomay"

Ahibe +Ahindambo +

Kidroy +Genital boils

Lahitsivango + +Mosesy +

Fangneatse +Famata +

Katrafay +Egg yolk +

Rohavitse +Gonorrhoea

Hazolava +Kotika +Kirava + +

Herimbazaha + +Mozotsy +Angamay +

Table 7 : A

n inventory of the plants collected during the ethno botany project

Sakoa +Kidroy +

Zanapoly +Hola +

Aolilolo +Sovoa +

Famata + +Rohavitsy + +

Mongy +Katrafay +

Angorimbondambo +Korehobaza +

Kotoky +Tatavankibo +

Tsinteza +Kirava +

Stomach acheDigestiveSystem

Kily +

Tany (=Hazobe) +Sandrisandry +

Vohonsoy +Trongatsy + +

Mangerivoriky(=Mafaibelo)

+ +

Mangnary +Sakoa +Manga +Goavy +

Famatandralitsake +Temboro +Hazolava +Katrafay +

Hazomalany +Kepake +

Sarongaza +

Talibe +Andranahake +

Sahondra +Diarrhoea

Kily + + + +Hazobe +Taranta +Fihana + +

Tsimatavindrano +Temboro + +Ententeny +

Kobay +Magnary + +Jahiba +

Fangitse +Borodoky +Mafaibelo + +Sarifitovy

(=Sanantry)+

Fatipeko +Famatandralitsake +

Rohondroho +Sagnera +Totonga

(=Velomihanto)+

Tamenaka +Tsikimena +

Banana +Vomiting +Diarrhoea(Cholera)

Kily +Hazonta + + +Votofosa + +Vaontsoy +

Manga +

Korohandroho +Jabiry +

Babakely +Tsiongake +

Bananaflower

+

Hazomena +Blood +

DiarrhoeaManga +

Sarifitovy + + +Hazobe +

Kily + +Tamenaka +

Antaky +Fihana +Sono +

Fatiolotsy +Fangatse +

Andrerezo +Sarifangitse +

Sorosiro +Constipation

Sasavy +Menateza + +

Boroa +Rohondroho +

Mafaibelo + +Solombitiky +

Kitata + +Poings de

CoteMafaibelo + +Menateza +

Boroa +Totnga +

(=Velomihanto)Infectd Bile

DuctBaraboke +Temboro +Belahazo +

Mondravatsaotra +Solombitike +

Kidney painsHazolava + +

Kita(=Tsimatavindrato)

+

Velomihanto +Mafaibelo +

Lelenaomby +Bararata +

Kelimahavelo +Haemorrhoid

sJahiby +Kinana +

Katrafay +ParasiticWorms

Trogatse +Vaontsoy +Voapiky +

Mafaibelo +Bilharzia

Trongatse +Acid stomach

Trongatse +Feka +

Marolahy +Hamotsy +Mongy +

A DiureticVoasavo +

ProvokesDiarrhoea

Tambio +Kitata +Kotika + +

Fandrivaotsy +Fandreandambo +

Provokesvomiting

Tambio +Mongy +

Fandreandambo +Stops

VomitingVovofosa +Hazonta +

Tsimatipaosa +Romba +

To ReduceSalt in Blood

Mongy +To Gain

Weight andAppetite

Fandriotse + +Kidrohy +

Mandravasaotra +Rohondroho +

Katrafay +Sanatry +

Banana +Fatidronono +

Famonty +Sirosiro +

Nausea

Temboro +Hazonta +

Kita +Cough

Coughs Beraboke +Vahiranga +

Mahavalaka + +Sasavy +Manidy +

Voamena +Kirary + +Folotse + +

Trotroiaka + +Filofilo +

Fatindrono +Sengatse + +Nonoky +Fihana + +

Barosiby +Mozotse +Katrafay +

Sandrisandry +Pisopiso +Sandraha +

Lelontrandrake +Kisary +

Volafotsy +Famatandralitsake +

Cough withBlood

Beraboke +Vahiranga +

Mahavalaka +Sasavy +

Hamotsy +Katrafay +

Hazolava +Solombitsy +Sengatse +Fanavy +Fihana +

AsthmaSoliky aondry +

Sakay chilli +Hazolava +Katrafay +

Volifitomboky +Vatapiky +

Mandravasaotra +Marolahy +

Fandrivotse +Malamasofoa +

Painful coughSasavy + +

Fatindrano +Fatikakoho +

Whoopingcough

Sengatse +Kinana +Folotse +Kisary +

Voapiky + + + +Hazolava +

Trotroiaka +Bronchitis

Ara (=Adabo) +Boils

SkinProblems

Ansto +

Famatamboay + + + +Vonifotsy +

Valiandro +Fatidronono +

Roy +Andranahake +

Rohavotse +Harahampisaka +

Famata +Hazonta +

Tamotamo curry +Hola +

Malaignevoky +Mosesy +

Beraboky +Rashes

Tratriotse +Sirosiro + +Jabihy +

Halomboro +Peanuts +

Fandreandambo + +Mahika +

Kita +Mosesy +

WoundsKapoky +Akandro +Bageda Sweet potato +

Vonifotsy +Hazolava + +Famata + +

Angamay + + +Magnary + +Filofilo +Romba +

Malainkena +Fatikakono + +

Katrafay +Herimbajaha +Fantiolotse +

Sakoa +Tsirindambo +

Baobab +Halomboromahalao +

BurnsTaboara +

Vahombe + +soil + +

Tany +Mozotse +Tantely +

egg yolk +Hair Removal

Fatindrono +Roy +

Rohavotse +Famata +

Hozonta +Hola +

RemovingSpines

Famata +Sore Eyes

Other Organs Vahimasy +Hazolava + + +

Tomobitsy +Vahontsoy + +

Hasy +Romotsy +Mosesy +

Samotsoy + +Tsiambara +Harandrato +

Rompitike +Kobay +

Farehitre +Headache

Rombabe +Voafaria +Faneatse +

Rombavola +Bemaimbo +Maninjo +

Boka +Makaibelo +

Tsimalanilamba +Lombiry +Fataka +

Voasary + +Toothache

Laroasy +Kompitsy +

Somangipaky +Temboro + +Tsitsitse +

Masabotsihany + + +Savoa + + +

Rohavitsy + +Tsiambara + +

Ginger +Famata +

Manango +Befoetse +

Ear acheTapiapiake + +Voazavo +

Tokantoso +Rohondroho +

Sifitse +

Tapiake +Savoa +

Sore throatVagna + +

Vohonsoy +Kadradake Cockroaches +

RheumatismKidroy +Kinana +Kitohy + +

Hazolava + +Vahiamalo +Katrafay + +Zanapoly +

Back PainKitohy + + +

Vahiamalo + +Hzolava + +Katrafay +

Knee PainFihana +

Volofitomboky +Somombarike +

Broken LimbsVolofitomboky + +

Hazolava +Gum Disease

Borodoke +Convulsions

Retsara +Fanota + +Tambio +Taranta +Romba +

Andreambolofotsy + +Anivo +

Kepake +Mosesy +

Marolahy +Senjeno +

Sahondra +Shock

Manendrake +Poor HairQuality

Farehitre +Poor BloodCirculation

Manongo +Insecticide

Hola +Malaria

Fever Hazomalany + +Ravenala +

Tsimatavindrano +Temboro +Kinana +

Bemaimbo(=Ambiotse)

+

Retsilaitsy + +Volomenateza +

Voasary + +Kinany +

Mamiaho +Menateza + +

Manga +Akondro +

Vohonstsoy +Voazavo +

Tsako + +Mimy +

Ampolibe +

Kepke +Mosesy +

Marolahy +Senjeno +

Andrianbolofotse +Sahondra +

Aches andPains

Maninjo +Hazolava +Katrafay +Zanapoly +

RougeoleTengotingo +

Hisatse +Jaundice

Nonoke + +Pregnancy

Childbirthand

Pregnancy

Mandravasaotra + +

Lelenaomby +Faretra +

Rohondroho +Sagnira +

Fendotsara +Solombitike +

Period PainsTsimena +

Tatavankibo +Temboro +Katrafay +

Hily +Retsilaitsy +Trifolahina +

Prolonguedperiods

Retsilaitsy + + + +Vendavato +Solohotsy +Taritarike +Temboro +

Tsikimena +Lambigna +

Anti-haemorrage

Hento +Sofasofa + + +Katrafay +Menateza + +Vahombe + +

Solety +Vahimasy + +

Varo + +Tsimena +

Hazomena + +Fandrohiosy + +Retsilaitsy +Taritarike +Lambina +

Mahavalake +Kililo +

To PreventMiscarriage

Andrapasy +Fatikakaho +

Mandravasaotra + +Fendotsara + +

Feretra +Solombitike +

Antake +

Lambigna +Vindavato +

Pain afterchildbirth

due to Bloodleft in Uterus

Hily +Raketa +Papaye Papaya +Varo +

Antake +Fever in

Woman afterChildbirth

Lavenona +Borolanjoky +

Vahombe +Zanapoly +

Zira Salt +Vahiranga +

Given to aNew Born

Reningitsy +Famonty +Lairiky +

Sarihisatse +Tangled

UmbilicalCord

Sokotry +Teriterike +

Vindia +Applied toFontanel

Pisopiso +Relefo + +Sagnira + +

Kily +Sahondra +Sakaviro +

Halomboro +Provokeabortion

Lavenona Ash +Diarrhoea in

Childrencaused by

drinking milkfrom a

PregnantWoman.

Samboto + +Swollen

Breasts afterLactation

Feka +To Aid

LactationKope +

Manongo +Prevents Hair

Loss AfterChildbirth

Jabihy +Itchiness

afterChildbirth

Zanapoly +Zira +

4.4 Discussion

The interviews conducted were very structured but the interviewer engaged in a dialogue with the healer to extract as much about the cures as possible. Many more plants were added to the inventory during the excursions into the forest as we came across more plants. The diseases documented during the interviews are often a short description of symptoms rather than a named disease. This may be due to the difficulty in translating from disease names from Malagasy to English. It may also be a result of the difference in classifying a disease in the local tradition. Diseased patients are thought to have been punished by a spirit for committing a fault. This belief is what drives many people to an ombiasy as he can talk to the spirit world and take away the fault. As a consequence, many conditions are treated as a group of separate symptoms rather than as a whole disease in the scientific sense. The structured interviews revealed that the daily dose and length of the treatment is rarely defined. This calls for a chemical analysis into the recommended and safe dose of each plant before it is used in the clinic.

Many of the results from our study match the findings of the 1999 investigation where Manahira and Fanaisoa were interviewed. There is a fairly low rate of agreement among the various healers in all the remedies mentioned. Some remedies, however are used by three or four of the healers to treat the same condition. These were isolated as being the most likely plants to have a significant effect. The 1999 team found no agreement between their two informants. It seems that the knowledge to each healer is quite unique. A noticeably larger amount of consensus was found between Vonoke and Fiodina, this would be expected as they are of the same family. Unfortunately the plants collected in this survey were collected during the dry season. This means that in many cases the leaves and reproductive organs were not present. This caused some difficulties in identifying some of the plants with their scientific name.

Plate 16

The Ethnobotany team with Fiodina, an Ombiasy

Plate 17

Children in Amboetsy drawing pictures for their counterparts in Durham, England.

5. CONSERVATION EDUCATION PROJECT REPORT

5.1 THE PROJECT IN ENGLAND

The project continued the schools link started in 1999. The team visited Gilesgate primary school, Durham, UK, and Harrowgate Hill Junior Eco-school in Darlington, UK. The aims of the project were explained in a fun and memorable way including various workshop activities. The English pupils drew pictures of British wildlife that we gave out in the 2 Malagasy schools we visited.

5.2 THE PROJECT IN MADAGASCAR

5.2.1 First Phase

The first phase consisted of preparatory education work preceding the school visits in the second phase. The students from the University of Tulear on the team, helped explain the reason of our research in the area. Continued friendship building was achieved by teaching sport (Fig 3 & 4), showing photographs and maps of Britain and basic French and English lessons. Education games learnt on the Royal Geographic Society courses were tested out on the children of the guides for later use in the school visits.

Treks with the guides were helpful in learning local names of wildlife and basic

Malagasy dialogue. A day visit to Amboetsy and Mangily in the fist phase gave an opportunity to meet the teachers and arrange the school visits. An evaluation of previous conservation education and identification of other adults interested in conservation education was made. The Malagasy students from Tulear played an important role in the conservation education project. They were vital in communicating with the local guides and explaining our work there. We also helped the students with their research projects by sharing information, books and skills learnt in our degrees (Fig 5).

By request from the teacher in Amboetsy, a sex education lesson was led by two of the Durham team, with a Tuléar team member to translate. The importance of contraception was stressed in terms of reducing the impact of high populations on forest sustainability.

Plates 18

Relationship building in the forest

5.2.2 Second Phase

A two-day visit was made to the Ecole Mission Catholique, Amboetsy and Ecole Mission, Mangily (Fig 6). A newsletter was given to the class including scanned pictures of artwork from last years project and photos of Malagasy and British pupils. This basic follow-up was met with huge interest and highlights the importance of the continuation and development of this project.

The first day was spent getting to know the pupils and encouraging participation from the less confident children who do not go to school. Using the Tuléar students as translators and encouraging their input as well, we stressed the importance of the endemic spiny forest and its global fame and interest. The guides also joined in and helped with local names and dialect.

The second day involved drawing pictures of the local wildlife as well as presenting the equivalent British projects (Fig 7). Correlations were again drawn between the local area and the richness of its wildlife. At the end of the second day all the team members and pupils took part in a forest conservation mime. The simple message was to stress the importance of trees as the vital habitat for animals such as sifakas, ring-tailed lemurs, tortoises and many types of birds. People represented trees and each person had a balloon representing an animal tied to their arm. Older pupils helped draw local animals on the balloons with their local names too. With the help of a Tuléar student and a particularly enthusiastic guide, a memorable role-play was performed (Fig 8). Felling of trees was represented by people falling to the ground after being “cut” by a Durham student resulting in the death of the animal in the tree in question. This was visualised by the popping of the balloon in the “dead” tree.(Fig

Plate 19

A young Malagasy at school

9) Special attention was brought to the fact that once a balloon had been popped, it could not be re-inflated.

The continuation of the education project in the future is very important. It is a fun and effective way of relating to the local community. It is important to take educational resources out to make it clear that the education project is for them and not just an activity for our report. Any investing in education, not just environmental education is an important gesture if the project is to be continued by the Malagasy people themselves.

Slide shows of our expedition will be taken into local schools in England.

Plate 20

Role playing in Amboetsy

BIBLIOGRAPHY Akerele O. (1988) Medicinal Plants: Policies and Priorities Conservation of Medicinal Plants (ed O Akerele, V Heywood and H Synge) Cambridge University Press Barnard, A., Good, A. (1984) Research Practices in the Study of Kinship. Academic Press, London Barnett, A. (1995) Expedition Field Techniques: Primates. Expedition Advisory Centre, Royal Geographical Society. Bartlett, T 2001 Demographic Survey Project Ifotaka 2000 Final Report The Libanona Ecology Centre, The University of Durham and Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza Buckland et al. (1992) Distance Sampling: Estimating the Abundance of Biological Populations. Chapman and Hall. Durrell, G. (1992) The Aye-Aye and I. HarperCollins. Ferguson, B., Mallinson, J., Morrison, T., Perceval, C., Combes, G., Ranorosoa, C., Razamatso, H., Eboroke, S., Volamanjaka, N., Mahafety, C., Volamila, M., Razamatso, J., Razamatso, Y., Good, T. (2000) Project Ifotaka 1999 Final Report: University of Durham Expedition to Madagascar, Project Ifotaka 2000. Ganzhorn, J.U. (1988) Food Partitioning in Malagasy Primates, Oecologia 75:436-450. Ganzhorn, J.U. (1995) Low Level Forest Disturbance Effects on Primary Production, Leaf Chemistry and Lemur Population, Ecology 76:2084-2096. Garbutt, N. (1999) Mammals of Madagascar. (Eds Bishop, I. and Collar N.), Pica Press Harcourt, C. (1990) Lemurs of Madagascar and the Comoros: The IUCN Red Data Book, IUCN. Hawkins, A.F.A., Chapman, P., Ganzhorn, J.U., Bloxam, Q., Barlow, S.C. and Tonge, S.J. (1990) Vertebrate Conservation in the Ankarana and Analamera Special Reserves, Northern Madagascar, Biological Conservation 54:83-110. Heurtebize, G L’Habitat Tandroy in Université d’Antananarivo Androy Alliance Française, Musée d’Art et d’Archéologie Jenkins, M.D. (1987) Madagascar: An Environmental Profile, IUCN. Jolly, A. (1966) Lemur Behaviour: A Madagascar Field Study, University of Chicago Press. Keck, A., Narenda, P., Feder, S., Feder, G. (1994) Population Growth, Shifting Cultivation, and Unsustainable Agricultural Development. A Case Study in Madagascar; World Bank Discussion Papers. Africa Technical Department Series Madagascar Environmental Research Group. Manongarivo Special Reserve Expedition 1987/1988; Royal Geographical Society Shell Environmental Papers Mittermeier, R. A., Konstant, W.R., Nicoll, M.E. and Langrand, O. (1992) Lemurs of Madagascar: An Action Plan for their Conservation, IUCN. Parker Pearson M, Ramilisonina and Retsihisatse 1999 Ancestors, forests and ancient settlements: Tandroy readings of the archaeological past in Peter J. Ucko and Robert Layton (eds.) The Archaeology and Anthropology of Landscape. Shaping your landscape Routledge, London Plotkin M. J. (1993) Tales of a Shaman’s Apprentice Viking

Plotkin M. J. (1991), Traditional Knowledge of Medicinal Plants – The Search for New Jungle Medicines Conservation of Medicinal Plants (ed O Akerele, V Heywood and H Synge) Cambridge University Press Preston-Mafhan, K. (1991) Madagascar A Natural History, Facts on File Inc., Oxford, New York Rakotoarisoa, J-A. (1997) A Cultural History of Madagascar. Evolution and Interpretation of the Archaeological Evidence (Natural Change and Human Impact in Madagascar, 1997); Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington and London Rakotoarisoa, N., Mutschler, T. and Thalmann, U. (1993) Lemurs in Bemaraha (World Heritage Landscape, Western Madagascar), Oryx 27(1): 35-40. Scmid, J. and Kappeler, P.M. (1994) Sympatric Mouse Lemurs (Microcebus spp.) in Western Madagascar, Folia Primatologica 63:162-170. Simons, E. L. (1997) Lemurs Old and New. Natural Change and Human Impact in Madagascar, (Eds Goodman, S. M. and Patterson, B. D.), pp 142-166, Smithsonian Institute Sussman, Robert W., Glen M. Green, Linda K. Sussman. 1994 Satellite Imagery, Human Ecology, Anthropology, and Deforestation in Madagascar Human Ecology. Vol. 22 No. 3. Sutherland, W.J. (1996) Ecological Census Techniques: A Handbook, Cambridge University Press. Thalmann, U. and Rakotoarison, N. (1994) Distribution of Lemurs in Central-Western Madagascar, with Regional Distribution Hypothesis, Folia Primatologica 63:156-161. Winser, S. and McWilliam, N. (1992) Expedition Planners Handbook and Directory 1993-1994, Expedition Advisory Centre, Royal Geographical Society. Wright H. T., Rakotoarisoa, J-A. (1997) Cultural Transformations and Their Impacts on the Environments of Madagascar (Natural Change and Human Impact in Madagascar, 1997); Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington and London.

MEDICAL REPORT

Training. All the members of the UK team undertook a general First Aid course that was run by the Red Cross. Ian McLean (Medical officer) also completed a weeklong course run by the “Wilderness medical training” programme, which covered advanced first aid as well as emergency expedition medicine. Preventative medication. The UK members of the group were all vaccinated against Tetanus, Polio, Rabies, Diphtheria, Typhoid and Hepatitis’s A and B before leaving for Madagascar. The team also undertook courses of malarial prophylactics for the expedition. Insurance. The team was suitably covered by comprehensive expedition insurance, which included the use of an Airlift/air ambulance if required. Medical Kits. The team medical kit was under the supervision of Ian McLean (medical officer) for the expedition and all other members of the team were briefed in the use of its contents. In the absence of the medical officer, Tom Martin (group leader) would take charge of the team kit. 6.1 Inventory of team medical kit. Anti-microbials.Ciprofloxacin 44 tablets. Fansidar 17 tablets. Flucloxacillin 55 capsules. Amoxycillin 74 capsules. Chloramphenicol ointment 1 x 4g tube. Quinine Sulphate (200mg) 40 tablets. Metronidazole (200mg) 90 tablets. Trimethroprim. 60 tablets. Brolene eye drops 1 x 10ml Pain Killers and local anaesthetics.Co-proxamol 80 tablets. Co-codamol 90 tablets. Paracetamol 80 tablets. Lignocaine for injection 5 x 5ml vials. Other medication.Adrenaline 5 x 1ml vial. Stemetil 28 tablets. Imodium 30 capsules. Avomine (travel sickness) 19 tablets. Purification tablets 48. Rehydration sachets 10. Piriton 24 tablets. Creams and ointments.Otosporin ear drops 5ml. Medicated soap 2 bars. Large saline solution 2 bottles. Small saline solution. 7 tubes. Iodine ointment 1 bottle. Iodine spray 1 can. Savlon spray 1 bottle. Hand sanitizer 1 bottle. Canestan cream 1 tube. E45 cream 1 tube.

Dressings.Steri-strips 3 packets. Mepore dressing 6. Paraffin gauze-dressing 1. Sterile non-stick dressing. 6 large/6 small.. Large inadine (iodine) dressing 4. Melolin dressing 12. Cotton balls 4. Triangular bandage 7. Eye pads 5. Cleansing wipes 18. Cold packs 3. Sterile kit 1. Assorted plasters (including blister packs). Various tapes. Hardware.Disposable scalpels 6. Augmentin sticks 4. Safety pins 50 assorted. Thermometer 1. Tuff cut scissors 4 pairs. Serrated forceps 1. Toothed forceps 1. Blue needles 10. Orange needles 4. 10ml syringes 4. 5ml syringes 5. 2ml syringes 11. Sutures 3/0, 4/0, 5/0 1 of each. Large sam splint 1. Ventolin Inhaler 1. Sterile Gloves (non sterile) 4 pairs (10 pairs)

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The UK members of the team were given personal first aid kits, which also included any personal medication they required. There was also a day kit carried by the medical officer on treks, which had a larger range of medication, including items needed in emergency situations. Manuals and documentation. -Warrell, D. and Anderson, S. Expedition medicine (with the Royal Geographic society). Profile books. -St.John’s Ambulance book on First aid. -Wilderness medical training course manual-2001 edition. -Full Medical details and histories for all the UK members of the team as well as details from the Malagasy members. -Letters of authorisation for the carriage of medical supplies.

Safety and Hygiene. During fieldwork the groups would be made up of no fewer than

three members, including at least one guide. Adequate water supplies were taken and protective clothing was worn to avoid sunstroke or sunburn. Water used for drinking was taken from a nearby spring and filtered using a millbank bag. It was then treated with S’ureau, a chlorine based tincture readily available in the area. This task was always undertaken by the medical officer to ensure proper care to attention. Purification tablets were also taken in first aid kits. The preparation and cooking of food was as far as possible undertaken to western standards of hygiene.

6.2 Conditions that required medical attention on the expedition. The following list gives the number of cases in brackets. Travellers Diarrhoea (6) Leg incision wound (1) Food poisoning (3) Flu (2) Blood poisoning (1) Mild Dehydration (1) Scorpion Sting (1) Blister (5) Foot parasites (7) Fungal foot infection (2) Wound Infection (1) Adverse side effects to malarial prophylactics (1) Severe Headaches (11) Hand incision wound (2)

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LOGISTICS REPORT Research Materials Scientific literature is not readily available in Madagascar. It is recommend that teams bring all necessary literature and leave copies with the libraries of their collaborators. The Library in the Libanona Ecology Centre (Fort Dauphin) is extremely well stocked with conservation and Development books. A good selection of Maps is available from the national mapping agency Foiben – Taosarintanin’I Madagasikara (FTM) in Antananarivo on Rue-Ntsoa Razafintsalama JB. They stock a 12 sheet 1:500 000 series covering the whole island, and a 1:100 000 series. Both of these series of maps may be quit old (some dated back to 1956) and consequently land cover was not wholly accurate, we did find them to be accurate for topographical features. Parc Tsimbazaza lent equipment that had been left in Madagascar, by Project Ifotaka 1999, to the Team. This included binoculars, Mag-lights and GPS’s. It is recommended that in future high-powered binoculars be taken out, as this would assist the accuracy of surveying. Two Magellan GPS’s were purchased in the UK along with twenty Sherman Traps ordered from the USA. Tarpaulin for the guides was bought in the market central to Antananarivo, with all further camp utensils purchased from the Market in Fort Dauphin. Training Team training was carried out in February to familiarise all members with basic field craft skills, map reading and was excellent team bonding exercise. Dr. N. Dunstone demonstrated trap use and how to handle small mammals. Further scientific training was given by the workshops run by the BP conservation Programme and the RGS in London. Medical training consisted of Ian McLean attending the Wilderness Medical Training Course at the Royal Geographical Society and all UK members attended Red Cross First Aid courses. The whole team was informed of the casualty evacuation procedure prior to deploying to the field. Permissions Permission for this project was issued by the Department of Eaux et Forets

of the Malagasy Government. As the project was in an unprotected area it was not required to obtain permits from ANGAP (The protected areas authority). Project Ifotaka was run under a protocol of collaboration between Durham University and Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza (PBZT). PBZT obtained research permits for an administrative charge of 2 000 000 FMg (about £200 in 2001). If possible to, prevent wasting time, it should be arrange that the collaborators have collected the permits prior to the UK Teams arrival. The Malagasy Consul in London issued 90-day study visas on production of the signed protocol of collaboration.

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Finance and Fundraising Project Ifotaka 2001 secured much of its fundraising from learned societies, trusts and charities. Money was also raised though collections held in college bars, car washing and a fundraising diner at Durham Castle. The project had a dual signatory account with Barclays Bank. However for some transactions, individuals students accounts were used to avoid charges and for convenience. When in Madagascar the expeditions funds were carried in Travellers cheques, it is suggested that for security the cheques are split up among the team and a full record of numbers and encashment held with each set. The banks in Antananarivo did not impose limits on transactions, however in Fort Dauphin it is difficult to change more than £400 at a time. For all transactions plenty of time should be allowed, it is necessary to think ahead of the cash needed in the field as Fort Dauphin has the closest banking facilities. Credit cards are useful in both Antananarivo and Fort Dauphin (Visa or MasterCard) and it is recommended that all expedition members bring on in case of emergencies. Insurance Insurance was taken with AON Risk Services. We fully covered all UK team members; unfortunately it was prohibitively expensive to cover our Malagasy counterparts. We were fortunate in not having to make any claims. Travel and Transport

International Transport was by Air Madagascar, booked though Air Madagascar, Oak House, UK. The baggage allowance was 20Kg on the London – Paris section (operated by British Midland) and 30Kg on the Paris – Antananarivo section. This is significant for personal equipment by may not be for the group equipment. Excess baggage charges can be extortionate; group check-ins are advised to reduce this. Transport in Antananarivo was by privet taxi, prices need to be negotiated before starting the journey. Taxi Brousse was used to travel from Antananarivo to Fort Dauphin, the journey took 69 hours. The cost was approximately £15 per person. For security it is recommended that baggage be placed inside maze sacks. This journey can also be made by internal flight with Air Madagascar.

146

Again excess baggage charges need to be considered, the allowance is 20Kg. All internal flights are discounted when you use them for the international section of travel. There is a flight almost every day but these can be heavily booked. Chartered Taxi Brousses were used to travel between Fort Dauphin and Ifotaka. When paying ensure that a receipt is signed by the owner and that counting out the money is witnessed by a third party. The road between Amboasary-Sud and Ifotaka is poor and not all drivers are willing go up it. Porters and Zebu carts were hired in the forest to travel from Ifotaka to Camp Ankazopingaratra. Care should be taken, as over paying especially can cause problems in the future. Communication The nearest public telephone to Camp was in Amboasary-Sud. We used the telephone in the Libanona Ecological Centre or the, card-operated, telephones in the post office of Fort Dauphin these were both reliable. E-mail facilities were only available in Antananarivo during the duration of our project, but may be available in Fort Dauphin however this is not reliable. We used the post box number for the Libanona Ecological Centre for incoming mail. Field Administration For the two research phases of the project the team was based at Ankazopingaratra, where there is a spring. Camp was located on a flat area to the side of the path 200m from the spring. Ankazopingaratra was around 6km from Amboetsy on the path towards Mangily (See Fig. 7). The research team and guides lived in tents and improvised tarpaulin shelters with a cooking and eating area centrally located. The spring provided water for drinking, cooking and washing. Drinking water was purified using a Millbank bag filter and Iodine. Powered drink flavourings made the water more palatable. The basic food supply was bought in from Fort Dauphin, in the first phase fresh produce was ported in from Amboasary-Sud, especially bananas for the traps. In the second phase we relied on Ifotaka’s weekly market and produce sold by passing local people. The staple team diet was: Breakfast – Rice or Maze with Coffee, Sugar, Condensed Milk; Lunch – Rice, Beans with Vegetables or Goat or Turkey; Dinner – Rice, Beans with Vegetables or Goat or Turkey. Food was prepared by two local women, Zozany and Sapity, on open fires. For security it is important that a guide always remains in the camp. All guides, porters and cooks should be given an oral and written agreement of employment conditions (including wages), many

147

had not worked for an employer previously. The guides were paid weekly or by arrangement. Medical and Safety Arrangements These are fully described in the Medical Report.

Plate 21

Rice and Beans – The staple diet of the team during the research phases

148

PLANNING AND EXPEDITION SCHEDULES

Planning Schedule May 2000 UK team selected November 2000 Proposal Submitted to Durham University, Attend Explore ’00. December 2000 Grant Applications Submitted. -February 2001 Team training weekend (Scottish Highlands). Education Project Implemented in Co Durham. March 2001 Expedition Medicine Course (Ian). Red Cross First Aid course. May 2001 International Travel and Insurance Purchased. Fundraising Diner in Durham Castle. June 2001 GPS Training course run by the RGS (Tom Koe and Ian) July 2001 Final Equipment purchased, Research Visas Issued.

Expedition Schedule

11th July: Durham team depart London 12th July: Durham team arrive Antananarivo and meet Barry Ferguson. 13th July: Permits collected from Park Tsimbazaza. 14th July: Durham team (excluding Tom Martin) Depart on Taxi Brousse to Fort Dauphin. 17th July: Durham and Tulear Teams arrive in Fort Dauphin. 18th July: Tom Martin and Prosper arrive (via flight) in Fort Dauphin. 18th – 20th July: Food utensils and additional equipment are purchased in the Market. 20th July: Mavu, Hunter, Njara, arrive in Fort Dauphin. 21st July: Team travel to Ifotaka in two QMM cars and one hire car. 22nd July: Ethno botany team remain in Ifotaka. Ecology Team walk to Amboetsy

With six hired Zebu carts to transport equipment. Caroline returns to Fort Dauphin with Tom Martin due to illness.

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23rd July: Ecology team walk to Camp Ankazopingaratra with 38 porters. Meet our local Guides. 24th July: 1st Phase Research begins. An Amboasary-Sud / Ifotaka run for

trap bananas is established with assistance of Barry. 29th July: Tom Martin arrives at camp. 2nd August: Caroline and Crystal (Anthropology Team) arrive in Amboetsy.

Anthropological research begins. 18th August: End of 1st Phase. Team Return to Ifotaka and camp for the night. 19th August: Team travel to Fort Dauphin on Taxi Brousse for Rest and

Recuperation. Stay in Libanona Ecological Centre. 21st August: Team take day visit to Berenty Park. 26th August: Four members of the Ecology Team are driven to Amboetsy by QMM. 27th August: 2nd Phase Research. Fresh food is purchased from Amboetsy when possible. 30th August: Remaining team travel to Ifotaka on Taxi Brousse. 1st September: Remaining team return to the field on Foot. 13th September: Trapping finishes. Seven of the Ecology team return to Ifotaka. Tom M, Tom C and Ian travel by Taxi Brousse to Fort Dauphin. 14th September: QMM transport from field is reconfirmed. 15th September: Remaining team in field walk to Ifotaka with 9 porters. Equipment, baggage, and rubbish are removed from field. Remaining food is divided between guides. 16th September: Team travel to Fort Dauphin with QMM. Camp at Libanona Ecological centre. 18th September: Tulear Team with Barry depart to Tulear. 17th – 19th September: Preliminary Report written and Rest and Recuperation. 20th September: Durham team fly to Antananarivo. 21st September: Preliminary report presented to Park Tsimbazaza etc. 23rd September: Durham team Depart from Antananarivo.

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24th September: Durham Team arrive in London.

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External Research Work Facilitated by Project Ifotaka 2001

As well as the research activities conducted by the Tulear/Durham/PBZT team, Project Ifotaka assisted a number of other researchers to conduct studies in the Ifotaka region. Dr Tom Goldschmidt and Dr Reinhard Gerecke (University of Tubingen) - An investigation into freshwater mites and their geographical distribution in Madagascar. Andreas Hapke (PhD Candidate at the University of Hamburg) - An investigation of population genetics and phylogeny of the Grey Mouse Lemur (Microcebus murinus) in SE Madagascar Georgina Combes (MA Candidate at School of Oriental and African Studies) - An appraisal of radio based development communication programmes in SE Madagascar. Malin Pinsky (School of International Training) - An investigation into the goat herding practices of the Antandroy in the commune of Ifotaka. Meg Lelonek (School of International Training) - A Preliminary Assessment of Allopathic and Traditional Health Care practices among residents of the commune of Ifotaka.

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L’Anthropologie d'Amboetsy

Christale Robelle Razafindrahova. Etudiante à la faculté des sciences

Université de TOLIARA

PLAN DU DEVOIR: ANTHROPOLOGIE

I. INTRODUCTION • Vision globale du village d’Amboetse • Objectif de la recherche Anthropologie • Enoncer le plan du devoir

II. METHODOLOGIES

III. DEVELOPPEMENT

A. DISCUSSION 1) Brève historique du village d’Amboetse 2) Culture: (a) Mariage

(b) Circoncision (c) Réligion – Ombiasy (d) Enterrement (e) Outils (matte, chapeau, manche de hache…) (f) Maison

3) Culture (maïs, patate…) 4) Elevage 5) Recolte du bois de chauffage 6) Scolarisation 7) Santé 8) Migration causée par le saphir 9) Richesse minière

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B. ANALYSE ET IMPACTE DES ACTIVITÉS SOCIO-CULTURELLESSUR L’ENVIRONNEMENT

C. CRITIQUES ET SUGGESTIONS (RECOMMENDATION)

IV. CONCLUSION

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INTRODUCTION La recherche anthropologique de Projet Ifotaka 2001 faite dans le village d’Amboetse, qui a le GPS S.24.41.591 et E.046.05.378 de Madagascar, a le but principal de fournie des informations appropriées sur le conservation de la fôret épineuse. Les habitants d’Amboetse sont tous des Antandroy. Leur subsistence dépend fortement de la fôret épineuse. L’objectif de la recherce est de quantifier et de qualifier les pressions qui exercent la population locale sur la fôret pour qu’on puisse etablir un diagnositc et apporter eun plan de developpement poru la conservation de la fôret épineuse caractèristique de la région du sud malgache. Pour cela nous allons voir la methodologie appliquée pour l’exploitation des données, la discussion, l’analyse, et l’impact des activités socio-culturelles sur l’environnement et en fin les critiques et suggestions individuelles de ces travaux de recherche.

METHODOLOGIE Une licencée en Anthropologie anglaise et une maitrisante en Biodiversité de l’université de Tuléar ont travaillé ensemble pendant 5 semaines dans le village d’Amboetse pendant le mois d’Août jusqu’au September 2001, residée dans le foyer d’une femmer Antandroy appelée Toriazy. La communauté locale nationale et les residents d’Amboetse nous ont permis de réaliser nos recherches axées sur :

(1) L’analyse du bois de chauffage centré au village pour la famille de Toriazy à Besakoa pendant 3 semaines, le foyer de Toriazy pendant 4 semaines et la grande partie du village d’Amboetse pendant une journée.

(2) On a conduit l’observation participative du ramassage des bois de chauffage en decrivant brièvement l’emplacemnet des endroits du ramassage.

(3) On a visité les champs de culture à la peripherie du village d’Amboetse en les devrivant avec le GPS.

(4) On a inspecté le village par endroit et on a compté les nombres de maisons, les magasins de stockage et les maisons en construction.

(5) L’observation participative pour garder les bœufs, d’un homme du village pendant une journée.

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(6) On a realisé des interviews des differente thèmes. Les conversations familières ont fourni la plupart de l’information des sujets choisis en se changeant des idées pendant la discussion et pour encourager les villageois à donnner le maximum d’information.

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DEVELOPPEMENT

A. DISCUSSIONS

(1) Brève historique du village d’Amboetse Les villageois d’Amboetse sont des descendants de trois hommes qui s’appellent Tsikondra, Lanitry et Rezampy, issus d’un seul père qui vient de Tuléar. Dès Tuléar, ils se déplacent à Tsivoro (à l’ouest de Betroka) et après qu’ils s’installent à peu près à 800m au sud du village d’Amboetse. A cause de l’inondation qui était passée il y a 90 ans environ qu’ils s’installent à Amboetse. Le village se deplace petit à petit au Nord ouest comme le quartier de Maromainty pour fuir la montée du fleuve de Mandrare. Tsikandra était le roi du village pendant la période du royaume. Ils ont planté beaucoup de cactus aux entours du village pour empêches l’entrée des français pendant la période coloniale. Maintenant c’est l’autorité locale qui dirige le village. Le président du Fokotany n’est autre que le descendant du roi Tsikandra.

(2) Culture Mariage En genéral, le marriage s’effectue à l’âge de 20 ans pour les garçons et 14 ans à 15 ans pour les filles. Mais il y a aussi des mariages que les parents anticipent pour que son fils reste dans le village pour garder les bœufs. Certains parents cherchent une femme pour son fils, meme à l’âge de 14 ans. Les mariages se font autre les parents mais ce n’est pas à la mairie. Pour marier une femme, le monsieur doit offrir une vache pour les parents, de la femme. La somme est discutée avec les parents, mais souvent entre 350,000 fmg à 500,000 fmg pour achèter des matériels comme marmite, assieètes, matelas etc. Le four d’arrivée, des matérieux, on fait une grande fete à la maison. On tue une chêvre et on boît beaucoup d’alcool. Le monsieur a construit une maison, avant l’arrivée de sa femmer. Les Antandroy sont des polygames et voilà les causes sterilité de la femme, mauvaise conduite de la femme, ou bien, c’est leur coutume. Pour que la première femme accepte l’entrée de la deuxième femme, il faut lui donner de l’argent ou bien un bœuf. Mais avant tout celà l’homme avait dejà discuté les parents de la deuxième femme et que tout est deja arrangé.

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Si la femme à la maison réfuse l’existence de la deuxième femme, l’homme la chasse de la maison, d’où la séparation. Quand ils se séparent, la femme devrait retourner chez ses parents. Souvent la femme retourne chez ses parents avec les mains vides. Elle n’a pas le droit de beneficier les biens qu’ils ont cherché ensemble. Si la femme a donné un garçon avec le monsieur elle peut suivre son fils et s’installer avec lui quand il sera grand. L’existence d’une église protestante ne change pas leur coutume en ce qui concerne leur mariage. Même les dirigents de l’eglise pratiquent la polygamie. Par example à Soatimaro est un homme, membre du bureau de l’eglise, mais il a deux femmes qui s’appellent Vahomy et Celesse. « Le pasteur ne peut rien faire car notre coutume avait existé avant la religion » d’après l’interview qu’on a fait à Soatimaro. Circoncision (‘Savatse’) C’est une grande fête qui dure presque un mois. De bon matin, chaque jour, les garçons rentrent dans la forêt pour prendre une branche d’arbre de Teza (non-vernaculaire) pendant un mois Mirango. On danse avec une branche d’arbre durant un mois avant le sambatra. Le jour de la fête, on fait la circoncision des petits garçons dans le village et on tue beaucoup de bœufs. Les mamans des petits garçons s’amenent avec un parasol,, vole et lambahoany qu’on a decoré avec des billets d’argent que la famille donne pour les petits garçons. Pendant, à temps, on coupe un arbre teza environ de 60 cm de circonference. A Amboetse il y a deja presque 40 ans qu’on n’a pas fêté la circoncision. Seulement on amene les petits garçons à l’hôpital pour la circoncion, mais on ne la fête pas. Religion Très peu d’individus de la population locale s’est convertis dans la religion chrétien. Il n’existe qu’une seule église protestante dan le village. Il n’y a pas de pasteur mais c’est l’instituteur qui dirige la prière. Le pasteur n’arrive dans le village juste une journée durant un mois pour la commmunion. La presence d’une église dan le village perturbe un peu la coutûme d’après l’intérieur l’interview qu’on a fait avec Soatimaro. Son père est un ombiasy, il habitait dan le village mais à chaque fois que la cloche sonne l’espirt quie est avec lui se manifeste. A chaque fois que ceci arrive il lui faut sacrifier un bœuf. Maintenant il a quitté le village jusqu’il risque de perdre ses bovins. La coutûme n’est pas respectée par les chrétiens. Ceci entraîne une longue discussion ou même une division juste au moment où se presente l’action. Le moment qu’on était à Amboetse l’enfant de Soatiliga est decédé. La population locale n’a pas accepté d’ouvrir la

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tombe pour mette le cadavre car elle ne veut pas tuer un bœuf pour l’enterrement de sa fille comme c’est interdit pour les chrétiens. Certains même ne veulent pas assister à l’enterrement. Enfin, ils ont enterré l’enfant à côté des tombeaux des animistes mais ce n’est pas dans un meme tombeau. Après le passage de cette acte la vie continue sans problème. Les villageois s’attendent très bien. Malgré l’existence de l’église dans le village, beaucoup de gens consultent encore les Ombiasys. D’ailleurs il ya beaucoup d’Ombiasy et kokolampos (c’est un singe) dans le village. Dans les quartiers de Tsimjliy, Besandrahango et Marofoty habitent les Ombiasys. Alors que dans le quartier de Maromainty il y a trois kokolapmos. On peut distinguer la maison de kokolampo6 à cause de la éxistence des bandes noires et blanches qu’ils mettent autour des murs. D’après l’interview qu’on a fait avec Mfajaka, Ombiasy qui habite dans le quartier de Marofoty. Les Ombiasy ont peur des chrétiens et les chrétiens aussi ont peur des ombiasys. Ils soignent beaucoup de malades à l’aide des plantes que l’esprit lui directe et ils les collectent dans la fôret. Enterrement Les animistes gardent la cadavre dans la maison pendant une durée de temps indeterminée. C’est le Ombiasy qui décide le jojur favorable pour l’enterrement. Les enfants ou le frère et soeur du défunt tuent beaucoup de boeuf pour fair nourrir les gens quie donnent l’argent pendant la condoléance. La famille offre une chèvre pour eux qui couvre le défunt avec une linge. Si quelqu’un avait dispute avec le disparu, le vivant doit sacrifier un boeuf avant de mettre le tissus sur le défunt. Avant l’enterrement, il faut tuer des boeufs à l’endroit où se trouvent les tombeaux. Il faut aussi donner de la viande pour les gens qui sentrent dans la forêt à la recherche de deux grands troncs d’arbres de Mendorave (Albizzia greviana) pour la fabrication du cercueil. Du nord et au sud du village ou des ‘Ala fadu’, c’est l’endroit de l’enterrement. Les chrétiens ne gardent pas le cadavre pendant longtemps à la maison. Mais juste après 2 ou 3 jours ils l’enterrent. Ils ne tuent pas beaucoup de boeufs pour l’inhumation. Seulement ils utilisent aussis le Mendorave (Albizzia greviana) pour edifier le cerceuil. Ils font de prière et de chanson évangelique pendant la nuit. Alors que les animistes pleurent à 4 heures du matin jusqu’à-ce qu’ils enterrent

6 Le kokolampo est un singe. Il y aussi un homme qui possède l’esprit d’un singe pour faire quelque chose de miracle.

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le cadavre. Après l’inhumation, on detruit la maision de celui ou celle qui a disparu. Outils Nattes, paniers, hâche…. Les femmes fabriquen des nattes à parti de ‘vinda’ qu’elles achètent au marché. Elles utilisent aussi des ‘anivo’ qu’elles collectent dans la forêt pour la fabrication des paniers. C’est une source d’argent pour les femmes car elles peuvent faire 10 paniers par jours et elles les vendent au marché à un prix de 3500 fmg la pièce. Il faut aussi de bois spécifiques pour la manche des outils que les hommes et les femmes utilisent. - ‘Henalilike’ pour le bras de sagoie. - ‘Ambilazo’ pour la manche d’une hâche - ‘Katrafay’ (Grevia andronenois) pour la manche d’une bêche. - ‘Mendorave’ (Albizzia greviana) pour faire le pilon. Maison Dans le village d’Amboetse, il y a 11 quartiers. Voici le nombre de foyers et magasins de stockage dans le village.

Nom de quartier Nombre de foyers

Nombre de magasins de stockage

Besakoa 10 7 Marosingitse 19 27 Angalavondromahake 9 + 1 église 8 Marofotse 23 9 Beevotse 40 21 Besandrahange 13 6 Tsimihy 12 6 Maroabe 19 11 Marofoty 18 13 Tesoavy 13 17 Maromainty 33 8

Total209 133

C’est un grand village car il possède 209 nombres de foyers et 133 nombres de magasins de stockage. Toutes les maisons sont construits à l’aide de plancher, de fantiolitse (Alluardia precora), le mur, le parquet et le toit. Il faut 133 planchers d’Alluardia precora pour édifier une maison de 4 m². Un pied d’Alluardia peut donner 8 planches de 2.5 m de long. Donc il faut couper 17 pieds d’Alluardia au minimum pour la construction d’une maison. On utilise aussi le katrafay (Cedrelopsis grevei) ou mangary (Dalbergia tichocarpa) pour les pieds de la maison. Un seul pied de Dalbergia

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tichocarpa peut donner 4 madriers pour le cache de la maison. Pour le magasin de stockage, il faut 90 planches d’ Alluardia precocera pour en construire un. C’est des 12 pieds d’Alluardia precocera.

Pour cela on peut compter le nombre d’Alluardia precocera coupées pour la construction d’une maison dans le village. - Nombre de foyers x nombre d’Alluardia precocera pour la

fabrication d’une maison = 209 x 17 = 3653 pieds d’Alluardia precocera.

- Pour la onstructions de magasin de stockage : 133x 12 = 1596 pieds d’Alluardia precocera.

- Donc , au total : 3658 + 1596 = 5249 pieds d’Alluardia precocera utlisés pour l’edification d’une maison et d’un maison de stockage.

Il ya seulement 5 maisons dont le toit est couvert de Bozaka (plantes mole dont la partie aerienne y compris la tige meurt chaque année). Certains utlisent aussi l’écorée de Fihagna (Euphorbia tiricalii) pour le toit de la cuisine.

(3) Culture Les villageois plantent surtout de Bageda (patate douce) sur le limon de Mandrare, le mois de juillet. Ils plantent aussi de savagora (petite patate douce) sur la plage de Mandrare. Le mois de septembre tous les villageois se reveillent de bon matin et vont au champ de patates douces pour la recolte. A 9h 30 du matin ils commencent de retour au village. Après cela, la famille s’entreaide pour enlever la membrane de patate douce et trancher à peu près 3 cm d’épaisseuses suivant la longeux avant le séchage. Certains les séchent sur le toit de la maison, certains amènent sur la plage pour les sécher. Les gens font l’atsake (cultive sur brulis) pour la culture du maïs. Au nord ouest du village presque un 45% de la foret est brulée á cause de la culture de maïs. Ils cultivent le maïs non-seulement pour la nourriture mais ils le vendent aussi á 250 fmg le kapoaka au marché. On trouve aussi le champ de manioc sur le limon de Mandrare mais ce n’est pas suffisant pour les villageois parceque au moment qu’on était à Amboetse une dame qui s’appelle Vahony allait à Ankobay pour la recherche du manioc. Ankobay est un village au Nord d’Amboetse en amont de Mandrare. Beaucoup de légumes aussi, come oignons, tomates et haricots qu’on cultive avec des patates douces. Les Antandroy d’Amboetse ne cultive pas le riz. A l’ouest du village on trouve une vast pleine pour la culture du maïs. Beaucoup de champs

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aussi sont abandonées à cause de l’insuffisance des pluies. Au moment des pluies la fleuve de Mandrare augmente de volume, couvre une vaste pleine et depose des debrits de sols fertiles. Après l’étirement de la fleuve les gens commencent à planter des maïs et des maniocs sur les limons déposés. Voici le GPS (Global Positioning System) des champs de bageda et maïs qu’on a marquée: 006 S24 42 086 E046 05 397

001 S24 41 197 E046 05 546

017 S24 41 276 E046 05 195

011 S24 41 389 E046 05 669

009 S24 41 406 E046 05 438

012 S24 42 385 E046 05 313

(4) Elevage On trouve des poules mais le’effectif est faible à cause de maladies. Il existe aussi des dindons. Le plus impressionnant c’est le troupeau de chevre et de mouton et de zebu. Dans le village, il y a 4000 têtes de chevres et 2500 têtes de zebus, alors que le nombre de population locale est de 1200 et que 37 personnes seulement qui possèdent des zebus et de chevres. Durant toute l’année il laisse libre le zebus dans la forêt, seulement pendant le moment où les vaches donnent des petits qu’ils les amènent pour les fermer dans la colture pendant la nuit. Le matin il prend le lait du vache et le fait de sortie dans la forêt pendant la journée. Les mois de juin, juillet, aout et septembre, il n’y a pas de nourriture pour les boeufs dans la forêt. Toutes les feuilles sont tombées, on a des forêts caduques. A ce moment là, les troupeaux mangent les restes de tige de maïs, des cactus qu’on a brûlé pour enlever les épines. Les chèvres et les boeufs ne mangent pas les memes plantes. Les boeufs mangent des herbes alors que les chèvres broûtent presque tout ce qui se trouve dans la forêt.

(5) Recolte du bois de chauffage La population locale prend le bois de chauffage dans la forêt aux enlatours du village. Le bois de chauffage qu’elle prend est de bois mort soit issu d’un culture de maïs. Les gens d’Amboetse restent encore indifférents à l’utilisation du charbon.

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Voici le tableau qui montre la qualité et la quantité de bois de chauffage avec les noms de proprietaires et la durée du temps d’utilisation.

DATE NOM QUALITÉ (non vernaculaire)

QUALITÉ (kg)

VOLUME (m³)

DURÉE (jour)

3/08/01

Vahony Hb 22.2 0.04 4

Soatiligna Hb 7.2 0.01 2 Caroline K 8.2 0.01 2

5/08/01

Toriazy Hm, Hb, T, V 18 0.05 3

Pety Hm, Hb, T, V 7.8 0.02 2 8/08/01

Toriazy Hb 18.8 0.02 2

Christale Hb 4 0.01 2 Caroline Hb 5 0.01 2 Soameva Za 7.8 0.02 2

11/08/01

Toriazy A 21 0.02 2

Trambo M, Hb 19 0.02 3 13/08/02

Soameva K 17 0.03 3

14/08/01

Trambo Te, H 9.8 0.01 1

On a marqué aussi par le GPS l’endroit de collecte de bois de chauffage:

- 007 S24 42 569 E046 05 521

- 005 S24 41 803 E046 06 625

Voici aussi le tableau qui montre la qualité de la quantité, le volume et la durée d’utilisation avec le nom du propriétaire qu’on fouillé dans le village pendant une journée (le 06 août 2001).

NOM QUALITÉ (non vernaculaire)

QUANTITÉ (kg)

VOLUME (m³)

DURÉE (jour)

Celestine T, Te, M 13 0.05 5 Boaty Hb, T, Te, M 40.6 0.03 7 Celina O, M, K 7 0.07 1 Soanambimi H, K 12.6 0.03 2

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na Sato S. M. T 16 0.03 1 Voatsangone K 8.8 0.02 1 Piray Te 7.2 0.01 2 Loavory T 21.8 0.06 7 Tirèsoa V, K, Te 29.8 0.07 7 Marisoa K, H, Mt 15 0.04 2 Jenette K, Ma 21 0.06 2 Teritsara Hb, M 27.6 0.05 2 Limberaka K 13 0.03 2 Zefiday Hb 11 0.02 2 Limbisoa Ka, Te, Te 43.3 1.05 14 Laatemo Ka 21 0.05 3 Mavasoa A 24.6 0.06 4 Falamboa Te 7 0.01 2 Tarahe Te 8.6 0.02 2 Sianjora Te, M, Te 29 0.09 2 Natandry O 9.4 0.02 1 Milson Ha 16.8 0.01 5

Légende des espèces non-identifiées par leurs noms scientifiques ou vernaculaires: Hb Hazomboatango Hm Hazomena K Katrafay T Taolanakafotra Te Teza M Mangary Mf Maentifo A Ambilazo Hp Hazomposa V Vaovy (Tetrapteroe sp.) O Ondrokondroke Mk Mantsake Ra Raotse S Seta (Humberetiella henrii) Za Zangampoly Tl Taly R Relefo (Strychnos madagascarenris)

Scolarisation La plupart des gens restent encore analphabetes (99%). Il n’y a pas une école mais ils ont seulement une maison en bois pour l’église et pour l’école. Un seul instituteur que le groupe FIM le paie à 100,000 fmg/mois qui enseigne 56 éléves de classe T1, T2 et T3. A partis de la classe de T4, il faut envoyer les éléves à Ifotaka ou Belo s’ils veulent

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continuer leurs études. Comme ces villes sont très loins pour les petits enfants, beaucoup d’entre eux arrêtent leurs études à partir de la classe de T3. Lécole publique est detruite depuis longtemps et jusqu’a maintenant, il n’y a pas eu de rehabilitation. Les petits garçons ne vont pas à lécole mais il doivent garder les boeufs et les chèvres dans le forêt. Ce sont les petits filles seulement qui font l’école ais à l’âge de 14 à 15 ans elles l’abandonnent pour aller se marier.

Santé Dans le village d’Amboetse il n’y a pas un hôpital. Pour l’accouchement les femmes consultant Madame Votsobola (Renin-Jaza). Pendant la grossesse ell fait le massage pour que le foetus ait une bonne hygiene. Pendant le massage elle peut savoir pour ses connaissances empirigues s’il s’agit d’un foetus normale ou malade. Alors s’il s’agit d’un foetus malade, elle envoie la femme à l’hôpital. Quand le bébé est né, c’est son père qui coupe le cordon ombilicale du petit garçon, et la soeur de la maman qui le coupe s’il s’agit d’une fille, affectivement avec l’usage d’une lame sterilisée. Quand les gens sont malades, soit ils prennent les plantes medicinales directement accessibles dans la fôrêt, soit ils consultent le Ombiasa. Pour ceux qui sont chrétiens, ils ont des problèmes car ils ne comprennent pas très bien la bible. Ils n’utilisent pas les plantes medicinales alors qu’ils ne peuvent pas aller à l’hôpital car c’est très loin.

Migration causée par le saphir Beaucoup de garçons sont partir pour la recherche du saphir. Il y a 4 garçons qui sont partis pour la recherche du saphir à Ilakaka depuis 1999 et qu’ils ne sont pas de retour jusqu’à maintenant. Les jeunes garçons vendent des zebus pour avior de l’argent avant d’aller à Ilakaka. Ils retournent dans le village quand ils ont encaissé beaucoup d’argents. Certains rentrent dans le village avec les mains vides après 6 à 8 mois de recherche de saphir. Ceux qui ont gagné plus d’argent achètent des boeufs en arrivent dans le village. Il y a même une famille qui va partir à la recherche du saphir. Soatimaro était à Ilakaka l’année 2000 avec une somme de 250,000 fmg. Après 6 mois il est retourné à amboetse avec une somme de 1,100,000 fmg. Ils étaitent partis un groupe de 3 à 4 garçons.

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Richesse minière A l’Est de Mandrare, dans la forêt d’Amkazomanapingaratra on trouve beaucoup de mines de citrines et de quartz. La plupart des gens recherchent du citrine dans la forêt. Les gens de Tananarive arrivent a Amboetse pour acheter la citrine à 600,000 fmg le gobelet et pour la première qualité comme grenat quartz fumé et 15,000 fmg le gobelet pour la deuxième qulaité. Voici le GPS de mine de citrine: GPS S24 41 619 E146 16 883

B. ANALYSES ET IMPACTES DES ACTIVITÉS SOCIO-CULTURELLES SUR L’ENVIRONNEMENT Le boeuf a une grande valeur pour la Antandroy car ils l’utilise non seulement pour se servir de la nourriture mais auss pour la coutume: mariage, savatse, mort… Pour cela, la population locale connait l’importance de la forêt car elle élève se boeufs dans cette dernière. L’existence de ‘Ala fady’ puisqu’elle enterre leurs morts dans ces forêts favorise une protection non seulement pour la flore mais aussi pour la faune comme les Lumeris catta et les Propitheaus verreauxi. Malgré cela les besoins alimentaires sont plus forts, comme le proverbe malgache dit ‘Mieux vaut mourir demain qu’aujourd’hui’. Pour cela l’insuffisance du terrain cultivable pousse les cultivateurs locaux à pratiequer le culture surbrulis. Il y a des vastes plaines, mais malheureusement, la precipitation est très faible et en plus la fleuve de Mandrare n’arrive pas à les arroser. La fleuve diminue de volume de temps en temps car la boue provenant des terrains errodés la couvre petit à petit. La culture surbrulis de maïs est une cause racine de la peste de la biodiversité dans la région d’Amboetse. Certaines cultures aussi peuvent détruire petit á petit l’environnement. Le fait de prendre des branches d’arbres quotidiennement pendant un mois dans la forêt peuvent donner un volume très important inimaginable. Heureusement que le savatse n’a pas eu lieu dans le village d’Amboetse pendant presque 30 ans. La destruction des maisons abandonnées par les propriétaires à cause de la mort peuvent activer la pest des certaines espèces. La coutume nous parle que chaque personne doit avoir une maison, c’est-à-dire 17 pieds d’Alluardia procera. Pour le moment, on a 1200 personnes dans le village donc il faut multiplier ce nombre pour savoir les besoins minimums de cette population locale pour construction de leurs maisons. Et ceci ne termine pas là, mais allant de genération en genération. C’est une grande peste pour les espèces d’Alluardia

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procera et aussi pour les lumerieus de g. lemur catta puisqu’on sait que le g. Alluardia procera constitue un aliment preféré pour ces animaux. Si on analyse le nombre de maison ou remarque que dans les quartiers de Besakoa et Angalavondromalake là où il y a l’église et beaucoup de chrétiens est très peu par rapport aux autres quartiers. Cela veut dire que le taux de mortalité dans ces quartiers est très fort. Pour cela l’introduction d’une église dans un village devrait accompagner d’un dispensaire pour eviter l’embarras des chrétiens. La collecte du bois de chauffage n’est pas une cause de la peste de la biodiversité car nous savons bien que le climat sec avec beaucoup du vent dans la région d’Androy peut entraîner le mort des arbres. On peut utiliser ces bois pour la préparation de nourriture. En plus de cela, les villageois d’Amboetse ne fabriquent pas du charbon une des causes majeure observée par les experts pour la destruction des forêts. Donc, on peut tirer que c’est la culture surbrulis de maïs et la déstruction des maisons après la mort qui sont les cuases principales de la risque de perdre la flore et la faune dans cette région.

C. CRITIQUES ET SUGGESTIONS L’absence de participation de l’État pour aider les gens à mieux gérer la ressource naturelle renouvelable laisse la population locale à ignorer la protection de l’environnement. Les activités que les organisations non-governementales (ONG) font restent toujours aux alentours des grandes villes et en plus, cell restent encore insuffisantes. Pour cela, je suis très reconnaissante du Projet Ifotaka qui a l’initiative de travailler dans un endroit où la route butimée n’existe pratiquement pas. Il faut aller à pieds ou prendre une charette. Pour mieux continuer votre travail nous savons bien que ce sont les malgaches qui resteront à Madagascar et qui peuvent en grande partie être responsible de la protection de l’environnement. Nous vous suggerons d’informer et d’introduire un effectif eléve des acteurs autochtones dans votre projet. Pour resoudre le problème de bois d’oeuvres, nous pouvons animer la population locale de reboiser l’éspèce Alluardia procera. On peut exploiter la rivière de Mandrare en mettant du barrage pour qu’on puisse planter continuellement les cultures de subsistences. Après cela on peut empêche les gens de faire la culture surbrulis.

CONCLUSION Pour mésurer l’ampleur et la grandeur d’utilisation des ressources naturelles on a bien méné l’enquête, la discussion pour qu’on puisse

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trouver la confiance des villageois afin de nous livrer aussi leurs connaissances, leur façon de vivre. Nous avons essayé d’expliquer l’importance de cette recherche et de leur richesse plus particulièrement en échangeant des idées. Pour cela les villageois ont bien compris l’importance de leur forêt et ils attendent avec patience les aides du project Ifotaka pour la protection de leur environnement.

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Les Oiseaux d'Ifotaka

Dutel Ravoninjatovo Etudiante à la faculté des sciences


Introduction

La commune rurale d’Ifotaka se trouve approximativement à 42km au nord du Fivondronana d’Amboasary Sud dans le sud de Madagascar. Elle est traversée par le fleuve de Mandrare qui favorise l’agriculture constituant la principale activité des habitants de cette région. Le climat y est très chaud du mois d’août au mois de mars et on observe une pluviomètrie de 200mm durant cette période. La saison d’hiver commence à partir du mois d’avril et se termine au mois de juillet (project Ifotaka 1999, Final Report). Les Antrandroy forment la majorité de la population de la région. Le principal objectif du Projet Ifotaka est d’augmenter la connaissance du réseau forestier tout entier dans cette commune et d’y faciliter la future conservation et les activités de développement pour y contribuer vers la conservation de la forêt d’Ifotaka. Pour cela, des recherches ont été faites aux environs de la Commune d’Ifotaka pour établir des inventaires, des estimations de densité au niveau de la flore et de la faune, afin de connaître l’utilisation et le rôle de la forêt. Parmi ces recherches, celle sur les oiseaux en est une, effectuant une simple étude comparative des communautés d’oiseaux dans trois subhabitats distincts. Cette dernière est faite à Ankazompingaratsy, une region située au nord

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d’Ifotaka, entre le Fokontany de Mangily à l’est et celui de Amboetry a l’ouest; tous les deux appartiennent à la commune rurale d’Ifotaka. Données par un GPS (Global Positioning System), les coordonnées géographiques d’Ankazompingaratry sont les suivantes:

24º 41’077”S

46º 08’596”E

Objectif Cette recherche a pour but de faire une simple comparaison des communautés d’oiseaux dans trois sites différents: une formation végétale de forêt dense épineuse, une formation secondaire dominée par des Euphorbiacées et une formation végétale dite intermédiaire entre forêt épineuse et une forêt galérie.

Méthodologie Plusieurs méthodes peuvent être adoptées pour faire des études sur les oiseaux. Celle que nous avons utilisée est la visite des itinéraires dans la forêt qui nous semble la meilleure pour le but de travail. Trois types de subhabitats d’oiseaux ont été choisis: une formation de forêt dense épineuse dominée par les Didieracées, une formation secondaire de forêt sèche à dominance d’Euphorbiacées, et une formation de transition de la forêt épineuse à la forêt galérie. Pour la visite dans la forêt, un chemin principal a été choisi pour chaque type de subhabitat et dont la longueur est comprise entre 310m et 470m. Néanmoins de petites pénétrations dans la forêt ont été faites en partant du chemin principal. Les heures d’observation sont comprises entre 7h 29mn et 11h 45mn le matin et entre 2h 55mn et 17h 20mn l’après-midi. La vitesse de la marche est presque constante, à raison de 2km à l’heure environ pour une bonne observation. Durant la visite, nous avons pris un certain moment pour s’asseoir quelque part dans le but d’observer les oiseaux survolant au dessus ou les oiseaux qui chantent de part et d’autre du chemin choisi. Pour chaque sorte de subhabitat, vingt listes de Mackinnon ont été établies; chaque liste comprend dix espèces

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distinctes d’oiseau. Au total, soixante listes de dix oiseaux ont été collectées pour les trois types de régions. Les oiseaux observés sont identifiés en employant le livre de Pete Morris et Frank Hawkins intitulé “Birds of Madagascar. A photographic Guide.” Le statut et l’endémisme des oiseaux ainsi identifiés sont également établis en utilisant le même livre. Lorsqu’un oiseau n’a pas pu être identifié, il a éte considéré comme une espèce non-identifiée. Quant-aux noms vernaculaires locaux des oiseaux, le guide local maharavo nous les a donnés. Les résultats de cette recherche sont donnés par les tableaux des pages suivantes. Résultats Tableau 1: Liste des oiseaux observés dans une formation végétale intermédiaire entre forêt épineuse et forêt galérie. Nom scientifique

Nom vernaculaire local

Nombre

Fréquencerelative

Statut

Endémisme

Merops superciliosus Tsikiriokirioke 1 0,05 NGT Phyllastrephus apperti

1 0,05

Coua cursor Arefy 1 0,05 NGT End Milvus aegyptius Tsimilaho 1 0,05 NGT Not. End. Cisticola cherina 1 0,05 NGT Reg. End. Centropus toulou Toloho 1 0,05 NGT Reg. End. Ninox superciliaris Vorondolo 1 0,05 NGT End. Espèce non-identifiée 2 0,1 Scopus umbretta Takatse 2 0,1 NGT Not. End. Accipiter francesii 2 0,1 Xenopirostris xenopirostris

Fiok’ala 2 0,1 NGT End.

Hypsipetes madagascariensis

Tsikonina 3 0,15 NGT Reg. End.

Turnix nigricollis Kibo 3 0,15 NGT End. Neomixis tenella Tsimitse 3 0,15 NGT End. Coracina cinerea pallida

3 0,15

Buteo brachypterus Hindrio 3 0,15 NGT End. Terpsiphone mutata Remaly 3 0,15 NGT Reg. End. Calicalicus madagascariensis

Tratramborondreo

3 0,15 NGT End.

Corvus albus Koika 4 0,2 NGT Not. End. Polyboroides radiatus

Bevorotse 4 0,2 NGT End.

Numida meleagris Akanga 5 0,25 NGT Not. End.

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Agapornis canus Kareaka 5 0,25 NGT Not. End. Upupa marginata Tsikodara 6 0,3 NGT End. Nectarinia souimanga

Kisointsoy 6 0,3 NGT Reg. End.

Newtonia achboldi Andrebakia 7 0,35 NGT End. Leptopterus schabert Voron’antake 8 0,4 NGT End. Ploceus sakalava Tolin-ja 12 0,6 NGT End. Coracopsis nigra Sihotse 13 0,65 NGT Reg. End. Copsychus albospecularis

Pitse 14 0,7 NGT End.

Streptopelia picturata

Deho 15 0,75 NGT Reg. End.

Newtonia brunneicauda

Andrebakia 16 0,8 NGT End.

Dicrurus forficatus Lovy 16 0,8 NGT Reg. End. Oena capensis Tsikoloto 16 0,8 NGT Not. End. Coua cristata Tivoke 17 0,85 NGT End.

Tableau 2: Liste des oiseaux observés dans une formation secondaire de forêt sèche dominée par des Euphorbiacées. Nom scientifique


Nombre

Fréquencerelative

Statut Endemisme

Newtonia archboldi Andrebakia 1 0,05 NGT End. Buteo brachypterus Hindrio 1 0,05 NGT End Merops superciliosus Tsikiriokirioke 1 0,05 NGT Artamella viridis Vanga 1 0,05 NGT End Motacilla flaviventris Tristrio 1 0,05 NGT End Neomixis viridis Tsimitse 2 0,1 NGT End Turnix nigricollis Kibo 2 0,1 NGT End Ploceus sakalava Folinja 2 0,1 NGT End Upupa marginata Tsikodara 2 0,1 NGT End Leptopterus Schabert Voron’ antake 2 0,1 NGT End Neomixis tenella Tsimitse 3 0,15 NGT End Centropus toulou Toloho 3 0,15 NGT Reg. End. Coua ruficeps Aliotsy 3 0,15 NGT End Mirafra hova Jirioke 4 0,2 NGT End Neomixis striatigula Tsimitse 6 0,3 NGT End Milvus aegyptius Tsimilaho 6 0,3 NGT Not. End. Polyboroides radiatus Bevorotse 6 0,3 NGT End.

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Streptopelia picturata Deho 6 0,3 NGT Reg. End. Agapornis canus Kareake 7 0,35 NGT Not. End. Falco newtoni Hitikitike 7 0,35 NGT Reg. End. Foudia madagascariensis

Gody 8 0,4 NGT End.

Corvus albus Koaika 8 0,4 NGT Not. End. Newtonia brunneicauda


Copsychus albospecularis


Coracopsis nigra Jihotse 11 0,55 NGT Reg. End. Nectarinia souimanga Kisointsoy 16 0,8 NGT Reg. End. Pterocles personatus Hatrakatraka 16 0,8 NGT End. Oena capensis Tsikoloto 17 0,85 NGT Not. End. Coua cristata Tivoke 18 0,9 NGT End. Dicrurus forficatus Lovy 20 1 NGT Reg. End.

Tableau 3: liste des oiseaux observés dans une forêt dense épineuse. Nom scientifique


Nombre

Fréquence relative

Statut Endemisme

Milvus aegyptius Tsimilaho 1 0,05 NGT Not. End. Corvus albus Koika 2 0,1 NGT Not. End. Turnix nigricollis Kibo 2 0,1 NGT End. Falco newtoni Hitikitike 2 0,1 NGT Reg. End. Accipter madagascariensis

Fandraokibo 3 0,15 NGT End.

Foudia madagascariensis

Foly 4 0,2 NGT End.

Agapornis canus Kareake 4 0,2 NGT Not. End. Upupa marginata Tsikodara 4 0,2 NGT End. Streptopelia picturata Deho 4 0,2 NGT Reg. End. Buteo brachypterus Hindrio 5 0,25 NGT End. Pterocles personatus Hatrakatrake 5 0,25 NGT End. Coua ruficeps Aliotsy 5 0,25 NGT End. Artamella viridis Vanga 5 0,25 NGT End. Hypsipetes madagascariensis

Tsikonina 5 0,25 NGT Reg. End.

Vanga curvirostris Tsilovanga 6 0,3 NGT Not. End. Coua cursor Arefy 6 0,3 NGT End.

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Oena capensis Tsikoloto 7 0,35 NGT Not. End. Terpsiphone mutata Remahy 7 0,35 NGT Reg. End. Neomixis viridis Tsimitse 8 0,4 NGT End. Copsychus albospecularis


Xenopirostris xenopirostris

Fiok’ala 9 0,45 NGT End.

Leptopterus Schabert Voron’antake 10 0,5 NGT End. Newtonia brunneicauda


Coracopsis nigra Sihotse 13 0,65 NGT Reg. End. Coua cristata Tivoke 13 0,65 NGT End. Neomixis tenella Tsimitse 14 0,7 NGT End. Nectarina souimanga Kisointsoy 18 0,9 NGT Reg. End. Dicrurus forficatus Lovy 18 0,9 NGT Reg. End.

Remarques:

- NGT = Not Globally Threatened - NT = Near Threatened - End. = exprime que l’espèce se trouve uniquement à Madagascar - Reg. End. = exprime que l’espèce se trouve seulement dans la

région de l’océan Indien. - Not. End. = explique que la distribution géographique de l’espèce

s’étend en dehors de l’océan Indien. La fréquence relative des espèces est obtenue en faisant le rapport entre le nombre d’apparitions de l’oiseau et le nombre total de listes collectées dans chaque site qui est égal à vingt.

Discussion

Pour tous les trois types de subhabitat, le tapis herbacé est presque inexistant et des blocs de pierres et de cailloux s’éparpillent sur le sol. Les tableaux de résultats établis précédemment nous permettent d’avancer les interprétations qui suivent. La formation végétale intermédiaire entre forêt sèche épineuse et forêt galérie renferme au total 34 espèces d’oiseaux dont quinze sont endémiques de Madagascar, huit endémiques de la région de l’océan Indien, six presentent une distribution un peu partout dans le monde, cinq sont d’endémisme et de statut inconnus faute de temps pour l’analyse des résultats au camp durant la période de travail. Les autres espèces sont toutes de statut “Not Globally Threatened”. Dans ce subhabitat, on observe des espèces de plantes épineuses et quelques

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espèces de plante d’une forêt galérie, comme le genre Tamarindus Indica (Kily) et le Fihamy (Ficus sp.).

Comme le tableau 2 nous le prouve, on observe au total trente espèces d’oiseaux dans la formation secondaire de forèt sèche dominée par des Euphorbiacées. Parmi ces espèces, dix-neuf sont endémiques de Madagascar, six sont endémiques de la région de l’océan Indien, seules quatre espèces montrent une distribution presque partout dans le monde et une espèce est d’endémisme inconnu à cause de l’insuffisance de temps pour bien lire le livre pour connaître l’endémisme et le statut de l’oiseau. Elles ont tous le même statut “Not Globally Threatened”. Les espèces suivantes y sont tres fréquentes: Nectarinia Suimanga, Pterocles personatus, Oena capensis, Coua cristata et Dicrurus forficatus.

Dans la formation de forêt dense épineuse vingt-et-huit espèces d’oiseaux ont été identifiées, dont seize sont endémiques de Madagascar, sept endémiques de la région de l’ocean Indien et cinq sont trouvés presque partout dans le monde. Cette fois-ci, Neomixis tenella, Nectarinia souimanga et Dicrurus forficatus sont les genres les plus fréquents.

Conclusion Faunistiquement, comme floristiquement, les forêts se trouvant à la periphérie d’Ifotaka renferment de nombreuses espèces endémiques de la région de l’océan Indien, et beaucoup d’espèces endémiques de Madagascar. La plupart de ces espèces sont des espèces menacées de disparition qui necessitent donc une protection très particulière. Ainsi donc, pour une meilleure conservation du patrimoine malgache, ces forèts méritent d’être bien protegées contre toute activité humaine qui peut y entrainer des effets néfastes pour la forêt. Pour cela, il faut avancer des activités alternatives aux populations locales pour que les gens cessent de détruire les forêts.

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Investigation Ethnobotanique d'Ifotaka

Jatanne Martine Marimampiomana Etudiante à l’Universite de Toliara

I. INTRODUCTION

Beaucoup de chercheurs ont parle de leurs impressions sur la forêt et la physionomie malgache, comme M. HUMBERT, GUICHON, MORAT P., KOECKLIN P., etc. Etant située en zone tropicale entre l’océan indien et le canal de Mozambique, l’île de Madagascar possède une remarquable diversité climatique liée à sa situation géographique et a son relief montagneux. Toutes les conditions naturelles ont influencé la séparation des différentes formations végétales avec des différents éléments très intéressants. 75% des espèces végétales à Madagascar sont des plantes médicinales. De cette façon la population malgache se contentait de s’en servir pour traiter des maladies. Vu la modernisation apportée par les occidentaux et surtout la déforestation a Madagascar, les plantes ont peu a peu cesse d’être visibles. Ainsi la connaissance en médecine traditionnelle a commence d’être oubliée. De ce fait, l’étude de la corrélation entre l’homme et la plante ou l’ethnobotanique a été effectuée car il est maintenant reconnu que le devenir de l’homme est lié à la sauvegarde de la nature surtout, celui des paysans. Cette année, l’ethnobotanique a été spécialisée dans l’étude de relation entre d’espèce humaine et la plante médicinale, dont la zone d’étude était la forêt épineuse d’Ifotaka, dans la région d’Amboasary. II. OBJECTIFS

• Capitaliser les connaissances en médecine traditionnelle. • Valoriser quelques espèces des plantes médicinales les plus

efficaces enfin de promouvoir la médecine traditionnelle pour améliorer la santé des villageois, voire de la population malgache.

• Gérer et conserver la forêt d’Ifotaka. • Réconcilier l’homme avec son environnement, surtout avec la

nature. III. METHODE DE LA RECHERCHE

a) La zone d’étude

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Ifotaka est une commune a 45km au nord-ouest d’Amboasary. C’est l’une des zones identifiées par WWF eco-region Programme – Forêt sèche. Lors de cette étude, beaucoup de villages ont été visites : Mangily, Morafeno, Ambalagne, Ifotaka ; certaines zones de pâturage : Andavasaka, Ankazonampingaratra, Mahavelo, Anjantsiboro. Ces Zones de pâturage sone des forêts épineuses ou des galeries.

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Carte 1 : Les villages et les zones de pâturage

Carte 2 : Les Villages

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b) Méthode

Six personnes très reconnues de la région d’Ifotaka ont été identifiées. Elles avaient une grande connaissance en plantes médicinales, car ces étaient des conservatrices de la médecine traditionnelle et pouvaient même guérir des maladies. Ces guérisseurs sont des ombiasa et des reninjaza. Ils venaient de différents villages. Parmi eux, deux étaient des ombiasa kokolampo :

• MAMJOVALA (guérisseur a Morafeno) • MOUSSA Vorovosy (guérisseur a Andavasaka).

Deux étaient ombiasa : • MANAHIRA (guérisseur a Ifotaka) • ROBERT Manankarena (guérisseur a Ifotaka)

Un reninjaza ou sage femme traditionnelle : • TSITAKALO Madiotsara (guérisseur a Ifotaka-Tanambao)

Un simple guérisseur : • TSIMANGOVY (guérisseur a Mangily).

L’étude a été structurée comme suit :

• L’enquête ethnobotanique de chaque guérisseur • La collecte des espèces des plantes médicinales.

1. L’enquête ethnobotaniqueOn a interrogé les guérisseurs séparément. L’interview de chaque guérisseur a duré un ou deux jours. Lors de l’enquête, un enregistrement a été fait pour avoir plus de données et pour vérifier les notes qu’on a prisés. 2. La collecteLa collecte a été faite sous forme d’excursion. Elle a duré deux ou trois jours. Lors de la sortie dans la forêt, il était bien remarque que ce portait une grande opportunité aux guérisseurs car ils ont pu se remémorer autres plantes médicinales. Des echantillions ont été fonts pour l’identification de ces espèces au Parc botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza. Cette identification était assurée par Hélène RAZOMATSOA, tandis que l’analyse de quelques espèces des plantes médicinales au CNRE était assurée par Dr Emilienne MANANJARASOA.

IV. RESULTATS

Pendant deux mois et demie de recherche, 229 espèces des plantes médicinales ont été enregistrées, grâce à ces six guérisseurs. Ces plantes médicinales avaient 64 usages ou bien encore elles sont groupées en 64 remèdes (voir tableau 2). Parmi les 229 plants, 14

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étaient les plus renommées (au moins 3 guérisseurs parlaient le même usage). Ces plantes étaient donc à valoriser (voir tableau 1). Ces plantes à valoriser sont toutes facile à trouver d’où leurs GPS ne sont pas mentionnées.

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Tableau 1 : LES PLANTES MEDICINALES A VALORISER

Remède de

Nom Vernaculaire

Partie utilisée Préparation

Hémorragie Retsilaitsy partie aérienne

bouillir et boire

Abcès Famatamboay latex appliquer Diarrhée Kily écorce bouillir et boire Toux Voapiky partie

aérienne bouillir et boire

Toux Trotroiaka partie aérienne

bouillir et boire

Dysenterie Sarifitovy partie aérienne

bouillir et boire

Vomissement - Diarrhée

Hazonta partie aérienne

bouillir et boire

Musculaire Kitofy partie aérienne

bouillir et boire

Musculaire Hazolava écorce bouillir et boire Musculaire Katrafay écorce bouillir et boire Oeil Hazolava sève

écorce appliquer chauffer et appliquer

Dent Maseboatsifiany

fruit

Dent Savoa fruit

chauffer et faire entre la vapeur dans la bouche

Lactation Manongo écorce bouillir et boire Blennorragie Kirava partie

aérienne bouillir et boire

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Tableau 2 : PLANTES MEDICINALES DU REGION D’IFOTAKA

Maladies Nom Vernaculaire de la plante médicinale

Partie utilisée

Préparation

(NomScientifique)

(Famille)

Guérisseurs

Syphilis Kita partie aérienne (p.a.)

bouillir - boire

Mj

Manongo racine bouillir - boire

Mj

+ Boroa p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj, N

+ Sahondra p.a. bouillir - boire

V

Vahontsoy feuille bouillir - boire

Mj

Boka p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Abcès Ahibe racine bouillir - boire

Mj

Ahidambo racine bouillir - boire

Mj

Kidroy p.a. bouillir - boire

R

Lahitsivagno p.a. ou racine

bouillir - boire

T

Mosesy p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj

Sasavy racine bouillir - boire

Mj, T

Fagneatse racine appliquer T Famata p.a. appliquer M, T Katrafay moelle appliquer M, T Tsimarefy p.a. ou

racine Bouillir - boire, appliquer

T

Blennorragie

Hazolava racine bouillir - boire

M

Kotika p.a. bouillir - boire

M

Infe

ctio

nSe

xuel

lem

ent

Tra

nsm

issi

ble

(I.S

.T)

Kirava racine bouillir - boire

M, F, T, V

182

Herimbazaha nouvelle pousse

bouillir - boire

M, T

Mozotse p.a. bouillir - boire

M

Angamay toute la plante

bouillir - boire

M

Savoa p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Kioloroy p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Zanapoly p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Famata p.a. bouillir - boire

M,T

Rohavitsy racine bouillir - boire

M,T

Mongy feuille bouillir - boire

F

Katrafay moelle bouillir - boire

T

Angoribondambo

p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Korehobaza p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Kotoky p.a. ou racine

bouillir - boire

T

Tatavankibo p.a. bouillir - boire

V

Tsinteza - - V Hola tige - T Aolilolo p.a. - T

Ventre Kily écorce rouge

bouillir - boire

Mj

Taly p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj

Sandrisandry p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj


Mj

Trongatse racine bouillir - boire

Mj, M

Hazomalany feuille bouillir - boire

Mj Tro

ub

les

Stom

acau

x

Mangerivoreke

feuille ou tige

bouillir - boire

Mj, M

183

Manary écorce râper - boire

Mj

Sakoa écorce râper - boire

F

Manga apex râper - boire

F

Goavy apex râper - boire

F

Famatandralitsaka

p.a. râper - boire

F

Tamboro p.a. mâcher T Hazolava écorce mâcher T Katrafay écorce mâcher T Kepake p.a. mâcher V Andranahaka toute la

plante mâcher V

Sahondra p.a. mâcher V Marofototsy p.a. ou

racine mâcher V

Point de cote

Mafaibelo p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj, V

Menateza p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj

Boroa p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj

Totonga p.a. bouillir - boire

V

Diarrhée Kily écorce rouge

bouillir - boire

Mj, M, T, V

Hazobe moelle bouillir - boire

Mj

Taranta moelle bouillir - boire

M

Fihana écorce bouillir - boire

M, T

Tsimatavindrano


M

+Tamboro p.a. bouillir - boire

M, T

Entenente racine bouillir - boire

M

Kobay écorce bouillir - boire

M

184

Manary écorce bouillir - boire

Mj, M

Jabihy écorce bouillir - boire

M

Fangitse tige bouillir - boire

M

Sarifitovy p.a. bouillir - boire

M

Borodoky écorce bouillir - boire

M

Mangerivoreke


Mj, V

Fatipeko p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj

+Rohondroho p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Sagnira racine bouillir - boire

T

Totonga p.a. bouillir - boire

V

Tamenaka p.a. bouillir - boire

V

Akondro fleur bouillir - boire

T

Tsikimena toute la plante

bouillir - boire

T

Sirosiro écorce bouillir - boire

T

Choléra Kily écorce bouillir - boire

Mj

+Katrafay p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj, T, V

+Votofosa p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj, V


Mj, V

Manga écorce bouillir - boire

Mj

Rohondroho p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj


M

Bakakely p.a. bouillir - boire

T

185

Tsiongake fruit bouillir - boire

T


T

Hazomena p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Dysenterie

Manga écorce bouillir - boire

Mj

++Sarifitovy p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj, V, T

+Hazobe p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj

+Kily écorce bouillir - boire

Mj, T

Tamenake p.a. bouillir - boire

M

Antaky p.a. bouillir - boire

M

Fantiolitse p.a. bouillir - boire

F

Fangitse p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Andrerezo - bouillir - boire

T

Sirosiro écorce bouillir - boire

T

Sarifangitse p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Fihana écorce bouillir - boire

Mj

Votofosa tige bouillir - boire

V

Hazonta tige bouillir - boire

V

Gros Ventre

Sasavy p.a. bouillir - boire

V, Mj

Menateza p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj, V


Mj

Rohondroho p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj


F

186

Solombitike p.a. bouillir - boire

V, T

Kitata p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Vésicule bihaire

Beraboke p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj

Tamboro p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj

Balatiazo feuille bouillir - boire

Mj

Mandravasarotra


T


T

Rein Hazolava racine - Mj, T Kita p.a. - Mj Velomihanto p.a. - T Mafaibelo p.a. - T Bararata p.a. - V Lelanomby p.a. - V Relimahavelo p.a. - V

Hémorroïdes

Jabihy écorce bouillir - on s'assied sur

Mj

Kinana feuille T Katrafay écorce T

Vertige Tamboro p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Hazonta p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Kita p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Mal d'estomac

Kalavelo p.a. bouillir - boire

T


Mj

Feka p.a. bouillir - boire

M

Tro

ub

les

Dig

esti

fs

Marolahy p.a. bouillir - boire

M

187

Hamotsy p.a. bouillir - boire

M

Mongy feuille bouillir - boire

Mj

Toux Beraboka tige bouillir - boire

Mj

Vahiranga tige bouillir - boire

Mj, T

Mahavalaka tige bouillir - boire

Mj, M


Mj

Manide tige bouillir - boire

M

Voamina p.a. bouillir - boire

M

Kirary feuille et fleur

fumer M, T

Folotse racine bouillir - boire

M, T

Trotroiaka racine bouillir - boire

M, T, R

Filofilo tige bouillir - boire

M

Fatidronono p.a. bouillir - boire

M, T

Sengatse racine bouillir - boire

Mj

Nonoka p.a. bouillir - boire

F, T

Fihana p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Darosiky moelle bouillir - boire

T

Mozotse p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Katrafay écorce bouillir - boire

T

+Pisopiso racine bouillir - boire

V

+Sandraha écorce bouillir - boire

V

Tro

ub

les

Pu

lmon

aire

s

Lelantrandrake

tige bouillir - boire

V

188

Kisary racine bouillir - boire

V

Volafotsy racine bouillir - boire

T

Famatandralitsaka


T

Fandrivotse écorce bouillir - boire

T

Toux avec sang

Beraboka tige bouillir - boire

Mj

Vahiranga tige bouillir - boire

Mj

Mahavalaka tige bouillir - boire

Mj


Mj

Homotsy p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj

{+Katrafay écorce bouillir - boire

T

{+Hazolava écorce bouillir - boire

T


T


T

{+Fanavy p.a. bouillir - boire

V

{+Fihamy p.a. bouillir - boire

V

Hasme {+Hazolava écorce bouillir - boire

T

{+Katrafay écorce bouillir - boire

T

Volifitomboky

tige bouillir - boire

T

Voapiky p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Mandravasarotra


V

Marolahy p.a. bouillir - boire

V

Fandrivotse écorce bouillir - boire

T

189

Malamasafoa moelle bouillir - boire

T

Toutes douleurs


V, Mj


Mj

Fatikakoho p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj

Sampasy p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Voanjanahary p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Kotro p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Coqueluche


Mj

Kinana tige bouillir - boire

Mj

Fototse tige bouillir - boire

Mj

Kisary racine bouillir - boire

Mj

Voapiky p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj, T, F, R

Hazolava écorce bouillir - boire

T

Trotroiaka p.a. bouillir - boire

-Tro

ub

les

resp

irat

oir

es

Pneumonie

Sampasy p.a. bouillir - boire

T

cesser le vomissement

Votofosa p.a. bouillir - boire

M


M

Tsimatipaosa toute la plante

bouillir - boire

M

Romba toute la plante

bouillir - boire

M

Au

tres

Tro

ub

les

Albumine Mongy feuille bouillir - boire

Mj

190

Allergie Tratriotse p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj

Sirosiro p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj


Mj

Mal de voyage


T


T

Kita p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Vermifuge pour la chèvre

{+Tamenaka feuille écraser T

{+Vontaka feuille écraser T Velomihanto p.a. écraser T Hola p.a. écraser T

Vermifuge

Velomihanto p.a. bouillir - boire

T


Mj, T


M

Voapiky fruit bouillir - boire

M


T, F

Tamenaka p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Hola tige bouillir - boire

T

Diurétique

Voazavo p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj

Purgatif Tambio p.a. bouillir - boire

M

Kitata p.a. bouillir - boire

M

Kotika p.a. bouillir - boire

M, T

191

Fandrivotse racine bouillir - boire

M

Fandreandambo

racine bouillir - boire

T

Vomitif Tambio p.a. bouillir - boire

M

Mongy racine bouillir - boire

Mj

Fandriandambo


T

Engraisser


T

+Katrafay écorce bouillir - boire

V

Famoty p.a. bouillir - boire

T


T, R

+Rohondroho p.a. bouillir - boire

V

Samboto racine bouillir - boire

T

Furoncle Antso latex appliquer Mj Famataboay latex appliquer Mj, V, M,

TVonifotsy feuille écraser -

appliquer M

Mosesy racine râper - appliquer

M

Valiandro tige/racine râper - appliquer

M

Fatidronono tige/racine râper - appliquer

M

Roy racine bouillir - laver

M

Rohavotse racine râper T Hazonta partie

renflée râper T

Hola tige râper T Beraboka sève appliquer V

Infe

ctio

ns

Cu

tan

ées

Malaignevoke tige râper - appliquer

V

192

Harahampisaka

latex appliquer V

Tamotamo racine râper - appliquer

V

Plaie Kapoky latex appliquer Mj Akondro pédoncule bouillir -

laver M

Bageda feuille écraser - appliquer

M

Vonifotsy feuille écraser - appliquer

M

Hazolava sève appliquer M Famata latex appliquer M Angemay feuille écraser -

appliquer M, V, T

Halomboromahalao

feuille écraser - appliquer

T

Manary écorce rouge

râper - appliquer

M, T

Filofilo feuille écraser - appliquer

F

Romba feuille écraser - appliquer

F

Fatikakoho feuille écraser - appliquer

F, T

Katrafay écorce râper - appliquer

T

Herimbazaha feuille écraser - appliquer

T

Fantiolitse écorce écraser - appliquer

T

Sakoa écorce écraser - appliquer

T

Tsirandambo p.a. écraser - appliquer

T

Malainkena feuille écraser - appliquer

V

Brûlure Taboara fleur écraser - appliquer

Mj

Vahombe sève appliquer Mj Mozotse latex appliquer V

Epilatoire Sengatse latex épiler Mj Taranta sève épiler T

193

Démangeaison

Sirosiro sève oindre Mj, F

Jabiha p.a. bouillir - laver

Mj

Halomboro p.a. bouillir - laver

F

Kapiky graine écraser - appliquer

V

Fanoteandambo

feuille écraser - appliquer

V

Mahaka feuille écraser - appliquer

V, F

Kita p.a. bouillir - laver

V

Antso latex oindre V, F

Musculaire et Dos

Kidroy p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj

Kinana p.a. baigner Mj Kitohy p.a. bouillir -

boire Mj, V, R

Vahiamalo p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj, R

Hazolava écorce bouillir - boire - baigner

Mj, V, F

Katrafay écorce bouillir - boire - baigner

Mj, V, F

Tanapoly p.a. bouillir - boire

M, V

Maninjo écorce bouillir - boire - baigner

Mj

Tête {+Rombabe p.a. bain de vapeur

Mj

{+Voafaria p.a. bain de vapeur

Mj

{+Faneatse p.a. bain de vapeur

Mj

Rombavola p.a. bain de vapeur

Mj

Bemaimbo p.a. bain de vapeur

Mj Au

tres

Org

anes

Maninjo écorce bouillir - boire

Mj

194

Boka p.a. bain de vapeur

T

Mafaibelo p.a. bain de vapeur -boire

T

Tsimelanitamba

p.a. bain de vapeur

T

Tombiry p.a. bain de vapeur

T

Voasary p.a. bain de vapeur -boire

T, V

Cancer de Prostate

Angoriboky p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj


Mj

Crise convulsive

Tambiro p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Fanota p.a. bouillir - boire

M, V

Taranta p.a. bouillir - boire

F

Retsara p.a. bouillir - boire

V

Momba p.a. bouillir - boire

V

Arrivo p.a. bouillir - boire

V

Kepake p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Mosisy p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Senjino p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Andriambolafotsy


T

Sahondra p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Kalavelo p.a. bain de vapeur - bouillir - boire

T

Oeil Vahimasy sève faire couler le jus

Mj

Hazolava moelle écraser - faire couler le jus

Mj, V, F

195

Tombobitsy moelle écraser - faire couler le jus

Mj

Vahontsoy sève écraser - faire couler le jus

M, T

Hasy feuille écraser - faire couler le jus

M

Remoty p.a. écraser - faire couler le jus

M

Mosesy p.a. écraser - faire couler le jus

M

Somontsoy p.a. écraser - faire couler le jus

M, T

Tsiambara p.a. écraser - faire couler le jus

Mj

Harandrato écorce écraser - faire couler le jus

T

Rompitike apex écraser - faire couler le jus

T

Kobay écorce écraser - faire couler le jus

T

Farehitse feuille écraser - faire couler le jus

T

Genou Fihana latex appliquer Mj Fihana écorce bouillir -

laver Mj

Volofitomboky

écorce gratter - appliquer

V

Somombarika écorce gratter - appliquer

V

Volofitomboky

écorce écraser - appliquer

T, V

Fatipeko moelle écraser - appliquer

Mj

Hazolava écorce écraser - appliquer

V

Tapiapiake - - Mj, T Voazavo - - Mj Tokantovo - - T Rohondroho - - T Tapiaka - - V Savoa - - T

196

Vagna tige râper - lécher - bouillir - boire

Mj, V

Vahontsoy sève lécher T

Dent Manongo - - Mj Laloasy hampe bouillir -

rincer Mj

Rompitse racine bouillir - rincer

Mj

Samangipaky feuille écraser - rincer

Mj

Tamboro p.a. mâcher Mj, T Tsitsitse feuille mâcher Mj {+Mamaboatsihany

fruit griller - bain de vapeur

Mj, M, T

{+Savoa fruit griller - bain de vapeur

Mj, M, T

Rohavitse p.a. bouillir - rincer

M, V

Tsiambara racine bouillir - rincer

Mj, M

Befoetse p.a. bouillir - rincer

T

Borodoke écorce bouillir - rincer

V

Sakaviro rhizome appliquer V Famata latex appliquer V

Rougeole Tingotingo p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Hisatse toute la plante

bouillir - boire

T

Aferontany toute la plante

pincer - boire

T

Sarihisatse toute la plante

bouillir - boire

T

Fièvre Jaune

Nonoke p.a. bouillir - boire

T, V

Kalavelo p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Cheveux Jabihy écorce bouillir - laver

T

Au

tres

Farehitra feuille tremper - laver

T

197

"Hevo" (*a)

Pisopiso écorce bouillir - boire

Mj

Relefo p.a. bouillir - boire

M, F, T, R

Sagnira feuille écraser - laver

R, T

Kily écorce bouillir - boire

V

Sahondra p.a. bouillir - boire

V, R

Sakaviro rhizome râper - appliquer

V

Halomboro écorce rouge

bouillir - boire

T

Dagoa p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Grossesse Andrapasy p.a. bouillir - boire

M

Fatikakoho p.a. bouillir - boire

M

Mandravasarotra


V

Fandotsara p.a. bouillir - boire

V


T

Antake p.a. bouillir - boire

R

Lambigna p.a. bouillir - boire

T


T

Règle abondante

Retsilaitsy p.a. bouillir - boire

V, M, F, R

Vindavato p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj

Solohotsy p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj

Taritarike p.a. bouillir - boire

F

Nou

veau

-né


T

198

Mahavalaka p.a. bouillir - boire

V

Fandrotiosy p.a. bouillir - boire

V

Tsikimena p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Lambigna p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Angalora p.a. bouillir - boire

T


T

Allaitement

Kope p.a. bouillir - boire

V

Manongo écorce bouillir - boire

Mj, M, T

Sein Feka p.a. bouillir - boire

V

"Pia" (*b) Hily p.a. bouillir - boire

M

Raketa (note 1)


R, V

Papay feuille bouillir - boire

R, V

Varo p.a. bouillir - boire

V

Antake p.a. bouillir - boire

V

"Tsovoke" (*c)

Darotandroka tige bouillir - boire

T

Vahombe feuille bouillir - boire - laver

R

Zanapoly p.a. bouillir - boire

V

Qu

elq

ues

pro

blè

mes

de

fem

mes

Zira p.a. bouillir - boire

V

Règle douloureuse

Tsimena p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj

Pro

blè

me

Tatavankibo p.a. bouillir - boire

Mj

199


T

Katrafay écorce bouillir - boire

T

?Hilona p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Retsilontse p.a. bouillir - boire

R

Tsifolahina p.a. bouillir - boire

T

Enceinte Mandravasarotra

p.a. - Mj, T

Lelanaomby p.a. - Mj Farehitra feuille - Mj Rohondroho p.a. - T Sagnira p.a. - T Solombitike p.a. - T Fandotsara p.a. - T

Apres l'accouchement

Sofasofa p.a. bouillir - boire

V, M, F

Hento écorce laver M Katrafay écorce bouillir - boire -

laver M

Menateza p.a. bouillir - boire - laver

M, T

Vahombe p.a. bouillir - boire - laver

M, R

Solety feuille bouillir - boire - laver

M

Vahimasy p.a. bouillir - boire - laver

M, T

Varo p.a. bouillir - boire - laver

M, R

Retsilaitsy p.a. bouillir - boire - laver

M, R

Tsimena p.a. bouillir - boire - laver

M, Mj

Hazomena p.a. bouillir - boire - laver

T, F

Fandrohiosy p.a. bouillir - boire - laver

F, V

Ap

port

d'é

ner

gie

po

ur

lafe

mm

e

Taritarike p.a. bouillir - boire - laver

R

200

Boroa p.a. bouillir - boire - laver

T

Lambigna p.a. bouillir - boire - laver

V

?Iholilo écorce - p.a.

bouillir - boire - laver

T

Philtre d'amour

Retsara - - (M)

Masindranoniandroa

- - (M)

Rompitike - - (T) Fandreandambo

- - (F)

Protection

Maharoaka - - (V)

Boka - - (T) Tsivoantolaka - - (F) Romba - - (T) Volafotsy - - (T) Lahitsivagno - - (V) Marofototse - - (T) Fandreandambo

- - (F)

Andriambolafotsy

- - (F)

Tsimalanilamba

- - M, F

Richesse Hororoke - - (V) Tsitakatse - - (V) Vorine - - (V) Vahindranto - - (V) Hazomanjaka - - (V)

Aphrodisiaque

{+Vahiamato - - (M, Mj, F)

{+Kitohy - - (Mj, M) Vahipindy - - (M)

Au

tres

Cancer VermifugeBilharziose

Pervenche (note 2)

- - Mj

201

Quelques définitions

a) Selon Ravi-maitso, le "Pia" (*b) est comme des douleurs aiguës souvent accompagnées de pertes sanguines à chaque rejet spasmodique des restes du placenta, ou de sang. Tandis que le "Sovoke" (*c) est au froid qui entre dans les parties après l’accouchement et rend fébrile. (*a) Hevo : La petite moelle sur la tête et le front d’un enfant. b) G.P.S. : global positioning system. Servent à déterminer la position géographique d’un lieu (voir l’annexe).

Quelques abréviationsLes guérisseurs : Mj Manjovake M Manahira T Tsimangovy F Robert Manankarena dit Fanahisoa V Moussa Vonovosy R Reninjaza : TSITAKALO Madiotsara. Quelques explications

+ Les plantes médicinales à rassembler ont muni d’un signe plus (+) Liste des plantes ayant le même usage dans "Plantes médicinales Malgaches" Ravi-maitso

note 1 bouillir et boire pour traiter le "pia" note 2 Trongatse ou pervenche, bouillir et boire pour traiter le cancer. V. DISCUSSION

Parmi les maladies, ce sont le paludisme, la diarrhée pour les enfants, l’infection respiratoire aiguë, la maladie diarrhéique (fièvre typhoïde et dysenterie amibienne), l’infection cutanée et les infections sexuellement transmissibles qui sont les plus fréquentes dans la région d’Ifotaka disait le médecin du village Dr RANDRIANIAINA Folofo Charles Alain. Ces maladies sont les principales causes de la mortalité. Il disait aussi que les villageois étaient conscients de l’importance de l’hôpital mais cela ne serait qu’à la dernière chance. Ce n’était pas l’argent qui leur manque, mais c’était l’habitude et la mentalité qui poussait ces gens-la d’aller consulter les

202

guérisseurs traditionnels. Comme frais du traitement, ils devraient donner soit un bœuf, un mouton, ou de l’argent au guérisseur. Ils étaient obliges de voir les guérisseurs traditionnels car le genre de maladie appelée "helo" n’aurait jamais guéri sans avoir fait un sacrifice. Surtout avec le philtre d’amour et la protection contre la sorcellerie, la puissance spirituelle est très dominant. Pour faire le traitement, beaucoup de plantes médicinales devraient être rassemblées pour avoir plus d’efficacité, comme la Bourse et le sahondra servaient pour le traitement de syphilis ; Le sarifitovy avec soit le kily soit le hazobe, servaient pour traiter la dysenterie. Les guérisseurs affirmaient que les plantes médicinales pouvaient bien traiter toutes les maladies qu’on avait listé sans intervenir le pouvoir spirituel. Il est à noter que certaines plantes pouvaient avoir un nom similaire ; comme exemple, Le Famatandrelitsaka pour Robert Manankarena était un arbuste à grande feuille et à latex blanc tandis que pour Tsimangovy c’etait un arbuste, aphylle à latex blanc. D’après Robert Manankarena le Famatandrelitsaka traitait le problème de ventre. Le Famatandrelitsaka de Tsimangovy servent à traiter les toux. D’une région ou d’un village à un autre, la même espèce pouvait avoir de noms différents. Prenons comme exemple le Famatandrelitsaka de Tsimangovy à Mangily, était aussi appelé Mazotse par Manahira. Pour ce dernier, cette plante traitait la syphilis. Hors la plupart de ces plantes médicinales pouvaient traiter plusieurs maladies. Le Hazolava traitait à la fois le problème musculaire et l’œil, le sein et la plaie. Ce puis veut dire que la forêt épineuse est très riche en plantes médicinales ; c’est un véritable “pharmacie” pour les communautés locales, voire pour la population malgache. Alors la conservation de celle-ci est très souhaitable car l’exploitation abusive des plantes médicinales peut causer une déforestation. “Penser environnement” pour un peuple pauvre n’est pas chose aisé et encore moins “penser développement durable” surtout quand-ce peuple "lutte pour sa suivie" disait le directeur général de CFSIGE. Alors la gestion durable de la ressource naturelle est la bonne solution pour conserver cette forêt épineuse. Lors de cette étude, beaucoup d’espèces n’étaient pas collectées. Certaines étaient même difficiles à identifier, car la période choisie faire cette recherche n’était pas convenable. C’est pourquoi un tas d’espèces des plantes médicinales n’avaient pas de noms scientifiques. Il est donc préférable de continuer cette recherche pendant l’été.

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Le but lointain de cette recherche est d’installer une clinique dont le traitement est basé sur les plantes médicinales. A ce moment, la collaboration avec les guérisseurs du village est à exiger car “la méfiance ou l’hostilité des paysans peut faire échouer le meilleur des projets” disait Jean Noël SALOMON (article; Deforestation. 1982)

VI. CONCLUSION

Etant conservateurs de la tradition malgache et surtout de la médecine traditionnelle malgache, les guérisseurs traditionnels ont été contactes. 229 plantes médicinales ont été enregistrées et seulement 14 espèces sont à valorisées. Cette valorisation de la plante médicinale est faite pour améliorer la vie sanitaire de la population locale, voire de toute la population malgache et pour réduire la pauvreté de la population même. Il est remarque que toutes les plantes non toxiques ont des propriétés thérapeutiques. Vu l’insuffisance du temps beaucoup de plantes médicinales ne sont pas encore enregistrées. Parmi les plantes enregistrées, un bon nombre d’espèces était difficile à identifier car elles n’avaient pas ni fleur ni feuille, c’est a dire la description biologique était incomplète. D’où la mission n’était pas accomplie mais il faut la continuer à la bonne saison.

VII. BIBLIOGRAPHIE

• SALOMON J. N. "Réalités et conséquences de la déforestation dans l’Ouest de malgache". Nat Rev Geog., 1982 h0, 7-13.

• Deschemaeker. Ravi-Maitso, 1990 "Les Plantes Médicinales" • Joseph AMADE, Centre de formation aux services de l’information

Géographique et de l’environnement. • Submitted by the WWF Madagascar Country Office to WWF US,

January 1999. "Madagascar Dry Forest Ecoregion Programme".

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ANNEXE

Les positions des espèces dites localisées étaient prises : Plantes localisées GPS Famatandralitsaka 09

1S 24° 45.691’ E 046° 08.487’

Tsivoanino 083

S 24° 45.789’ E 046° 08.511’

Veliandro 142

S 24° 45.913’ E 046° 08.76’

Rapoka 114

S 24° 46.644’ E 046° 10.232’

Mongy 112

S 24° 45.660’ E 046° 10.237’

Kidroy 105

S 24° 46.264’ E 046° 08.699

Fandrohiosy 076

S 24° 47.370’ E 046° 08.156’

Pisopiso 126

S 24° 46.262’ E 046° 09.210’

Kelimahavelo 140

S 24° 45.919’ E 046° 09.094’

[unknown] 165

S 24° 45.700’ E 046° 10.648’

Retsiotry 120

S 24° 46.260’ E 046° 08.840’

Sambonto 117

S 24° 46.759’ E 046° 08.783’

Manendraka 127

S 24° 46.252’ E 046° 08.184’

Anivo 125

S 24° 45.677’ E 046° 10.688’

Hazomanjaka 163

S 24° 45.593’ E 046°10.593’

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LA CLASSIFICATION DES FORETS EPINEUSES

RASOAVOLONJANAHARY Myria Flore Horthanaya Etudiante à la faculté des sciences


I - INTRODUCTION Les forets épineuses du sud et sud ouest Malgache sont parmi les forets sèches les plus riches au monde du point de vue biologique. On peut classer donc la foret de la commune rurale d Ifotaka parmi les forets épineuses.Les forets contiennent des nombreuses espèces gênes et familles de faune et flore endenique de Madagascar. Il y a au total 106 espèces végétales existantes dans 14 sites différents après les inventaires que nous avons fais. Les espèces sont reparties en quelques familles. Grâce à ses richesses floristiques que le projet Ifotaka a un programme de recherche pour la conservation de la foret épineuse d Ifotaka Cette étude comporte 6 parties - Objectif - Méthodologie de travail - Résultat - Analyse ( ou calcul ) - Discussion - Conclusion 1 - Objectif Cette étude a pour objet de classifier les compositions florales des forets épineuses entre le Rokontany de Mangily et le Rokontany d’Amboatse dans la commune rurale d’Ifotaka. Nous avons fait 7 sites différents dans la foret épineuse. 2 - Méthodologie a - Matériels - G P S - bloc note - mètres - crayon - piquet et flague - journal - presse b - déroulement du travail On va choisir tout d’abord les sites en prenant leurs coordonnées avec le G P S. Nous avons fait au total 14 sites différents dont 7 forets épineuses et 7 forets galeries. Remarquons que le travail que nous avons fait dans chaque site est le même.

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On fait un quodrat de 40 x 30 m. Ce quodrat est divise en 12 parcelles de 10 m2. On met un piquet avec flague a chaque 10 m. Apres le métrage on va inventorier toutes les espèces existantes dans chaque site, on les dénombre les individus qui ont un diamètre supérieur ou égale à 5 cm ( ou ont une circonférence supérieure ou égale à 18 cm ). Rappelons que cet inventaire a pour tout d’identifier les espèces existantes et de les classifier suivant leur systématique. Pour cela, il faut prendre donc des échantillonnages. Les derniers sont mis dans le journal et ensuite on les presse. Les spécialistes du parc botanique et zoologique de Tsimbazaza les identifient et nous donnent les noms scientifiques exacts de chaque espèce ainsi que leur famille. Pour savoir la densité et l’abondance des arbres dans chaque site. Il y a une méthode au hasard, cette méthode se déroule comme suit : On lance un bloc de pierre au hasard, et notons « A « ce point. On voit au pied des plantes les plus proches de ce point en mesurant ensuite la distance entre ces deux points « X « . Apres, on prend la perpendiculaire a cet axe en voyant aussi au pied des plantes les plus proches, notons « B « , On mesure la distance entre ces deux points « Y « . Et ainsi de suite jusqu'à ce qu’on obtienne 10 points au hasard. a partir de ces dix points obtenus, on va calculer la densité et l’abondance des arbres ainsi que leur répartition. 3 - Resultants Site No 1 On a vu 31 espèces dans ce site dont les genres les plus dominants sont le genre Commiphora humbertu appartenant à la famille de Burceracese, genre Euphorbia plagianta ( F. des Euphocebiacese) et enfin le genre Allaudia ascendens ( F. des Didieraceai ) Site No 2 On a vu 22 espèces dont les plus dominantes sont : - genre Securinega coprirenu ( F. des Euphorbiacees) - genre Alluadia procera ( Didieraceae ) - genre Cedrelopsis grevii ( Reliecese ) Site No 3 On a vu 33 espèces dont les familles sont les plus dominantes sont : - genre Euphorbia plagiante ( Euphorbiaceae ) - genre Commiphora humbertii ( Burseraceae ) - genre Alluaudie procera ( Didieraceae ) Site No 4 On a vu 32 espèces dont les familles et les espèces les plus importantes sont : Genre et espèce Famille

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Commiphora humbertii Burseracese Allaudia ascendens Didieracese Site No 5 On a vu 33 espèces dont les familles et les especes les plus dominantes sont : Genre et espèce Famille Commiphora humbertii Burseraceae Gyrocarpus americanus Hernandiacese Alluaudia procese Didieracese Site No 6 On a vu 34 espèces dont les plus dominantes sont : Genre et espèce Famille Alluaudia procera Didieraceae Commiphora humbertii Burseraceae 4. Relevés de GPS Site no. 1 Site no. 2 Site no. 3 240 40’ 617 S 240 41’ 034 S 240 41’ 108 S 460 08’ 958 E 460 08’ 894 E 460 08’ 952 E 252m 176m 176m

Site no. 4 Site no. 5 Site no. 6 240 40’ 714 S 240 40’ 590 S 240 40’ 801 S 460 08’ 972 E 460 08’ 706 E 460 08’ 06 E 227m 195m 210m Site no. 7 240 41’ 412 S 460 08’ 899 E 130m 5. Analyse:

Site no. 1

a) Estimation de le densitè

xi (en m)

0,71 0,29 1,00 1,53 0,96 1,97 0,42 0,75 1,12 2,55

yi (en m)

1,37 3,60 2,50 2,78 3,12 1,30 3,16 3,24 3,00 0,85

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D2 = m2/2,828 (Exi.Eyi)

Application numerique Exi = 11,3 Eyi = 24,92 M = 10 Xi et yi sont des distances

D2 = 0,126 trees/m2

b) Test du distribution

t’= Σ [Exi2/xi2 + yi2/2] – m/2.12/m

Application numerique (apres le calcul)

t2 = 1,908

Site no. 2


xi (en m)

1,60 0,68 1,30 1,33 1,46 1,29 0,88 0,38 0,37 1,56

yi (en m)

1,24 0,58 2,44 1,55 1,30 1,33 0,78 2,90 1,22 1,00

D2 = m2/2,828 (Exi.Eyi)

Application numerique Exi = 10,55 Eyi = 14,34 M = 10

donc D2 = 0,233 trees/m2


209

t’= Σ [Exi2/xi2 + yi2/2] – m/2.12/m

Donc, apres le calcul

t2 = 0,40 Site no. 3


xi (en m)

3,00 1,90 1,40 0,77 1,00 0,65 0,40 2,28 0,82 0,34

yi (en m)

1,50 1,80 0,91 1,30 1,45 0,88 3,80 3,44 3,10 2,53

D2 = m2/2,828 (Exi.Eyi)


d’ou D2 = 0,133 trees/m2


t’= Σ [Exi2/xi2 + yi2/2] – m/2.12/m

apres le calcul

t2 = 0,39 Site no. 4


xi (en m)

0,45 1,00 1,47 0,64 1,36 1,30 1,50 0,72 0,84 1,27

210

yi (en m)

0,85 0,50 2,90 1,28 1,22 1,81 1,60 1,34 1,51 1,88

D2 = m2/2,828 (Exi.Eyi)




t’= Σ [Exi2/xi2 + yi2/2] – m/2.12/m


t2 = 0,008

Site no. 5


xi (en m)

0,63 2,44 1,38 1,68 1,56 0,98 0,85 0,00 0,85 1,10

yi (en m)

1,64 1,70 2,72 0,97 2,00 1,38 1,66 1,38 2,18 1,98

D2 = m2/2,828 (Exi.Eyi)


donc D2 = 0,163 trees/m2


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t’= Σ [Exi2/xi2 + yi2/2] – m/2.12/m


t2 = 0,84 Site no. 6


xi (en m)

1,32 1,50 0,49 1,60 2,96 2,52 0,50 2,25 0,52 0,66

yi (en m)

1,53 3,17 1,30 1,27 0,36 1,20 1,87 0,65 1,74 1,20

D2 = m2/2,828 (Exi.Eyi)




t’= Σ [Exi2/xi2 + yi2/2] – m/2.12/m


t2 = 0,451

Site no. 7


xi (en m)

1,75 2,21 1,75 1,98 0,88 1,40 1,90 1,50 0,87 1,30

yi (en m)

1,29 1,70 1,84 0,29 3,35 1,97 1,53 0,38 1,00 2,30

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D2 = m2/2,828 (Exi.Eyi)


d’ou D2 = 0,0,145 trees/m2


t’= Σ [Exi2/xi2 + yi2/2] – m/2.12/m

Donc, apres le calcul t2 = 1,674

Discussion La famille des didieracese, la famille des Euphorbiacese et Burseracese sont très dominantes dans cette foret. Les familles ne sont pas très nombreuses mais présentes un pourcentage plus élevé par rapport aux autres familles, 15 a 30 individus par quatrat. La famille des Fabiaceses et des Rubiaceses est dispersée car on a vu entre 5 a 10 individus par quatrat. Les autres familles présentent un pourcentage plus bas, c’est à dire 1 a 4 individus par quatrat. Les plantes ont une longueur variable entre 2 a 10 mètres, leurs diamètres aussi sont très variables. En général, les plantes sont très dispersées, les tapis hebacees sont presque nuls, rares d ‘arbustes (coton s p). Le mode d’adaptation des plantes est très varie, car les autres sont des plantes en forme de bouteille, remarquons que presque toutes les plantes ont des feuilles très petites, présentant des épines quelques fois. Nous savons que le sud malgache sont des régions chaudes, a climat aride dont le couvert végétal repose sur des sols pauvres. Mais le problème est que presque toutes les plantes n‘ont pas de feuille. Donc c ‘est très difficile de les connaître ou d’identifier, ainsi que le prélèvement d’échantillons ( herbiers ). Au niveau local, les deux guides venant de 2 régions différentes nomment une plante a 2 noms veinaculaires différents.

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Conclusion Vu les richesses florales existantes dans les forets épineuses de la commune rurale d’Ifotaka, surtout entre Rokontany de Mangily et le Rokontany d’Amboese. Il est donc nécessaire de les protéger et de les sauver, même s’il y avait déjà quelques parcelles deforestees a l’intérieur de la foret a cause de la culture de mais. La région contient 2 types de forets, dont l’une a foret épineuse et l’autre a foret galerie. Cette dernière présente quelques espèces très particulières poussant dans un sol un peu humidifie. Remarquons que ce ne sont pas de vraies galeries, car le cours d eau est saisonnier, c’est à dire à chaque saison de pluie. Mais avant de faire la conservation d’une foret, il faut sensibiliser tout d’abord la population locale, il faut leur donner l’idée de la conservation, l’importance écologique et socio-économique de la foret. Il faut bien préciser la saison compatible a la recherche, pour le futur projet, c est à dire au moment de la saison des pluies. Puisque durant cette saison, les plantes ont presque des feuilles, tout cela facilite les récoltes, des échantillons e t puis on peut bien les différencier.

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LISTE DES PLANTES - deja identifie par les specialistes de Tsimbazaza

Nom vernaculaire Genre et espece Famille

Sognogne Alluaudie ascendens Didiereceae Rohondrohogne Alluaudia dumose Didiereceae Sogaombaritee Alluaudia humbertii Didiereceae Fantiolitse Alluaudia procera Didiereceae Jabihy Opericulicarua decoryi Anacardiaceae Tarentana Rhus perieri Anarcardiaceae Vontatre Pachypodium lemerei Apocynaceae Fetra Tabernaemontana ruffeoides Apocynaceae Hiligne Stereospernum renotocarpum Bignoniaceae Darosite Commiphora humberti Burseraceae Sengatre Commiphora simplifolia Burseraceae Darotandroke Commiphora sp. Burseraceae Somangipaty Boscia longifolia Capparidaceae Keleogne Crateva enselsa Capparidaceae Fatra Terminalia cynocarpe Combretaceae Taliforototo Terminalia divaricata Combretaceae Talintivote Terminalia mantaly Combretaceae Talihazobe Terminalia mantaly Combretaceae Meentego Diospynes humbertiana Ebenaceae Porofote Diospynos sp. Ebenaceae Herotse Euphosbia intisy Euphorbiaceae Befotse Euphorbia leveodendrom Euphorbiaceae Pihagne Euphorbia plagiante Euphorbiaceae Hajomene Securinega caprirenii Euphorbiaceae Hajonboatargo Endigofera tinetonie Rabbaceae Lambigna Baudouinia fluggeiformus Fabaceae Faeohiony Bauhinie peervilleana Fabaceae Magnary Dalbergia emienensis Fabaceae Vaery Tetrapterocarpon geayi Fabaceae Sironrio Gyrocarpus americanus Herandiaceae Relegogne Strychnos decussata Loganiaceae Dagoa Strychnos decussata Loganiaceae Magne (tely roane) Hibiscus ambovombensis Malvaceae Magne (bc roane) Hibiscus bojeranus Malvaceae Hozontrotina Memecylon delphinenese Melastomatoceae Vatrafay Cedrelopris gorevei Meliaceae Meninjos Cedrelopris microfoliata Meliaceae Hezolava (handy) Neobegnea mahafaliensis Meliaceae Lezagne Adenis sp Passifloraceae Farehitra Rencarina sp Pedaliaceae Triongate Rhopalocarpus lucidus Rhopalocarpaceae Mentrate Enterospermum sp1 Rubiaceae

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Voafotate Euclinia suairssime Rubiaceae Voanoro Hipericenthus ambovombensis Rubiaceae Tringene Beratavylon chouci Sapindaceae Teolantofotra Grewia androyensis Tiliaceae Tabarite Grewia microcycles Tiliaceae Andepary Grewia seligne Tiliaceae

LISTE DES PLANTES - qui ne sont pas encore verifiees par les botanistes de Tsimbazaza Nom vernaculaire Genre et espece Famille Havahoa Microtacus Mimoseceae Kirava Mimohe delucatula "

Halomsoromehlao Albizzia polyphylla "

Sandrahina Albizzia gueviana Ulbiaceae Marandoha Enterospum "

Beholitse Hymenodictum sp Moringaceae Hajaonagny Moringo Olesceae Retsilaitsa Volonria myrtyoides Mimosaceae Kolohoto Albizzia sp Elneceae Hororoke Diospyroes eupuligeras Burseraceae Daronaomby Commiphora Euphonbiaceae Kitata BrideliaPuvilleana Asclepiadaceae Sokoandalitse Opercularye Sterciliaceae Vinoagne Hildegardine Hetogne Akolahy Kotriny Nato Mongy Antaceae

Manongo Santhoxylum decarpi Enconnue 1 Econnue 2 Econnue 3

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Rapport du Travail Concernant la Comparaison Entre la Forêt Epineuse et la Forêt Galerie

Rodine, Claudia Etudiante à l’Universite de Toliara

A Madagascar, le patrimoine biologique est particulierement riche surtout dans la région de Tuléar. “Peu de regions au monde certainement reunisssent sur une aussi faible superficie tant d’elements interessants” (Koecklin et al, 1974). Malgré l’attaque fait par l’homme, quilques espèces animals et végétales sont disparues, d’autres sont menacées d’extinctions, il est urgent de proteger et gérer la forêt car la plupart des espèces végétales et animales se situent en forêt. Cela raison pour laquelle nous avons travaillé dans la commune rura le d’Ifotaka, plus precisement dans la forêt entre les Fokontany Mangily at Amboestse. Ces deux Fokontany sont parmi les 13 Fokontany que la comune apartient. On à fait l’étude car pour mieux gérer, il faut mieux connaitre. On à fait les inventaires pour pouvoir comparer les deux types de formations tel que: la forêt épinuese et la forêt de galérie.

Objectifs C’est d’identifier et de classifier la composition floristique de foréts dans le but d’aider et de faciliter les gens locales à la demande de conservation et de gestion de leur forêts par eux-mêmes. C’est de comparer les richesses floristiques de la forét epineuse et celles de la forêt qui se trouve au bord de petit ruisseau.

Methodologie Matériels Dans cette étude, nous avons utilisé les matériels énumerés ci-dessous:

• Metre à ruban ayant une longueur de 30m

• Piquet portant au sommet de petit flague avec de couleur tres evisible

• Sécateur

• Crayon • Marqueur • Presse • Bloc note • Journaux

217

• GPS (Global Positioning system)

• Bloc de pierre

• Alcool

Methode d’étude Le choix de zones d’étude s’effectue soit:

• En fonction de lexistence de microcebus et/ou le sifaka • En fonction de l’altitude, c’est à dire, on à pris come site

l’endroit que l’on trouve au sommet, au milieu et en bas de montagne, au bord de petit ruisseau

• En fonction de l’association végétale, c’est à dire, quand on trouve l’endroit où on à beaucoup d’espèces en une simple vision, on à pris cet endroit comme site.

On à mesuré un quadrat de 30x40m en subdiersant en le petits carveaux don’t chacun à une distance de 10m. On à mis un piquet à chaque coté d’un varreau. On avait 20 côtés donc on à utilisé 20 piquets.

Le quadrat est appelé ici site, et lors de notre travail, nous avons fini 14 sites don’t 7 sites de forêt épineuse et 7 sites de forêt de galérie. Concernant cette derniere ce n’est pas de vraie galérie car la forêt se trouve au bord de petit ruisseau alors que le long de celui-ci n’a pas de l’eau permanente. Pendant la saison de pluie, l’eau coule sur ce ruisseau et elle existe jusqu’a la moitié de saison seche mais après is n’y à rien, de toute facon on pense qu’il y à toujours de nappe fréatique.

10m

30m

40m

Piquets

1 432

9 12 11 10

5 876

218

On choisit le centre de chaque site pour déterminer le coordonnér à l’aide de GPS. Dans chaque site, on à fait l’inventaire de plante ayant un diamètre supériur où égal à 5, en prenant en premier lieu le nom vernaculaire de chaque espèce et en meme temps, on à pris un échantillon pour faire d’herbier et on à compté aussi le nombre de pied de chaque espèce; en mesurant en deuxieme leiu:

• Le diamètre le plus grand et le plus petit de chaque espèce, la mesure à effetué à partir de 1.40m au dessus de la surface do sol

• La hauteur la plus haute de chaque espèce, c’est une simple estimation à l’aide d’une vision.

Concernant l’herbier: on à coupé avec le sécateur une portion de tege ayant de feuille, Il’est mieux s’il y à de fruit et/ou de fleur. On à mis dans un journal chaque espèce en mettant le nom vernaculaire sur le journal en utilisant le masquecan pour l’ecriture on à pressé à l’aide d’une presse et on à mis de l’alcool. On à envoyé au parc botanique de Tsimboyay. Les échantillons pour identifier et de donner de noms scientifiques. On à fait aussi l’estimation de la densité de chaque site en utilisant la methode de “T square”, c’est à dire, on à jeté au hasard un bloc de pierre et on à eu un point (P). On à mesuré la distance (x) entre (P) et le point (o) que n’est autre que la plante la plus proche de (P) ayant un diamètre supérieur à 5. Puis on à pris une ligne perpendiculaire à celle joihnant (o) et (P), on à mesuré la distance (Z) de ce point (o) vers la plante (N) la plus proche d’eux sur le coté opposé de la ligne P

Coefficient d’abondance de Braun Blanquet (CAB) Il permet de connaitre l’abondance de chaque espèce dans le site. 1 = 1 à 4 individus

P

Nz

ox

219

2 = 5 à 14 individus 3 = peux nombreax (15 à 29 individus) 4 = nombreux (30 à 90 individus) 5 = tres nombreax (superiers à 100 individus) Coefficient de sociabilité Il permet de mesurer la sociabilité de chaque espèce Seon Braun Blanquet: 1: espèce présentant en brin isolé, dispersé sur la parcelle 2: la plante (soit en toufffe) 3: peuplement sevré en couches innées et denses 4: colonie en grande ampleur 5: peuplement important recournant la plus grande partie de la surface. Fréquence C’est le pourcentage de sites dans lesquels on trouve l’espèce par rapport au nombre total de sites. C = s x 100/p S: nombre de sites contenant l’espèce P: nombre total de sites etudies Strate Strate arborescente: grands arbres: +7 à 12m Strate arbustive: arbuste, arbrisseaux: 1 à 7m

Résultat - Estimation de densité Site 1

xi (en m) 1.60 0.68 1.30 1.33 1.46 1.29 0.58 0.38 0.37 1.56zi (en m) 1.24 0.58 2.44 1.55 1.30 1.33 0.78 2.90 1.22 1.00xi2/(xi2+zi2/2)

0.76 0.73 0.36 0.59 0.71 0.65 0.52 0.03 0.15 0.82

Site 2 xi (en m) 3.30 1.90 1.40 0.77 1.00 0.65 0.40 2.28 0.82 0.34zi (en m) 1.50 1.80 0.31 1.30 1.45 0.88 3.80 3.44 3.10 2.53xi2/(xi2+zi2/2)

0.90 0.69 0.97 0.41 0.48 0.52 0.02 0.46 0.12 0.03

Site 3 xi (en m) 1.75 2.21 1.75 1.98 0.88 1.41 1.90 1.50 0.87 1.30zi (en m) 1.29 1.70 1.84 0.29 3.38 1.97 1.53 0.38 1.00 2.30xi2/(xi2+zi2/ 0.78 0.77 0.64 0.98 0.11 0.50 0.75 0.95 0.60 0.38

220

2)


0.34 0.01 0.24 0.37 0.15 0.82 0.03 0.09 0.21 0.94


0.35 0.88 0.33 0.33 0.71 0.51 0.63 0.35 0.38 0.47


0.59 0.30 0.22 0.76 0.99 0.89 0.12 0.95 0.15 0.37


0.22 0.80 0.33 0.85 0.54 0.50 0.34 0.40 0.23 0.38


0.85 0.03 0.11 0.43 0.56 0.95 0.20 0.04 0.06 0.54


0.39 0.75 0.66 0.66 0.14 0.17 0.96 0.17 0.47 0.96


0.87 0.49 0.76 0.28 0.44 0.27 0.98 0.07 0.02 0.76

221


0.17 0.14 0.80 0.58 0.93 0.69 0.87 0.21 0.94 0.28


0.26 0.54 0.93 0.13 0.10 0.39 0.19 0.22 0.84 0.02


0.01 0.69 0.64 0.13 0.15 0.03 0.37 0.64 0.40 0.26


0.65 0.54 0.47 0.30 0.97 0.08 0.76 0.79 0.04 0.35

Formule

Densité ∑ ∑−

=)(828,2

2

ziximD arbre/m2

m: nombre de point

Distribution mmzixi

xit /122/2/

' 22

2

×

−

+

= ∑

Site No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

D(arbre/m2)

0.23

0.13 0.14

0.12

0.24 0.17

0.16 0.21 0.06

0.23 0.19

0.22 0.25 0.22

t' 0.40

-0.39

1.67

1.90

0.008

0.43

-0.39

-1.29

0.41

-0.008

0.71

-1.43

-1.79

-0.006

t' > +1.98 la distribution est significativement réguliere t’ < -1.98 la distribuion est significativement en bloc -1.98< t’ < +1.98 la ditribution est dispersée

222

Relevé du GPS Site No 124o 41 167S 46o 08 790E 216M 140o 0.39km Site No 224o 41 108S 46o 08 952E 176M 119o 0.62km Site No 324o 40 590S 46o 08 706E 195M 034o 0.94km Site No 424o 40 617S 46o 08 958E 252M Site No 524o 40 714S 46o 08 972E 227M

065o 0.916km Site No 624o 40 801S 46o 08 060E 210M 1.35km Site No 724o 41 412S 46o 07 899E 130M 1.33km Site No 824o 41 121S 46o 08 524E 197M 253o 0.15km Site No 924o 41 481S 46o 08 018E 136M 074o 1.23km Site No 10

24o 41 157S 46o 08 985E 182M Site No 11 24o 41 033S 46o 08 696E 178M Site No 12 24o 41 390S 46o 08 329E 164M 240o 0.79km Site No 13 24o 41 412S 46o 07 899E 130M 1.33km Site No 14 24o 41 135S 46o 08 538E 206M

223

No Nom Vernaculaire

Famille Genre et espèce

Hauteur en m

Strate

1 Farwhiosy Fabaceae Bauhinia pervilleana

7 Arbustive

2 Handigne Meliaceae Neobegnea mahafabiensis

10 Arborescente

3 Tsingena Sapindaceae Doratoxylon chouxi

3 Arbustive

4 Tawolakafotse Tiliaceae Grewia androyensis

6 Arbustive

5 Somangipaky Cappaudaceae Boscia longifolia 7 Arbustive

6 Taliforokoko Combretaceae Terminalia diuriecata

7 Arbustive

7 Avoha Fabaceae Gagnebina sp 6 Arbustive 8 Hazomalagne Moringaceae Mringa

drouhardi 5 Arbustive

9 Retsilaitse Oleaceae Noronhia myntyoides

3 Arbustive

10 Howwke Cappaiedaceae Boscia madagascaiensis

7 Arbustive

11 Mongy Grassulaceae Kalanchoe behasensis

3 Arbustive

12 Avolaky 4 Arbustive 13 Kotigne Moraceae Ficus sp 4 Arbustive 14 Nats 5 Arbustive 15 Kitata Euphorbiaceae Bridelia

peurilleana 4 Arbustive

16 Halomboromahalao

6 Arbustive

17 Tsingarifare 4 Arbustive 18 Sirosiro Hennadiaceae Gyocanpus

americanus 10 Arboresce

nte 19 Fihagne Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia

plagiantha 8 Arboresce

nte 20 Maintels Ebenaceae Diopyros

humbentii 5 Arbustive

21 Hazomena Euphorbiaceae Securinega capurenii

8 Arborescente

22 Magne Mabraceae Hibiscus arnberombensis

6 Arbustive

23 Danosike Burseaceae Commiphora 8 Arboresce

224

humbentii nte 24 Tabanike Taliaceae Grewia

microcyclea 5 Arbustive

25 Sognogne Didieraceae Alluaudia ascendens

8

26 Darotandroke Bursenaceae Commiphora sp 4 Arbustive

27 Sengatse Bursenaceae Commiphora simplicifolia

5 Arbustive

28 Fantsiolitse Didieraceae Alluaudia procera

12 Arborescente

29 Befoetse Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia leucodendron

6 Arbustive

30 Zabiky Anacordiaceae Operculicanya decaryi

8 Arborescente

31 Fatra Combretaceae Terminalia cynocarpa

6 Arbustive

32 Katrafay Meliaceae Cedrelopsis grevei

8 Arborescente

33 Hewotse Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia intisy

5 Arbustive

34 Relefogne Loganiaceae Strychros madagascariensis

7 Arbustive

35 Sandrahigne Fabaceae Alibizzia tulearensis

10 Arborescente

36 Magnary Fabaceae Dalbenzia eminnensis

8 Arborescente

37 Feka Apocynaceae Taennaernontana coffecides

4 Arbustive

38 Dagoa Loganiaceae Strychros decussata

7 Arbustive

39 Hazomboatango

Fabaceae Indigofera tinetoria

6 Arbustive

40 Voafotake Rubiaceae Euclinia suavissima

8 Arborescente

41 Lambigna Fabaceae Baudouinea fluggeiformus

6 Arbustive

42 Keleogne Capparidaceae Crateva excelsa 10 Arborescente

43 Vontake Apocynaceae Pachypodium larnerei

6 Arbustive

44 Tsiongake Rhopalocarpaceae

Rhopalocarpus lucidus

6 Arbustive

45 Farehitse Pedaliaceae Uncarina sp 3 Arbustive 46 Lazagne Paiifloraceae Adenia sp

225

47 Mantsake Rubiaceae Enterospermu sp

6 Arbustive

48 Vaovy Fabaceae Tetrapterocarpon geayi

9 Arborescente

49 Hazontsokina Melastornataceae

Memecylon delphinens

4 Arbustive

50 Talintivoke Cornbretaceae Terminalia mantaly

9 Arborescente

51 Voanoro Rubiaceae Hypericanthus amoborombensis

4 Arbustive

52 Andapary Tiliaceae Grewia saligne 8 Arborescente

53 Hiligne Bignoniaceae Stereospermum nematocarpum

14 Arborescente

54 Forofoke Ebenaceae Diospyros sp 7 Arbustive 55 Malamasafoy Cesalpiniaceae Delonix 6 Arbustive 56 Marandoha Rubiaceae Enterospermum

sp 4 Arbustive

57 Beholitse Rubiaceae Hymenodictum 5 Arbustive 58 Sakoandalitse Plumbaginacea

eOperculicanya hyphenoides

8 Arborescente

59 Manongo Rutaceae Zanthoxylum decaryi

6 Arbustive

60 Tarantagne Anacaidiaceae Rhus pernieni 8 Arborescente

61 Vinaoagne Sterculiaceae Hildegandia sp 8 Arborescente

62 Maninjo Meliaceae Cedrelopsis microfoliata

8 Arborescente

63 Segnossibarike Didieraceae Alluaudia humbentii

5 Arbustive

64 Kinaura Mimosaceae Mimosa delicatula

5 Arbustive

65 Daronaombe Burseiaceae Commiphora sp 6 Arbustive 66 X 4 Arbustive 67 Rohondeohogne Dideraceae Alluaudia

durrnosa 5 Arbustive

68 Hetogne Apocynaceae Roupellina boivini

5 Arbustive

69 Kolokoto Mimosaceae Albizzia sp 6 Arbustive 70 Zagne 4 Arbustive 71 Lahitsivagno Enythioxylacea

eEnythioxylum affgesudi

4 Arbustive

72 Tsipopelaky Rubiaceae Enterospermum sp

5 Arbustive

226

73 Vabiandio Meliaceae Quivisianthe papinae

10 Arborescente

74 Kitsigne Rubiaceae Pyrostria media 6 Arbustive 75 Ampolibe Rutaceae Vepris elloitii 6 Arbustive 76 Somorogne Euphorbiaceae Croton

banorum 5 Arbustive

77 Sesilaky Meliaceae Astrostrichilia elietti

78 Talibe Combretaceae Terminalia mantaly

16 Arborescente

79 Famata Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia intisy

6 Arbustive

80 Magne be navina

Malvaceae Hibiscus bojenanus

8 Arborescente

81 Halomborombe Fabaceae Albizzia polyphylla

9 Arborescente

82 Falafike Alacaceae Anacohosa pervilleana

8 Arborescente

83 Hazomby Euphorbiaceae Croton sp 3 Arbustive 84 Malaimpery 4 Arbustive 85 Pisopiso Lythraceae Pemphis

madagascariensis

4

86 Andriambolafotry

Euphorbiaceae Croton sp

87 Roipitike Mimosaceae Mimosa sp 3 Arbustive 88 Tagnatagnanala Euphorbiaceae Croton sp 89 Vaa Steiculiaceae Dombeya sp 90 Sasavy Salvadoraceae Salvadora sp 4 Arbustive 91 Andapogna 4 Arbustive 92 Taly Combretaceae Terminalia

mantaly 4 Arbustive

93 Haxotagne Rhizozum madagascariensis

2 Arbustive

94 Magnarimbato Fabaceae Dalbenzia sp 4 Arbustive 95 X1 4 Arboresce

nte 96 Sely Tiliaceae Grevia

lavanalensis 4 Arbustive

97 X2 3 Arbustive 98 X3 Pendanus 4 Arbustive 99 X4 4 Arbustive 100

Anakaiake 4 Arbustive

227

101

Fatidionono Celastraceae Enronymofusis longipes

5 Arbustive

102

Tsivonkotsifake 7 Arbustive

103

Kily Leguminosae Tamanindus indica

10 Arborescente

104

Kalaveb 8 Arborescente

105

Somotsoigne 4 Arbustive

106

X5 4 Arbustive

107

Tsimarefy 6 Arbustive

108

Tsimalagrilamba

10 Arborescente

109

Kope Celastraceae Mysthoxylon aethopium

5 Arbustive

110

X6 5 Arbustive

No 1-17: espèces spéciales pour la forêt épineuse. No 18-70: espèces communes pour les deux types de formation. No 71-110: espèces spéciales pour la forêt de galérie.

228

Spéciale forêt épineuse No Fréquence

(en %) CAB CS

1 42.85 1 1 2 42.85 1 1 3 42.85 1 1 5 28.57 1 1 6 42.85 1 1 7 14.28 1 1 8 14.28 1 5 9 14.28 1 1 10 14.28 1 1 11 28.57 1 1 12 14.28 1 1 13 14.28 1 1 14 14.28 1 1 15 14.28 1 1 16 14.28 1 1 17 14.28 1 1

Spéciale forêt de galérie No Fréquence

(en %) CAB CS

71 14.28 1 1 72 42.85 1 1 73 42.85 2 5 74 14.28 1 1 75 42.85 2 1 76 57.14 1 1 77 14.28 1 1 78 14.28 1 1 79 71.42 1 1 80 42.85 1 1 81 14.28 1 1 82 28.57 1 1 83 14.28 1 3 84 14.28 1 1 85 14.28 4 2 86 14.28 4 4 87 14.28 1 1 88 14.28 4 4 89 28.57 4 4 90 14.28 1 1 91 14.28 1 1

229

92 14.28 1 1 93 14.28 1 1 94 14.28 1 1 95 14.28 1 1 96 28.57 1 1 97 14.28 1 1 98 42.85 1 1 99 14.28 1 1 100 14.28 1 1 101 28.57 1 1 102 14.28 2 4 103 14.28 1 1 104 14.28 2 3 105 14.28 1 1 106 14.28 1 1 107 14.28 1 1 108 14.28 1 1 109 42.85 1 1 110 14.28 1 1

Espèces communes No F

AF

BCAB

1CAB

2CS

1CS

2

18 85.71 71.42 1 1 1 1 19 71.42 85.71 1 1 1 5 20 85.71 57.14 1 1 1 1 21 57.14 42.85 1 1 5 1 22 71.42 57.14 1 1 1 1 23 100 100 4 4 5 5 24 57.14 57.14 1 1 1 1 25 100 71.42 2 3 5 5 26 85.71 57.14 1 2 1 1 27 85.71 42.85 2 1 1 1 28 85.71 85.71 3 3 5 5 29 85.71 100 2 2 1 1 30 42.85 57.14 1 1 1 1 31 57.14 57.14 1 1 1 1 32 71.42 57.14 1 2 1 1 33 57.14 71.42 2 4 1 1 34 100 85.71 1 1 1 1 35 28.57 28.57 1 1 1 1 36 57.14 71.42 1 1 1 1 37 42.85 28.57 1 1 1 1 38 85.71 85.71 1 1 1 1 39 100 57.14 1 2 1 1 40 42.85 14.28 2 2 1 1

230

41 57.14 57.14 1 1 1 1 42 28.57 71.42 1 1 1 1 43 57.14 71.42 1 2 1 1 44 42.85 71.42 2 1 1 1 45 42.85 28.57 1 1 1 1 46 42.85 85.71 1 1 1 1 47 28.57 14.28 1 1 1 1 48 28.57 42.85 1 1 1 1 49 14.28 28.57 1 1 1 1 50 57.14 11.00 1 1 1 1 51 28.57 14.28 1 1 1 1 52 42.85 71.42 1 1 1 1 53 42.85 57.14 1 1 1 1 54 57.14 11.00 1 2 1 1 55 14.28 42.85 1 2 5 5 56 28.57 28.57 1 1 1 1 57 14.28 11.00 1 1 1 1 58 71.42 42.85 1 1 1 1 59 42.85 28.57 1 1 1 1 60 14.28 28.57 1 1 1 1 61 27.14 28.57 2 1 1 1 62 28.57 14.28 2 1 1 1 63 42.85 42.85 1 1 1 1 64 28.57 28.57 1 2 1 5 65 28.57 28.57 1 1 1 1 66 14.27 14.27 1 1 1 1 67 14.28 14.28 1 1 1 1 68 14.28 28.57 1 2 1 1 69 14.28 42.85 1 2 1 1 70 14.28 14.28 1 1 1 1

F: fréquence en pourcentage F

A: fréquence des espèces de la forêt épineuse

FB: fréquence des espèces de la forêt de galérie

CAB1: coefficient d’abondance de Braun Blanquet de la forêt épineuse

CAB2: coefficient d’abondance de Braun Blanquet de la forêt galérie

CS1: coefficient de sociabilitéde la forêt épineuse

CS2: coefficient de sociabilitéde la forêt galérie

Interpretation Malgré les diversités au niveua de plantes, on peut quand meme les classer et les regrouper selon un certain nombre de caractère commun, de caractere qui send compte de poverité naturel et de filiatoin évolutive entre les végétaux.

231

En total, on à eu 110 espèces appartenant à 89 Familles. Ces espèces se répartissent comme suit: 17 espèces sont propres, pour la forêt épineuse. Elles se trouvent et se développent dans les enchoits où l’attitutude est plus où moins haute (voir le relevé de GPS); et le soleil frappe directement les arbres. Elles ont donc de moyen d’adaptation pour reduire l’évaporation face à l’augmentation de la température. Certains arbres n’ont presque pas de feuilles. Les feuilles sont dites caduques. D’autres arbres portent les feuilles seches, certaine ayant de feuilles très petites. Ces espèces peuvent se développer dans cet endroit car les conditions du milieu qui lui sont offertes sont compatibles à son exigence. Les fréquences de sites de ces espèces sont entienement faibles cela veut dire que la faculté de dissémination de ces espèces est faible, ces espèces ont donc une aire de répartition restriente. 40 espèces sont spéciales pour la forêt de galérie. Les arbres ont de feuilles vertes, cela est due à l’existence de l’eau fréatique (nappe fréatique) et les plantes l’utilise pendant la saison seche. Cel arbres se trouvent en basse altitude. Ils se développent tres vite, on à eu beaucoup de grand arbres par rapport à la forêt épineuse. La plupart de plantes poussent donc dans l’ombre. On à eu 53 espèces qui sont communes, c’est à dire, elles sont appauces à la fois dans la forêt épineuse qu’a celle de galérier. Elles ont donc de large faculté d’adaptation, par exemple les Commiphora humbentu (Binseraceae) qui se trouvent dans tous les sites que l’on à etudié ainsi que les Alluaudia ascendens et les Alluaudia procera (Didieraceae) qui sont appaures presque par tous. Il y à d’espèces qui ne sont pas forcement les plus abondantes comme les Doratoxylon, les Ficus sp, les Kalanchoe beharensis, les Noronhia myrtyoides, les Mimosa sp etc… elles sont alors caractéristique de l’association selon (Huentz, 1970). La plupart des espèces ont été dispensées sur la parcelle, c’est à dire elles ont présenté en brin isolé (voir le tableau de coefficient de sociabilié ainsi que le resultat concernant la densité de chaque site). Parmi les 89 Famille que regroupe notre échantillon, 4 Familles sont bien représentées avec chacune au moins 5 espèces:

Euphorbiaceae (10 espèces), Fabaceae (9 espèces), Rubiaceae (7 espèces) et Meliaceae (5 espèces).

Quelques genres sont particulierement diversifies: Commiphora (4 espèces), Euhorbia (4 espèces), Alluaudia (4 espèces).

Recommandation

232

La forêt joue un role tres important car elle protégé le sol contre l’érosion, assure la pluie, lieu où les animaux vivent, lieu où les troupeaux de betail cachent… Il existe aussi beaucoup de plantes médicinales que les guerisseurs ou ombiasy les utilisent pour leur soins. On doit protéger car cette forêt est menacée, on à beaucoup d’agressions comme le coupage l’abattage pour la fabrication de bois d’elurne, de maison. Le feu de brousse pour aboir le bon paturage. Les gens rivéraines pratiquent la culture sur-brulie pour cultiver le mais on à des indices 24o 40 685S 46o 08 880E 225M 057o 0.86km du camp 24o 41 694S 46o 07 307E 129M 264o 2.46km 35x40m 24o 41 860S 46o 08 149E 180M

229o 1.65km 100x100m 24o 41 001S 46o 08 633E 200M 052o 0.13km 10x15m 24o 41 060S 46o 08 321E 177M 112o 0.55km 24o 41 061S

46o 08 780E 177M 110o 0.32km 30x20m 24o 40 915S 46o 08 692E 211M 053o 0.33km 10x10m 24o 41 022S 46o 08 875E 176M 103o 0.48km

233

L’extraction de pierres dans les zones à sol encrouté menace aussi la forêt. La forêt entre Mangily et Amboetse est exceptionelle car les plantes poussent et se développent entre les roches. Ce sont donc des plantes fragiles le reboisement dans cette zone est donc absolument difficile alors que la forêt à beaucoup d’espèces endemiques tant d’espèces floristiques que faunistiques. Donc on doit la conserver. En concluant, on à vu qu’il existe une relation étroite entre l’organisme vivant et son milieu géographique où la plante vit. Plusieurs facteurs écologiques interviennent dans la développement de la plante et ils jouent un role sélectif important éliminant toutes les espèces qui ne peuvent supporter tel où tel des conditions bien précises. C’est pourqui on à de différence entre les espèces de la forêt épineuse et celles de la forêt de galérie soit au point de vue développement soit au point de vue feuillage. Celle-la est moins riche en espèce mais plus riche en familles tandis que celle-ci est plus riche en espèce mais moins riche en familles. Cette forêt où on à fait l’étude est riche en espèces animales et surtout beaucoup de plantes endémiques. Elle est aussi tres importante au point de vue sociale, économique et écologique. L’emprise humaine sur la végétation est souvent tres forte: exploitation du bois (construction, bois de feu) extraction de piene dans cette zone, dérichements cultureaux où la végétation est fragile et irréversible, la régénération est problématique en raison des contraintes climatiques. Il n’y à d’autre solution primordiale que de bien gérer et bien conserver cette forêt.

234

Development Programme

Summary Between June 2001 and January 2002 the Project Ifotaka Development Team engaged in a range of activities aimed at securing the eventual sustainable management of natural resources. In partnership with WWF and CEL the team began the process of introducing community forest management in the Ifotaka region. For twelve of Ifotaka's eighteen fokontany's7, the process towards CFM using the GCF legal framework was advanced. The work completed with the support from the BP Conservation Programme culminated in successive funding from the Rufford Foundation and the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund. This funding will allow collaborative teams to both expand and strengthen the CFM programme. The Project Ifotaka team also conducted training courses for local guides and reconnaissance visits to neighbouring communes.

Background to GCF Gestion Contractualisee des Forets (GCF) is a legal means of transferring the management of Madagascars forest resources from state control to community based contracted management agreements. The law, which was passed by the Malagasy government in October 1997, aims to empower local communities to manage their forest resources in partnership with the forest service (Dept des Eaux et Forets). The key principle is that local management will legitimise resource access to local communities will be relevant and accountable. The process of transfer of management is described on the following

7 Fokontany is the lowest administrative level institution, in the case of Ifotaka each Fokontany is composed of a committee and president representing approximately 700 people.

235

page is based on a 6-stage process. This process can take anything up to 2 years to complete because of the complexities and need for adequate information provision and education for local participants.

Dialogue in the Fokontany of Bekiria - part of the village information campaign adopted in advance of forest delimitation. Daniel Ralaivo and Mily Velomila seen in the foreground.

Personnel Project Ifotaka Development Programme Team - Mily Velomila, Daniel Ralaivo, Roger Voriandro, Marolahy, Barry Ferguson. Key Partners - Lucien Rafararano (WWF), Rolland (WWF), Flavien Rafararano (WWF), Sylvain Eboroke (CEL), Victor (CIREF), Forest Management Committees (COBA's).

Progress Made up to January 2002 July 2001 - Commune Level Information Meeting This meeting was led by Lucien, Flavien and Sylvain to explain to representatives from the commune and representatives from the 18 Fokontany's the principles and procedures for community forest management. At the conclusion of the meeting many of the Fokontany's representatives returned to their villages and began the process of establishing local associations (termed COBA) to begin the transfer process. July 2001 - January 2002 Fokontany Dialogue The table below describes the results achieved for the twelve Fokontany's with whom there has been contact. Daniel and Mily conducted this work with support from Barry and the WWF/CEL staff when required. Table One - Summary of achievements to date on the Community Forest Management Programme of Project Ifotaka up to Jan 2002.

FOKONTANY

(VILLAGE ADMINISTRATIVE

STRUCTURE) INT

RO

DU

CT

OR

YM

EET

ING

MEET

ING

TO

DIS

CU

SSEST

AB

LIS

HM

EN

TO

FLO

CA

LA

SSO

CIA

TIO

N

ASS

OC

IAT

ION

EST

AB

LIS

HED

ASS

OC

IAT

ION

DO

CU

MEN

TS

LEG

ALIS

ED

DELIM

ITA

TIO

NO

FFO

KO

NT

AN

Y

DELIM

ITA

TIO

NO

FPR

OPO

SED

CO

NSE

RV

AT

ION

ZO

NE

LO

CA

LA

GR

EEM

EN

T(D

INA

)

TR

AN

SFER

OF

MA

NA

GEM

EN

T

Analoalo Y Y Y Y N N N N Fanoaivo Y Y Y N N N N N Bekiria Y Y Y Y Y N N N

Kobakara Y Y Y Y N N N N Bebarimo Y Y Y N N N N N Mangily Y Y Y N N N N N

236

Mahabo N N N N N N N N Befantiolotse N N N N N N N N

Tanambao/Ifotaka

Y Y Y Y N N N N

Morafeno Y Y Y Y N N N N Ambaninato Y Y Y N N N N N

Beraketa Y Y Y Y N N N N

Other Achievements • Establishment of partnerships (CEL/CIREF/WWF) for the continued

promotion of CFM work in the region. • Award of funding by the CEPF for the continued implementation of

the work, for taking aerial photographs and establishing a CFM monitoring system.

237

Procedure Followed to Reach Agreement for a GCF Contract

Villager Information Campaign • Public Awareness Raising Campaign regarding transfer

of management and procedure. • Rights and Obligations.

Preparation of request for Transfer of Management • Dialogue between Community Members. • Diagnosis of current and future situation. • Expression of interest in GCF by community - agreement of COBA (Basic

Level Community). • Choice of component for transfer of management by COBA • Agreement of COBA and delivery of request for management transfer

Intervention and Administrative Agreement of Request Interview by a local commission: specific details of the forest, management capacity of the COBA, social cohesion of the management transfer request, viability of transfer of management.

Launch of Process for Establishing GCF by the COBA in Partnership with Forest Agent and supporting institutions (such

as WWF/Regional Development Committee).

Socio-Organisational

Structuring

First Contact With Partners

Development of Mgmt Tools: Local Agreements

Contracts of Mgmt, Delimitation

Identification of Technical

Needs

Evaluation of Feasibility of Management Transfer/Synoptic Table of Management Transfer

• Longterm objectives • Zoning • Identifiucation of resources, necessary means: Technical, financial, administrative

Conclusion of Contract • Official signature of GCF contract between Forest Agent and COBA • Institutionalisation of Management Transfer

I

V

IV

III

II

I

VI

238

Recommendations on CFM

• Procedures are adapted to ensure that local communities can have maximum understanding of the principles and procedures for CFM - eg Aerial photography.

• The Establishment of a CFM Monitoring System with CIREF, Fort Dauphin.

• It is imperative that the local community can see short term benefits to CFM, introducing resource provision (eg reforestation) resource technologies (eg fuel efficient stoves) as well as integrated health and education initiatives will be essential to the success of CFM.

• A policy analysis of CFM ideology and background should be carried out to assess: • The understanding of intervention agents of the benefits of CFM

for rural livelihoods as well as sustainable forest management and the reality of results.

• The level of policy ownership by Malagasy stakeholders at various levels.

• The motivation of donors, NGO's and GO's supporting CFM

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Plate - Dialogue under a Tamarind Tree in Mangily

CFM Dialogue is a time consuming endeavour, traditional events, local security and logistical challenges all restrict implementation. However despite these conditions Project Ifotaka has made substantial progress in the GCF transfers in Ifotaka. This success owes thanks to the diplomacy and communication skills of Mily Velomila and Daniel Ralaivo and support from WWF and CEL partners Lucien Rafararano and Sylvain Eboroke.

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Support for Locally Led Brick Making Capacity Development

Rationale and Implementation- One of the major threats to the maintenance of diversity in the Ifotaka region is community use of tree species Allaudia procera for planks in house construction. As well as being a major component of the forest community this species provides essential habitat for Verreaux's Sifaka (Propithecus v. verreauxi). The fact that Antandroy traditional houses have a short life span (c5-7 years) places further pressure on the forest. Following discussions with the Mayor of Ifotaka, Project Ifotaka provided him with support for establishing a local training initiative for the production of Bricks. With the projects support the Mayor organised trainers from the Sub-Prefecture Town of Amboasary to work in the commune for two months. The two trainers provided participants from 4 Fokontanys (Ifotaka, Tanambao, Beraketa, Analoalo) with practical training. The idea has been mooted that the commune will make an application to a world bank rural development donor (Projet de Soutien pour la Developpment Rurale - PSDR) to extend this programme, PSDR have visited the commune and have stated an interest in supporting such initiatives. Unfortunately the political crisis in Madagascar during 2002 has delayed the opportunity for the project to facilitate this application. This is anticipated to be completed during 2003.

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Guide Training Course September - August 2001 A guide-training course was developed and piloted over a period of 8 weeks in August and September 2001. Designed to be of immediate practical benefit and to improve future employment prospects, the course was developed in response to needs identified by the Project Ifotaka team and their guides.The course combined classroom tuition with role-play and practical experience, and culminated in a 4-day field-course in the Ifotaka forest. The syllabus was written to address specific issues identified during dialogue between local guides and Project Ifotaka members, and covered six core areas: (1) English for guides; (2) Tandroy & western culture; (3) Equipment & technology; (4) Camp craft; (5) Hygienic cooking & food preparation; and (6) Sex education. An additional seventh section, ‘Tandroy tales’, provided an opportunity for the guides to teach project members about their culture and the Androy region.

(1) ENGLISH FOR GUIDES The majority of the English for guides was taught during a series of morning classes in the weeks preceding the field-course. Although French is one of Madagascar’s two official languages (the other being Malagasy) English is a highly valued language because many of the visiting researchers and students speak English only.The classes were typically attended by the five guides who worked most regularly for the Project, although others attended occasionally as the classes were initially open to all who were interested. Once the scale of demand for English lessons became clear, it was necessary to restrict the classes to guides. In future, the recruitment of a fulltime TEFL-qualified English teacher would improve this part of the course as well as providing learning opportunities for others in the community. The course was kept flexible in nature, and covered topics requested by the guides as well as those identified by project members. The classes also proved a good opportunity for Project members to learn Malagasy as they taught English, creating an atmosphere of mutual respect and shared learning that helped to build trust and strengthen relationships. The guides’ progress was measured through the use of oral roll-play and written vocabulary tests in addition to individual homework exercises that were set each week. Once the guides had mastered the necessary basics, vocabulary specific to guiding was introduced during walks in the forest. The Project purchased all the necessary stationary for the guides who attended to ensure there were no financial barriers to learning, and all who attended the field course received a per-diem for each of the four days in the field. The teaching material developed during the course was recorded in a Tandroy-English handbook to provide a resource for future training initiatives.

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(2) TANDROY & WESTERN CULTURE This section of the guide training was covered during the field-course as this allowed time for relationships and trust to be built between guides and Project members. A flexible approach was adopted for a series of discussion groups (comprised of guides and Project members) chaired by Owen Beaton, the course co-ordinator. The groups were an opportunity for Project members to share their experiences of visiting Androy, and for the Tandroy guides to demonstrate their understanding of the customs of Project members. The main differences between Tandroy and western culture were identified and discussed before the specific needs and expectations of visiting researchers and tourists were examined.

(3) EQUIPMENT & TECHNOLOGY A hands-on approach was adopted for this section designed to familiarize the guides with the different items of equipment commonly used by researchers. A member of the Project gave a short introductory talk on each item of equipment, followed by a practical demonstration of how the item should be used and looked after. The guides were introduced to the concept of map reading with a compass as well as being briefed on expensive equipment such GPS handsets. Following a brief introduction to photography, each guide was able to take a group photograph of all attending the field-course, the photographs were later developed and presented to the guides with their guide-training certificates during the Fetin-ny-ala (festival of the forest) celebrations.

(4) CAMPCRAFT Although the Tandroy are natural masters of their forest environment, the guides were unfamiliar with a number of important elements of camp craft such as the use of tents and the purification of water. During the field-course the guides gained experience in all aspects of camp craft including campsite selection, the use and maintenance of different styles of tents, and tidying and clearing a campsite after use.

(5) HYGIENIC COOKING & FOOD PREPARATION This section began with an exploration of the concept that certain germs are relatively harmless to the Tandroy but can cause serious illness among foreigners. In this context, the importance of carefully preparing and cooking food was discussed with project members demonstrating how to wash and prepare meat, vegetables and fruits in a hygienic manner. The guides also practiced collecting and purifying water, and washing up and drying dishes and cutlery after use.

(6) SEX EDUCATION During the field-course, Clarisse Mahafety led a discussion group with the guides on sexually transmitted diseases. After establishing the attitudes and level of awareness among the guides, the causes, symptoms, and methods of transmission, prevention and treatment were described for all the main sexually transmitted diseases in the region. Clarisse also gave a short talk on

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the practicalities of contraception, discussing the relative effectiveness of a number of traditional practices as well as the condom.

(7) TANDROY TALES This was an opportunity for the guides to teach the Project members about their culture and heritage through the traditional art of story telling. This session was held on the last night of the field-course with everyone sat together around the fire. The guides told a number of traditional Tandroy tales including their family histories, ‘fady’ tales (how taboo’s came to be), and how the villages received their names. The guides gave permission for the tales to be recorded using D.A.T.

Summary of Outputs 1) A guide-training course was written and piloted over a period of eight

weeks. 2) 12 Tandroy men received training during the period of the course. 3) 5 Guides completed the course and received certificates. 4) A Tandroy-English handbook was produced as a teaching resource. 5) Project Ifotaka members received basic training in Malagasy and were

able to improve their understanding of Tandroy life and culture.

Guides who received certificates: 1. Lambo, Marolahy 2. Randrianomanana, Christian Urbain 3. Mosa, Mananarivo 4. Ramanambitana, Antoine 5. Randrianandrasana, Ndrasa

Course Synopsis

(1) ENGLISH FOR GUIDES Basic Conversational Starters; Market & Shopping; Food Preparation; Forest & Guiding; Health & safety; Weather.

(2) TANDROY & WESTERN CULTURE

Perception; Experience; Expectation; Religion; Researchers/Tourists; Money matters; Behaviour; Privacy; Washing.

(3) EQUIPMENT & TECHNOLOGY Navigation (compass & map, GPS); Visual Aids (binoculars, magnifying glass); Photography (cameras & film, digital video recorder); Health (water filters, iodine, chlorine, insect repellent etc); Audio equipment (dictaphone, mini-disk, DAT etc).

(4) CAMPCRAFT Campsite selection, Tent use and maintenance; Security; Safety; Water collection & purification; Clearing & packing up.

(5) HYGENIC COOKING & FOOD PREPARATION

Concept of germs; Water collection and purification; Fruit & Vegetables; Meat; General hygiene; Washing & drying; Preserving/reheating food.

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(6) SEX EDUCATION Sexually transmitted diseases (causes, symptoms, methods of transmission, prevention & treatment); Contraception (discussion on practicalities).

(7) TANDROY TALES Malagasy folk tales told by the guides: Family histories; How the villages got their names; Explanation of different taboos.

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Conservation Education Programme Summary Between June 2001 and April 2002 the Project Ifotaka education team conducted a range of initiatives designed to improve environmental awareness in the Ifotaka region. Activities were mainly centred on schools, although they were not restricted just to classroom activities, as public access is considered vital for success. The production of the first educational video in the Antandroy Dialect, School Visits and Nature Excursions, Tree Planting, The Festival of the Forest and the production of a schools resource pack were all completed. The education also had an element of sustainability with the award of funds from the Association for Cultural Exchange to consolidate educational resources.

Plates (Clockwise from top left): The school in Amboetsy; Children from Analoalo performing an environmental song/dance composed by their teacher; Lucien Rafararano (WWF) addressing the crowd and invited guests at the Festival of the Forest; The school building at Tsileha.

Programme Personnel

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Clarisse Mahafety, Natalie Hutton, Henry Frost, Owen Beaton, Kareen Holliday, Joe Wood, Per Ola Wold-Olsen, Tom Bartlett, Antoine, Christian, Manonarivo, Barry Ferguson. Key Partners - Charles Randrianantenaina (Chef Zap, Ifotaka), Lucien Rafararano (Communication Officer, WWF, Fort Dauphin)

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Project Descriptions 1. Schools Classroom Resource Pack In collaboration between VSO, CEL, WWF and the Teachers of Ifotaka, Natalie Hutton and Clarisse Mahafety produced a classroom resource pack aimed at the senior classes in Ifotaka's primary schools (8th/9th Grade). The pack was developed in close association with the Chef Zap of Ifotaka and consisted of a series of 20 lessons aimed at the geographical and environmental education of the pupils. The pack contains two booklets, firstly the pupils workbook, and secondly the teachers resource guide. The workbook uses illustrations and simple exercises (word searches, quizzes, colouring in, maps) to explain the geographical context of the Androy region and continues to demonstrate how biodiversity is distributed across the globe. The lessons were prepared following discussions between Clarisse, Natalie, the Chef Zap and various local teachers. Chef Zap and his wife kindly agreed to complete the translation into the local Antandroy Dialect. On completion of the draft consultations were held with Lucien Rafararano (WWF) and the pack was adapted on the computer. The resulting pack was subsequently used in a two day Training session with all the teachers of 8th/9th grade classes in Ifotaka primary schools attending. Because of disruption following the political crisis in 2001/2002, the pack is still in press in Fort Dauphin where WWF Madagascar is duplicating it. The Teachers and Chef Zap have agreed to start implementing the use of the pack at the start of the school year in September 2003. 2. Video The first film made in the Tandroy language. Created over 6 months in the field, it was designed to increase understanding about why vazaha (i.e., foreigners) are so interested and concerned about the Tandroy and their forest. For the Tandroy, the forest is nothing particularly special; it is just normal forest. The video explained that vazahas are interested because it is so unique and contains so many endemic species, and that this unique environment is not found neither in Europe, nor Africa and not even in the rest of Madagascar. Current forest use, consequent threats and extrapolated result were portrayed. The video also attempted to increase geographical awareness and explain where the vazaha come from. We took the video on a 'roadshow' using an ox-cart and made a tour of the Commune, visiting every school and giving showings to each village. It has been made available to the community to be shown during the village 'video club' .

3. Poster

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Through their work with the primary school children in Ifotaka Per Ola Wold-Olsen & Clarisse Mahafety prepared a poster using childrens nature art to communicate the importance of the forest. Two written messages appear on the poster - as the title 'Arovy Ny Ala' (Save the Forest) is accompanied by 'Ny Ala Dia Navelan Ny Razantsika Ho Lovain Ny Taranaka Mifandimby' (The forest is not only left to us by our ancesters, but is on loan from our children). The poster will be printed in Madagascar in the summer of 2003 (with the support of ACE funding) and will be distributed in late 2003 and early 2004.

4. Art, Sculpture, Nature Excursions and Tree Planting Team members: Clarisse Mahafety, Antoine Remanamby; Per Ola Wold Olsen, Natalie Hutton, Henry Frost Regular classes were given to children in the primary and secondary schools of Ifotaka Central. Basic concepts of conservation, the water cycle and other such topics were discussed. These sessions were designed to reinforce their school curriculum. Workshops on the topics of “endemism” and “endangered species” were organised for the teachers. Art classes in the form of drawing and clay modeling of forest wildlife were an unusual addition to their school routine. Nature walks into the forest elucidated ideas about the relationship between flora, fauna and their habitats. A day of tree planting was organised, involving several hundred children of all ages to plant a stem of Allaudia procera, the plant the Sifaka Lemurs are dependent upon, and the same tree which is heavily felled due to its virtues as a construction material. A shadeless and cleared area, not far from Ifotaka Central, was soon populated by Didiera cuttings in a matter of hours. Equal to this pleasurable sight was that of the pride of the children identifying their trees and their own hard work. Per Ola Wold-Olsen and Henry Frost also produced a village information board in February 2002, it has since been used to display information about both the project activities and local events. 5. Wildlife Videos Projection Taking advantage of the Ifotaka video club, the project rented the facility on a weekly basis from September to December 2001 to play a selection of international wildlife videos as well as the video produced by Tom Bartlett. The wildlife videos were accompanied by an explanation of the images. Particularly important was the explanation of the geographical origin of the wildlife shown.

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6. Forest Festival Clarisse Mahafety, Owen Beaton The central governing village, Ifotaka Central plays host to the Annual Festival of the Forest held in November. Children are invited from all over the Commune to participate in the celebration of the Spiny Forest. The day’s activities included everything from a nature art exhibition to the final of a local football tournament. The Mayor of Ifotaka, local Fokotany Presidents, Chef Zap (Commune Co-ordinator of Schools), Gendarmes, WWF, Eaux et Forets, CEL, Andrew Lees Trust and School of International Training, US Peace Corps are all invited as dignitaries for the event. Many hundreds attended Fety Ny Ala on the 18th November 2001. The day’s events were as follows:- • Nature Art Competition The Mayor of the Commune, as well as

other significant members of the community, act as a panel of judges to select first and runner up winners. The competition is open to both school and non-school attending children aged 8 to 15 years of age. Prizes donated by the Trust include digital watches and paint sets.

• Question and Answer Quiz Selected children representing their schools take part in a ‘Wildlife of the Spiny Forest Quiz’. This is broadcast live during the morning.

• School Marches and Conservation Song All the schools invited arrive dramatically singing their school song as they march into the festival area. One school even composed a Conservation Song for the event last year.

• Sports Events Sack racing, flat racing. Athletic ability is something the children excel at, and competition is fierce. Many events are practised for weeks beforehand after school.

• Games Stalls Set up and manned by local guides included spot the lemur, pin the tail on the lemur, hoopla, miniature bowling, shot put and slingshot.

• Traditional Song and Dance Conveying the Antandroy reverence for their forest heritage through this traditional medium of story telling.

• Food and drink Enterprising local stallholders made mangoes, lychees and other local delicacies available throughout the day.

• Video showing First conservation video to be made in the local language of Tandroy

• Ringa Traditional Malagasy wrestling competition • Football Final The culmination of a month of intensive training

and friendly rivalry between 8 village teams, the victors taking the Fetin'ny Ala Trophy.

• Football Friendly Match between local footballers, WWF, CEL and Trust volunteers

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7. UK - Madagascar Schools Link Team Members: Kareen Holliday; Joe Wood; Christian. A cultural exchange was set up between primary schools in the UK and Madagascar; 13 schools in England, Wales and Northern Ireland participated in a Link with the 13 primary schools throughout the Commune of Ifotaka. Just under 800 children took part in 2001. This school for school link was established primarily as a cultural exchange. Not only did this allow for a mutual learning of the respective cultures, but also an appreciation for the wildlife found in Britain as well as the Spiny Forest. The children were asked to produce a “Day in the Life” project using artwork to portray aspects of daily life, family, home, food, work and wildlife. Therefore a form of social, cultural and ecological art-diary was produced. A photograph was placed on the front of every project so the reciprocating child would be able to see their ‘jumelle’ (twin). During the visits to the schools in the UK, a short hands on presentation was given to the penultimate year classes. The location of Madagascar, the apparent poverty on the island and the nature of the wildlife as unique and threatened were illustrated. The definitions and implications of the terms “endangered” and “conservation” were discussed, placing emphasis on lemurs, a flagship species, always popular with kids. Field conditions were demonstrated using camping equipment and getting volunteers to try out mosquito nets, rucksacks etc. Malagasy cultural artifacts such as dress, hats, slings and craft were also made available during a ‘dressing up’ session. Photographs were circulated, of the Malagasy children, schools, domestic life and images of the Spiny Forest. One or two words of greeting were learned by the British children. The projects were transported out to Madagascar. All schools in the commune were visited including Catholic Missionary Schools and the Public Primary Schools. The Malagasy children produced equivalent projects which were exchanged for those from the UK. Our Link Programme supplied all necessary material required in Madagascar. In addition, a calendar of British wildlife, pencils, rubbers, coloured pencils, world map, UK map, were donated by the volunteers to each school. Their geographical context was described with the help of world maps. Also the location of their Link School was pointed out on maps of the UK. The Spiny Forest was discussed as being unique to the South of Madagascar, a heritage to be proud of and to respect. This built towards the explanation of the ‘vazaha’ interest in the area. Images

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and depictions of British culture were explained and described during the class visits. On return to the UK, the Malagasy projects were presented to the British schools and the same process of explanation followed. Each class was presented with a map of the Commune with their Link school highlighted, a basic English-Malagasy dictionary, and photographs of the Link school, teacher and children. Together with the Malagasy projects, these served as a personal authentic gift from a child in Southern Madagascar. Both sets of schools were given the address of their corresponding Link school, list of children’s’ names to further allow any correspondence. In one particular case, already letters of thanks have been sent with the volunteers back to the UK regarding the donation of a football and pump to a school in Ifotaka Commune.

Schools Involved in the UK-Madagascar Schools Link in 2001/2002

British Primary School Malagasy Primary School

Bethersden Class 1, Kent Ifotaka Central Bethersden Class 2, Kent Bekiria Bybrook Junior, Kent Ifotaka DP Elleray Prepatory, Cumbria Ifotaka DP Goddington, Kent Matsandry Goodly Dale, Cumbria Tsileha Hamstreet, Kent Ifotaka Central Hothfield , Kent Analoalo Llanganidyr, S. Wales Tsarimpioky 2 Pluckley, Kent Tsarimpioky 1 St. Finians, N. Ireland Bebarimo St. Theresa’s, Kent Ifotaka DP Stowting, Kent Ifotaka DP Windermere St. Anne’s, Cumbria

Anjamahavelo

6. English Language Tuition (Formal and Informal) • Henry Frost spent three months (January - March 2002) giving

formal English lessons in the CEG (College d'Enseignement Generale).

• Owen Beaton also gave less formal English lessons to local guides (See Development Programme Report).

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7. Durham/TulearUniversity Education Initiative • The team from Durham and Tulear also conducted an education

initiative in the village of Amboetsy (for details see DU Education Report).

Recommendations Adult Literacy Visual and Performing Arts Engaging Enthusiasm among young people Vision for the future Developing Relationships with Curriculum Further Health and Sanitation and the Environment Ensure Sustainability of UK-Madagascar Exchanges, Consolidate, Curriculum Link Focus on Malagasy Initiated Interventions, Dialect Appropriate

Project Ifotaka 2001 Final Report to BP Conservation Programme

Documents

Transcript of Project Ifotaka 2001 Final Report to BP Conservation Programme