Prof. Obanya, Pai - Interdisciplinary Education Journal - INTEJ

Interdisciplinary Education Journal Vol. 10, No. 1, July, 2016

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BREAKING THE VICIOUS CIRCLE OF DYSFUNCTIONALITY IN

NIGERIAN EDUCATION

Pai Obanya

Emeritus Professor,

Institute of Education, University of Ibadan

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Abstract

This paper takes a holistic and comprehensive view of Education, a concept which in our

earlier work we have described as ‘Education with a capital E’. It then goes on to present a

view of functionality in Education, a concept that can simply be described as the level of ‘fit-

for-purpose’ of an Education system. A third concept, the five pivots in the ‘Educationeering’

chain to identify dysfunctionality threats in Nigerian education, digging down to the deep root

causes of dysfunctionality, and suggesting ways of rescuing education from a pervasive

dysfunctionality syndrome by attacking the genuine diseases of the national education

system, rather than mere panel-beating of the symptoms of such diseases.

Keywords: dysfunctionality, access, process, politics, policy, curriculum, finance.

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Education with a Capital E, as illustrated in figure one, is a holistic

concept that avoids the reductionist view that equates Education with mere

schooling. It brings together the four roots to learning in the form of:

incidental education (learning from isolated/specific incidents in one’s

life)

informal education (information, insight, awareness, understanding as a

result of the experiences we are subjected to as we move from one stage of

life to another, as we take on activities and responsibilities, as we adapt to

changes in the world around us)

non-formal education (organised forms of learning, often in response to

specific functional needs), and

formal(ised) education (regulated, standardised learning in formal

educational institutions, often sanctioned by formal assessment procedures

and crowned with the award of certificates, diplomas, and titles).

As figure one below shows, the holistic view model of Education (Education

with a capita E) takes care of citizens in all phases and conditions of life,

employing the different routes to Education as may be appropriate to different

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situations. The ultimate goal here is to make Education both life-long and life-

wide.

Fig, 1: The Comprehensive and Holistic Model of Education

The dividing lines between these routes to education are never clear cut in

real life situations. A good deal of incidental, informal and non-formal learning

often goes on to enliven formal education. In like manner, some amount of formal

instruction does infiltrate informal and non-formal learning situations. All the four

routes to acquiring Education do have their basic, post-basic (secondary), tertiary

and post-tertiary (quatiary) levels. This is what makes Education with a capital E

a life-long as well as a life-wide undertaking-life long as we progress in age

through life, and life-wide as we take on new responsibilities at different phases

of life.Education in this holistic and comprehensive sense has as its horizontal

dimension, the mix in different forms of the four routes to learning, while the

vertical dimension is concerned with the upward movement of our educational

endeavour through basic, secondary, tertiary and quatiary.

Dysfunctionality when applied to Education refers to a situation in

which meaningful access has not been attained and this occurs in conditions in

which people are excluded from meaningful learning, since Education For All

Equals All Our Children Learning. Meaningful access translates into full and

unfettered educational opportunity devoid of all manners of Exclusion; that which

is crowned by successful learning and improved life chances for all classes of

beneficiaries whose improved knowledge and skills, positive values and attitudes


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should contribute to reducing socio-economic inequities and poverty in the wider

society1

CREATE (Consortium for Research on Educational Access, Transition and

Equity) has identified six zones of exclusion from EFA as follows

Zone Zero: unable to access primary education

Zone One: Enrolled in primary education but fail to complete the cycle

Zone Two: complete primary cycle but unable to transit to junior secondary

Zone Three: enrol in junior secondary but are unable to complete the cycle

Zone Four: complete junior secondary but are unable to transit to senior

secondary

Zone Five: transit into senior secondary but unable to complete that cycle

Zone Six: complete senior secondary but without the requisite certification2

The point here is that getting children to school is only the starting point. A

child merely passing through school is also not enough. Our task is to ensure that

the school also passes through the child.

Access actually implies getting education to all and getting all to

education. The first implies making the provision (supply) while the second

implies taking advantage of what is provided, or exerting pressure to have the

provisions in place (demand). Governments are often under pressure to satisfy

demand and/or to instigate it. On the part of the people, taking advantage of the

education provided may be impeded by a number of factors, described below as

characteristic of various faces of Access to Education.3

a. Economic access: Poverty and poor economic situations, especially at the

household level, create great problems in generalising access to basic education.

Even though basic education is meant to be ‘free’, education always has

some overt/hidden, direct/indirect, legal/illegal costs for individual families.

1Keith M Lewin (2007): Improving Access, Transition and Equity: Creating a Research Agenda -

CREATE Pathways to Success, Research Monograph No. I

2 ibid.. 3 Obanya, PAI (2011): Politics and the Dilemma of Meaningful Access to Education: The Nigerian Story, CREATE Monograph No 56, University of Sussex, Centre for International Education, 35pp.

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There are also cases in which parents are not able to forgo the

contributions made by children’s work in the home, in the fields, and in petty

trading.

b. Physical access (or geographical barriers to expanding and generalising

access) the problem is usually one of long distances between home and school. In

the Nigerian context, this situation can manifest in a variety of forms:

Lack of places in schools in the immediate neighbourhood of the

child.

Difficult and impenetrable terrains separating human settlements,

such as in swamps, creeks, hills and mountains, desert

environments, forests,

Sparsely populated areas.

Groups that reject the educational facilities in their immediate

neighbourhood

c. Sociological access: Even when educational facilities may be physically (or

geographically) within reach, the potential beneficiary’s social conditions could

be either a help or a hindrance. Problems related to SOCIOLOGICAL

ACCESS can be seen in the following examples:

Groups that have been excluded from formal education for generations.

Groups, which normally do not come together but are forced to share

common educational facilities.

Children who are forced or tempted to leave school prematurely, most

usually for ‘petty’ employment or commercial/family activities, or to

contribute to household work.

d. Psychological access: Educational facilities are ‘accessible’ only when the

school is able to respond appropriately to children’s learning needs and learning

styles. Problems related to PSYCHOLOGICAL ACCESS (children being

physically in school but not learning sufficiently well) are a common feature of

the educational scene of Nigeria, and the following are illustrative examples:

Under aged and over aged children, both of whom are likely to

have a feeling of ‘not fitting in’

Children with disabilities and special learning needs

Children who are new comers to the community in which the

school is located


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Children who have not been adequately prepared in the home for

school learning

Children who may receive insufficient attention from the teacher

because of inherent bias

Children who find classroom activities not relevant to their daily

lives and circumstances

e. Cultural access. Cultural issues as barrier to access seemed to have derived

mainly from aspects of colonial education, some of which have persisted in spite

the spate of post-independence reforms. The following are notable examples of

the phenomenon:

The school day and the school calendar do not always match with

the cultural day and the traditional societal calendar

The language of the school can be different from that of the

community

The school may not accommodate different religious beliefs and

practices

The school may not be sensitive to the social and religious

practices of various communities in its neighbourhood.

Even though the illustrative examples here refer to access to formal

schooling, the five factors discussed are also applicable in non-formal education

settings.

The Five Pivots of the Educationeering Process

EDUCATIONEERING (or making Education Happen) is a cyclic chain of

activities with FIVE PIVOTAL POINTS. As illustrated in figure two below, the

first P in the cyclic pivot chain stands for POLITICS, the second P for POLICIES,

the third P for PROGRAMMES, the fourth for PROCESSES and the fifth for

PRODUCTS.

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Fig. 2: The 5-P Educationeering Process Chain

In real life situations, the process operates in the following manner. Good

(people-oriented) politics will most likely give birth to good (responsive) policies,

from which good (people’s need satisfying) programmes will result, to be

implemented through good (quality teaching in this case) processes that should

finally yield good (quality learning –meaningful access) products/outcomes.

This is the framework that will now be used to seek a fuller understanding

of the dysfunctionality syndrome in the Nation’s Education, with a view to

suggesting appropriate responses that should chart the path to meaningful access

to Education. Functionality in Education has two major advantages: self-

actualisation for the individual citizen and a self-regenerating society for the

benefit of all.

Good Politics for Good Education

What Distinguishes Good from Bad Politics?

The French make a clear distinction between ‘la politique politicienne’

(power struggle in the crudest sense) and ‘la politique au sens noble du terme’

(power for a noble cause). President Obama was probably speaking in the same


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vein when he spoke in favour of politics as service to the people, as against the

politics of ‘what is in it for me?’ The distinction between these two types of

politics is made clearer in Table one below.

Table 1

Some distinguishing features of good and bad politics

Main features Politics in its crude sense Politics in its noble sense

1. Perception of

political power

2. Priority set for

self

3. Style of

operation

4. Discourse Mode

5. Set goal

6. Impact on the

polity

7. Sum Total

1. Political power for self-

aggrandisement

2. Priority is the next election

3. ‘Rule the people’

4. Since we came to power’

5. ‘To be seen now and be

hailed here and now

6. Political instability

7. Bad politics; not good for

Education

1. Political power for public

service

2. Priority is the next

generation

3. ‘Serve the people’

4. ‘Since the coming of this

administration’

5. To live in people’s hearts

long after I am gone’.

6. Political stability

7. Good politics; good for

good Education’

Experience in fact shows that there is no Eldorado politics anywhere. The

situation in the world could be more of ‘better than’ and ‘worse than’, rather than

one of clearly contrasting opposites. It is therefore possible to think of ‘bad’ and

‘good’ politics as the two extreme ends of a continuum. Some countries would

thus incline more towards one extreme than the other. Some countries would lie

midway, while it would theoretically be possible for a country to shift its position

up or down the cline.

How does Politics Impact on Education?

Table two tries to illustrate how the major decisive factors of Education

flow towards the desirable or the undesirable, depending on whether the political

fundamentals are of the good or the bad type.

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Table 2

Decisive Education Factors in Contexts of ‘Good’ and Bad’ Politics

Decisive Factors in Education Context of Bad Politics Context of Good

Politics

1. Policy development methodology

Haphazard Participatory

2. 2. Policy thrusts No clear directions Responsive to national

development thrusts

3. Plan for educational

development

Non-existent/exists as

mere piece of paper

Derived from policy

thrust, with strategic

focus areas

4. Management Over-centralized

Hierarchical

Decentralised, with de-

concentration of

authority

5. Human resources Management: not

professionalised/ over-

bloated bureaucracy

Teaching: not

professionalized/inadequ

ate (quantitatively)

Management:

professionalised/constan

t and systematic re-

skilling and re-tooling

6. Funding Non-sustainable

Wastage and corruption-

prone

Sustainable

Targeted funding

Functional mechanism

for expenditure tracking

7. Curricula Inappropriate

Non-responsive

Out-dated

Imposed from above

Appropriate

Responsive

Relevant

Internalized and readily

operated at school level

Dynamic, with

participatory approaches

to evaluation and

constant review

8. 8. Physical facilities

Inappropriate

Inadequate

Little or no maintenance

Appropriate

Adequate

Culture of maintenance firmly upheld


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9. Pedagogical facilities

Scarce

Inappropriate

Out-dated No bearing with

curricula

Adequate

Appropriate

Up-to-date Closely related to

curricula

10. Teaching-learning Methods

Frontal teaching Teacher-centred

Memorisation/regurgitati

on

Activity-based Flexible classroom

arrangements

Learner-centred

Participatory

11. Outcomes Children merely passing

through school

Absence of effective learning

Children passing

through school AND the

school passing through them

Effective learning

One clear conclusion from the above Table is that an education system

operating under a system of good politics would likely meet the conditions of

functionality. It would more likely guarantee meaningful access. It would likely

meet the individual citizen’s yearning for self-actualisation. Above everything

else, it would most likely aid the continuous self-regeneration of wider Society.

How has politics aided or hindered the development of Education in Nigeria?

Colonial politics bequeathed to Nigeria an uneven educational topography,

the great north-south divide in educational access, that our post-colonial ‘reforms’

have since not been able to bridge. Post-colonial reforms have been mere

cosmetic measures for a number of reasons. First, there has been no clearly

articulated national political philosophy that defines what type of education that

should be given to the people to ensure the continued regeneration of that much-

desired Nigeria. Third, instability was the hallmark of Nigeria’s political

evolution up till very recent times. Fourth, the democratic era that began with the

return to civil rule has been rightly described as ‘fledgling’. It is still standing on

shaky grounds and the resultant unsteady situation is fully reflected in the

unsteady state of the politics of Education.

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The over-arching political climate of the nation has itself been created and

is actively being nurtured by our own bad political behaviour. Tribalism, ethnicity

and sectarianism are daily being entrenched in society and this has made the

emergence of a true nation difficult. On paper, Nigeria may claim to be promoting

national integration, but in practice Nigerians become apostles of divisiveness in

all its forms.

Politics of deceit seems to have become the society manipulating hook

dangled by the politician and swallowed by a majority of the people. This is

manifested in a number of ways:

Empty Promises (promises that turn the people into expecting everything

from government, killing the spirit of self and communal efforts and

promoting a climate of ready acceptance of empty promises, and for that

reason often giving the votes to the wrong persons)

Road Show Syndrome (promoting the shadow as the substance; spending

more money and time to in launching a project than spending money and

time into proper planning, technically perfect execution and judicious

utilisation of project resources)

Immediate Personal Gain Disease (the politician-giver dwelling more on

short-term personal gains from government interventions, instead of

emphasizing long-term benefits for the people)

Piecemeal-Dominated Efforts (in the absence of long-term strategic plans)

Scratching The Surface (projects executed in a speedy fashion without due

respect to repercussions on other related issues, without in-depth

systematic study, emphasizing merely cheap electoral gains

Fake Success Stories (parading mere dreams as completed projects)

Perpetuation of divisiveness (undo emphasis on zoning, misapplication of

the federal character provision in the constitutions, proliferation of

institutions, to satisfy sectional needs, instead of consolidating existing

institutions for efficient service delivery)

One striking example of politics of deceit, when applied to Education, is the

posture of QUANTITY SAYS IT ALL, as illustrated in table three below. The


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table illustrates the difference between the bad politics of emphasizing mere

numbers (‘how many’) and the good politics of paying attention to the real

substance of education (‘how well’). For us to be talking Education, we must be

in the realms of the latter (i.e. Quality).

Table 3

Education Quality as Going beyond Mere Figures

SHEER NUMBERS SUBSTANCE

We have enrolled 20 million

children in school

We have increased our education

budget by 55%

The 20 million children have

passed through school

We enrolled 20 million children, who

stayed on, acquired learning-to-learn

skills, successfully completed the cycle

and transited to the next cycle

The 20 million children not only

passed through school, but the school

also passed through them

One major heritage of old political times (especially colonial and

immediately post-independence times) is self-help, which is closely tied to

community involvement. It was a heritage that helped the development of

grammar school education in western Nigeria. It became well entrenched in the

life of the Igbo, through their town and clan unions, that gave financial and

material support to Christian missionary education endeavours and also

established and managed independent schools for Igbo residents in northern

Nigeria.

The self-help/community participation zeal was lost to the bad politics of

the post-civil war military regime. Government saw the takeover of non-

government schools as key to its efforts at promoting national unity. In some

cases, government changed names of schools (in the mid-west region, for

example) to permanently erase the memories of their original founders.

Government political message at the time was ‘government can do it all alone’.

The result was total abandonment of responsibilities by parents and communities.

The present civilian government has since been preaching another doctrine, that

of PPP (public-private-partnerships). It has given directives for enforcing school

management committees (SMCs) in schools, but public reaction has at best been

lukewarm.

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Nigeria’s Educational Policy Terrain

Has Nigeria ever had policies on Education?

Traditional societies had their implicit education policies, all of which centred on

trans-generational transmission of group values and cultural heritage. The

transmission process was done in real life situations and all through life, with a

view to making each person fit into society by internalising its value system and

culture and carrying out appropriate types and levels of responsibilities within the

larger society.

Even though the British colonial authorities issued periodic documents on

Education in the colonies and set up occasional commissions to chart the course

of Education in tropical Africa, its education policy was in reality embedded in its

colonial policy. Colonisation implied imposing new administrative structures on

‘conquered’ peoples, enculturise a segment of the population to assist in the

propagation of the coloniser’s ‘civilising’ mission.

This was the rational for a strictly selective formal education system that

was regularly modified to rhyme with the evolution of the colonies, as neo-

colonialism gradually replaced explicit colonialism.

Early post-independence education policy reforms were reflected in the

criticism levelled against colonial practices by Nigeria’s early political actors. The

criticism focused mainly on the inappropriateness of the inherited colonial

education system to the development needs of emerging nations and the need to

generalise access. That is the rationale for the spate of revisions that began and

culminated in experiments on free primary education (in various forms, scope and

intensity) in the three regions of the first Republic.

The national curriculum conference of 1969 was the first (and what looks

like the only) concerted effort at building a national consensus around educational

development. It drew from a wide spectrum of stakeholders and led to a good

number of systematic follow up activities leading to the publication of a National

Policy on Education in 1977. The world has evolved and Nigeria has witnessed

tremendous changes since 1977. Efforts to make the policy responsive to the

needs of changing times have since created more problems than they are intended

to solve.


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Nigeria has also been awash with much abused education retreats and

summits. We have had the mathematically incongruous situation of a summit

without a base. Hurriedly drafted communiqués, often unanimously adopted by

participants, have been the major products of such ‘rencontres’. In most cases,

they have ended at the paper level, hardly translated into action mainly because

the contents have been merely chanted and hardly ever internalised. Thus, in place

of consistent well-articulated policies on Education, the national education terrain

has been littered with rush-rush changes that do not result in any profound turn-

around of the system.

1. Unsustainable rules and directives (Here, a good example would be

radio and television announcements that proclaim that parents who send

out their children to hawk wares on the road side (while they should be in

school) would be persecuted. As we all know, such ‘laws’ are often

respected in breech than in compliance. Street-hawking children will flood

the streets and no sanction will be taken against their parents).

2. Routine administrative interventions (Every year, there is an increase in

budgetary allocations to education (as claimed by governments), as

evidence of the priority accorded to the sector, and in order to improve

both facilities and performance. This goal is however not being attained,

as the funds (if at all they exist) do not go to where the education action

really is – schools and classrooms)

3. Changes merely decreed into existence (one blatant example being the

decision by government in 1978 to deploy soldiers to schools to instil

discipline in students. The hell that was let loose by that decision led to a

tactical withdrawal of the soldiers. There was no formal announcement of

the abandonment of the intervention. In spite of the might of the military

regime of the time, the ‘reform’ simply died a natural death)

4. Face-saving changes (Nigeria introduced a new school calendar, running

from October to June in 1973. Then, in a New Year broadcast in 1977, the

then head of State announced (to the surprise of the nation) a reversal to

the former school calendar that ran from January to December.

Government was later to apply the face-saving approach to return to the

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October-June school year, its argument of reform ‘in conformity with the

farming calendar of our people’ notwithstanding)

5. Musical Chair syndrome (The game of musical chairs is best illustrated

by the frequent changes in the political leadership of education ministries

(federal ministers and state commissioners). Each new minister comes –

not to ensure continuity and consolidate on past achievements – but to

carve a niche through a new brand of ‘reforms’)

6. Politically-motivated shakeups (One good example of this is the citing

of educational institutions. In many cases, schools are cited in places that

are also the political constituency of the person taking the institution or in

the political strong holds of known political heavyweights in society. The

well-ventilated rationale is to bring services closer to the people, therefore

facilitating access. Such schools get all the required attention as long as

the promoters are in office. The fate of the institution when the promoters

are voted out of office is often downright neglect).

7. Ill-thought-out/feebly implemented ideas (One classic example of ill-

thought and feebly implemented idea in the Nigerian experience was the

introduction of Modern Mathematics in the 1970s. This was a borrowed

idea that aped global trends at the period. Its intention was partly to de-

mystify mathematics and to make it more attractive and accessible to

students. The country was awash with workshops and materials for the

‘new’ concepts and methods. Schools were expected to be implementing a

modern mathematics curriculum at all levels. It became unfashionable

(perhaps, no longer prestigious) to talk of Mathematics without the epithet

‘Modern’.

However, there was no consensus among mathematicians on what was

‘Modern’ in Modern Mathematics. Teachers were not quite sure of what they

were teaching. Learner achievement, attitude and motivation did not seem to have

improved. It therefore required what was called ‘the great modern mathematics

controversy’ for the nation to settle for ‘simply mathematics’ and for curricula to

be reversed as a consequence. The problem here is that Adhoc interventions like

these are bandied as policies, and the public has come to accept them as such.

They have often suffered from a summersault syndrome (they are constantly


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being changed or made to wear a new garb, or even abandoned altogether)

because they have been built on shaky foundations.

Policy Making Taken for Genuine Policy Development

Table four below shows five classes of education sector stakeholders. Classes

one and two are the need bearers, while category three is made up of persons in daily,

direct contact with the need bearers. These three categories should know where the

shoe is pinching. The last two belong to the class of peripheral stakeholders.

However, popular discourse often refers to these two classes as ‘the policy makers’.

Mere policy making occurs when the task is confined to these ‘top’ classes of

stakeholders, and this is what has been the practice in Nigeria. It has the disadvantage

of policy being made for the people, rather than with the people. It also turns policy

into a mere document that articulates more of ‘education for them and not for us’.

Table 4

The Broad Spectrum of Stakeholders in Education

Class One

Class Two Class Three Class Four Class Five

Rural

Dwellers

The Urban

Poor

Traditional

Institutions

Grassroots Based

Organisations

Women Groups

Youth Organisations

Organised Labour

Small Scale

Economic Operators

Local Government

Agencies

Practising

Teachers

Teacher

Associations

Parent-

Teacher

Associations

Political

Parties

Religious

Bodies

Education

Sector

Technocrats

Academics

Organised

Private Sector

Professional Bodies

Government

Agencies

Legislature

Education Ministry

Education

Sector Parastatals

Other Government

Ministries

Policy development, on the other hand, is a fully participatory process (not

simply an event) in which the need bearer classes are fully involved right from

conceptualisation through articulation, resource mobilisation, logistic build up, and

implantation. It is most importantly a continuous process in which implementation

goes along with systematic monitoring that yields results that are further fed into the

GENUINE

STAKEHOLDER

INVOLVEMEN

T

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policy development process. Policy thus goes beyond being the paper on which its

provisions are printed. It acquires a soul, in terms of its internalisation and ownership

by all categories of stakeholders.

The Programme Dead-End in Nigerian Education

Several factors have contributed over the years to making educational

programmes in Nigeria a dead-end issue, and these concern both the programmes and

the programming methodologies. With regards to the latter, there has been a serious

misconception of Curriculum, while the former has to do with critical stakeholder

exclusion from the curriculum development process.

What is Curriculum?

Practical field experience has taught me that Curriculum is simply concerned

with educational down-to-earthiness. For example, a worthy objective of higher

education could be the development of the skills needed for leadership roles in

today’s highly competitive economy’. This high-sounding formulation would

however need to be broken down to the specifics of how to go about it. The

conceptualisation, the planning, the tools and facilities, the pedagogy, the

organisational/management strategies needed to specify ‘how to go about it’ is the

real concern of Curriculum. In other words, whenever we descend from the high

fallutin world of professionally couched educational objectives to the ground level,

school and classroom level of ensuring that students genuinely learn, we are engaging

in curriculum work.

Curriculum, as seen from on-the-ground practical experience, is a

constellation of three interconnected and mutually reinforcing elements, as illustrated

in figure three below:


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Fig. 3: Three Inter-connected/mutually reinforcing elements of a

Curriculum

1. An Overarching Curriculum Atmosphere: national/international trends,

national policy and guidelines, Institutional vision, mission and core

values, organisational management system and structure, strategic

plan, .quality of teachers and facilities, institutional research agenda, etc.

2. A Teaching-Learning Package: the most tangible component – curriculum

content (syllabus): concrete materials to be taught in a programmed way;

materials on which formal examinations and other assessment procedures

are based

3. A Delivery and Facilitation Process: two essential components (a) learner-

teacher interaction –Teaching- the goal of which is to facilitate student

learning, and (b) implicit curricula: personality, and psycho-social

activities, fitting into institutional education philosophy, systematically

promoted, but not systematically examined (see box one).

The over-arching atmosphere is the overall context, and the underlying

philosophy for the teaching-learning package, while the process serves as the tool

for the transformational change that education is expected to produce in students.

In Nigeria, there has been a consistent misconception of Curriculum to mean just

the package (content or syllabus). This reductionist view of Curriculum is largely

responsible for the other curriculum sins that have been committed in the country.

The Curriculum Development Process

Curriculum development is a systematic, never-ending process of

continuously enriching the curriculum to conform to ever-changing demands. It is

a series of upstream and downstream activities (see Table five). It is a cyclic

process in which upstream work leads to downstream work that leads to further

upstream work, and so on.

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Table 5

Systematic Curriculum Development Process

UPSRTEAM DOWNSRTEAM

In the Nigerian context, the curriculum development process has really not

fully involved a wide spectrum of stakeholders. What we have had is curriculum

writing by selected specialists, after which an expensive series of sensitisation

seminars ensue. The result has remained a poor understanding by teachers of the

curriculum they are expected to interpret at the down-to-earth level.The awkward

situation can be better understood if we consider the following categorisation

usually used by curriculum theorists (Table 6)

Table 6

Perceptions of Curriculum

• The Ideal Curriculum The Ideal In Every Sense Of The

Term

• The Intended Curriculum The Curriculum As Translated Into

Documents

• The Interpreted Curriculum The Written Curriculum As

Interpreted By Teachers

• The Implemented

Curriculum

The Curriculum As Prepared By

Teachers To Be Executed

• The Executed Curriculum The Curriculum As Put Into Practice

By Teachers And Learners

• The Experienced

Curriculum

The Curriculum As Perceived By

Teachers And Learners

• The Assessed Curriculum Part Of The Curriculum That Is

Assessed

Analysis of prevaling siuations

Initial Ideas on modified goals

and objectives – new orientation

envisaged

Ideas on resources, curriculum

content, methodology, other

support services and materials

Stakeholder consultations

Finalization/packaging of initial

ideas

Mobilization of

resources(including teacher

orientation)

Sensitization of beneficieries

Production/distribution of new

curriculum package

Limited on-the-ground implementation

Built-in evaluation process

Revision/modification/enrichment of

curriculum package (based on lessons

during the limited implementation

phase


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• The Learned Curriculum What The Learners Have Learned

From The Executed Curriculum

What the Table shows is that the effective curriculum is not that which is

intended but that which is practised by teachers and learned by students. We can

therefore imagine the weight of the curriculum discrepancy occasioned by the

exclusion of teachers and other significant stakeholders from the curriculum

development process.

Persistence of Two Divergent Cultures

The Two Cultures is the title of the first part of an influential 1959 Rede

Lecture by British scientist and novelist, C. P. Snow. Its thesis was that "the

intellectual life of the whole of western society" was split into the titular two

cultures — namely the sciences and the humanities — and that this was a major

hindrance to solving the world's problems4

While the world is taking steps to offer comprehensive education

programmes by bridging the gap between the two cultures, Nigeria has persisted

in classifying students early in life into ‘Arts oriented’ and ‘Science oriented’.

Twenty first century life requires a broad general knowledge (through exposure to

various methods of knowing and of exploring reality). We are providing half-hearted

exposure to students and denying them the opportunity of fitting into the real world that

has no strict boundaries between the two cultures, a world that requires Humanistic

Science and Technology along with Scientific Humanistic Studies. What is envisaged – in

terms of learning outcomes- are (a) ‘arts’ graduates imbued with the methods of science

and (b) ‘science’ graduates who would not function as robots but would give a human

touch to the applications of science.

The Menace of Curriculum Overload

The emphasis in curriculum organisation has long shifted from how much you

know to how well you have learned how to learn. The new emphasis gave rise to the

integration of learning experiences. It is also in perfect accord with the demands of the

world of work of today’s Knowledge Economy. Recent educational programme

development efforts in Nigeria have however been diverted from the global trend and has

adopted the add-on approach that mistakes curriculum overload for curriculum

enrichment.

Table 7

Nigeria’s New Senior Secondary Subjects

4 from WIKIPEDIA, accessed on 1 1/10/2014

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rede_Lecture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rede_Lecture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._P._Snow

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanities

20

1. Machine

Woodworking

2. Printing Craft

Practice

3. Electrical

Installation and Maintenance

Work

4. Store

Keeping

5. Auto Body

Repair and Spray Painting

6. Auto Electrical

Work

7. GSM

Maintenance and Repair

8. Book

Keeping

9. Auto Mechanical Work

10. Radio, TV and Electrical Work

11. Cosmetology 12. Civic Education

13. Air-

Conditioning and

Refrigeration

14. Data Processing 15. Animal

Husbandry

16. Insurance

17. Welding and

Fabrication Engineering

Craft Practice

18. Mining 19. Fisheries 20. Computer

Studies

21. Block Laying,

Brick Laying & Concrete Work

22. Painting and

Decorating

23. Catering Craft

Practice

24. Store

Management

25. Plumbing and Pipe Fitting

26. Dyeing and Bleaching

27. Garment Making

28. Office Practice

29. Carpentry and

Joinery

30. Leather Goods

Manufacturing and Repair

31. Salesmanship 32. Edo

33. Furniture Making

34. Photography 35. Auto Parts Merchandising

36. Efik

37. Upholstery 38. Tourism 39. Marketing 40. Ibibio

The curriculum overload menace is best illustrated by recent addition of forty

new subjects to the senior secondary school programme (see Table seven). Apart

from three new national languages (Edo, Efik and Ibibio), one wonders if most of

the subjects cannot be absorbed into already existing disciplines. It is also

questionable if the secondary school would be right to study subjects like

Cosmetology, Insurance and Mining). The ‘kata-kata’ in terms of personnel,

facilities and logistics for teaching the new subjects can best be imagined.

Doing the Wrong things for the Wrong Reasons

One often hears well-meaning and well educated Nigerians say with all

seriousness that ‘those who cannot continue, should be channelled to technical

and vocational education, to acquire marketable skills so that they can become

creators of jobs rather than seekers of jobs’ Technical-Vocational Education and

Training (TVET) is in fact an imperative and we cannot think of basic education

for all when this is missing. We cannot claim to be promoting all-round education


21

in the individual when TVET is neglected. This is however a sub-sector of

education that has been plagued with a number of fallacies, and the starting point

would be to get away from current flawed thinking on the subject, by

emphasizing that:

TVET is NOT for persons who cannot cope with ‘academic’ work

TVET is NOT synonymous with functional education

TVET does NOT automatically translate into fitting into jobs

TVET does NOT automatically turn the beneficiaries into ‘creators of

jobs’

To avoid doing the wrong things for the wrong reasons, it would be necessary

to come closer to current international trends on TVET

TVET is a requirement for everyone’s basic education

TVET should be predicated on a sound general education, to produce

thinker-doers instead of zombies, and to ensure social respectability for

TVET

TVET should begin with ‘general technological’ studies’, to promote

flexibility and versatility in learners, to equip them for the uncertainty of

the 21st century world of work

Specialization to come in only after the above three conditions have been

assured

All classes of people in society to have opportunities for continuous self-

development through TVET.

Near-Total Abandonment of Implicit Curriculum

The bulk of what constitutes the curriculum for a learning programme is in

fact imperceptible, but its impact on the learner (positive or negative) can be long-

lasting. Most of it is not consciously programmed, but they do exist and

constitute that aspect of a curriculum that is mainly ‘caught’, rather than

‘taught’.This Implicit Curriculum is made up of non-codified, non-examinable,

relatively unstructured, institutionally-engineered, relatively non-formal learning

opportunities offered to the student and the entire community of a school. The

goal is to complement the development of IQ (Intelligence Quotient) with that of

EQ (Emotional Quotient) through guided social inter-learning. It covers a wide

variety of choices, intended to address all-round development and widening of

students’ horizons:

Academic/intellectual support activities (e.g. subject-based clubs and

societies)

Enhancing physical/psycho-social development (e.g. sports and games)

22

Promoting civic responsibility and community service (e.g. voluntary

service organisations)

Enhancing creativity (art/drama/dance/music/, etc.)

Spiritual concerns and pastoral care (religious activities)

Leadership development and character formation (e.g. student active

involvement in institutional governance)

Culture promotion

Entrepreneurial activities (closely related to some formal curriculum areas

or to elements of community service)

Regulatory issues (e.g. dress codes, general code of conduct guides, etc.)

Activities in the domain of the implicit curriculum tend to leave a

permanent mark on the learner. They promote the human qualities that remain in

us long after we had forgotten the facts and figures learnt in school. They are very

useful in today’s world of work in which personal qualities have become less

valuable than paper qualifications. Nigeria’s educational programme debacle has

progressively relegated the valuable human qualities developed through implicit

curriculum to the background, urged on by a society that has long mistaken

examinations for education.

Process Level Highlights and Challenges

The politics, policy and programme dimensions have all combined to

create hard-to-surmount challenges for the processes of education service delivery

in the country and created a good number of dysfunctionality threats, as

highlighted below.

Poor Governance and Management

True federalism has not been respected in Nigeria, as there has been an

over-centralisation of power at the federal level, while local government now look

like a backroom contraption. This is reflected in the running of education where

the federal government holds the financial key to the promotion of basic

education and has been saddled with the enormous task of running 104 unity

colleges.

Ministries of Education at federal and state levels are saddled with

incongruous administrative units whose functions are ill-defined and manned by a

bloated, unprofessional bureaucracy. There is, in addition, a proliferation of

education sector parastatals. For example, the Federal Ministry of Education has


23

only twenty-two parastatals, with three of them dealing with various dimensions

of UBE (universal Basic Education).

Un-planned Development

The abandonment of periodic overall national development plans is

reflected in the ‘unplanned expansion methodology that has bewitched the

education sector. Thirty four of the thirty-six States of the Federation and the

Federal capital Territory (FCT) had with external technical and financial

assistance developed education sector strategic and operational plans between

2005 and 2012, but only a couple of them have forcefully implemented the plans.

Internalising and generalising education sector strategic plans would have helped

in:

1. Ensuring orderly development of education

2. Taking a long term and holistic view of the sector

3. Aligning educational development more intimately with other sectors of

development

4. Focusing on strategic challenge areas of educational development

5. Prioritising potential high impact areas

6. Engaging stakeholders in policy dialogues and ensuring their ownership of

education development endeavours

7. Channelling resources to areas of greatest need

The planning problem is compounded by a climate of education data

drought. For a long time, international data report on Nigeria was characterised by

nd (no data). This evolved to a situation for ‘latest year available’. By 2008-2011,

there were signs of improvement under the tutelage of Ruquayyatu Ahmed Rufa’i

as Federal Minister. No visible progress has been made in that directions ever

since .There have been annual school census for the past decade, but the results

have never been in the public domain. Attempts to establish EMIS (Educational

management Information Systems) have been made at various levels and at

different times, but the efforts have not been sustained.

Educational Finance Debacle

Funding of Education in Nigeria has been bedevilled by a billionisation

disease, a tendency to emphasize the billions of Naira ‘released’. Details of

funding are not always clear. It is however well known that the bulk of the money

spent on Education goes to recurrent costs, to the neglect of capital expenditure.

As table 8 shows, recurrent items (personnel costs and overheads) are the main

24

consumers of education budget at the federal level. As shown in table one, only a

fourth of education budget is devoted to capital projects in 2008 and 2010 and

less than a fifth in 2009.

Table 8:

(Capital versus Recurrent Education Budget: 2008-20095)

YEAR EDUC

BUDGET

(=N=BN)

RECURRENT %

RECURRENT

CAPITAL %

CAPITAL

2008 218.0 167.5 76.8 50.5 23.2

2009 224.7 184.7 82.2 40.0 17.8

2010 271.2 196.3 72.4 75.0 27.6

The funding regime is also characterised by a form of budgetary

gymnastics, well captured in figure four. Approved budgeted funds tend to fall

drastically by the time funds are released (and late release of funds is normal

practice). What is eventually spent is usually a lot less than what is released,

while what is spent for the intended purpose of promoting Education is a lot lower

still, an estimated 50 per cent of the approved budget.

Fig.4: An Example of Budgetary Gymnastics

There is the more serious problem of spending on Education, instead of

genuinely investing in Education. The distinction will become clearer as we

examine Table 9 below, the case of not-too-imaginary republics. The bulk of the

Education budget in Tapitana goes into maintaining the ministers’ entourage

5 SOURCE: Federal Ministry of Education(2011): Report of Presidential Task Team on Education


25

(25%) and in supporting an over-bloated and usually unprofessional bureaucracy

(30%). There is zero budgeting for teacher development and also for expenditure

at the school level. It is one approach to education funding, involving merely

SPENDNG ON EDUCATION.

Table 9

Spending on Education versus Investing on Education

In the case of Satura, expenditure on ministries and ministers of

Education is relatively low. There is provision for teacher development,

teaching-learning materials and school level expenditure. Expenditure for here is

more directed towards the essentials, aspects of education service delivery that

are likely to have positive, multiplier effects on the system. In this case, the

country concerned is INVESTING IN EDUCATION. For Nigeria, the Satura

model is the way to go to enable multiple education billions to translate into

genuine educational development.

Preponderance of Non-educative schools

An educative school (a school that is not merely a physical site and

location, but an instrument for awakening potentials and cultivating talent, in

order to transform the person as an agent of societal transformation) would need

to be endowed with the following features:

i. Physical/Environmental Features: These are the features that the eye

can easily see and one on which the bulk of stakeholder dissatisfaction is

voiced. That these features have degraded over time and need to be

BUDGET ITEM (%) TAPATINA SATURA

1. Political management of Education 25 05

2. Technical Management of Education 30 10

3. Teachers’ salaries 25

25

4. Teacher development 0

10

5. Teaching-learning materials 10 20

6. Infrastructure 10

15

7. School-level expenditure 0 15

TOTAL 100 100

26

qualitatively upgraded is not in doubt. That they are quantitatively

inadequate is something we have had to live with. That the available

teaching-learning space is often overcrowded is no longer news. Taking

care of physical/environmental features of schools is therefore a

necessary first step in ensuring their ‘educativeness’.

ii. Managerial/Organisational Features: In most cases, the difference

between one school and another is determined by

management/organisational effectiveness. The current trend is to treat

institutional management as an artisanal affair, rather than a professional

function that should make Education happen in the schools. Reversing

the current trend would therefore be a contributory intervention for

bringing Education back to the school.

iii. Teaching-Learning Facilities: The ultimate indicator of education

quality is the level and quality of learning outcomes. There can hardly be

quality learning if teaching tools (the key facilitators of the teacher’s

task) are unavailable, or if they are not of the right type, or are

inappropriately deployed and employed. This is why re-tooling

(particularly of school

iv. managers and classroom teachers) should be an important input into any

process of bringing Education back to the schools

v. Learner Psycho-Social Support: Teaching is not simply imparting

knowledge; it is not simply stuffing the learner with information; it is a lot

more than the transfer of practical skills; it is not simply instructing.

Teaching is more of helping learners to bring out the best in themselves

(to optimise their potentials). This can best happen if the appropriate

psycho-social atmosphere is created in the school for learners to be

assisted in tackling self-development challenges as well as the challenges

of adjusting to life requirements. Bringing education back to the schools

should therefore involve a good deal of right-atmosphere-creation, to

make learning pleasurable and to ensure balanced development of

learners.

vi. Pedagogical Features: The extent to which teachers are able to teach so

that learning can take place is of paramount importance. The four

preceding features of an educative school do contribute to enriching the

pedagogical features. Most importantly, teacher adequacy (quantitatively

and qualitatively) is a strong determining factor. Both dimensions of


27

teacher considerations (quantity and quality) are necessary in bringing

Education back to the schools.

In Nigeria, there is a growing tendency to merely site schools, instead of

properly establishing them. This accounts for the proliferation of non-educative

schools, learning institutions in which learning is almost impossible.

Teaching without Teachers

Nigeria is in fact teaching without teachers. This paradox can be explained

as follows. First, as shown in figure 5, teacher education programmes are hardly

any person’s first option. The result is that the bulk of persons trained as teachers

and who may actually be teaching are merely unwilling teachers.A casual opinion

survey of first year faculty of education students during the 2001/2002 academic

year yielded the results captured in figure four. Only 15 of a total of 179 students

(8%) claimed that Education was their first choice. It was second choice for 57 of

them (32%), third choice for 66 (37%), and ‘not my choice at all’ for the

remaining 41 (23%).6

Fig. 5: Preference for Education Among 171 Students Already registered

6 Obanya, PAI : Teaching Without Teachers – Guest Lecture, Ogunsanya College of Education, Ijanikin-Lagos:29 March 2006

First Choice

Second Choice

Third Choice

Not at all

28

in a University Faculty of Education

Secondly, there is a multi-level, manifestation of teacher shortage in the system

an under supply in terms of sheer numbers, in terms of TPR (Teacher-Pupil

Ratio), particularly with critical subjects at the secondary level

an under-servicing in terms of QTPR (qualified teacher –pupil ratio)

a severe under-servicing scenario, in terms of EffTPR)- Effective Teacher-Pupil

Ratio

The last point becomes clearer, when we remember that a qualified teacher is

not necessarily a competent teacher, a competent teacher not necessarily an efficient

teacher, and and efficient teacher not necessarily an effective teacher. The effective

teacher is one whose work maximises student learning. Producing a critical mass of

such teachers requires a systematic teacher professional programme, and this is still

lacking in our education system.

Thirdly, the value crisis in wider Society has adversely affected the prestige

of the Teaching profession,as the scenario in box one shows.

Mistaking Examinations for Education

The Nigerian public has tended to equate Education with examinations

and that is one reason that the Nigerian child has become over-examined but

under-educated. The secondary school pupil, for example, is usually subjected to

the following long series of examinations:

a competitive entrance examination to enter a junior secondary school

terminal examinations (three times a year)

annual promotion examinations

a national examination at the end of a three-year junior secondary cycle

terminal examinations (three times a year) during the senior secondary years

a mock examination in the penultimate year of the senior secondary level

terminal examinations at the end of the senior secondary cycle

o NECO-National Examinations Council

o WAEC-West African Examinations Council

for students in private schools, additional foreign examinations

o the British GCSE

o the American SAT

Box 1: GET OUT OF TEACHING AND LOOK FOR A JOB

Suitor’s family spokesman: A-salama-leikun, my people. May I introduce my young man,

AhmaduTijani. Stand and be seen, Tijani

Tijani (Standing): A-salama-leikun, my elders

Spokesman : As you are well aware, we have come to ask for the hands of your daughter,

Amina, in marriage

Amina’sFather: La-kuli-lai! Tijani has grown so big! Looks every inch like his grandfather.

What does he do for a living? Tijani (timidly) I teach at Government Secondary School, Azare.

Amina’s Father: Huuum! Well, you are from a good family. I’ll give you my daughter,

but….LISTEN CAREFULLY

Promise me that you’ll look for a job!


29

o the International Baccalauréat

for Nigerian students aspiring to higher education, two more examination

hurdles

o UTME-United Tertiary Matriculation Examination

o Post-UTME screening by various universities

So much educating time is thus devoted to examining time in Nigerian

schools (see the sarcasm in box 2). The ideal situation would have been general

education first, specific study efforts next, and then examination preparation. Our

experience has been one in which the last of these steps becomes the first and in

fact the only step. Thus, no foundation for success is laid, and ‘mass failure’ has

become a national phenomenon.

The way out is for Society to pay attention to improve the quality of every

child’s first school-the family, by reducing poverty and raising living standards,

and most importantly, stimulating the demand for education. At the community

level, there should be concerted efforts to meet the demands stimulated in families

for education by returning education to the schools and bringing back the teacher

to the system, as earlier discussed. At the school level, the emphasis should shift

to genuine assessments, which involves:

▪ a diagnostic assessment of individual learners’ needs

instructional design that responds to the peculiar needs of specific groups

of students

interactive and activity-dominated teaching that allows learners to talk, to

act, to be involved in group work, to undertake individual tasks, to be

lively participants in class

a close observation of students to identify strengths and weakness

Box 2: An Education System or an Examination System?

An American educator on a tour of Nigeria had visited schools in a poor state of

disrepair. He had seen empty libraries and laboratories with broken down

equipment. He had observed teachers at work and concluded that learning never

occurred since what he saw was not his idea of teaching.

On his way back to his hotel, he noticed an imposing building not far from the old

Yaba Round about. ‘What’s happening in the magnificent building over there’, he

asked. That’s the West African Examinations Council’ replied his host.

‘I see’, continued the American visitor. ‘You don’t seem to have an education

system. What you have is an examination system.’ – A popular anecdote from Prof.

BabsFafunwa, a foremost Nigerian educationist

30

reinforcement procedures that bring out the best in each student

supportive counselling to overcome areas of weaknesses in students

teachers constantly reviewing their methods to ensure continuing

responsiveness to learners’ needs

Genuine assessment following the processes here outlined leads to

responsive pedagogy, which in its turn can maximise student learning and nip

examination failure in the bud.

The Products Level: Full Manifestations of Dysfunctionality

A good summary of the results Nigeria is getting from her educational

development effort is DYSFUNCTIONALY, as manifested in the following

illustrative examples.

Exclusion Galore

The first major illustration of denial of access (even at the level of

physical access) is the sheer number of Nigerian children excluded from basic

education. As Table 10 shows, current EFA Monitoring Report shows Nigeria

occupying the top of the exclusion league table on basic education.

Table 10: Out of school children league table (2011)

S/N Country Out of school children

1. Nigeria 10,542,000

2. Pakistan 5,436,000

3. Ethiopia 1,703,000

4 India 1,674,000

5. Philippines 1,460,000

6. Cote d’Ivoire 1,161,000

7. Burkina Faso 1,015,000

8. Kenya 1,010,000

9. Niger 957,000

10. Yemen 949,000

The above Table illustrates Nigeria’s most serious EFA challenge.

Without 10.5 million children out of school, the country’s EFA efforts fall below


31

the level of what the Report describes as ‘an unfinished business’7. Exclusion

from basic education is a major reason for Nigeria’s high Literacy rate, as seen in

figure 6, where the country’s projected adult literacy rate for 2015 is slightly

below the average for Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).

Figure 7 is drawn from several sources in an attempt to obtain a near up-

to-date picture of access to different levels of Education in Nigeria. The figures

are gross enrolment ratios, which is the percentage of a school-going age group

that has actually enrolled.

7 UNESCO: EFA Global Monitoring Report 2013/4 (also source of table 10 and figure 6)

32

At the primary level, the fruit of UBE is seen in the relatively satisfactory

level of 87%. Gross enrolment ratio thereafter declines sharply to 47% at junior

secondary level, 44 % at senior secondary and sharply down to 10% at the tertiary

level. These are ‘gross’ figures that have not looked into the various inequity

dimensions earlier highlighted.

Inequity in all its forms

As figure 8 shows, inequity in access to Education in Nigeria has multiple

faces. Where the child is born or raised, where the school is located, the child’s

home and neighbourhood conditions, whether the child is a boy or girl would

influence the level of access to Education. In all cases, it is the socially

disadvantaged group that is denied access. There are also cases of multiple

inequities. A child is female, disabled, born of poor parents, lives in a

disadvantaged rural neighbourhood, attends a non-educative school that is

teaching without teachers, suffers from multiple disadvantages and consequent

multi-faceted denial of access to Education.

One other face of inequity in Education in Nigeria is the adolescent boy

disaffection with schooling, leading to early drop out. This was a largely south-

eastern phenomenon, but it is gradually becoming a nation-wide issue, as more

and more boys begin to raise the question:‘after schooling, what next?’ This

phenomenon has raised the spectre of apparent genderequity. This is a situation in


33

which the preponderance of girls in schools has not translated into better

educational opportunities and improved life chances for women.

Fig. 8: The Multiple Faces of Inequity in Nigerian Education,

Figure 9, compiled from work done on strategic education planning in 16 states

plus FCT in 2009/2010, illustrates the concept of exclusion zones in basic

education. There are gaps at every ‘zone’. At the enrolment zone, the figures are

encouraging, but these decline as one checks on enrolled children who actually

attend school. The figures go on declining as we consider zone three (progress

through basic education) to zone four (completion of basic education), with

further declining figures at zone five (successfully completing basic education),

further still at zone six (transition to post-basic education). What has thus

occurred is a high cohort waste-a large proportion of children who initially

enrolled in basic education not transiting to the next phase.

34

Fig. 9: The Cohort Waste Syndrome

A Severe Learning Crisis

Fig. 10: The Mass Failure Scenario


35

The Nigerian public is used to the phenomenon of mass failure in public

examination, as illustrated in figure 9, derived from WASSCE (West African

Senior School Certificate Examinations) results for years 2008, 2009, and part of

2009. When society shouts itself hoarse on ‘mass failure’ in WAEC and similar

external examinations, the issue at stake is the large number of candidates who

fail to attain the university entry benchmark of credits in five subjects that include

Mathematics and English. This mass is shown in red (need for red alert indeed).

Fig. 11: Exam Failure as Symptomatic of a deep-seated Problem

One important point that has not been sufficiently emphasized in public

discourse on mass failure in public examinations is that examination failure is

simply a surface manifestation of a deep seated crisis and that it is a symptom of

education failure that is in its turn a system of system failure (figure10).

36

Table 11

Nigerian University Students’ Standing on Workplace Valued Skills.8

S/N Workplace valued skills Mean rating

on a 4-point

scale

Judgement

1. Analytical 1..88 Poor

2. Entrepreneural 1.43 Very poor

3. Critical Thinking 1.37 Very poor

4. Communication 1.30 Very poor

5. Decision-making 1.37 Very poor

6. Information Technology 1.34 Very poor

8 Gbenga Adedeji: Education and Training Responses to the Employability Challenge (powerpoint presentation, symposium on Education and the Challenge of Employability, University of Ibadan, 15 October 2014)


37

7. Inter-personal 1.39 Very poor

8. Problem solving 2.46 Barely good

9. Self-directed Learning 1.58 Poor

10. Technical 1.50 Poor

11. Numeracy 1.52 Poor

There is a yet a more criticaal issue concerning what learners know and

what they are able to do with what they know. This has been addressed at the

tertiary level in an on-going research led by the British Council. Eleven

workplace valued skills were identified by employers and graduates of Nigerian

universities on each of these on a four-point sale (4=very good, 3=good, 2=poor,

and 1-very poor). As Tabe11 shows, the ratings ranged from 1.34 to 2.48.

Graduates in the work place were rated very poor in five of the skills and poor in

five others, while they scored close to ‘good’ only on one of the eleven skills.

with a weighted average of 1.57, we can conclude that the graduates in question

were generally percieved as being poor on the cluster of workplace valued skills.

This skills mismatch syndrome is both a relevance and quality challenge and a

clear evidence of dysfunctionality

Reversing the Dysfunctionality Trend

The central thesis of this presentation is that the root cause of

dysfunctionality in the Nigerian Education system is BAD POLITICS. It is for

this reason that efforts to reverse the trend must begin by addressing the demon of

bad politics. Conceptually, this would mean a re-writing of the 5-P Chain, earlier

presented in figure two, in the pattern presented below as figure 12. In other

words, we would need a radical behavioural shift to good politics that should as

the chain shows, be the springboard for good policies, good programmes, good

processes to good products.

38

:

Figure 12: A Re-writing of the 5-P Education Chain

What is needed is a BREAKTHROUGH STRATEGY focussing on the

following eleven thorny issues that have over the years contributed to

perpetuating dysfunctionality in Nigerian Education.

Concerted action on several fronts would be needed to break the vicious

circle of dysfunctionality in the system as a viable step towards positioning

Nigeria’s education on the world map. These ACTION FORWARD areas are:

i. Eliminating shadow-chasing syndrome in larger Society (return to the

good politics that thrives on good governance)

ii. Promoting Education in its comprehensive and holistic sense (promoting

lifelong and life-wide Education For All)

iii. A paradigm shift from mere education policy formulation to education

policy development (turning policy-making into a participatory process,

rather than isolated event by hand- picked ‘specialists’)

iv. A national habit of strategic development planning (to provide directions

for education sector strategic planning)


39

v. Genuinely Investing in Education (so that funds can be targeted to that

which really matters in terms of positive multiplier effects on the system)

vi. Professionalising and Streamlining Educational Management

vii. Prioritising the Quality Imperative (sowing quality education inputs,

qualitatively nurtured to produce quality outcomes)

viii. Bringing Education back to the Schools (genuinely establishing schools-

ensuring that they are really educative-rather than simply siting them)

ix. Bringing back the Teacher to the Schools (fully implementing the

National Teacher Policy, which addresses most of the challenges of

effective teachers in the system)

x. Eliminating curriculum overload, enhance stakeholder involvement in

curriculum development, and promote the learning of 21st century skills in

the system

xi. De-examining Examinations (promoting genuine assessment in the

system, to nip educational failure in the bud)

Conclusions: Teachers, Unite for Greater Impact

Teachers occupy a strategically central position in the galaxy of education

sector stakeholders. This is a situation that they must capitalise upon to influence

change, especially in sensitising fellow stakeholders in engaging with

governments to pay attention to the dysfunctionality challenges of the national

education system. A second point along these lines relates to the need for

teachers’ unions to ensure that they pay due attention to their triple mandate

1. trade union rights (the conditions of teachers),

2. the fate of the education system in general (the conditions of Teaching)

and

3. politics and governance (which must not be allowed to derail, as they

impact heavily on all issues concerning sustainable human development)

As figure 13 shows, the struggle for improved teachers’ conditions is to

ensure improved conditions of Education, which in its turn should contribute to

40

improved living conditions for society in general. This is one major reason that

teachers’ unions must always work in synergy with all civil society groups whose

goal is improved life conditions in all ramifications of the term.

Fig. 13: Overall Conditions of Life as the Ultimate Concern of

Teachers’ Unions

Teacher Solidarity is premised on the undeniable principle that

TEACHERS ARE FIRST AND FOREMOST TEACHERS. This is irrespective

of professional hierarchy, of professional areas of specialisation, of special

assignments and functions in the national education system, in spite of levels and

forms of education in which the teaching mission is undertaken. Teachers, in

matters of Education, are supposed to be a strong civil society force, as they are

(in the words of the UNESCO/ILO Joint Declaration Concerning the status of

Teachers) are the respected professionals in this field, being the ones who make

Education happen.

Teacher unions cannot play this pivotal role in the development of

Education and national life in general if they are weak and fragmented. Weak and

fragmented teachers’ unions are those who fail to meet the criteria for union

strength, which are


41

1. Membership strength – the extent to which members of the teaching

profession are effectively adhered to the Union

2. Membership spread – the extent to which union membership is representative

of teaching professional groups, in terms of gender, social and age groups,

specialisations, functions, and location or geographical spread

3. Range and impact of development activities/services offered to members, to

national education, to society in general

4. Financial resources: from membership and other sources, including services

and investments

5. Leadership: democratic, focused, and with strategic vision

6. Voice-Authority-Prestige (VAP): the cumulative effect of 1-5 above; the

power that is earned through quality service; influence that ensures that

teachers’ positions on issues concerning educational development and other

issues of national concern are taken seriously

It is therefore a welcome development that this Summit is addressing the

Nation’s Education sector challenges, an area in which we should take the lead as

concerned professionals and citizens. It is supremely a welcome development still

that all tertiary education sector teachers’ unions are working in synergy to

significantly raise the VAP level of teachers and to initiate an appropriate teacher

and people-led breakthrough strategy for breaking the vicious circle of

dysfunctionality in the Nigerian Education.

ETHICAL TRANSFORMATION AND VALUE RE-ORIENTATION OF

NIGERIAN YOUTHS: IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELLING

U. A. Igwe

[email protected]

And

Anthonia Ijeoma Uchendu

[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]


42

College of Agriculture and Science Education,

Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike, Abia State

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Abstract

Man in the twenty first century may be trying to alienate himself from an absolute being

(God), through his developmental strides in the field of physics, nuclear capabilities, space

exploitations, biodiversities, science and technology which are actually the root cause of evil

or vices in the society. That Nigeria is presently going through moral vices is no longer news

in any part of the globe. Ethical transformation and value reorientation have recently become

the main focus or issues addressed by governmental agencies, institutions, organizations,

individuals and non-organizational agencies all to transform the youths due to the decay in

the values, ethics and morality in the society. This paper focuses on the state of moral

decadence in the society and refocuses the traditional values and ethics to recapitulate the

standard maintained in the past. It emphasizes on ethical standard, globalization, character

building, education and religion. It also suggests measures through which the ethics and

values of the society could be rekindled and re-enforced to achieve the desired moral status of

the youths in the society.

Keywords: Ethics, Values, Transformation, Re-orientation, Globalization, Education, Youths, Re-

tooling, Counselling.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The Western style of life at its best is something people should yearn to

obtain. This calls for a degree of goodwill, common sense, faith, ethics, value and

will power not yet evolved in the present Nigerian society. A close observation of

activities in the society reveals that people no longer value education. The things

people treasure most are money yielding ventures. In such a system, honour and

merit find it difficult to thrive hence mediocrity proliferates.

The general problems, difficulties, and even the causes of the apparent

decline facing education in Nigeria and other third world countries are

fundamentally global and historical. It is being muted that the Western Christian

civilization that ushered education in Nigeria appears to be declining and

consequently crime, violence and false values have grown and spread to such

dimension as are the characteristics of decline of the past civilizations. The rise of

materialism and ostentatious display of wealth and pleasure have over whelmed

educational ethical and moral values. Alongside this, is the gradual breakdown of

law and order. The general feeling of uncertainty between man and man is leading

to massive armament and worship of power, property and pleasure. This is

because governments have failed to observe and check the massive fall-out of

these immoral and unethical radiations upon our society and education. Most of

the citizens have become the victims of wrong philosophy of life and wrong


43

principles and practices in education since it is no longer those that are serious

and competent enough that have good jobs but those that have money. If the

standard of education must be raised in the country, people must reject the

unwholesome aspects and influences of the present Western civilization by

adopting appropriate measures of inducing a systematic censorship for which

people must develop a new moral will-power.

According to Uduigwomen (2006), the moral vices prevalent in the

society include fraud, kickback, “50” “50”, “419”, embezzlement of public funds,

armed robbery, brazen corruption in high places, squander-mania, insurgency

(Boko Haram), drug abuse, get-rich-quick syndrome, looting of treasury, political

thurggery, naira-counterfeiting, cultism, chronic examination cheating, general

indiscipline and a host of other dangerous vices. Omoregbe (1993, p. 183) gave a

vivid and clear picture of the moral situation in Nigeria when he said “it is clear to

all right thinking Nigerians that the basic problem of the nation is a moral one,

that man in the 21st century may be an absolute being (God), through his

developmental strides in the field of space exploitation, science and technology

which are the root causes of evils or vices in the society”. Man is essentially a

religious being naturally and remarkably endowed with moral sense and ethical

sanctions found in religion.

Ethic is intrinsically related to morality and is also related to religion.

Religion on the other hand is a product of peoples’ culture and as such is

influenced by the respective culture in which it is found. Thus, it is this relativity

in culture that is transmitted to ethic in terms of its implications in the divergent

situation. With proper inculcation of the ethical values in education and religion,

the society is expected to become balanced in terms of ethical values.

The aim of this paper is to discuss the state of moral decadence in the

society and highlight the traditional and global values as well as ethics that should

be adhered to by Nigerians for the country to achieve total development. The

discussion is organized under the following sub-headings: ethics, values and value

re-orientation, ethical transformation, globalization and youth, implications for

counseling and conclusions.

Ethics

Ethics are defined by the oxford dictionary of current English as ‘’a

system of moral principles, or rules of conduct’’. Ethics in general refer to the

science of what may be described as good or bad behavior, social or antisocial

44

behaviour. In this regard, the 1999 constitution of Nigeria section 24 defined

national ethics and values as discipline, integrity, dignity of labour, social justice,

religious tolerance, self-reliance and patriotism. Therefore, ethic is a code or set

of principles by which people live. It is a role which guides the actions of men

and women in the society. Barchay (1976) referred to it as “the science of

behaviour”. Again, Lacey (1976, p. 246) defined ethic as “the study of whether

there are any values each and every person should pursue, whether there is a set of

virtues as a code of principle of conduct for everyone and what they are if they do

exist”. In the same vein Uduigwomen (2006) defined ethics as being synonymous

with moral, as both connote customs, habits and accepted ways of behavior of an

individual or community. Ethics is also honesty, reliance, respect, compassion,

fairness, loyalty, love, dependability, courage and good citizenship. The

constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria further states that only tenacious

adherence to ethical values can guarantee the political, social and technological

progress as a nation. This means that for Nigeria to move forward in all directions

of its national development, everyone must work towards personal and national

ethical responsibility. The constitution emphasizes right conduct by stating that it

shall be the duty of every citizen to work consciously in his lawful and chosen

occupation to abstain from any activity detrimental to the general welfare of other

citizens of the country (FRN constitution 1999).

Values and Value re-orientation

Values have been described by oxford advanced learners dictionary (2000)

as being useful, belief about what is right or wrong and what is important in life.

It is the intrinsic goodness of a thing or an issue; a belief of what is right or

wrong, what is good or bad. It varies from society to society and from culture to

culture also from profession to profession or even age to age. Uduigwomen

(2006), expatiating on values asserted that whether we are aware of it or not, we

are constantly involved in valuation and making value judgment in our everyday

life. For Denga (1983) values represent reasons, beliefs, convictions and virtues

that guide people’s actions. Uduigwomen further posits that values are also

philosophical considerations which help an individual to judge how reasonable,

truthful and appropriate his action is. Values may be social, religious, moral,

spiritual, aesthetic, political, economical, technological, materials etc. depending

on the discipline or profession an individual finds himself.


45

On the other hand, value re-orientation is the ability to bring back the

good values of old into existence. It could also be the efforts made toward re-

enacting the good values and the ability to inculcate these values on the individual

or members of a society. According to Isiakpere (2001), re-orientation means to

re-educate. He went further to say that it is a process of changing the old and

inappropriate value orientation of an individual to enable him appreciate and

acquire new set of values that are more appropriate for good citizenship, nation

building and political stability. A close observation of how a good number of

people act or behave in the society reiterates the fact that there is need for value

reorientation in Nigeria. From the 1980’s when Education in Nigeria had a down

turn, materialism rose and values placed on education came to its latest ebb.

Money became the in thing and boys dropped out of school while girls went into

marriage and sex hawking. Consequently, many vices were experienced

especially cultism, drug trafficking, chronic examination cheating, certificate for

sale and all these are more prominent among the young persons. Liman (1996)

described the effect of materialism and get-rich quick syndrome on our ethical

values this way: Ethic is essentially a question of morality and it plays a very

important role in any given society. It is governed by norms which have both

moral and legal implications. Unfortunately, the present situation in Nigeria has

made materialism and get-rich quick syndrome triumph over moral and legal

forces and ethics appear to be a forgotten issue.

Ethical Transformation and Value Re-Orientation in Nigeria

The advent of western education in Nigeria persuaded the indigenes to

abandon their traditional values in favour of western values which most people

considered to be more convenient than the traditional values and also as providing

an easy escape from stringent demands of the indigenous moral codes. This led to

the gradual collapse of the traditional value system and consequently destroyed

the ethical and moral education inherited through African traditional system in

Nigeria. Nigeria’s state of moral crisis appears to be so high that every field of

human endeavour is plagued with vices which are reflections of an even deeper

malaise. The lack of ethical and moral integrity is reflected in various forms such

as stealing, chronic examination cheating, forgery, rampart fraud, impersonation,

drug trafficking. e.t.c. These unethical behaviours which are more pronounced

among the youths are fast becoming entrenched in public life. The Federal

Government of Nigeria (FGN) has put in place a lot of strategies to orientate

46

Nigerians so as to shorn unethical and immoral acts and imbibe the culture of

good virtues but these efforts by the FGN have not yielded the expected results.

For instance, the administration of Major-General Muhammadu Buhari who

served as head of state in 1984–85 introduced the ‘War Against Indiscipline and

Corruption’ (WAIC) to change immoral attitudes of the Nigerian citizens for

better. President Olusegun Obasanjo’s administration introduced the Economic

and Financial Crime Commission (EFCC) in 2003 to check corruption in Nigeria.

The same administration had established earlier in 2000, the Independent

Corruption Practices and other related offenses Commission (ICPC) whose

emphasis are on restoring and reinforcing good moral and ethical values inherent

in the society. Sadly enough, each of these and other policies made by the various

Nigerian governments died at the end of the administration that instituted it.

Again in 2004, SERVICON was established following the resolutions at a

Presidential Retreat given by the then Head of State, President Obasanjo on

Service Delivery in Nigeria. Ezeude (2004, p. 733) noted that:

Owing to the identified laxity, combined evils of inefficiency and

corruption in the public offices, the Retreat resolved for selflessness, integrity,

objectivity, accountability, openness, honesty and patriotism; to sanitize the

system morally, politically, and economically, as a message from the leadership

that Nigerians could trust. Following this, SERVICON (Service Compact with all

Nigerians) was born.

The author continued by quoting the core provision of the Federal

Republic of Nigeria (FGN) in establishing SERVICON which says: “We dedicate

ourselves to providing the basic services to which citizens are entitled, timely,

fairly, honestly, efficiently and transparently” (p. 733).

These statements indicate that SERVICON that was set up as an agency

which deals with ethical and moral values in relation to how services should be

discharged in governmental offices, workers attitude to work, and also to check

corrupt practices. The police, army, military and paramilitary are not left out in

the fight against corrupt practices in Nigeria. However, the efforts of these

agencies may yield one or more dividends but their effect disappears as soon as

governments change hands. Also, various stringent penalties put in place for

offenders do not stop the perpetrators of these vices from committing another

crime. Example, the importers of illegal weapon of war and ammunitions by Arab


47

merchants based in Nigeria had refused to disclose those who request for those

weapons. Other examples like the unethical and immoral acts of the ‘Boko

Haram’ sects in the northern Nigeria. In the light of the above, Ughorojeh (2008)

lamented that while all successive governments have taken time and care to

identify the evils plaguing the nation not much effort has been made to stop or

even to reduce them. The government as a matter of urgency should integrate

religious education as complement to transform, reform, reinforce and re-orientate

the moral and ethical education in Nigeria.

Okorodudu (1995) identified new set of values to re-orientate Nigeria

especially the youths who are the leaders of tomorrow. These sets of values

include:

All Nigerians should learn to love one another, render selfless service and

place the nation’s well-being above their personal gains.

Avoidance of various forms of corruption in the public and private funds.

Honest, dedicated and incorruptible leadership and followership should be

practiced.

The constitution of the nation should be highly respected and implemented

and offenders punished irrespective of whom he is related to.

Political and national consciousness should be part of the education given

to the youths and other government organizations.

Globalization and Youth

Globalization is a complex term which has generated much controversy

whether or not it benefits all nations and people equally. Owugah (2004) and

Waku (2008) viewed globalization differently among scholars, political,

businessmen and mass media because of its multiple possible meanings.

However, African countries are aware of the hidden agenda of globalization

(Ogundeye, 2009) just as one cannot breed fish out of water, he cannot educate a

child outside of his social environmental milieu without alienating him, to some

extent, from that environment. Okoli (2008) pointed out that globalization has

impacted negatively on education. Aminigo (2003) observed that Nigeria’s rapid

educational expansion has not changed the policy with respect to national

development. Indeed, Aminigo (2003) asserts that absolute dependence on

imported western or colonial systems of education has created unemployment and

48

unemployable youths because of the dissonance between education and living.

This is observed in the rate of immorality due to unethical behaviours exhibited

by the youths who no longer respect the socially accepted ways of greeting,

dressing and behaviours. The existence of these social ills in the society is enough

evidence to prove that the idea of globalization may not be equipping the youth

with the required or proper educational values to enable them adapt to life

activities in a changing society. There is need for the type of education that would

inculcate the norms, ethics and values of the Nigerian society into the young ones.

Implications for Counselling

The above problem has a lot of ethical implications for the counseling

profession. The youths need counseling to reduce immoral and many unethical

practices that have eaten deep into the marrows of the Nigerian masses such as

cultism, drug abuse and addiction, chronic examination cheating behaviours, arm

robbery, forgery, rampant fraud, impersonation, kidnapping, human trafficking,

human ritual, and so many other evils that exist in the society. Re-orientation of

the societal values could be achieved by counseling and this could reduce school

drop-out rate and encourage the youth aspire for academic excellence rather than

getting involved in examination cheatings, drug pushing, prostitution and human

trafficking. ‘’Education gives status and wealth’’ could be the new slogan for

the new Nigeria. The introduction of ethical transformation and value re-

orientation through religion education appears to be the most adequate and

sustainable means of achieving ethical and moral reformation in Nigeria.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Nigeria is a great nation, endowed with abundant “Black gold”, the crude

oil, gas and lots of human resources more than any other nation in Africa.

Incidentally, the rate at which some of the citizens especially the youth practice

corruption, indiscipline and lack of patriotism among others, indicates the need

for ethical and value reorientation of the citizens. The best place to start the

process of reorientation is the school system so as to instill in the young learners

the ability to reject immorality, unethical behavior and imbibe good moral

ethical value. It is in this line that the following recommendations are presented:

Recommendations

Curriculum planners should ensure that the curriculum for guidance and

counseling is revisited to include the intervention counseling strategies


49

Awareness about the importance of moral and ethical value education at all

levels of education in Nigeria should be created through mass media like

television, radio, newspaper, magazine and others.

Government at all levels; federal, state and local governments in the

religious groups should collaborate with other stakeholders to ensure that

schools are equipped with facilities to enhance learning.

Religious leaders should learn to teach their adherents the religious demands

they should live and lead by example.

National ethics and values should be inculcated in all Nigerians irrespective

of occupation or professions.

REFERENCES

Aminigo, I. M. (2003): Educational philosophy and national development. Buguma;

Hanging Garden Publishers

Barclay, W. (1976): Ethics in a permissive society, London: Fontana.

Denga, D. I. (1983). The school counselor in a developing nation: problems and prospects, Calabar: wusen press Ltd.

Ezeude, John Ike (2014): Quality assurance: An indispensable policy for education and human resources development in Nigeria. Chapter in Proceedings of

50

SOCIOINT14- International Conference on Social Sciences and Humanities 8 –

10 September 2014 – Turkey, Istambul. Retried at www.ocerint.org/socioint14_ebook/papers/448.pdf

Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999): The constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Abuja: Federal Ministry of Justice,

Isiakpere, O.U (2001): The Nigerian Politicians ethics and Value. The need for re-orientation paper presented at the annual conference of counseling association of

Nigeria (CASSON) Makurdi, Nigeria.

Lacey, A. A. (1976): A dictionary of philosophy, London: Rautledge and Kegan Paul.

Liman, M.T (1996): Opening address of the national conference on exams ethics Kaduna 15

th July.

Liman, M. T. (1996): Opening Address of the National Conference on Exams Ethics. Kaduna: 15 July.

Ogunleye, A. O. (2009): Globalization and its challenges to African cultures and values in education for value (ed). Irow, U.M.O. Lagos, publishers foremost educational

services Ltd.

Okoli, N. J. (2008): Globalization and inequalities of access to university education in Nigeria issue and implications. Africa journal of historical sciences in education

vol.4.

Okorodudu, R. I. (1996): Education and re-orientation for good citizenship in nation building, counseling psychological approach: Benin City Osasu.

Omorebge, J. T. (1993): A systematic and lusterical study 3rd

edition, Lagos: Joga Educational Research and Publishers.

Owugah, L. (2004): Globalization and political development in Nigeria (1999-2007) unpublished seminars Paper University of, Nigeria.

Oxford advanced learners dictionary (2000): The 6th

edition Oxford University Press. Great Clavendan street, Oxford, New York.

Uduigwomen, A. F. (2006): Introducing Ethics: Trends, Problems and Prospective. Calabar: Jochrisam Publishers.

Ugborojeh, M. U. (2008): Religion and the challenges of demarcation governance in Nigeria’’ in Folunsho, M. A. (NADRED), p.35.


51

Waku, R. (2008): Nigeria universities and the challenges of globalization Nigeria Journal of Sociology of Vol.11.

21ST

CENTURY INNOVATIVE BEST PRACTICES IN PRE-SERVICE

TEACHER EDUCATION: NIGERIAN PERSPECTIVE

Fidel N Iwuamadi

&

C.U. Anyanwu

52

Department of Curriculum and Instruction

Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Abstract

A lot of efforts have been made the world over, Nigeria inclusive, to enhance and sustain

quality in teacher education programs. The significance of teacher education programs has

acquired added focus in recent years in the wake of world-wide quest for quality education

and also owing to public outcry about fallen standard in education in the developing countries

including Nigeria. For these reasons, there has been a paradigm shift in the way and manner

education business is carried out. That is why it has become paramount to highlight the 21st

century innovative best practices in teacher education that will support and promote 21st

century education requirements. The paper in doing this has looked at issues as pre-service

teacher education in Nigeria and what ‘best practice’ is about. It also highlighted some best

practices that are needed in the 21st century teacher education. Some problems that could

hinder the implementation of these best practices in the Nigerian teacher education system

were also identified. Finally, conclusions were reached.

Keywords:Innovation,Best practices, Teacher education.

The success of any education enterprise as regards quality depends to a

large extent, on the regular supply of quality teachers in adequate quantity. Even

the Nigerian National Policy on Education (2004) already stated that no nation

can achieve economic, social and technological progress and self-sufficiency

without a good system of education to sustain it. This onerous task of teacher

production is vested sorely on the various teacher education institutions existing

in the country. United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organization

(UNESCO) (2005) states that teacher education addresses environmental, social

and economic contexts to create locally relevant and culturally appropriate teacher

education programs for both pre-service and in-service teachers. While

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (2015) defined it as the policies and procedures

designed to equip prospective teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviors

and skills they require toperform theirtasks effectively in the classroom, school

and wider community. Perraton (2007) identified four elements of teacher

education which are, improving the general educational background of trainee

teachers; increasing their knowledge and understanding of the subjects they are to

teach; pedagogy and understanding of children and learning; and the development

of practical skills and competencies.

The world is in constant change, economically, knowledge-wise,

politically, socially and otherwise and it is through education that the society


53

could meet the challenges of these changes. Therefore, in facing up to the

challenges and impacts of globalization, high technology, economic

transformation, international competition and local development in the new

century, there is need for reforms and innovations in the teacher education system

aimed at promoting best practices and to meet up withthe imperatives for 21st

century education which are increased capacity and efficiency, improved

effectiveness, easy accessibility, and a competitive mindset. Innovation is a new

idea, more effective device or process. It is the process of implementing new

ideas to create value for an organization. This may mean creating a new service,

system or process or enhancing existing ones. Innovation can take the form of

discontinuing an inefficient or out-of-date service, system or process.

However, in trying to keep pace with these reforms and innovations,

teachers and institutions have had to face some challenges arising from both

internal and external environments. This has consequently made the role of

teachers quite complex. In addition to teaching, in the classroom teachers are

required to take up new responsibilities in school management, curriculum

planning and development, mentoring new teachers, staff development, school-

based action learning projects and working with parents, outside leaders and

professionals. However, teachers should be prepared to take up these new roles

and perform teaching effectively to meet the challenges and expectations from

education reforms. This is crucial to the practice of teacher education and

professional development in Nigeria. No wonder best practices in teacher

education are highly advocated locally and globally. This begs the question: what

kinds of innovation and best practices should be introduced in pre-service teacher

education in Nigeria to ensure that its product could braze up to the challenges of

the 21st century education?

Talking about ‘best practices’ means that certain practices are already in

existence which may have been good in the past but may not be good enough to

meet the challenges of the present prevalent situations. For something to be

termed ‘best’, it is supposed to be of good standards in all ramifications. Best

practices must lead to visible quality improvement. What are termed best

practices in one environment might not work in another environment. We can

therefore say that it is relatively dependent on prevalent situations. It is note-

worthy that the overall aim of teacher education is to develop teachers who are

able to think and act as experts. Therefore best practice principles should enable

54

this transformation to take place in pre-service teachers. Pre-service education is

an important component of teacher education program because it provides the

basic structures and information about the core subjects and also enables the

student teacher to have a good understanding of human development, cognition

and pedagogy. This equips him with various strategies for effective teaching.

Pre-service Teacher Education in Nigeria

It is the role of teacher education system to cater for both pre-service and

in-service teacher training but the task before us now is the nature of pre-service

teacher education in Nigeria. When we talk of pre-service teacher education, we

mean the fundamental teacher preparation, the stage in teacher preparation that

the aspiring teacher acquires substantive foundation of the curricular content and

pedagogy as well as professional values expected of teachers in whose hands the

future of the children and the nation is entrusted. (Izuagba A.C. and Obiefuna

C.A., 2005). Eyisi, (2002), further described it as the training teachers receive

prior to their teaching service.

Teaching is a diverse and complex activity. Effective teaching is an

intelligent, knowledge–based activity that takes proper account of teacher’s

professionalism. Thus an intending teacher or pre-service teacher can only gain

professionalism through effective pre-service teacher education. Teacher

education and preparation, therefore, provide teachers with knowledge, skills and

aptitude to be familiar with the art and science of teaching that in turn gives them

confidence to carry out their task (Amadeker, 2005). It is on this premise that the

National Policy on Education (2004) prescribed that the teacher education

curriculum will be structured based on these four components;

General studies (basic academic subjects- wide requirements which expose

the student-teachers particularly in their first and second years of study in

various academic areas outside his intended area of study)

Foundation studies (principles and practice of education- philosophy of

education, history of education, educational psychology, and sociology of

education.

Studies related to students’ field of teaching (eg. English, mathematics,

History, physics etc)

Teaching practice (this can take the form of field observations, supervised

field experience).


55

Eyisi, (2004) in a keynote address presented at a conference on professional

teacher ethicsoutlined the objectives of pre-service teacher education to include:

- to provide a course of instruction and learning directed towards providing well

qualified and suitable teachers for our education system

- to raise the general standard of teaching

- to mould the attitude of young student-teachers for the teaching profession

- to arrange for conferences, seminars, study groups, and similar activities for the

purpose of promoting teaching and learning.

- to identify themselves with the difficulties associated with the teaching

profession through research provide / offer solutions to their problems /

difficulties.

Teacher education in Nigeria has gone through a series of developmental

stages. To improve teacher development and availability, the Federal Government

established the National Teachers' Institute (NTI) in Kaduna with Decree No.7 of

1978. The main goal for the establishment of the NTI was to provide academic

programmes that would not only upgrade teachers’ qualifications but would also

enhance the development and professional certification of teachers through the

use of Distance Learning Systems (DTS). The NTI offers courses leading to

award of Nigerian Certificate of Education (NCE). It could be recalled that in the

past, there used to be the Teacher Certificate Grade II (TC II) which was obtained

from Grade II Teacher Training Colleges. This was phased out in 1998 when the

Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) became the minimum certificate required

to teach in all primary and junior secondary schools. To teach in senior secondary

school, such person must have either a bachelor’s degree in education or a

bachelor’s degree in an area of specialization combined with a post graduate

diploma in education. This degree could be obtained from the faculties of

education of the various universities that offer education. Thus, it could be

deduced that the institutions that offer teacher education in Nigerian school

system are: colleges of education, faculties of education in universities, institutes

of education, national teachers institute and school of education in the

polytechnics (Onyemerekeya, 2002).

Teacher education before this time has been where teaching and learning

is teacher-centered based on reproduced learning, standard programs, external

rewarding and focused on how to learn. But things are changing in the area of

knowledge and skills required by learners, methods and strategies of delivery, and

teachers’ roles. The teacher is now expected to be an academic specialists,

56

methodologist, character trainer, counsellor/confidant, curriculum developer,

diagnostician, facilitator, administrator, evaluator, public relation officer,

professional etc. These innovative roles require reforms in the teacher education

curriculum to bring it at ‘per’ with global best practices. All called for classrooms

filled with challenging, authentic, and collaborative work—a big break from past

practices.

What do we mean by ‘Best Practices’?

The expression best practices was originally borrowed from the

professions of Medicine, Law, and architecture, where ‘good practices’ and ‘best

practices’ are everyday phrases used to describe solid reputable state of the art

work in a field. If a professional is following best practice standards he or she is

aware of current research and consistently offers clients the full benefits of full

knowledge, technology, and procedures. Since educators are people who take

ideas seriously, who believe in enquiry and who subscribe to the possibility of

human progress, then the professional language must label and respect practice

that is at the leading edge of the field. That is why the term ‘best practices’ has

been adopted as a shorthand emblem of serious, thoughtful, informed,

responsible, state of the art teaching. (Zemelman, Daniels, and Hyde 2005)

Before one begins to talk about best practices, there may have been other

practices in existence which may not be efficacious enough in achieving set

objectives. This may give rise to the drive or urge to search for alternatives which

must be better than the existing ones. Therefore, best practices could be regarded

as better ways of doing things to achieve set goals or targets.

Florida department of education (2015) view best practices as strategies, activities

or approaches that have been shown through research and evaluation to be

effective or efficient. Best practices can be new or refined programmes relevant to

(but are not limited to) areas such as academic affairs, student affairs, workforce

education, business, economic development, technology, innovation and

administration. Therefore best practices in education should anchor on the

following principles as highlighted by Nichols (2001)

Individualization- This implies adaptability to the learning needs of the

individual

Meaningful interactivity - This means giving learners opportunity to

interact with the teacher, fellow learners, instructional resources, etc

Shared experience: encouraging students to learn from one another

Flexible and clear course design - Preparing the entire course with a

view to maximizing student control while still providing clear expectations.

Learner reflection - Encouraging students to mentally engage with

course concepts and to consider their progress


57

Quality Information – Providing actual contents that are accurate and

especially designed to facilitate understanding. The effectiveness of innovations

in pre-service teacher education depends on a number of factors related to the

following questions:

– How well can the innovation through ICT globalize, localize and individualize

student teachers’ professional learning and development?

–How well can the innovation maximize student teachers’ professional learning

opportunities through establishing the borderless ICT environment, local and

international networking, and various types of innovative learning programs?

– How well can the innovation facilitate and ensure that student teachers’

professional learning is sustained and life long?

– How well can the innovation ensure and facilitate the development of student

teachers’ ability?

– How well can the innovation facilitate the development of a contextualized

multiple intelligence (CMI). This is a dramatic pedagogical environment in

which student teachers are immersed and inspired to be self-actualized and able

to develop CMI themselves?

Best Practices Needed in the 21st Century Teacher Education

In the words of Douglas (2010), 21st century education should be bold, it

breaks the mould. It is flexible, creative, challenging and complex. It addresses a

rapidly changing world filled with fantastic new problems as well as exciting new

possibilities. Some best practices required in teacher education elsewhere and

Nigeria in particular include:

Contextualized, Multiple Intelligence, (CMI)-focused curriculum: In

the traditional paradigm, the focus of the curriculum is on the content and

delivery of subject knowledge. By contrast, the new paradigm focuses on the

design of curriculum on developing teachers’ CMI and learning ability, students’

learning and development, and the school’s development. Therefore, the design is

based on characteristics of development of CMI and maximizing development

opportunities for teachers’ individualized, localized, and globalized learning and

teaching. The curriculum structure is often hybrid, integrative, and interactive

with the support of IT, networking, local and global exposure, and field

experience and virtual reality.

World-class and globalized curriculum: The new curriculum content of

pre-service teacher education should be world-class and globalized, pooling up

the world-class materials and designs for learning and teaching and maximizing

global relevance and exposure in different development areas. The content is also

related to technological, economic, social, political, cultural, and learning

globalization. Whether it is subject-based is not the major concern.

58

Localized curriculum: The new curriculum also includes local resources,

materials and concerns to ensure the local relevance and community involvement

to maximize opportunities for pre-service teachers’ localized learning and

teaching. School-based/community-based teacher education maximizes local

relevance and support in the field. Technological, economic, social, political,

cultural, and learning localization are also important areas of pre-service teacher

education curriculum.

Individualized curriculum: The new curriculum should be flexible and

adaptable in terms of learning targets, content, methods, and schedules to meet the

developmental needs of individual teachers, facilitate their self-learning and

actualization, and optimize their potential as CMI teachers.

Best Practices in pedagogy for pre-service teacher education

The traditional pre-service teacher education emphasizes delivering

subject knowledge and professional skills to prospective teachers. As stated

above, the pedagogy frames teachers’ learning as a disciplinary, passive, and

socializing process and assumes that close supervision is necessary during the

training process. The opportunities for traditional teacher learning are often very

limited, in a fixed period, and within an institutional bounded or site-bounded but

IT-absent environment. Also, the pedagogy has no clear linkage with

development of teachers’ CMI, and it is often driven by the delivery of subject

knowledge and external standards in examinations. In contrast to the traditional

paradigm, the new pedagogy has the characteristics outlined below:

Extensive Use of Information Communication Technology: Information and communication technology (ICT) was strongly advocated. ICT in

teacher education was mainly used as an efficient tool for the storage, transfer and

delivery of professional knowledge and skills from teacher educators or central

sources to individual teacher learners. Innovation and use of ICT are extensive in

building up a networked environment for teachers’ individualized, localized and

globalized professional learning and CMI development. Innovation through ICT

plays a key role to facilitate paradigm shift in education & teacher education

Facilitating teachers’ life-long learning: The new pedagogy views

teachers’ learning as a self-actualizing; discovery, experiential, enjoyable, and

reflective process. However, the facilitative role of teacher educators and pre-

service teachers’ own motivation and self-reward are crucial to this self-learning

process.

Multiple sources of teacher learning: In addition to the teacher

education institution itself, there are multiple sources of teacher learning; for

example, self-learning programs and packages, interactive multi-media materials,

web-site learning, outside experts, community experiential programs, etc. inside


59

and outside the institution, locally and globally. Through different types of

partnership and collaboration, schools, local, and overseas organizations,

institutions and communities, including social services, business, and industry, are

actively involved in the pre-service teacher education programs.

Globally and locally networked teacher learning: Teacher learning

could be locally and globally networked; through the Internet, e-communications,

visiting programs, local and global exchange programs, and sharing by video-

conferencing. The networked learning can and should provide a wide spectrum of

learning experiences and maximize opportunities for student teachers to benefit

from various settings and cultures. With the help of globalized learning, student

teachers can learn world-class experiences from different parts of the world and

various cultural settings. Therefore, the opportunities for pre-service teachers can

be maximized to enhance the quality of their learning and teaching from local and

global networking and exposure and showcase their ‘best practices’.

World-wide IT pedagogical environment: In order to make CMI teacher

education possible, it is necessary to build up a world-wide IT pedagogical

environment for teacher learning. It should include some typical and important

components, such as world-wide networking through the Internet, web-site

learning, interactive self-learning, multi-media facilities and learning materials,

and video-conferencing for local and international sharing and exposure. Through

this environment, boundless and unlimited opportunities can be provided to

teachers’ learning inside and outside teacher education institutions and schools.

Good infrastructure: There should be improved infrastructure in teacher

education institutions especially in developing countries like Nigeria. Such

infrastructures include comfortable learning classrooms, laboratories, libraries

equipped with current texts, e-libraries, modern hostels for accommodation,

comfortable office blocks for teacher educators etc. The best practices listed here

are neither exclusive nor complete.

Problems that could hinder the implementation of best practices in the

Nigerian teacher education system

Some of these problems are:

• Short duration of teacher training programs

• Incompetency of student teachers

• Teacher education program have narrow and rigid curriculum

• Superficial teaching practice

• Problem of supervision of teaching

• Deficiency in content of the Teaching Subject’s Knowledge

• Methods of teaching are lacking in innovation -

• Poor academic background of student teachers

60

• Deficiency in facilities for student teachers

• Lack of facilities for professional development

• Insufficient financial grants

• Narrow scope of teacher education

• Lack of culture-specific pedagogy

Conclusion and Recommendations:

The teacher is the pivot around which the entire educational system

revolves and the main catalyst needed to implement the much desirable changes

in the teaching and learning process. For this singular reason, all efforts should be

geared towards motivating teachers to become creative and resourceful to keep

themselves abreast of new knowledge and skills. It is highly advocated that

teacher education programs should be structured and modified in a way that

enables them to respond dynamically to the new problems and challenges in the

field of education through enhanced best practices and also seeking for ways of

solving the problems that could hinder the implementation of these best practices.

REFERENCES

Amadeker, (2005): The relationship between Funding, ICT selection

processes, administration, and planning and the standard of

science teachers, Retrieved on 1/6/15 from

http:/www.ied.edu.hk/apfslt/v8_issue1/ololube/ololube3.htm

Cheng, Y. C., Chow, K. W., & Mok, M. M. C. (Eds.). (2004). Reform of

teacher education in Asia-Pacific in the new millennium: Trends and


61

challenges (pp. 1–238). Dordrecht, The Netherlands:Kluwer

Academic Puhlishers.

Cheng Y, C. (2009): Paradigm shift in pre-service teacher education:

Implications for innovations and practice; In C. P. Lim, k. Cock, G.

Douglas, K. (2010): New media and new literacies: Reconsructing

education for the new millennium. Retrieved on 4/6/5

fromhttp://www.21stcenturyschool.com/what_is_21st_century_education.htm

Eyisi, J.C.(2004): Teacher training in English language as a second

language: A keynote address to the ethics of teaching profession

standards conference at NTW teacher education council in July 2004

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004): National Policy on Education. Lagos:

Federal Ministry of Education Florida department of education (2015) Best

Practices retrieved on 29th/5/2015 from www.fldoe.org/schools/higher-ed/fl-

colleg

Onyemerekeya, C.C.(2002): Teacher Education in Nigeria. Owerri:

Vantage Publications

Florida Department of Education (2015): ‘Best Practices’ retrieved on

29th/5/2015 from www.fldoe.org/schools/higher-ed/fl-colleg

Izuagba A.C. and Obiefuna C.A. (2005.): Trends and issues in teacher

education: the Nigerian perspective. Owerri: Chinas-Hop Publishers

Lock & C. Brook, (2009) (Ed): Innovative practices in pre-service teacher education:

An Asian Pacific perspective. Rotadam: Sense

Publishers

Nichols, M. (2001): Teaching for learning. New Zealand: Traininc.co.nz

Perraton, H (2007): Teacher Education: The role of Open and Distant

Learning, London: Routelegde.

Singh, G. (2014): Emerging trends and innovations in teacher education; Journal of

applied research, 4(5) pp 124-130.

http://www.21stcenturyschool.com/what_is_21st_century_education.htm

http://www.fldoe.org/schools/higher-ed/fl-colleg



62

UNESCO. (2005): Guidelines and Recommendations for reorienting teacher

education to Address sustainability. Retrieved from

unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/00143/143370e.pdf

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (2015) Teacher education. Retrieved

2/6/15 from http://en,m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher_education

Zemelman, S. Daniels, H. & Hyde A. ( 2005): Today’sstandards for Teaching and

learning in American Schools. Heinaeman: Portsmouth, New Hampsire

ENVIRONMENTAL SOURCES AND EFFECTS OF STRESS ON

MARRIED STUDENTS IN TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS

Nkeiruka Onyemerekeya

Department of Guidance & Counselling

Nathaniel T. Ahanna Ukwuoma

Department of Measurement & Evaluation

[email protected]

And

Patricia Chioma Uneze

http://en,m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher_education


63

Department of Economics,

Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to investigate the environmental sources of stress among

married students in tertiary schools in Owerri. The researchers used questionnaire and

collected data from two hundred and fifty married students from the Faculties of Education

and Humanities. The findings showed that offering very many courses, staying too long at

school and inadequate learning materials were among the major factors in the tertiary

institutions that induce stress to married students. The other factors included poor lecture

accommodation and furniture as well as insecurity of their lives and property, low

concentration during private studies due to noise at home, lack of support from spouse, lack

of conducive room for reading, insufficient time to study at home due to family concerns,

insecurity at home especially at night, working to provide for the family and distractions from

participating in social activities. lt was recommended that the school environment should be

improved so as to accommodate the needs of married students.

Keywords: tertiary education, environment, stress, research questions, hypotheses, results.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Education is the pivot on which the wheel of development revolves. It is

one of the major catalysts that bring about economic and national development.

According to Aghenta (2008, p. 19), "education is the acquisition of knowledge,

the aggregate of all the processes through which a person develops abilities,

attitudes and other forms of behaviours with positive value in the society in which

one lives." It is, therefore, through education that the critical values and skills are

acquired. Schools are established organizations with the major purpose of

developing the intellectual potentials of students and inculcating proper character

values in them. The relevance of education is well emphasized in the education

system in such a way that there are provisions made for different types of people

to go to school. These include infants, young and old adults. It also includes

single and married individuals. In the tertiary institution, there are married

students who are studying for different objectives. Some may be studying to

improve their social and economic conditions while others may be studying for

personal development. However, the researchers have observed that some of these

different classes of learners do not find the learning environments conducive to

learning. The fact is that in some of the institutions, the teaching and learning

environments are very hostile. Some of the students settle on the windows during

lectures and this they must do irrespective of the many lectures they must attend

in each day or week. Festa (2009) expressed fear that apart from poor

infrastructural facilities of the schools, the social conditions of the schools can

make a student to panic. Sometimes, the students do not have cordial relationships

with the lecturers or with fellow students. These situations may induce stress

64

which may also have adverse effects on the students' psychological and physical

wellbeing.

Stress is a negative emotional state of an individual which occurs in

response to an event or task perceived to be exceeding the individual's ability to

cope. Agad (2006) noted that every one may be disposed to stress. This could be

as a result of the human tendency to pursue set goals and set new ones. Some of

the tasks may be either too difficult to accomplish or are left unaccomplished.

Stress exists in all human organizations and affects every member irrespective of

age, gender, religion and status.

In recent times, some students are reported to have slumped in the class as

a result of either stress or heart failure. There could be no doubt that married

students have additional sources of stress. They may be bothered by both family

and academic concerns. The physical environment of schools may also exert an

influence on the education and emotionality of the students. Okeke (2011) noted

that in general, the school environments present an educative atmosphere. The

modern school site, building and equipment should be adequate, safe, comfortable

and attractive. It is only in the best environmental setting that the most effective

learning takes place.

Festa (2009) carried out a study on causes of stress among primary school

teachers in Accra. The study was a survey design. Two hundred teachers were

interviewed. Data were analyzed using simple average statistics. It was found that

overcrowding of pupils and poor provision of teaching materials induced stress.

Helas (2009) also investigated stress coping methods of university

students in Chicago. The study surveyed the views of 430 teachers and

summarized that some students developed poor relations with teachers and with

the students.

It is necessary to investigate and remove or at least reduce stress among

married students to enable them succeed at school and perform their expected

duties and obligations to their families. Unless the school environment is

investigated with the objective of diagnosing the stressful factors, tertiary

institution administrators may not know about the existence of these sources of

stress or make adequate effort to reduce or eliminate them.


65

The study was designed to survey school environment and family factors

which induce stress to married students. The findings of the study would be useful

to students, lecturers and education providers. The findings could serve as

diagnoses of students' psychological problems and thus would provide facts on

how students could reduce the stress they experience. The theoretical basis of the

study is the Needs Frustration theory of Zenix. According to Helax (2009), this

theory states that unaccomplished expectations do induce a level of stress

Research Questions and Hypotheses

The study was guided by the following research questions and null

hypotheses:

Research Questions

1. What are some school factors in the university environment that constitute

sources of stress to married students? and

2. What are some school factors in the family environment that constitute sources

of stress to married students?

Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses guided the study and they were tested at

0.05 level of significance:

1. There is no significant difference in the mean level of stress experienced by

married male and female students from the school environment and

2. There is no significant difference in the mean level of stress experienced by

married male and female students from the family environment.

Method

The study adopted the correlational descriptive survey design. This design

was considered suitable for the study because according to Ahanna (2008), the

correlational descriptive survey seeks to obtain, analyze and report the

investigated variables without manipulating or altering them and relates them to

the independent variable(s)

The study was carried out in the Owerri Education zone of Imo State.

Generally, the area in rated as educationally advantaged and it is home to the Imo

State University Owerri , Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education Owerri, The

Federal Polytechnic Nekede and the Federal University of Technology Owerri.

66

Some persons take advantage of the urban location of the institutions and enroll

for studies irrespective of their age or marital status.

The population of the study was made up of four hundred and eighty (480)

married students in the School of Education in the Imo State University Owerri

and Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education Owerri. A total of two hundred

and forty married students were chosen for the study, on a proportionate random

basis.

The instrument for data collection was a researchers' developed

questionnaire called Evaluation of Students’ Stress at School (ESSS)

questionnaire. The instrument contained twenty items which focused on school

and family environmental sources of stress. Its response pattern was the modified

4-point

Likert scale with a theoretical mean (X) of 2.5.

The instrument for data collection was constructed by the researcher based

on the research objectives. It was validated by three experts in Measurement and

Evaluation and Educational psychology. Its internal consistency using Cronbach

Alpha statistics was 0.92 while its external consistency using Pearson's Product

Moment correlation statistics for a test-retest technique on twenty married

students from Federal University of Technology Owerri was 0.87. The

researchers visited the selected respondents in the institutions and administered

copies of the questionnaire to them. The respondents were entreated to complete

the questionnaire sheets and return them immediately to avoid loss. The obtained

responses were converted to numerical scores to enable statistical analysis. Data

for the research questions were analyzed using mean (X) statistics while the

hypotheses were tested using z-test statistics.

Results

This section presents the analysis of data generated for the study and the

findings made from them. The data are organized according to the research

questions and hypotheses and presented in the following Tables.

Research Question 1

1. What are some factors in the school environment that constitute sources of

stress to married students?


67

Responses to the questionnaire items were analyzed using mean (X) statistics.

The analyses and results are presented in Table 1 as follows:

Table 1

Stressful factors in the school environment.

S/N ITEMS * SA A D SD I X Result

1 Offering very

many courses

N 70 90 60 20 240 2.88 Agree

NX 280 270 120 20 690

2 Staying too

long at school

each day

N 60 160 20 ~ 240 3.17 Agree

NX 240 480 40 760

3 Doing so many

tests, and

assignments

N 40 50 60 90 240 1.75 Disagree

NX 160 150 120 90 420

4 High cost of

books and other

materials

N 20 60 100 60 240 2.16 Disagree

NX 80 180 200 60 520

5 Inadequate

learning

materials

N 60 120 40 20 240 2.9 Agree

NX 240 360 80 20 700

6 Poor lecture

accommodation

and furniture

N 60 140 30 10 240 3.04 Agree

NX 240 420 60 10 730

7 Divided

attention

between

school

andfamily

concerns

N 20 50 90 80 240 2.04 Disagree

NX 80 150 180 80 490

68

8 Unfriendly

student-lecturer-

relationship

N 30 70 100 40 240 2.38 Disagree

NX 120 210 200 40 570

9 Insecurity of

lives and

property in

theinstitution

N 50 150 20 20 240 2.96 Agree

NX 200 450 40 20 710

10 Unstable

academic

calendar

N 40 55 90 55 240 2.33 Disagree

NX 160 165 180 55 560

Note: N = Number of respondents and NX= Number of respondents x the weight of the response.

Data presented and analyzed in Table 1 showed that the major factors in

the institutions that induce stress to married students included offering very many

courses, staying too long at school and inadequate learning materials. Others

included poor lecture accommodation and furniture and insecurity of their lives

and property. These factors were rated up to and above the expected mean (X) of

2.5 and were considered significant.

Research Question 2

What are some effects of stress factors in the school environment on

married students?

The responses to this research question were analyzed and presented in the

Table that follows. Table 2

The effects of stress on students

S/N ITEMS * SA A D SD I X Result

11 Low concentration

during

N 50 140 30 20 240 2.9 Agree

teaching and studying NX 200 420 60 20 700

12 Low comprehension N 70 120 40 10 240 3.0 Agree

NX 280 360 80 10 730

13 Poor teacher-student

relationship

N

NX

60

240

140

420

30 60 10

10

240

730

2.9 Agree


69

14 Poor student-student

relationship

N 50 150 20 20 240 2.9 Agree

NX 200 450 40 20 710

15 Poor health N

NX

70

280

120

360

40 80 10

10

240

730

3.0 Agree

16 Inability to settle down

and

N 60 140 30 10 240 3.0 Agree

do independent studies

NX

240

420

60

10

730

17 Low morale and

tendency to make more

mistakes

N 60 120 40 20 240 2.9 Agree

NX 240 360 80 20 700

18 Inability to attend all

lessons

N

NX

50

200

140

420

20

40

30

30

240

690

2.8 Agree

19

Inability to associate

in school clubs and

societies

N 70 90 60 20 240 2.8 Agree

NX 280 270 120 20 690

20 Increase in tendency to

rely on other students

N 60 80 70 30 240 2.7 Agree

and cheat

NX 240 240 140 30 650

in tests & examinations

Note: N=Number of respondents andNX = Number of respondents x the weight of the response.

The analysis of data presented in Table 2 showed that the effects of stress on

married students included low concentration during teaching and studying, low

comprehension, poor teacher-student relationship and Poor student-student

relationship. Other effects were poor health, inability to settle down and do

independent studies, low morale and tendency to make more mistakes, inability to

attend all lessons, inability to associate in school clubs and societies and increase

in tendency to rely on other students and cheat in tests & examinations. These

factors were rated up to and above the instruments mean of 2.5 and were therefore

considered significant.

70

Hypothesis 1

There is no significant difference in the mean level of stress experienced

by married male and female students from the school environment. The responses

from the married male and female students were separated. The mean (x) and

standard deviation scores of each group were computed and the result is presented

in Table 4 as follows:

Table 4

Summary of z test of significant difference in the mean (x) scores by male and

female married students:

Groups N X SD Z-cal Alpha z-tab Result

level

Males 95 26 5.4 2.28 0.05 1.96 Significant

Difference

Females 145 27.6 6.6

Result of the z-test presented in Table 4 showed that there is a significant

difference in the levels of stress experienced by male and female married

students. The calculated z-value is 2.28 whereas at 0.05 level of significance, the

Table value is 1.96. For this reason, the null hypothesis was rejected.

Hypothesis 2:

There is no significant difference in the mean effects of stress experienced

by married male and female students from the school environment

Table 5

Summary of z-test of significant difference in the mean (x) scores by male

and female students.

Groups N X SD Z-cal Alpha level z-tab Result

Females 145 33 12 No Significant

Males 95 32.4 14 0,83 0.05 1.96 Difference

From the result of the z-test presented in Table 5, the calculated z-value is

0.83; whereas, at 0.05 level of significance the z-table value is 1.96. For this

reason, it is proper to agree that there is no significant difference in the mean (x)


71

scores of married male and female students regarding the effects of stress. The

null hypothesis is therefore not rejected.

Summary of Findings of the study

1. The major factors in the tertiary institutions that induce stress to married

students included offering very many courses, staying too long at school

and inadequate learning materials. Others included poor lecture

accommodation and furniture and insecurity of their lives and property

2. Low concentration during private studies due to noise at home, lack of

support from spouse and lack of conducive room for reading were factors

in the family that bring stress to married students. Others were insufficient

time to study at home due to family concerns, insecurity at home

especially at night, working to provide for the family and distractions from

participating in social activities.

3. There is a significant difference in the levels of stress experienced by male

and female married students from the school environment.

4. There is no significant difference in the effect of stress experienced by

male and female married students from the school environment.

Discussion of Findings

The study reveals that the major factors in the university that induce stress

to married students include offering very many courses, staying too long at school

and inadequate learning materials. Others are poor lecture accommodation and

furniture as well as insecurity of their lives and property. These findings are real

because of the poor conditions of the university. Sometimes, students are crowded

in the lecture halls causing great discomfort. It is also true that there is insecurity

in some of the institutions due to the activities of cult groups. Helas (2009) made

similar findings when he observed that married students find it difficult to fit into

the social life in the tertiary institutions.

The family environment sources of stress are low concentration during

private studies due to noise at home, lack of support from spouse, lack of

conducive room for reading, insufficient time to study at home due to family

concerns, insecurity at home especially at night, working to provide for the family

and distractions from participating in social activities. These findings agree with

Festa (2009) who observed that most married students are adults and may have

children at home to cater for. Some may have to prepare and take their children to

72

school before going to lectures. Even while at school, they may be thinking about

the welfare of their wards.

Among the implications of these findings is that some married students are

struggling with their studies due to environmental sources of stress in both home

and school environments. The elimination or reduction of these sources of stress

could enhance the academic performance of the married students.


This study has revealed the school environment and home environment

sources of stress among married students in Imo State University, Owerri. All the

respondents irrespective of gender agreed that all the presented items constitute

real sources of stress to married students. If nothing is done to reduce or eliminate

these sources of stress, a good number of the married students may not be able to

put in their best in their studies.

Recommendations

It is therefore recommended as follows:

1. There should be improvement in the teachers’ conditions of service.

2. The government and other education providers should improve the

academic and social environment of the tertiary institutions.

3. The government and other education providers should make special

provisions for the welfare of married women in the tertiary institutions.

REFERENCES

Agad S.N (2006) Human Emotions. Susex: Orlen Book Inc. Aghenta

D.A.(2008),Stress defined .Benin City: Eredie Books:

Ahanna, N.A. (2008). Experimental designs and research instruments.

Owerri.: Star Prints

Festa, P.I (2009) Social environment of teaming Chicago: State University press.


73

Habibah Elias* Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400

UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.

Helas, R.S. (2009). Discoveries in human psychology and therapy. London:

Oxford University press.

International Conference on Education and Educational Psychology (ICEEPSY)

Stress and academic achievement among undergraduate Students in Universiti

Putra Malaysia

Procedia - Social and behavioral Sciences 29 (2011) 646 - 655

A CASE FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING OF ENVIRONMENTAL

EDUCATION IN NIGERIAN SCHOOLS

B. C. Ijioma

Dept. of Biology

74

M. N. Obasi

&

Cyprian A. Egbe

Department of Geo & Environmental Studies

Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Abstract

The survival of the environment or planet is of paramount importance not only for our safety,

but also for that of the future generations. Environment the world over and Nigeria in

particular is now under serious stress which calls for a more proactive approach to halt the

envisaged ruin. Awareness creation through conferences, workshops, seminars etc have not

yielded the desired results. There is therefore the need for the teaching and learning of

environmental wide spectrum of knowledge and activities that will inculcate the desired

knowledge, skills, attitudes and affection that is long lasting to effect change in the behavior

of people at all levels of the society towards environment. The paper also highlighted the

concept of Environmental Education as a discipline and its potentials in achieving the desired

universal awareness and moderate human interactions for sustainable environment. The paper

finally advocated the need for its inclusion as a course of study in the education curriculum

and taught through the learner-centered approach at all levels of educational in Nigeria.

Keywords: environment, education, awareness, sustainable, curriculum,

_______________________________________________________________

The state of the global environment including that of Nigeria has

generated grave concern among various stakeholders for decades now. There have

also been remarkable agitations and expressions of serious concerns for

environmental studies (education) for public awareness of the environment and its

processes. This is ostensibly because of the proliferation of the different

environmental hazards or crises and persistent devastation/impacts of these

hazards. These are both through natural processes and human activities which

threaten the survival of man and the planet. These environmental impacts have

manifested through environmental hazards such as flooding, pollution,

deforestation, loss of biotic resources or bio diversity, increase in population,

disease, persistent global warming and climate change as well as concomitant

resurgence of other hazards experienced in recent times.

An observation of the Nigerian physical environment for example will

prove likewise that it is going into ruin. This is so because “our soils are no longer

as fertile as before, forests and wildlife are gradually retreating to the few

sanctuaries left while some lakes and rivers are drying out and fishes dying”

(Peters, 1993, p.1). In the place of these bounties of nature, there are devastating


75

erosion, flood, famine, mounting urban filth, insect pest and increasing common

diseases like malaria, typhoid, cholera, dysentery etc. All of these are as a result

of our neglect and lack of concern about the environment and its sustainability.

Notwithstanding the above, there have been concern, efforts and call by

both international and local agencies/organizations at all levels for a collective

action to halt or curb this trend in the past decade. These have been feasibly

expressed through conferences, workshops, seminars, talk shops, formal and

informal awareness programmes/projects and practical exhibitions and advocacy

for Environmental education. Notable proponents of this call and efforts have

been international agencies such as the United Nations Environment Programme

(UNEP), The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), The Nigerian

Conservation Foundation (NCF), The World Wide Fund (WWF), and other

concerned organizations. These calls have been manifested in renown conferences

and workshops like the Stockholm conference of 1972, the Rio de Janeiro Earth

Summit of 1992 in Brazil and the Kankok Conference in Mexico etc. These

efforts are geared towards propagating environmental awareness to all individuals

and groups and to enhance man’s quality of life through change in attitudes and

interactions with the environment as well as ensure a safe and continuous survival

of the earth environment and it resources for the future. The above efforts also

culminated in the introduction of environmental education curriculum into the

school system with the desire for effective propagation of awareness through the

school system and at home.

It is worthy of note that although a level of awareness has been created

and impacted, lifelong and effective awareness that will engender quality

assurance through the school system is still desired especially where it is passed

on through the leaner-centered approach by all levels of the education sector in

Nigeria. It is therefore the aim of this paper to review environmental education as

a concept, the need for its curriculum implementation in schools and its potentials

and impacts to learners and the society for quality assurance for sustainable

environment. This is because the introduction and implementation of environment

education in the school programme at all levels can enhance the desired

awareness in the learners and the general public.

The Environment and Environmental Education

The term environment is mostly viewed differently by different people.

Eni, (2005) conceived it as an open system where there is systematic exchange of

energy between its constituent parts. Asaya, Osaebor and Ignere (2003) see it as

76

the surrounding of or within a place or region, its biotic and abiotic make-up. In

the same vein, Eni (2005) refers to it as everything that is around us, this includes;

air, water and land in their different types and forms and all microorganisms

which inhabit them. In a broad sense, environment is seen as the home or world of

living namely plants, animals etc. It also refers to the natural conditions such as

water, land and air in which humans and other creatures live, and work and the

effect these have on the lives of human beings.

Environmental education as a service course is seen as integrated process

which deals with man’s relationship with the natural and manmade surroundings.

It can also be referred to as the study of the factors influencing the eco-system,

mental and physical growth, living conditions and population problems (Asaya et

al, 2003). Nigerian Conservation Foundation (1993) quoting Wheeler (1975)

defined environmental education as the education which is concerned with

environmental awareness and how resources can be used in a sustainable manner.

The Belgrade international workshop (1975) quoted by Noibi & Lawal (1991)

also defined environmental education as the educational process aimed at

developing a world population that is aware of and concerned about the total

environment and its associated problems and which includes the knowledge,

attitudes, motivation, commitments and skills to work individually and

collectively towards solutions of current problems and the protection of new ones.

Save land in Obi (1993) viewed it as the process that fosters greater understanding

of society’s environmental problems-solving and decision-making. Finally, Peters

(1993) considers it to be the teaching and learning that is from the environment,

about the environment and for the environment, manifested through the

acquisition and application of the desired knowledge, skills, attitudes, affection

and motivation towards sustainable environment. The list is inexhaustive.

The above definitions of environmental education can be summarized as

the education that is aimed at creating awareness of the issues and processes of

our environment through acquisition of knowledge, skills and affection. The term

awareness here refers to an individual’s or group’s consciousness of new ideas

that relates to environmental issues and their solutions. While, the concept of

Quality Assurance is used here to qualify the expected sustainable environmental

standard which environmental education studies is expected to create in the

learners/public as defined by the Advanced Learners Dictionary.

The concept of environmental education, as variously defined, highlights

aspects of the curriculum to be comprehended by learners both as an area of study

and as an education process. Oden (2008) for instance opined that education from

environment encapsulates all the experiences to be gained or acquired, be it at

home, school or the local or global environment. Education about the


77

environment studies the environment, its constituent parts, resources and what use

they can be put to, while, education for the environment involves man’s

commitments to environmental protection/conversation and its development.

From the above, the school as an agent of change is an integral agent in a bid to

achieve the desired knowledge, attitudes and commitment to preserve the

environment. The school can inculcate the desired behaviour through the well-

articulated curriculum which is multi-disciplinary or inter-disciplinary in

approach in school and out of school. The curriculum encompasses all levels of

education and is directed towards the general public with a view to educating

them on the simple steps it must take within its means to manage and control its

environment (UNESCO, 1980 in Oden 2008:20).

Environmental educational studies according to Asaya, Osaebor & Ignere

(2003, p7) focuses on a simple understanding of human and environmental issues.

It analyses the nature, causes and consequences of the correct environmental

problems or issues; concerned with stimuli and structures that motivate and direct

human behavior towards the environment. It fosters the attitude of care and

responsibility to the environment. Peters (1993) added that environmental

education fits in the domain of both the formal and informal education with the

ultimate goal of changing human values and behaviour across the entire society

from that of wanton exploitation of nature and ecological apathy to a new spirit,

habits, moral, ethos, ideals, principles, customs and life styles that will appreciate

nature’s beauty and protect and manage it for sustainable development and use.

Environmental education is an integral part of the education process and

inter-disciplinary in character. It is centered on practical problem solving aimed at

building up a sense of values. It contributes to public well-being and is concerned

with the survival of the human species (Noibi & Lawal 1991). Besides the above,

learning about the environment permeates all levels of the school curriculum

beginning from the primary, secondary to the tertiary level. This is seen from the

Arts and Social sciences to the Natural Sciences and Technology.

The environment is the ultimate source from which all knowledge is

drawn, acquired and applied. The large and rapidly grouping body of reading

materials already generated by Nigerian basic disciplines and in the applied and

professional areas like agriculture, medicine, engineering, law and business bears

testimony to the rich curriculum on environment. For instance, the physical

environment is addressed by the natural and applied sciences while the human

and social aspects belong to the social science (Noibi & Lawal, 1993). Teaching

and teachers in the education sector should therefore incorporate elements of the

local environment into their subjects and processes through the learner-centered

approach for the benefit of learners and recipients. In doing this, education about

78

the environment will be made concrete and quality assurance for a sustainable

Nigerian environment will be attained.

Potentials of Environmental Education

Environmental Education like every education process can engender a

change of attitude apart from knowledge acquired which will help to instill the

desired conservation and preservation values and perhaps sound maintenance

ethics in the learner. It can also create in the recipients or learner, sound

environmental management strategies and broaden their horizon about nature and

it importance to mankind. (Egbe, 1998, Peters 1993), Asaya, Osaebor & Ignere

2003) added that, it can help foster international co-operation and understanding

among the nations of the world and also provide knowledge of the causes and

effects of environmental problems.

Besides, it can create the desired expertise (skills) that can utilize

scientific knowledge towards the intervention of these problems. Through

Environmental Education, the human mind will be liberated from ignorance

(mental as well as physical enslavement) and provide the lessons for effective

functioning of the recipient within the environment. It can realistically equip

man’s intellectual, physical, spiritual and technical skills to face his socio-cultural

and other environmental problems among others (Oden, 2008).

Relevance of Environmental Education to Teaching/Learning

Education about the environment is not limited to mere acquisition of

factual knowledge and skills about land, water, air and life and the resources that

are exploited there. From the need for climate and global change, educational

programme will help develop initiative and creative methods for educating

community leaders and the general public concerning the current knowledge on

global or climate change issues. This education can only be effective and lifelong

in classroom teaching and it is concerned with issues such as ozone depletion,

greenhouse gas emission and global warming, marine and terrestrial responses to

climate change and sea level rise. Others are population growth, deforestation,

erosion, flood etc. (Peter’s 1993). These changes can be reviewed and taught

against the back drops of natural climate variability which can be found in ancient

geological records of climate changes.

Apart from the specially designed education programme in environmental

education, the subjects taught in schools can be reviewed and updated to contain

elements of environmental hazards and their effects on the environment so as to

expose learners on the impacts on vegetation cover, crop yield, rainfall patterns

and changes etc. Environmental education in the classroom or learner’s

programme is an effective tool in the fundamental changes of human values


79

towards a sustainable environment. This is because environmental education is

designed to achieve the following objectives amongst others;

1. To reach the masses with the message of environmental responsibility.

2. To help people become aware of and appreciate the value of natural resources

and ecological processes to maintain them.

3. To enable people recognize and understand the threats to the wellbeing of the

environment by making them realize the long term effects of wanton

exploitation of natural resources while motivating them and totally changing

their social attitudes and leaving them with the information as food for

thought.

4. Environmental education will enable the public especially young people to

understand, analyze and evaluate the relationship between people and their

surroundings and to make quality decisions which are both intellectual and

practical on how to deal with the environment (Asaya et al, 2003, Lawal,

1993, Noibi, Peter, 1993 and Obasi, 2003).

Environmental Education taught in the classroom setting has the potentials

of inculcating in the individuals/learners the following:

Responsible attitudes towards the entire environment.

Knowledge and understanding of the processes by which the environment is

shaped.

Ability to protect and manage the environment.

Environmental Education in the school or formal system is a training

programme whose focus is to equip the learner with the understating of the

interrelations between the components of the environment and the socio-cultural

and proactive approaches to preventing environmental problems or resolving

them hence a quality assurance of the survival of the environment. Obi (1993)

appraised environmental education as a course of study with the potentials of not

only enlightening the citizenry and public of the physical components of the

environment but also of informing them of their individual and collective

dependence on environmental resources, the changes that have occurred over the

years and the consequences of human actions in the past and the present.

Peters (1993) itemized the potentials of environmental Education, either

formal or informal as being capable of:

(a) Creating in the learners an understanding of the inter-dependence which

exists among all living things.

(b) Inculcating a set of permanent values regarding man-nature interactions.

(c) Encouraging a life-long commitment to the protection of the earth’s

environment and its resources.

80

(d) Reconciling individuals and social groups to environmental quality, bearing

in mind the negative relationship between human needs and economic

development on the one hand and environmental quality on the other hand.

(e) Informing them about the potential consequences of all development

decisions and polices and fostering a concern, curiosity and critical thinking

which can challenge current attitudes and methods of natural resources

utilization. (Peters, 1993, p. 35-36).

Finally environmental education studies will equip the leaders at the end of

the training with the following:

(a) Awareness of the environment which fosters appreciation of the total

environment of Nigeria and the various ecological zones and how each is

influenced by human activities.

(b) Knowledge about their roles as human beings in exacerbating

environmental problems such as deforestation, erosion, flooding, climate

change, over population, extinction etc and realize the irresponsible

damage of their actions on natural habitat.

(c) Ability to adopt ethical values that will awaken their strong concern for

nature and all its living and non-living components and develop affection

for other organisms all of which have right to live.

(d) Ability to acquire skills that will foster conservation practices needed to

combat the prevailing environmental problems example, soil erosion,

deforestation population growth, flood etc. through the learner’s centered

approach, the individual or learners will be taught skills to mobilize their

human and materials resources so as to prevent ecological problems and

natural hazards and other practices.

(e) Ability to assess environmental programmes and other practices

introduced bearing in mind their short and long term ecological aesthetic,

economic and general societal goals.

(f) Ability to demonstrate their commitments to finding solutions to their

environmental problems and preventing further degradation through “self-

help” projects.

Teaching Environmental Education in the Classroom Setting

Education given in an appropriate environment impacts positively in

changing human behavior with positive outcomes; proper education on

environmental issues and hazards can create a fundamental change in human

values towards a sustainable interaction with the environment and improve its

quality. This can be effected through teaching methods such as demonstration,

discovery, brain storming, fieldtrip etc.


81

Teaching Environmental education especially through the learner-centered

approach in the classroom setting will enhance quality human value and effective

awareness desired for sustainable environment. This is so because, no one is

expected to fully appreciate the value of good conservation of the environment

and the tragedies of environmental abuse unless they are given appropriate

working background knowledge of the main subject matter. In this case, the

background information will help in the spread of conservation and preservation

message as it is and should be to the general public.

Conclusion and Recommendations

It is evident that the main objective of any type of education anywhere is

designed for the development of the basic knowledge, skills and attitudes at all

levels of the learning process. Therefore, to achieve the objectives and goals of

environmental education, adequate knowledge and practical skills are needed to

achieve the desired attitudinal change by learners and the society at large.

Through adequate environmental education knowledge, Nigerians will be

equipped to solve problems which threaten us individually and collectively

whether in the family, home or school, local or international and that will enhance

sustainable livelihood for today’s generation and the future.

REFERENCES

Asaya, S.A. Osaebor, G & Ignere, J.S. (2003): Introduction to Environmental

Education, Benin City, 2nd

ed. JOSAMAC printers.

82

Egbe C.A. (1998): Importance of the Use of Visual Materials in Teaching and

Environmental Education in Secondary Schools. Akamkpa Journal of

Education (AJE). Vol. 2. November, 1998.

Eni, D.D. (2005): Philosophy and Methodology of Environmental Science,

Calabar. Ultimate Index Book Publishers.

Horby A.S.: The Oxford Advance learners Dictionary 8th

ed. International

Students Edition.

Noibi & Lawal (1993): Nigeria conservation Foundation Conference Proceeding,

Lagos. Vol. 2.

Obasi M.N. (2013): Introduction to Environmental Education: An Introductory

Survey, Owerri. Great Versatile Prints 2nd

ed.

Obi, F.B. (1993): Environmental Education: Meaning, Objects and Principles.

Paper Presented at National Conference on Environment, Lagos. Lekki

Conservation Centre. 17th -19

th March 1993.

Oden, S.N.I. (2008): Rationale for a Curriculum of Environmental Studies and

Assessment of Existing Curriculum on Tourism; Paper Presented at a two-

day Mini Summit of Education Calabar. Cross River State. 11-12 Dec.

2008.

OPEN AND DISTANCE EDUCATION IN SOUTH-EAST NIGERIA:

TEACHER EDUCATORS’

COMPETENCIES IN USING E-LEARNING RESOURCE MATERIALS

C.A Obiefuna

[email protected]


83

Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri, Imo State

&

G.C.Offorma

[email protected]

University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Abstract

This study examined the availability and functionality of the resource materials and the

teacher educators’ competencies in using e-Learning resource materials. The study utilized a

survey design and was guided by three research questions. The study covered twenty five (25)

study centres and seven hundred and fifty (750) teacher-educators constituted the population.

Data were collected using a twenty five item questionnaire, structured on a Likert four point

scale. The instrument was subjected to content and face validation. The data were analysed

using the simple mean and Chi square. The result of the findings showed insufficient and

non-functional e- Learning resource materials, and poor teacher educators’ competencies in

the use of e-learning resources. Recommendations were made on the training needs of the

teacher educators to help reposition Nigeria for the 21st century learners’ needs.

Keywords: Open and Distance education, Teacher Educators’ competencies, E-

Learning, Resource Materials, Universal Basic Education, 21st Century Learners, ICT, Study centres

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Education is the basic catalyst that brings about the development of the

individual in particular and the society in general. The Federal Government of

Nigeria for this reason through the National Policy on Education reiterates that

“education is an instrument for excellence through which sustainable national

development can be achieved” (NPE, 2004, p. 4). To attain the sustainable

national development, measures were put in place both at the national level and

the world at large on ways to encourage access to education. These measures

include among others:

The Jomtien World Conference on Education for All (EFA) held in

Thailand 5th-9

th March (1990)

The Dakar framework for Action on Education for All 2000,

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The universal declaration of Human rights by the United Nations. Article

26 of 1948

84

. In Nigeria, the Government demonstrated its acceptance and commitment to

the International convention on Education for All (EFA) by becoming a signatory

to both international and regional chapters. The government’s signatory to the

declaration was contextualized by the introduction of Universal Basic Education

(UBE). The Universal Basic Education programme (UBE) encouraged every

Nigerian child irrespective of gender, religious affiliation, social background or

ethnicity access to education. The introduction of the UBE created an increase in

the enrolment of children in schools. This increase in enrolment precipitated the

need for improvement in system’s internal efficiency in the area of manpower

training, availability and functionality of resource materials. There is need for

enough quantity and quality teachers to meet the manpower need of 1:25 Teacher-

Pupil ratio as recommended in the National Policy on Education. It is not an

understatement that in some schools especially in the urban areas, since the

introduction of the UBE programme, the number of pupils has increased with

Teacher- pupil ratio risen to the average of between 1:40 to 1:60. Statistical data

from the National Teachers’ Institute (NTI, 2005) showed that 40 million

Nigerian children were of school going age and the Colleges of Education in the

country could not cope with the training needs of teacher demand for the UBE

programme. In this regard Schaffer, (1993) for instance observed that education in

the developing world has a leap in quantity and deterioration in quality. The NTI

(2005) contributed to the search for solution by making a call for additional/

alternative training strategy such as the e-learning Programme. In order to

maximize quantity and quality education, the Federal Government granted

authority to the National Teachers’ Institute (NTI) and the National Open

University of Nigeria (NOUN) the mandate to run the distance education

programme. NTI is responsible for learners who wish to obtain the National

Cerificate in Education (NCE) while NOUN is responsible for the degree and

some diploma programmes. The 21st century Open and Distance education

requires an e-Learning platform which encourages the use of asynchronous and

synchronous training. It is expected that with the e-learning, the teachers who will

teach the digital natives must have acquired competencies and skills to perform

their jobs effieciently. Against this background therefore, this paper examines the

avalibility, functionality and the competencies of the course tutors in the use of e-

Learning .

Concepts of Open and Distance Education and Distance Learning System

The concepts of Open and Distance Education and Distance Learning

System(DLS) involve the learners being removed in time and space from the

teacher. Both concepts involve the use of a variety of media and technology to

communicate to the learners. Delling in Yaya (2005) sees distance education as a

process, in which the distance between the learner and the helping organisation is

bridged by an artificial signal carrier. The signal carrier according to Keegan

(1990) facilitates communication between the learner and the teacher using


85

devices such as the print, electronic and other mechanical devices. Liverpool,

Marut, Nelam and Oti (2009) observed that today, technology enhanced learning

(TEL) including distance and online instructions, are recognized as viable tools

necessary for preparing citizens to participate in the technologically driven global

environment

Yaya, (2005) noted that there were basic differences and similarities

between the open and distance education (ODE) and National Certificate in

Education (NCE) by Distance Learning System (DLS). The similarities include

among others, the use of part time teachers, the use of resource materials such as

World wide web, CD ROMS, and computers and also face to face interactions. It

is expected that the dual mode will enable the participants learn better through the

use of conventional face to face and online methods of teaching. Tinio (2009)

opined that e-learning encompassed learning at all levels both formal and

informal that use an information network- the internet, an intranet (LAN) or

Extranet (WAN) for course delivery, interaction and or facilitation. Lee (2002)

was of the view that Distance education involves the use of web based networked

technologies and a virtual learning environment (VLE) that provide an online

environment.

E-learning resource materials according to the National Teachers’ Institute

(NTI) and National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) handbooks include

prints, radio, television, computers, web resources, DVD, and CD ROMS. Other

emreging e-learning technologies include computer assisted instruction and

computer merged instruction such as the electronic mail (email), fax, video

conferencing, World Wide Web, multimedia and mobile technology. The

resource materials could be classified based on the medium of usage, such as

narrative, communicative, interactive, adaptative and productive media

(Laurilard, 2002). The resource materials could be used asynchronously and

synchronously.

Selwyn (2010) believed that resource materials offer new opportunities for

informal exchange of expertise, knowledge and folk wisdom between individuals,

and increases the learners’ growing use of ‘read/write’ social media tools and

applications. Mugride (1991) however, observed that correspondence instruction is

not an easy method of learning as such; there must be an instructor who is in a

continuous tutorial relationship with the correspondence student.

The teacher is the daily monitor and motivator of the distance student and

maintains communicative competence with the learner. In the issue of the teacher as

an important factor in distance education, Olufemi & Ofulue (nd - no date) affirmed

that a lot of social and technological changes have taken place in teaching and

86

learning and these demand changes in human resource requirements. While

discussing the role and competencies of the distance educator, Brigitte, Philip,

Sébastien and Nathalie (2004) were of the opinion that such teachers should have

pedagogical, social, managerial and technological competencies. Palloff & Pratt,

(2001, p. 35) identified 18 competencies a course tutor requires to teach in a distance

education programme using e-learning resources. They include among others:

Development of content in Microsoft Word, excel, adobe as students will

submit completed work using the format

develop execrcises on web based resources that will involve students’ use and

discovery of pertinent content.

Ability to network with others involved in online education

Promote collaborative learning using blogs, forums, wikis

The challenges in the development of effective pedagogy, managerial, social

and technical competency skills according to Salmon, (2001) involves the teacher

educators’ ability in the use of discussion board, wikis, blogs interactive board,

skype and source for information using the electronic library. …

Barriers to teacher technological competency in the views of Nwachukwu,

(2010) and Yusuf (2006) ranged from lack of motivation for staff development

programmes, technological phobia, absence and inadequacy of resource materials and

equipment. In a survey conducted in 2004 & 2006 respectively, Ololube, Ubogu &

Ossai (2010) observed that Nigeria ranked 90th out of 115 countries that use ICT.

Hennesey, Harrison & Wamakote (2010) attributed the barrier to Nigeria’s ICT

acquisition to shortage of power supply. The observations may be location based and

with the fast rate of changes and events in the world of ICT, this study examined

factors such as availiability and functionality of the resource materials and the teacher

educators competencies in the use of e-learning materials in the Open and Distance

Learning and Distance Learning System respectively. This will determine the

country’s readiness in meeting the challenges of manpower need for the UBE

programme through alternative training strategies.

Purpose of the Study

The growing increase in school enrolment through the Universal Basic

Education (UBE) has necessitated alternative training strategies especially for

individuals who did not have the opportunity to attend the conventional higher

institution but they have the deseire to learn hence the open and distance

education. The open and distance education operates three educational

programmes namely, the NCE/DLS, Degree/DLS and Post Diploma/DLS in


87

education courses. The graduates of these programmes are expected to teach

learners in the UBE programme.

The 21st century pedagogical strategies encourage the use of e- learning

especially as 21st century learners have been described as digital natives who are

growing alongside the 21st century technology. The need to examine the

availability, functionality of the technologies and facilities used in preparing the

distant learners and the competencies of the course tutors in the use of the

technology tools for teaching remained the main thrust of the research.

Research Questions

The following three research questions guided the study:

To what extent is the e- Learning resource materials available in the selected

study centres used for distance learning?

To what extent are the e-Learning resource materials adequate and functional?

What are the course-tutors competencies in the use of the e- learning resource

materials?

HQ1: There will be no significant difference between NCE/DLS course tutors’

competencies in the use of e-learning resource materials and that of their

counterpart in NOUN.

Research Methodology

The study utilized a survey design to ascertain the availability, adequacy and

functionality of e- learning resource materials and the competencies of the course

lecturers in the use of the e-learning resource materials in the selected study

centres. A 25 item structured questionnaire, developed on Likert four point scale

was used for the study. The questionnaire was validated by experts in information

and communication technology department and experts in distance education and

this resulted in appropriate modifications in the content. Data were analysed using

the mean to answer the research questions, while Chi square was used to test the

null hypothesis. The area of the study comprised of all open and distance

education centres in the South East of Nigeria as at 2012/2013 school year.

NCE/DLS has forty six (46) while NOUN has four (4) making a total of fifty (50)

study centres. All the 4 study centres used by NOUN were used for the study. The

alternative sampling technique was used to sample 21 out of 46 NCE/DLS study

centres. A total of twenty five (25) study centres was finally used for this study.

21 NCE/ DLS and 4 from NOUN.

The population of the study Consisted of all the course tutors in the open

and distance education, totaling one thousand four hundred and ten (1, 410); One

thousand two hundred ad ten(1,210) for the NCE/DLS and two hundred (200) for

88

NOUN. Using an alternate sampling technique, five hundred and fifty (550)

course tutors in the NCE/DLS were selected while all the 200 course tutors in the

4 NOUN were used. A total of seven hundred and fifty (750) course tutors from

the two programmes were used.

Table 1: Sample size of study centres and course tutors in NCE/DLS and

Noun

State Study Centre Number

Sampled

Course Tutors TOTAL

NOUN NCE/DLS NOUN NCE/DLS

Abia 1 11 5 48 88 136

Anambra 1 11 5 52 123 175

Ebonyi - 5 2 - 68 68

Enugu 1 12 6 68 140 208

Imo 1 7 3 32 131 163

Total 4 45 21 200 550 750

Results

Research Question 1: To what extent are the e-learning resource materials

available in the study centres?

Table 2

Mean score responses on the availability of e-learning resource materials at

the study centres

Avalibility of E-Learning

course materials

SA A D SD TOTAL D

1 Web based modules 320 384 330 377 1411 1.88 R

2 Interactive television and

radio broadcast services.

164 300 256 480 1200 1.6 R

3 Satellite and internet server 48 164 412 450 1074 1.43 R

4 Interactive electronic board 200 184 428 394 1206 1.16 R

5 Power supply 132 132 444 456 1164 1.55 R

6 Solar energy 400 405 330 350 1485 1.96 R

7 Equipment room. 60 75 420 500 1055 1.41 R

8 Radio/,cassettes/CD RM,

computers

1400 972 108 22 2566 3.42 A


89

9 Print

material(modules/reference

books

1600 852 96 18 2568 3.42 A

Grand Mean 2.02

A grand mean of 2.02 in Table 2 showed that e-Learning resource

materials, facilities and equipment were not available at the study centres.

However a mean score of 3.42 and 3.34 respectively indicated the availability of

radio cassettes, computers, CD ROM and print materials such as the modules and

reference materials.

Research Question 2: To what extent are the e-learning resource materials,

functional?

Table 3

Mean scores of respondents on the functionality of e-Learning resource

materials.

S/no Functionality of e-Learning

resource materials

SA A D SD T D

11 Compact disc and computer

based resources

88 144 384 488 1104 1.47 R

12 Interactive television

and radio broadcast services

60

114

400 497 1071 1.43 R

13 Web based modules 120 120 360 500 1100 1.47 R

14 Interactive electronic white

board

48 54 240 600 942 1.26 R

15 Power supply 120 102 212 580 1014 1.35 R

16 Accommodation for

technology equipment

180 129 400 462 1171 1.56 R

17 Satellite and internet server 70 66 240 540 918 1.22 R

18 Print materials (modules and

reference materials)

1400 735 164 72 2371 3.16 A

19 Radio cassettes,computers

and CD ROMs

280 261 510 328 1379 1.84 R

Grand mean 1.64 R

The result in Table 3 showed a grand mean of 1.64 from the respondents,

indicating that the available resource materials, facilities and equipment were

inadequate and not functional. A mean score of 3.16 showed that the only

resource materials that were functional were the modules and reference materials.

90

The radio cassete, computers and CD Roms were not with updated/ current lesson

materials.

Research Question 3: To what extent are the course tutors’ competent in

the use of e-learning resource materials in lesson delivery?

Table 4

Course tutors’ competencies in the use of e-learning resource materials in

lesson delivery.

In Table 4, a grand mean of 1.66 from the respondents showed a strong

agreement on the inadequacy of competency level of the course tutors in the use

of e-learning resource materials. However a mean of 3.16 showed that the course

tutors have competence in the use of print materials.

HQ1: There is no significamt difference between the competency levels of NOUN

teacher educators and their NTI counterparts

Table 5

Course Tutors competencies in the use of e-learning resource materials.

Row

Col

Df

LS

X2 CAL

X2 CRIT

Probability

Decision

12

4

3

0.05

734.42

43.27

0.00

Reject

null

s/no Course tutors

competence in the use of

e- Learning resource

materials

SA A D SD T Decision

19 MSword, 48 48 440 502 1038 1.38 Rejected

20 Ms Excell 56 54 400 518 1028 1.37 R

21 Ms Powerpoint 32 60 164 640 896 1.19 R

22 Use of the internet 40 42 176 638 896 1.19 R

23 Radio

cassettes,computers and

CD ROMs

600 300 400 300 1600 2.13 R

24 Print materials (modules

and reference materials)

1400 735 164 72 2371 3.16 A

25 Post lessons on the net 56 66 176 626 924 1.23 R

Grand Mean 1.66 R


91

In Table 4 the null hypothesis was rejected x 2

(4)=734, N= 750, p= 43.27 )

showing there was a significant difference in the competency levels of the course

tutors.

Summary of Findings

E-Learning resource materials were in very short supply both in the

NCE/DLS and the NOUN study centres. Available resource materials such as

computers, radio cassette, were not enough and were not functional to meet the

demands of the distance learners. Besides, the few available ones were not

functioning.

Course tutors lacked competency in the use of E-learning resource

materials but can use the print materials very well.

The null hypothesis was rejected because the computed x2

value 734.2 was

greater than the critical x2

43.77

indicating a significant difference in the

competency skills between course tutors in NCE/DLS and their counterparts in

NOUN.

Discussion of Findings

Result for Research Question 1 showed that e-learning resource materials

were not available except for radio cassettes, CD ROMS, few computers and

printed modules. Other e-learning resources such as the interactive whiteboard,

internet facilities, were either in short supply or not available.

Power supply, solar energy and equipment room although they are not e

learning resources but there was need to find out their availability because

without power supply or storage facilities, the use of e learning resources would

not be feasible. The result showed that both power supply and rooms for the

storage of the resource materials were not available. This was true of study

centres that used temporary structures at study centres. Resource materials were

housed in loaned apartments by the host schools. The organisers might have

thought of the logistics and cost implications of providing internet facilities in all

the study centers throughout the federation and opted for the use of print materials

in the interim. Security of the facilities may have been another issue as not many

people lived in the host schools, as such investing on e-learning resource

materials may be a long term project.

The use of internet facilities and indeed other electronic devices required

constant power supply. The issue of power supply has posed great challenge to

the success of the distance education in Nigeria. Constant power supply would

enable the students access to materials online, collaborate with one another and

post assessments online and attend face to face lectures at intervals. The use of the

92

module for face to face weekly contact eliminates the essence of e-learning and

the distance learning programmes. It encouraged only the face to face contact and

not much of the online learning. It was anticipated that with electronic devices,

lessons could be delivered and students would access the lectures synchronously

and asynchronously. It would not be surprising to note that most of the students

with sophisticated mobile devices were unable to record lessons, access their

mails or join discussion forums. The mobile devices may have been used for

social interactions.

The Modules and print materials might not be as effective as the electronic

based materials for lesson delivery. The use of e-Learning based resource

materials would not only expose the learner to teacher-learner, learner-learner

and device-learner interactions, but would enable the learner collaborate,

communicate, create and think critically before constructing new knowledge.

Module and print materials encouraged memorization and regurgitation of

information which according to Rodgers, Runyon, Starrett and Holzen (2010) do

not agree with the 21st century’s learner who is a multi-tasker that use sound and

images to convey contents. The use of the modules during the face to face contact

might not give the desired result when compared to the blended learning approach

that involved both face to face and online interactions. The near absence of ICT in

the open and distance learning centres confirmed Ololube (2010) et al’s

observation of the unpreparedness status of Nigeria in using ICT in teaching and

learning. This might continue to affect the teacher pupil ratio and effectiveness in

teaching and learning.

Research Question 2 sought to find out the adequacy and functionality of

the resource materials, equipment and facilities. Table 3 showed that with a grand

mean score of 2, the ICT materials were not enough. Twenty computers per centre

as stipulated in the Open and distance education Handbook would not encourage,

individualized learning/ constructivism which is the hallmark in distance learning.

Adequate and functional ICT materials would enable and encourage learner’s

flexibility to learn when it was suitable. Again, it encouraged construction of new

idea or concepts from past knowledge. Access to information from E-books and

E-journals could have been meaningful if there were enough resource materials

such as the computers and the internet.

Power supply seemed to be the biggest problem that affected the use of the

ICT materials. Hennessey, et al (2010) had earlier pointed out that one of the

barriers to ICT use by teachers in the Sub Saharan Africa ranged from physical

and cultural factors to the lack of reliable access to electricity and limited

technology infrastructure. They attributed the barriers to political will to alleviate

the situation through proper planning. Yusuf (2006) equally noted that successful


93

distance education cannot be assured without effective communication and

technological tools that are powered through electricity. Ololube et al (2010)

therefore noted that nations that invested heavily in higher education produce

unquantifiable benefits to individuals, organisations and the society at large.

Nigeria is among of the rich oil producing nations of the world; the issue of

electricity should be a top priority in policy issue. It might be based on this that

Nwachukwu (1994) emphasised on the pervasiveness of ICT as way towards

achieving a rapid change in technology, social, political and global economic

advancement. It would also to a great extent save the nation from the

embarrassment associated with the digital divide.

Research Question 3 was on the competencies of the course tutors in the

use of ICT resource materials. A mean score of less than 1.8 showed that the

course tutors lacked competencies in manipulating the Hardware and Software

associated with e-learning. Lessons were not presented using power point as

projectors might not be available or tey are available but no power supply. The

poor competence in the use of tee learning materials was expected, because of the

paucity of e-Learning resource materials in the centres. Moreso staff development

trainings may not have been organised. Some course lecturers may exhibit

technology phobia. All could also affect competency and contribute to national

and individuals unpreparedness as observed by Nwachukwu et al (2010) In the

survey questionnaire used for this study for instance, some of th course tutors did

not go beyond the introductory questions, because anwers provided in the

introductory questions served as antecedents and pre- condition for answering

further questions. The questionnaire requested the respondent to continue if the

introductory question was in affirmative. A mean score of 2.2 showed that some

of the course tutors were competent in the use of internet and e-mail. The course

tutors’ competency in the use of the internet and email may be for personal and

social reasons and not for academic purposes. The distance education service

providers should see the non avalibility, non functional of the resource materials

and above all teachers’ inabilty to use the resource materials in teaching and

learning as major pitfall in the programme.

The null hypothesis rejected the non significant difference in the

competency skills of the course tutors in the two programmes because the

computed x2

value 734.2 was greater than the critical x2

43.77 I. The level of

competencies between the two groups of course tutors indicated basic differences

between course tutors teaching in NOUN and their counterparts in the NCE/DLS.

Reasons for the differences may not be unconnected with the environment used as

the study centres and qualifications, experiences of the course tutors. NOUN is

mainly run in a host University/ polytechnic environments while the NCE/DLS is

94

run in host secondary schools. Facilities in the two host institutions differed and

would affect the competency of the course tutors.

Another factor that could affect the competency of the course tutors could

be the qualification and experiences of the course tutors. Although these attributes

were not variables in this study, Yaya (2005) however observed that most of the

course tutors used for the NCE/DLS were secondary school teachers this lent

credence to the assumption. He also pointed out that apart from the orientation

/induction on assumption of office, no serious training was being conducted for

course tutors and called for continuous retraining programmes for Course tutors in

NCE/DLS. The lack of training could be applicable to the use of e-learning

resource materials. There is an urgent need for training to enable the course tutors

to meet up with the challenges of the 21st century. The suggestion agreed with

Pallof and Pratt (2001) on the need for competency training before the courses

commenced.


The purpose of this study was to ascertain the availability and

functionality of E-learning resource materials and the course tutor’s’

competencies in using these materials. It also examined the competency of course

tutors in the use of e-learning resource materials, in the designated study centres

of open and distance education programmes in Nigeria. The study was guided by

three research questions and one null hypothesis. The instrument for data

collection was the questionnaire structured on Likert 4 point scale. The population

of the study consisted of 750 course tutors sampled through alternate random

sample technique.

The Results of the findings showed that Nigeria is yet to embrace fully the

e-learning technology for open and distance education. This is evidenced by the

paucity of e-learning resource materials in the study centres. The course tutors’

lacked competency in the use of e-learning resource materials. The finding was of

great concern especially where the graduates of open and distance education are

expected to teach the 21st century learner who has been described as the digital

natives. The unpreparedness of Nigeria in the use of e-learning resource materials

may have an adverse effect on the teeming population enrolled in the UBE

programme in particular and economic advancement of the country in general. If

the situation is not improved, Schaffer’s (1993) observation will continue to be

relevant nineteen years after and pose a serious challenge to the entire nation.

Recommendation:


95

The paper recommended the provision of functional resource materials

and taking care of the training needs of teacher educators in Open and Distance

Education to reposition Nigeria for the 21st century learners’ needs.

REFERENCES

96

Brigitte,D.; Philip,W.; Sébastien P. and Nathalie,V (2004) Roles and

competencies of the e-tutor. Networked Learning Confrence Proceedings

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UNESCO Publishers.

Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2004). National Policy on Education . Lagos:

NERDC

Hennesy, S.; Harrison, D., and Wamakote , D (2010). Teacher factors influencing

classroom use of ICT Sub-Saharan Africa. Itipale online journal of

African Studies , 39-54.

Huang, H. (2000). Instructional technologies facilitating Online courses. Review

of Educational Research, 69(3), 217- 260.

Laurrilard, D (2002): Rethinking University teaching: A framework for the

effective use of learning technologies. Routledgefalmer. London and

Newyork.

Lee, D. (2002) LSTN generic centre graduate empolyability – Literature Review.

University of Exeter

Liverpool, L.S.O, Marut, M.J., Ndam, J.N and Oti, D.A (2009) Towards a model

for learning in Nigeria higher education institution. Lessons from the

University of Jos ICT Maths initiative .

National Open University of Nigeria, (2007). Getting to know your University

:An orientation and information guide for students of the open University

of Nigeria. Abuja: National Open University of Nigeria.

National Teacher's Institute. (2003). Information Handbook. Kaduna: NTI Press.

National Teachers’ Institute,(2003) Annual Report. Kaduna: NTI Press.

Nwabuani, O. (2010). Institutionalizing Universal Basic Education(UBE)

programmes for the attainment of Education for all.

Nwachukwu, M. (1994). “Development of information and communication

technology in Nigeria’’ in Dew, E.P and Foster, F.G. (EDS) Information

Technology in Selected Countries Tokoyo: The UNations Universities.

Olufemi, P. & Ofulue C.I.(nd) Competency Devlopment for assuring Quality in

Open and Distance Learning in Nigeria.

wikieducator.org/images/f/f1/Olufemi_Peters.pdf

Ololube, N.P., Ubogu, A.E. & Ossai A.G. (2010). ICT and distance education in

Nigeria: A review of literature account. 2nd International Open and

Distance Learning (IODL) Symposium.

Palloff, R. M. & Pratt, K. (2003). (2003). The virtual student: A profile and guide

to working with online learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.


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Van Schie, J. (2004). Relearning to Elearn: Strategies for electronic learning and

knowledge. (in Bowels M) Educational Technology and Society. 7(4) 219-

220 A Book Review

Rodgers, M., Runyon, D., Starrett, D., and Holzen, V.(2006). Teaching the 21st

century learner”.A paper presented at the 22nd annual conference on

Distance teaching an learning. Accessed 17 August 2015., from

http://www.uwex.edu/disted/confrence.

Salmon, G. (2004) E-moderating the key to teaching and learning online. Taylor

& Francis Books Ltd,, London.

Schaffer, S. (1993) Participatory approach in the teacher training. In Favel, J. &.

Oliveria (eds). Teachers of Developing Countries. Washington DC.

Selwyn, N. (2011). Education and technology: Key issues and debates.

Continuum. London SE1 7NX: International Publishing Group.

Weigel, V. (2000). E-learning and the trade off between richness and reach in

higher education.Change, 33, 10–16.

Yaya, D. (2005). An assessment of tutorial support in the distance learning

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Yusuf, M.O. (2006) Problems and prospects of open and distance education in

Nigeria. Turkish online journal of Distance Education. vol. 7 (1) 22-29

98

APPENDIX 1

Kindly assist us in answering the questions on your competency in E Learning

skills.

Please tick yes or no in the appropriate

column. NCE/DLS

TUTORS

NOUN

Tutors

(National

Open

University of

Nigeria)

Yes NO Yes NO

Which communication medium do you use?

Online

Face to Face/ Online

Blended approach

Tools used:

Audio and video clips

Interactive CD

How do you collect assignments?

Online

Do you use collaborative skills in teaching if

yes go to the next line

Do you encourage the learners to form

alliances with their peers, eg through email

Do you use threads that help bring apparently

disparate ideas together, to help learners find

new links between ideas,

Do you promote team spirit?

Do you use E mentoring, if yes go to the next


99

box

How many mentees do you have?

How often do you give feedback in a week?

How do you reach your mentees?

.

Do you use collaboration? If yes go to the next

question

How often do you provide guide on the use of

resource materials

Use of the internet.

Do you have access to the internet ,if yes go to

the next question

Do you have an email account?

How often do you access your email in a

week?

How often do you use web based information

Do you use forum?

Do you use online publishing? If yes go to the

next question.

Do you publish your result online?

Do you encourage students to post information

using blogs?

Do you encourage the use of podcast in your

lesson?

LESSON PLANING.

Do you use digital lesson plan in teaching? If

yes go to the next question,

Do you use Ms packages

Do you design your lesson activities using

interactive forum?

Do you design your lesson using an interactive

forum?

Do use web based assessment strategies?


101

NCE/DLS COURSE TUTOR NOUN COURSE TUTORS

ITEMS

S

A

A

D

S

D SA A D SD

RESOURCE MATERIALS AVALIABLE

1 Compact disc and computers. 1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

2 Web based module 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

3 Interactive television and radio

broadcast services 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

4 Satellite and internet server 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

5 Interactive electronic board 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

6 Power supply 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

7 Equipment room 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

8 Radio/cassettes/CD ROMs 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

9 Print material( modules/reference materials

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Functionality/Adequacy of facilities, Equipment and materials

10 compact discs and computers 1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

1

1 Web based module 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

1

2 Interactive board and radio

broadcast services 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

13 Satellite and internet server 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

14 Interactive electronic board 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

15 Power supply 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

16 Equipment room 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

17 Radio/cassettes/CD ROMs 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

1

8

Print material( modules/

reference materials 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Teaching Competency with E learning Materials

19 Ms word 1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

20 Ms Excel 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

102

21 Ms Power point 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

22 Use of Internet 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

2


reference materials) 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

2

4 Radio cassettes, computers and CD ROMs

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

2

5 Post lesson on the net 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

21 Ms Power point 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

22 Use of Internet 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

2



2

4 Radio cassettes, computers and

CD ROMs 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

2


21 Ms Power point 1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

22 Use of Internet 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

2



2

4 Radio cassettes, computers and

CD ROMs 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

2



103

104

CURBING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN: THE ROLE OF

THE DOCTRINE OF GENDER EQUALITY FOR SUSTAINABLE PEACE

AND SECURITY

Solomon Onyinyechi A. Obih,

[email protected]


Ijeoma Nwebo

Alvan Ikoku Federaln College of Education, Owerri

&

John Chikwem Anucha

[email protected]

University of Port Harcourt

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Abstract

Gender equality has been identified as the catalyst for women and gender empowerment

which the Millennium Development Goal 3 aims at achieving by 2015. Nigeria as a

patriarchal society has constantly relegated the girl-child to the background through

physical, social, economic and domestic violence which has made them lose their sense of

self-worth. They are not carried along in the scheme of things and are treated like second

class citizens. Women are psychologically and emotionally abused through violence that is

meted on them by their male counterparts, in order to subjugate and oppress them. Based

on a critical discussion on gender equality perspective and the consequences of domestic

violence in relation to peace and security, this paper upholds that curbing gender violence

is a panacea for sustainable peace, security and development which seems to have eluded

Nigeria for a long time. Consequently, among other things, the paper recommends the

need for the Government to promulgate laws on gender violence and to punish offenders.

Keywords: domestic violence, human rights, law, women, family.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Domestic violence is a confrontation between family or household

members that typically involves physical harm, sexual assault, or fear of physical

harm. Family or household members include spouses, former spouses, those in (or

formerly in) a dating relationship, adults related by blood or marriage, and those




105

who have a biological or legal parent-child relationship. Domestic violence can

include physical and sexual abuse, emotional abuse, economic abuse, coercion

and threats, intimidation, isolation, jealousy, and blame. Despite ongoing efforts

to protect women and vulnerable populations against violence, there is still much

to be done to protect victims and to further inform and educate the population

about the problem.

Many women and girls of all ages and from all economic groups suffer

different forms of violence in the family and within the societies throughout the

world (Nigeria: Unheard Voices, 2005). Invariably, women are not allowed to

participate in sensitive issues in the society or engage in economic management

and so on due to the cultural belief that women are weak in taking decisions. The

UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women states that

violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations

between men and women, which have led to domination over and discrimination

against women by men and the prevention of the full advancement of women

(CEDAW, 1994).

Therefore, domestic violence impairs or nullifies the enjoyment of human

rights and fundamental freedoms by women under general international law or

human rights and conventions, which negates the provisions of Article 1 of the

CEDAW convention whose rights and freedom include; the right to live, the right

not to be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or

punishment, the right to liberty and security of person, the right to equal

protection under law, the right to equality in the family, the right to the highest

attainable standard of physical and mental health, and the right of just and

favourable conditions of work (CEDAW, 1994).

Despite the campaign against domestic violence, the practice has been on

the increase. To this end, this paper discusses the concept of violence, domestic

violence, forms of domestic violence, prevalence of domestic violence against

women, the concept of gender equality, domestic violence and sustainable peace

and security: The convergence.

The Concept of Violence

Violence could be described as any act that is informed by the intention to

cause harm or to destroy the physical or emotional integrity and agency of people

and that thereafter produces harm. The intention to cause harm is central to the

definition of violence. However, some attempts at defining violence ignore the

intention to cause harm by focusing on the local “religious”, “traditional”, or

“legal” justification for certain violent activities against women. Violence which

106

is any action involving the use of force with the intention to harm, damage, create

fear or kill is a widespread, rapidly escalating social phenomenon in Nigeria that

poses enormous security challenges for the country (see Suberu, 1996; Chazan,

Lewis, Mortimer, Rothchild, Stedman, 1999; Obasi, 2000; Collier and Sambanis,

2005, Sani, 2007; Best, 2007 and Ugochukwu, 2012, cited in Obasi, 2013). By its

nature, violence is highly reprehensible because it is a deviation and violation of

the acceptable norms of civilized society, as it constitutes infringements of the

fundamental human rights and God’s commandment especially where human life

is threatened or lost.

Violence could manifest as a one short isolated act by a person acting

alone who commits suicide, rapes a girl or woman, murders someone or touches

property belonging to another, etc. It could also manifest as an act of repeatedly

raping girls or killing people where such a perpetrator is referred to as a serial

rapist or killer. Violence could also manifest as an organized group action

involving the kidnapping, armed robbery, killing or maiming of an individual or

group of individuals which progressively escalates into a sustained activity which

subsequently engulfs much of a community, state, geographical zone or a country.

This has been the case with the organized and sustained violence perpetrated by

criminal armed robbery and kidnap gangs and the repeated ethnic, communal and

religious violence being witnessed in different parts of Nigeria.

Violence, where it is not instantly and effectively addressed especially

where it is group based could give rise to further violence if the victims and their

sympathizers undertake revenge actions. The situation if it spins out of control

could foster a pervasive culture of violence that could consume the entire society.

It is on this note that violence inching into organized and sustained gang, ethnic or

religious violence which has the potentials of getting out of hand should be

seriously watched, monitored, studied and contained before it spins out of control.

This is necessary since such violence leads to huge loss of human lives and

property and leaves deep scars on the national psyche. Besides, where such

violence is sustained, it retards all facets of national development and sometimes

leads to the fractionalization or disintegration of the country.

Domestic Violence

Domestic violence also known as domestic abuse, spousal abuse, or

intimate partner violence occurs when a family member, partner or ex-partner

attempts to physically or psychologically dominate the other person. Domestic

Violence Crisis Service (DVCS) (2014) opined that domestic violence occurs

when a family member uses violence and/or abusive behaviour to control another

family member(s). Domestic violence often refers to violence between spouses, or


107

spousal abuse but can also include cohabitants and non-married intimate partners

(Wikipedia, 2014).

According to the United States Office of Violence against Women (OVW,

2007) domestic violence is a “pattern of abusive behaviour in any relationship

that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control, over another

“intimate partner”. The definition adds that domestic violence “can happen to

anyone regardless of race, age, sexual orientation, religion, or gender” and that it

can take many forms, including physical, sexual, emotional, economic and

psychological abuse (USOVW, 2007).

The Children and Family Court Advisory and support Service in the

United Kingdom, in its “Domestic Violence Policy”, uses domestic violence to

refer to a range of violent and abusive behaviours. The document broadly defined

it as patterns of behaviour characterized by the misuse of power and control by

one person over another. It may include intimidation, harassment, damage to

property, threats and financial abuse (Children and Family Court Advisory and

support Service, 2007).

In essence, domestic violence is a crime. It results from an imbalance of

power and control over one’s partner. Domestic violence is mostly committed by

men against women but also rarely occurs in same sex relationships and by

women against men. However, not all victims are physically battered or beaten.

Abuse can include other forms of mal-treatment and cruelty, such as constant

threatening, psychological/emotional, sexual, financial/material, spiritual and

verbal abuse. Partner abuse happens to many women at all income and education

levels, in all social classes, in all religions, racial and cultural groups (Education

Wife Assault, 1997).

In Nigeria, there is no specific law against domestic violence and the

federal government has paid little attention to legal protection and redress in law

for the victims of domestic violence. Reason, every ethnic group in Nigeria has its

customary law and acceptable modes of life which may differ from those of

others. For instance, Adebayo and Olabode (2014) stated that among the Tiv

speaking people of Benue state, wife battering is perceived as an acceptable way

of life as seen in their expression that: “if a woman is not beaten by her husband,

the woman does not know the joy of marriage and that means the woman is not

yet married”. In a similar vein, in Igbo land, the idea of seeing a woman as a

property bought by a man with his money is a persistent issue. Customary law

also supports child marriage and thus, the girl child is married off to a man old

enough to be her father, and the girl has no say in the family and is completely

108

dependent on the man for every need. Based on these and other acts of systemic

violation of human life in the country, one can say that the federal government

has not fulfilled its legal obligations under international law to act with due

diligence and protect the rights of women who are the potential victims of

domestic violence. The Nigerian Constitution of 1999 provides for equality in

law! “Every citizen shall have equality of rights, obligations and opportunities

before the law” (Article 17(2) (a)). It also guarantees the right to be free from

discrimination “either expressly by, or in the practical application of any law” or

grounds of “Community, ethnic group, place of origin, sex, religion or political

opinion” (Article 42 (1)) (Amnesty International, 2005).

Despite these constitutional guarantees, some federal laws explicitly

condone certain forms of violence in the family. For instance, in section 55(1)(d)

of the Penal Code (Law of the Northern Nigeria Cap 89), a man is empowered to

correct an erring child, pupil, servant or wife. The section provides “nothing is an

offence which does not amount to infliction of grievous hurt upon any person

which is done… by a husband for the purpose of correcting his wife, such

husband and wife being subject to any native law and custom under which such

correction is lawful”. Another provision states “nothing is an offence by reason

that it causes or that it is intended to cause or that it is likely to cause any injury if

that injury is so slight that no person of ordinary sense and temper would

complain of such injury” (Section 58 of the Penal Code).

The Criminal Code (Laws of the Federation of Nigeria, Cap 77) considers

assault on a woman as a misdemeanor while assault on a man is a felony. Section

353 prescribes three years punishment for indecent assault on a man (felony)

while section 360 prescribes two years punishment for the same offence on a

woman, calling it a misdemeanor. This implies that assault on a woman is not as

serious as an assault on a man.

Similarly, sexual abuse of children between the ages of 13 and 16 is

known as defilement and not as serious as rape under the Criminal Code. In fact,

in some states, sexual abuse of a girl child between the ages of 11 and 13 is

merely a misdemeanor or indecent treatment with a punishment of two years

imprisonment. In addition, section 221 of the Criminal Code requires

corroboration before a conviction for defilement of a girl under the age of sixteen

can be sustained. Rather than protecting women from domestic violence, the

provisions of the law in Nigeria are not strong enough to tackle the problem of

domestic violence.

Forms of Domestic Violence


109

According to Obih and Akaraonye (2014), there are three types of gender

based violence against women which include physical aggression, psychological

violence and economic/financial abuse.

Physical Violence:

Obih and Akaraonye (2014) Conceptualize physical violence to include;

physical aggression like slapping, hitting, kicking, beating and battering as well as

psychological violence or abuse which includes belittling, threats, intimidation,

humiliation, isolating persons from their family and friends, monitoring their

movements and restricting their access to information or assistance. Obih and

Akaraonye also opine that sexual abuse/violence includes forced intercourse or

marital rape, coercion and other forms of sexual humiliation.

Emotional/Psychological Violence:

This involves actions which deprive a person of freedom of movement or

self-direction and which undermine a person’s self-worth. It involves humiliating

the victim privately or publicly, controlling what the victim can and cannot do,

withholding information from the victim, deliberately doing something to make

the victim feel diminished, inferior or embarrassed, isolating the victim from

friends and family, implicitly blackmailing the victim by harming others when the

victim expresses independence or happiness or denying the victim access to

money or other basic resources. This psychological violence is manifested in

mental punishment as in the case of husbands or in-laws who resort to abusive

language and even cursing, believing that such an act is an effective means of

check on the women instead of physical punishment.

Economic/Financial Abuse:

This occurs when the perpetrator has complete control over the victim’s

money and other economic resources. He places the victim on a strict

“allowance”, withholding money at will and forcing her to beg for the money

until he feels like giving her. In fact, any behaviour that maintains power and

control over finances constitute financial abuse. Examples include: causing a

partner to lose her job through direct and indirect means such as punishing the

victim and knocking her out causing visible bruise or injury that prevents her

from going out in public, and harassing the victim at work, causing the victim to

be late to work, withholding transportation, controlling financial assets and

effectively putting the victim on an allowance.

Prevalence of Violence against Women

110

Violence against women cuts across every culture in different forms, but

the type called spousal abuse or intimate partner violence, otherwise known as

domestic violence, is the most common and universal form of violence

experienced by women across cultures, races, ethnicities, religions, sexes and

classes. It is estimated that only about a third of cases of domestic violence are

actually reported in the United States and the United Kingdom. The center for

disease control describe domestic violence as a serious, preventable public health

problem affecting more than 32 million Americans, or more than 10% of the US

population (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000). In many societies today, many women

continue to be subjected to threat and other forms of violence, such as sexual,

physical and emotional types. The physical form of violence is found all over the

world, mostly in the family where high levels of domestic violence ridicule the

notion of the family as a safe haven and a place of emotional intimate and

personal security.

Human Rights and Women rights Organizations in Nigeria believe that

violence in the family is the most prevalent form of violence against women in

Nigeria. Nigerian women suffer various forms of violence mostly owing to the

patriarchal nature of our society. Examples abound of cases of domestic violence

(wife battering, verbal abuse, emotional and psychological abuse, marital rape)

sexual exploitation and harassment, especially in academic institutions, corporate

organizations and in police custodies, widowhood rights; and female genital

mutilation, among others (CEDAW NGO, 2008).

In a recent study on gender inequality in Lagos and Oyo States by Project

Alert (2001), 40 percent of the women interviewed said they had been victims of

violence in the family, in some cases, for several years. The research concluded

that such violence was not documented in Nigeria because of widespread of

tolerance by women. A survey carried out by Project Alert on Violence against

Women, in 2001, shows that 64.4 percent of 45 women in work place, 56.2

percent of 48 market women and 7 percent of 57 girls and young women in

secondary schools and universities in Lagos State said they have been physically

abused (beaten) by partners, boyfriends or husbands (Project Alert cited in

Adeniji, 2009).

A study on women health and domestic violence conducted by WHO cited

in Adeniji (2009) reveals the following:

Between 15% and 71% of women reported physical or sexual violence by

husband or partner.

Between 4% and 12% of women reported being physically abused during

pregnancy.


111

About 5,000 women are murdered by family members in the name of honour

each year Worldwide.

Trafficking of women and girls for forced labour and sex is widespread and

often affects the most vulnerable.

Forced marriages and child marriages violate human rights of women and

girls but are widely practiced in many countries in Asia, Middle East and

Africa.

Worldwide, up to one in five women and one in 10 men report experiencing

sexual abuse as children. Children who experience sexual abuse are much

more likely to encounter other forms of abuse later in life.

Also, the use of gender based violence against women is tolerated and is not

viewed as a deviant behaviour by the society. Women are bartered, raped and

abused simply because of cultural orientation, that wife is the property of the

husband meaning that the husband is the head of the home. He therefore,

determines if she deserves to be treated in that manner. Women generally are

referred to as “hitting license” after marriage because the norms and values of

the patriarchal society nurtures wife bartering.

In the only known official survey of public opinion on violence against

women in the home, the proportion of women and men who justified wife beating

was found to be highest in the North-Central zone of Nigeria, and lowest in the

South-Western zone, which includes Lagos. The proportion was also found to be

higher in rural areas than in towns according to the Federal Ministry of Health,

cited in Adeniji (2009). Unfortunately, the issue of violence against women and

girls seems not to be abating. The case of the Chibok girls is still fresh in our

memories where over 200 girls were kidnapped by the Islamic sect Boko Haram

on the 15th of April, 2014. Furthermore, the story of Dr. Christine Dottever, a

successful family physician as presented by (Matlin, 2004) explicitly buttresses

the point of this article. She described how her husband abused her over a period

of 19 years:

In some ways my situation was classic. He would hit and punch

me, and then would want to make up, usually with sex. There were

stretches of time when things seemed pretty good, and the fact that

he had bruised me two months earlier seemed to vanish. It’s true

that he actively discouraged my having friends, he didn’t want me

even to talk on the phone. But I thought that I just wasn’t good at

making friends, not that he might want me to be isolated (p. 442).

The above quotation from Dottever shows the psychological effects of

domestic violence on women. She started seeing herself and not the husband as a

problem. When she was discouraged from having friends she thought that it was

112

because she was not good at making friends. She simply accepted the situation

without thinking about human rights or gender equality.

The Concept of Gender Equality

Gender equality is the third of the Millennium Development Goals

(MDGs). It is therefore explicitly valued as an end in itself and not just as an

instrument for achieving other goals. The initiative to monitor progress in

achieving this goal is closing the gender gap in education at all levels, increasing

women share of wages, employment in the non-agricultural sector, and increasing

the proportion of seats held by women in national parliament. When there are

gender inequalities in the various societal activities, women stand to be at a

disadvantage and the disadvantages relate to the high rate of poverty especially,

among the women folks. Though poverty itself is a material deprivation, its

causes can be found in the power relations that govern how valued resources,

materials and symbols are distributed (Ajakaye & Adeyeye, 2001).

Gender is not only about women but it refers to socially constructed roles

of men and women, the opportunities associated with each and the relationships

between men and women in a given society, at a specific time and place. Often,

there seems to be more focus on women because gender inequalities are still more

often a manifestation of women’s lower status, income, power to make decisions,

opportunities, and access to education, services and resources, including land and

housing as well as different forms of violence against them. In fact, for a long

time, and it is often still the case, gender equality in Europe was defined as giving

girls, boys, women and men, equal right, equal opportunities, equal conditions

and equal treatment in all fields of life and all spheres of society. According to

Nwala, Mbachu & Kalu (2013 p. 33) “Gender equality must be constantly fought

for, protected and promoted like human rights of women and men and, by taking

the necessary measures, enabling women and men to enjoy these rights”

Gender Equality, Domestic Violence and Sustainable Peace and Security:

The Convergence


113

The family is the mirror of the society; hence, whatever happens in the

family also affects the society. Therefore, if Gender is mainstreamed into the

family relationships and the issue of Gender equality is encouraged, projected and

promoted at the level of the family; it will in turn be reflected in the society.

Consequently, a happy family leads to a happy society and a happy society is one

that is peaceful and secured, where everyone looks out and seeks the best interests

of everyone. Moreover, if violence is reduced at the level of the family, it will go

a long way to also reduce the violent tendencies in the society, and this will in

turn lead to peace and security that is sustainable.


This paper has pointed out that domestic violence is a problem without

frontier; it cuts across classes and races. In conclusion, violence against woman, a

socio-cultural problem with multifaceted consequences (insecurity) on the victims

can be better arrested through promotion of gender equality. This will

consequently promote sustainable national peace and security.

Way Forward

i) Government should ensure quality implementation of laws made to curb

domestic violence against women in Nigeria.

ii) Government should establish more gender studies centers and institutions

and create more awareness about laws made to curb domestic violence.

Such gender institutions and programmes will sensitize individuals to

change their negative attitude and perception on gender equality and will

help in reduction of domestic violence in Nigeria.

iii) Parents, religious institutions, communities and local area leaders should

collaborate with the government in fighting against domestic violence and

for the abolition of discriminatory laws, customs, practices, beliefs and

institutional processes that create gender based violence in the families.

114

REFERENCES

Adeniji, D.O. (2009). Gender equality: a panacea to violence against women in

Nigeria. Ibadan. Hope Publications Ltd.

Ajakaye, D.O. & Adeyeye, V.A., (2001). The Nature of poverty in Nigeria.

NISER Monograph Series, 13(2), Ibadan

Amnesty International (2005). “Nigeria: Unheard voices violence against

women in family” Retrieved from

http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/engafr440042005.

CEDAW Committee, (1994). General Recommendation 19, Violence against

women (11th

Session, 1992). Compilation of General Comments and

General Recommendations Adopted Human Rights Treaty Bodies. UN

Doc.HRI/GEN/Rev./at 84 Para 7.

CEDAW Committee, (1994). General Recommendation 19, Violence against

Women (11th

Session, 1992) Compilation of General Comments and General

Recommendation Adopted by Human Right Treaty Bodies. UN Doc.

HRI/GEN/Rev./at 84 Para 24 (iii).

Children and Family Court Advisory and Support Services (2007). “Domestic

Violence Assessment Policy”.

(http://www.cafcass.gov.uk/english/publications/consultation/04Dec.DV%2

0policy.html/about-abuse.html.

Federal Government of Nigeria (1990). Criminal Code Cap. 77 Laws of the

Federation

.Education Wife Assault (1997). About abuse, September, 1997. Retrieved from

http://www.womanabuseprevention.com/html/aboutabuse.html.

http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/engafr440042005

http://www.cafcass.gov.uk/english/publications/consultation/04Dec.DV%20policy.html/about-abuse.html

http://www.cafcass.gov.uk/english/publications/consultation/04Dec.DV%20policy.html/about-abuse.html

http://www.womanabuseprevention.com/html/aboutabuse.html


115

Matlin, M.W. (2004). The psychology of women. California.

Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Nigeria CEDAW NGO (2008). Coalition Shadow Report. Submitted to the 41st

Session of the United Nations Plaza NY Between June 30-July 18, 2008.

Nigeria Unheard Voices (2005) “Violence against Women in the family”. A

report published by Amnesty International. Retrieved from

http://web.Amnesty.org/library/index/engafr44004. On 10th September,

2014.

Nwala, O.M. Mbachu, a.c. & Kalu, E.U. (2013) Gender mainstreaming in

women’s rights for gender equality and national development.

Contradictions in law and practice in Nigeria. Journal of Gender & Women

Development (JOGEWOD), 1(1). 28-41.

Obasi, E. (2013). Understanding violence in Nigeria with implications for

education. Nigerian Journal of Sociology of Education, 7(1) 25-35.

Obih, S.O. A & Akaraonye, J. (2014): Eliminating harmful cultural practices

through education. A paper presented at the 3rd

national conference of

faculty of education, ABSU.

Project Alert (2001). Beyond boundaries. Violence against women in Nigeria. In

Nwamou, P.A. Counselling in a New Order. Owerri: Divine publishers .

Tjaden, P. & Thoennes, N. (2000). Ending violence against Women

Population Report (http://www.inforforhealth.org/pr/111/violencepdf)

(PDF). Center for Health and Gender Equity (change) Dec, 1999.

(10/09/2014).

United States Office of Violence against Women (2007). About domestic

violence. Retrieved from (http://ww.usdoj.gov/ovw/domviolence.htm).

Wikipedia (2014). Domestic Violence. United States.Wikipedia Foundation Inc.

Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia .org/wiki/domestic-violence

http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/engafr44004. On

http://www.inforforhealth.org/pr/111/violencepdf)%20(PDF)

http://www.inforforhealth.org/pr/111/violencepdf)%20(PDF)

http://ww.usdoj.gov/ovw/domviolence.htm

116

QUALITATIVE CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION: AIFCE

LECTURERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE AVAILABILITY AND

UTILIZATION OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY (ICT).

1. Ifeyinwa F. Okoro

E-mail [email protected]

&

2. Chiaka C. Nkwocha

1 & 2 Department of Curriculum and Instruction


-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Abstract

This study examined utilization of information and communication technology for effective

curriculum implementation in Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education (A.I.F.C.E.) Owerri.

The population comprised six hundred and twenty (620) lecturers for the year 2012.

Stratified random sampling technique was used to select a sample of 310 lecturers.

Instruments used for data collection were checklist, interview and questionnaire, which were

validated by an expert in measurement and evaluation and two lecturers in Educational

Technology Department, all in A.I.F.C.E. Owerri. Reliability of the instruments was carried

out using test re-test method, and this gave a reliability coefficient of 0.83. The data were

analyzed using simple percentage with 60% and above serving as decision scale for

acceptance while below 60% indicated rejection level. Results showed that 50% of the

schools (three out of six schools) possessed reasonable ICT facilities for lectures such as

computers/laptops, audio tapes, CD/flash, audio-visual materials microphones, and projectors.

It was also observed that lack of lecture venues is not among the problems encountered in the



117

use of ICT facilities. Based on these, it was recommended, among other things that

workshops and seminars should be organized by the college for lecturers every semester, one

or two weeks before students’ examination for that semester. Federal Government should

reduce the cost of producing ICT facilities to enable the cost of their purchases affordable by lecturers.

Keywords: information and communication technology, facilities, curriculum.

It is known in this modern world presently that education via Information

and Communication Technology (ICT) plays important role in developing the

nation through knowledge and skills advancement. The rate of this advancement

is higher in the 21st century society than before. It is on this note that Lefoka

(2004) affirmed that ICT seems to play a prominent role in the education system

because of its ability to advance knowledge at the rate that has never been

experienced before. Onwuagboke (2006) noted that:

ICT encompasses all mediums to record information (magnetic

disk tape, optional disks [CD/VCD],flash memory and arguably

also paper records) technology for broadcasting information

radio, television, and technology for communication through voice

and sound or image, microphones, camera, loudspeaker, telephone

to computing hardware (P. 3).

The above ideas imply that ICT signifies the utilization of computer and

communication based information system for the purpose of storing, processing

and transmitting information as well as applying different forms of devices in

communication. In this regard, ICT occupies a central position in teaching and

learning. Pedagogical methods are strengthened through the use of ICT thereby

expanding access to quality education. Ekwuma (2003) affirmed that the use of

ICT in schools helps in addressing current challenges in educational system.

Through ICT, storage of vital information is enhanced. Such information among

others include library, emolument of staff strength, students’ strength, storage of

salaries and school fees. ICT is also utilized in a variety of ways for instruction. It

is used for teaching and for the acquisition of computer skills, thinking and

problem solving skills. It is also used for stimulating creativity and imagination as

well as for research and communication (Derby-Shire, 2005). It is highly effective

for broadcasting instructional information relevant not only to children but also to

adults in some subjects such as science, mathematics and Grammar. ICT is used

as a basis for delivery of education, information and training.

118

The above benefits of ICT can only be experienced in an institution where

lecturers are able to implement the curriculum through the use of ICT. It is

effective utilization of ICT devices in curriculum implementation that gives

assurance to quality education. This is because curriculum refers to all the

experiences organized, planned and administered to the learners under the

guidance and supervision of the school. These experiences involve knowledge,

skills, values, ideas, attitudes, among others, and when effectively implemented,

result in all round development of the learner. In this regard, Amadi (1993:17)

presented curriculum implementation as;

A stage in the curriculum process and system whereby all the

relevant curriculum inputs are brought into direct contact with the

learner through a wide variety of activities so that learning

experiences and mastery can be maximized at a minimal cost.

Clarifying further, Mkpa in Okoro, Emenyonu and Akaraonye (2012:2)

observed that; ‘Curriculum implementation is classroom efforts of the staff and

students in putting into operation, the school’s curriculum document. It means

translating the curriculum document into operating curriculum by the combined

efforts of students, lecturers and others concerned’. This tends to identify among

others that both teaching and non teaching staff aid in curriculum implementation.

Qualitative Curriculum Implementation refers to the extent Curriculum is

effectively implemented. It refers to how well curriculum implementation is

geared towards the achievement of instructional objectives. It is concerned with

how well instructional activities are carried out by the teachers and the learners.

Qualitative Curriculum Implementation tends to explain how adequate everything

concerning the implementation is, be it teachers in terms of qualification and

competency; non-teaching staff in terms of rendering services that aid curriculum

implementation; and administration of the school as well as availability of

facilities and materials in relation to their adequate usage. Considering the way

ICT is facilitating the performance of human activities including education, one

wonders the extent ICT facilities are employed in curriculum implementation in

Nigeria and especially in A.I.F.C.E. Owerri.

Studies carried out on the use of ICT in tertiary institutions in the country

abound. Eko (2006) believed that ICT materials like projectors, tape recorders,

etc have improved the quality of education in many aspects, such as quick


119

understanding and image making to students. Unfortunately, Ogwuche and

Tamita (2011) observed that very few of the lecturers in tertiary institutions

utilize ICT facilities in delivering lectures. In fact, many lecturers have no

knowledge of most of the ICT facilities. According to Okoro and Oruwari

(2011:16) “some departments use their computers to compute and store students

information. Students’ results are also prepared with the help of computers .The

computers in some other departments are just lying fallow in the Head of

Departments’ offices”. This shows that effective utilization of ICT facilities is yet

to be recorded in some institutions outside A.I.F.C.E. Owerri. Usman (2004)

advised that lecturers should take up the challenge of integrating the use of ICT

into teaching. But what is the situation in A.I.F.C.E, Owerri? This is the rationale

for this study.

Statement of the Problem

Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education (A.I.F.C.E.) which is one of the

old institutions in the country is known for excellent services she renders in terms

of producing competent teachers of which most of them occupy high positions of

leadership in the country today. An institution like this needs to embrace the

benefits derived from the use of ICT in order to tackle the challenges and

demands posed by current social order in science and technology education in

particular and other areas of education in general. The utilization of ICT facilities

for lectures, laboratories, libraries, among others, is of utmost necessity so that

curriculum will be better and more effectively implemented than before. The

situation at the present in A.I.F.C.E. in terms of instruction needs to be addressed

with the use of ICT facilities. The questions that follow are; to what extent do

lecturers in this institution engage in qualitative curriculum implementation

through the effective use of ICT? Are these facilities available in A.I.F.C.E.

Owerri? These are some of the questions that present the problems that

necessitated this study.

Research Questions

Three research questions guided the study:

1. To what extent do ICT facilities exist within the schools in A.I.F.C.E. Owerri?

2. To what extent are the available ICT facilities utilized for lectures?

3. What are the problems militating against effective use of the facilities by the

lecturers?

120

Methodology

A descriptive survey design was adopted for this study. This involved the

use of questionnaire, interview and checklist for data collection for the purpose of

describing and interpreting existing conditions or qualities regarding a given

population, (Ozigbo, 2002).This study thus focused on academic staff of the

college.

The population was made up of six hundred and twenty (620) academic

staff of the five schools and library section within the college. Using the cluster

random sampling technique, a sample of three hundred and ten (310) was drawn

from the population which was approximately 50% of the population. The

population with the sample is clearly shown in Table 1.

Table 1

Population and Sample

S/N

1

2

3

4

5

6

Schools

School of Education

School of Natural Sciences

School of social Sciences

School of Arts

School of Agric and Vocational

Studies

Library Section

Total

Population

154

121

120

105

103

17

620

Sample

77

61

60

53

51

8

310 (50%)

Instruments for data collection were observational checklist, open ended

interview questions and structured questionnaire. A section of the questionnaire

was structured on a three point scale of Always, Sometimes and Never while

another section was on a two point scale of Agree and Disagree. The

questionnaire items aimed at eliciting information on availability, utilization and

problems militating against effective use of ICT facilities by lecturers in the five

schools of the college.

The instruments were validated by an expert in Measurement and

Evaluation, and two experts in Educational Technology; all in A.I.F.C.E., Owerri.


121

Their comments were incorporated in the final draft of the instruments. Reliability

of the instruments was carried out using test re-test method and was computed

using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient, giving correlation

coefficient of 0.83.

Administration of the instruments was directly made to the respondents in

their various schools and departments by the researchers themselves. Five schools

in the college were used together with library section making it six schools. The

availability and extent of use of ICT facilities were indicated with a tick in space

provided (√).

Data collected were analyzed using simple percentage where every tick

was counted as one. 60% was the base for acceptance. Consequently, responses of

60% and above were accepted and responses were rejected if less than 60%.

Results

Results are illustrated in the following Tables:

Research question 1: To what extent do ICT facilities exist within the

schools in A.I.F.C.E., Owerri?

Table 1

Available ICT facilities in the schools

122

S/N

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

ICT Facilities

Computers

Audio-tapes

CD/Flash

Audio visual

materials(memo

ry card, DVD)

Microphones

Projectors

Video tape

Recorders

(VTR)

Electronic board

Electronic pen

MS packages

Total

Percentage

SCH I

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

10

100%

SCH II

√

√

√

√

√

5

50%

SCH III

√

√

√

√

4

40%

SCHIV

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

7

70%

SCH V

√

√

√

3

30%

SCHVI

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

7

70%

Item by item consideration gives 36/60 x 100/1 = 60%

Table 1 shows that schools i, iv and vi have a reasonable collection of ICT

facilities with 100%, 70% and 70% respectively. Schools ii, iii and v scored less

with 50%, 40% and 30% respectively signifying that they do not have reasonable

collection of ICT facilities for lectures. As regards item by item consideration,

there existed 60% of ICT facilities in the schools. This is commendable.

Research question 2:

To what extent are available ICT facilities utilized for lectures?


123

Extent of usage of ICT facilities, item by item

‘A’ stands for Always, ‘S’ stands for Sometimes and ‘N’ stands for Never.

Summary of Table 2

Schools

in

the

college

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

No of

ICT

facilities

available

10(100%)

5(50%)

4(40%)

7(70%)

3(30%)

7(70%)

Items

Used

‘always’

10(10%)

NONE (0%)

NONE (0%)

NONE (0%)

NONE (0%)

NONE (0%)

Item

used ‘sometimes’

NONE(0%)

2(20%)

3(30%)

6(60%)

3(30%)

6(60%)

Items used

‘never’

NONE(0%)

3(30%)

1(10%)

1(10%)

NONE(0%)

1(10%)

Table 2

SCH I SCH

II

SCH

III

SCH

IV

SCH

V

SC

H

VI

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

ICT facilities Computers/ Laptops

Audio-tapes

CD/Flash

Audio visual materials

(memory card DVD)

Microphones

Projectors

Video tape Recorders

(VTR)

Electronic board

Electronic pen

Power point

Total percentage

A

√

√

√

√

√

√

√ √

√

√

10

100%

S

- N

- A

- S

√

√

2

2

0

%

N

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

8

3

0

%

A S

√

√

√

3

3

0

%

N

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

7

7

0

%

A

- S

√

√

√

√

√

√

6

6

0

%

N

√

√

√

√

4

4

0

%

A

-

S

√

√

√

3

3

0

%

N

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

7

7

0

%

A

- S

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

6

6

0

%

N

√

√

√

√

4

4

0

%

124

For “Always” = 10 x 100

60 1 = 18%

For “Sometimes” = 20x 100

60 1 = 33%

For “Never) - 26 x 100

60 1 = 10%

Table 2 shows that some ICT facilities that were available were not used

at all. Lecturers in school 1 scored highly (100%) in using the available ICT

facilities “always” for lectures. Schools iv and vi take the lead in using available

ICT facilities for lectures “sometimes” with 70% each while schools ii, iii and v

mostly do not use the available ICT facilities for lectures, as evident with 50%,

40% and 30% respectively.

Research question 3:

What are the problems militating against effective use of the ICT facilities

for lectures?

Lecturers’ responses to the interview questions show that they encounter

the following problems: Frequent electricity interruption, inadequate ICT

facilities in some schools, inadequate ICT manpower in the schools, high cost of

ICT facilities, lack of lecture venues, inadequate knowledge of ICT and skills in

methods of operating with ICT facilities, not always willing to apply for use of

ICT facilities from the Head of Departments for lectures, activities of ICT are not

easy to perfect. The respondents identified the above eight problems militating

against effective use of ICT facilities in the schools. The summary of problems is

presented in Table 3.

Table 3

Summary of the problems militating against effective use of ICT facilities for

lectures

Agree Disagree Total

i. Frequent electricity interruption 200(65%) 110(35%) 310


125

ii. Inadequate ICT facilities in the schools 298(96%) 12(4%) 310

iii. Inadequate ICT manpower in the schools 310(100%) 00(0%) 310

iv. High cost of ICT facilities 300(97%) 10(3%) 310

v. Lack of lecture venues 2(1%) 308(99%) 310

vi. Inadequate knowledge of ICT and

skills in methods of operating

ICT facilities 310(100%) 00(0%) 310

vii. Not always willing to apply for use of

ICT facilities from the Heads of

Departments for lectures 201(68%) 100(32%) 310

viii. Activities of ICT are not easy to

perfect. 104(34%) 206(66%) 310

Table 3 shows that the respondents agreed that the identified items are

really the problems militating against the use of ICT facilities except items v and

viii that scored 1% and 34% respectively which are less than 60%. All the

respondents (100%) agreed that items iii and vi are problems to the use of ICT

facilities.

Findings

Research Question 1 sought to find out the available ICT facilities in the

schools. A careful observation of Table 1 reveals that three out of six schools

possess reasonable ICT facilities for lectures. Such facilities include

computers/laptops, audio tapes, CD/flash, audio-visual materials microphones,

and projectors. This disagrees with Onyejemezi (1996:105) who stated that “all

institutions in Nigeria lack ICT facilities”. However, this finding presents a

welcome development because it shows that the situation observed by

Onyejiemezu in 1996 has improved.

The number of ICT facilities and their percentages as possessed by each

school in the college are shown in Table 1 with school I scoring highest with

100%, school iv and vi 70% each. School ii and v scored low with 40% and 30%

respectively. Over 70% of the lecturers use their personal microphones for

lectures. The finding also reveals that as regards item by item consideration, 10%

of ICT facilities exist for lectures in the schools. This shows that the Federal

126

Government is gradually implementing what is stated in the National Policy on

Education (NPE) (2004) that Government is setting up an audio-visual and

development center of the Federal Ministry of Education in Kaduna and will

continue to make available funds in order to expand its facilities so as to bring its

services within the reach of schools. Some departments such as curriculum

department provide laptops, microphones, CD/flashes for their lecturers, quite

unlike other departments, in which some of their lecturers provide laptops, flash,

CD, microphones by themselves.

Research question two examined the extent to which ICT facilities are

used by lecturers in the schools. It was observed that some available materials are

not used at all as seen in schools ii, iii, iv and vi with 30% for school ii, and 10%

for schools iii, iv, and vi respectively. Some lecturers in Primary Education

department narrated their practice of hiring an ICT technician from curriculum

department for assistance in the use of ICT facilities. For instance in the use of

projectors, power point presentation accessories, electronic boards / pens, etc they

hire someone to operate these facilities. This tends to agree with the findings of

Ogwuche and Tamita (2011) that ICT facilities provided for lectures mostly suffer

disuse based on the fact that very few of the lecturers utilize them.

ICT facility that is mostly used by lecturers is microphone. Over 80% of

them use it but 70% of them use their own personal microphones for lectures. Of

all, school I utilizes the available ICT facilities “always” and she has all the

needed ICT facilities, mostly located in Educational Technology Department of

the school. The extent of the use of ICT materials is not encouraging. A majority

of the respondents used the materials “sometimes” as seen in schools iii, iv, v and

vi, with 30%, 60%, 30% and 60% respectively. This agrees with the findings of

Agun, (2008) that lack of instructional support of ICT facilities, lack of

information about available ICT facilities, irregular power supply, lack of basic

knowledge by lecturers on development, selection and utilization of the facilities

affect regular use of ICT facilities.

The third research question sought to identify problems militating against

effective use of the available ICT facilities. The following problems were

observed; frequent electricity interruption, in-adequate facilities in some schools,

lack of venues for lectures, in-adequate knowledge and skills in methods of

operating ICT facilities, unwillingness of applying to Heads of Departments to


127

use ICT facilities, takes time to perfect, more technicians or specialists needed

and high cost of ICT facilities. Furthermore, for this research question three; all

the respondents (100%) accepted that items iii and vi are problems militating

against the use of ICT. The majority disagreed with items v and viii that lack of

lecture venue and the activities of ICT are not easy to perfect with 1% and 34%

respectively. This shows that they have enough lecture venues and if ICT

concepts are taught to the learners adequately, they will perfect in its knowledge.

In general, a majority accepted the identified items as problems militating

against effective use of ICT in the school. This agrees with the findings of

Ogwuche and Tamita (2011) that many lecturers have no knowledge of most of

the ICT facilities.

Another problem is lack of information about available ICT facilities

(Agun, 2008). In the overall, the study revealed that the number of ICT facilities

expected to be in the schools of the study is 10 different ICT facilities per school,

giving a total number of 60 ICT facilities for the six schools of the study. The

actual number available in the schools was 36 (60%). It is important to identify

here that Educational Technology Department of school I possesses all the

identified ICT facilities and also utilizes them effectively more than other

departments.


This investigation has made it clear that some schools have reasonable

percentage of ICT facilities available for lectures. Unfortunately, the lecturers do

not make effective use of these facilities due to some reasons among which

include: poor power supply, lack of knowledge and skill for operating these

facilities.

Recommendations

Based on the findings, the researchers made the following

recommendations; since some schools do not possess reasonable percentage of

ICT facilities, the college should encourage the Federal Government, Education

Trust Fund, organizations and lecturers who are already helping in the supply of

these facilities to the college, to put more effort in providing these facilities. This

will enable all the schools to have reasonable number of ICT facilities for

effective curriculum implementation.

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One to two weeks workshops and seminars should be organized for the

lecturers by the college, on the use of ICT facilities. This should be done every

semester when there is time preferably a week or two weeks before resumption to

ensure functionality in the utilization during the instructional delivery for three to

four consecutive years. Then the pace can be reduced to once a session. This will

help the lecturers acquire desirable ICT knowledge and skills for effective

curriculum implementation.

Concerted efforts should be made to install regular power supply. This can

be done through power connection from the State Government house NEPA line

that is always having regular supply of power .This will ensure regular supply of

power to the college thereby enhancing the use of ICT materials by the school.

Federal Government should reduce the cost of producing ICT facilities so

that it can be purchased at reasonable prizes. They are costly.

Lecturers should not relent but continue to provide these facilities the

much they can as well as learn the skills of utilizing them effectively for lectures.

Departments should try and generate money through production and sale

of Departmental Journal and Direct Teaching Allowance (DTA) for providing

ICT facilities for their lecturers.

The college should give every department a technician to man the repairs,

maintenance, and installation of ICT facilities for lecturers in the department.

REFERENCES

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Educational Media and Technology, 1 (4), 498-503.

Amadi, L.E. (1993). Curriculum development, implementation and evaluation B.G. Worgu

(ed). The Nigeria ExperienceCurriculum Development, Implementation and

Evaluation: A Book of Reading, vol. 4 APQED.

Daniel, J.O. (2002). Virtual library for Nigeria libraries. Nigeria libraries. 36(2).

Derbyshire, H. (2005). Gender issues in the use of computer education in Africa. Journal of

Computer Board Instruction 14(2), 44-48.


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Eko, P.O. (2006). Computer technology and its place in education: A historical perspective,

Nigerian Journal of Computer Literacy, 1(1), 1-7,

Ekwuma, H.H. (2003). Looking towards the 21st century: Challenges of education theory and

practice, Education Research, 28(7), 4-10.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004), National policy on education. Lagos: NERDC Press.

Lefoka, C.O. (2004). Assessment of teachers level of literacy and attitude towards ICT

application in science teachers and mathematics education. Proceeding of 44th

STAN Annual Conference on ICT (P, 3).

Ogwuche, J. & Tamita, D. (2011). ICT for quality instruction in Benue State Polytechnic,

Ugbokolo. A paper presented at the 13th Annual National Conference of National

Association for Research Development. Held at University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom

State.

Okoro, I.F, Emenyonu, B.C and Akaraonye J. (2012). Essentials of curriculum

implementation. Owerri: Domingo Press.

Okoro, I.F & Oruwari, J.N. (2011). The influence of globalization process in Nigeria

universities using Imo State University as a case study. International Journal of the

institute of Empirical Research and Sustainable Development (IJIERSD) vol.v, 8-

17.

Onwuka, U. (1996). Curriculum development for Africa. Onitsha: Africana Fep – Publishers.

Ozigbo, G.E. (2002). Types of research. Basic Research Method and Statistics. Education

and Social Science. Enugu: Podik Printing and Publishing Co.

Onwuagboke, B.B.C. (2006). Educational technology. Owerri: Peace Publishers Ltd.

Onyejemezi, D.A. (1996), Curriculum materials. Curriculum Development for Africa. U.

Onwuka (ed). Awka: Summer Educational Publisher.

TEACHERS’ GENDER, MOTIVATION AND REINFORCEMENT

AS PREDICTORS OF GIRLS’ COMPLETION OF SECONDARY

SCHOOL CHEMISTRY IN ABIA STATE

Ngozi P. Okafor

Department of Science and Technology Education

Faculty of Education, University of Lagos

Email: [email protected]

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Abstract

This paper examined the influence of teachers’ gender, motivation and reinforcement as

predictors of girls’ completion of secondary school in chemistry. Three research

questions guided the study and a correlational survey research design was adopted. The

sample was comprised of 200 participants drawn from co-educational public secondary

schools in Abia State, Nigeria. Three research instruments were used in data collection.

Data were collected for a period of four weeks and analyzed using mean, standard

deviation, multiple regression and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The results indicate

that teachers’ motivation highly predicted girls’ completion of secondary school in

chemistry. Similarly, there was a significant prediction and relationship of reinforcement

on girls’ completion of secondary school in chemistry. Teacher gender also positively

predicted girls’ completion of secondary school in chemistry. Teacher motivation was

found to be the most predictive, followed by reinforcement and lastly teacher gender

(Motivation> Reinforcement>Teacher gender).There were joint contributions of teachers’

gender, motivation and reinforcement on girls’ completion of secondary school in

chemistry. The paper suggests that chemistry teachers should create conducive classroom

environment where male and female chemistry students would feel safe and comfortable

for meaningful learning to take place and concludes that governments should promote

girls education by giving incentives to the best chemistry students like scholarships to

afford them the leverage in completing secondary school in chemistry and other science

subjects.

Keywords: Girls’, Motivation, Reinforcement, Completion, Gender.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chemistry occupies a central position in the school science curriculums. It

is in realization of its role that every nation accords high priority to its provision

at all educational levels. Nigeria as a country is not left out in that regard. It is

therefore, very necessary that secondary school students need to have prerequisite

knowledge and understanding of chemistry concepts that are very relevant in their

daily lives (Benneth, Grasel, Parchmann & Waddington, 2005; Bulte, Westbroek

& Gilbert, 2006; Hofstein & Lunetta, 2004).This requires teaching proficiency in

chemistry content knowledge and how students are engaged in collective process

of learning that would enable them generate and share new knowledge. The

dynamics of classroom activities involve collaboration between teachers and

students. This would motivate students irrespective of gender in the completion of

their future educational careers (Croninger & Lee, 2001). Affective factors such

as motivation and reinforcement could be desirable in developing students’

interest and for completion of their schooling. Hidi & Harackiewicz (2000) and

Ryan & Deci (2000) observed that when teachers are motivated, they become

more productive in their teaching. They posited that their maximum outputs affect

students positively and thus reduce chances of dropping out of secondary school

in sciences. Farrell (2002) instructed that the relationship between female and

male teachers and their students should be warm and friendly as to bring about


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effective transfer of learning. Similarly, students need to nurture and sustain good

rapports with their teachers for high productivity in their academic pursuits.

Caring, motivation and praises are central to shaping meaningful, supportive and

productive relationship between students and teachers (McCombs, 2004).

Teachers’ motivation and support have been associated with enhanced feelings by

the students (Ma, 2003). Teachers can also serve as worthy counselors, parent

substitute, role model and mentors against girls dropping-out of school. This

paper has determined the extent to which teacher gender, motivation and

reinforcement could predict girls’ completion of secondary school in chemistry in

Abia State, Nigeria.

Teacher Gender, Motivation and Reinforcement

Teacher support refers “to the extent to which students believe their

teachers worth and seek to establish personal relationships with them” (Ryan &

Patrick (2001). They found that when teachers express mutual respect to the

students through praises and motivation, they become favorably disposed in

adapting meaningful learning. Socially and emotionally, female and male teachers

set the tone of the classroom by developing supportive and encouraging

relationships with students as well as designing lessons that build on their

strengths and abilities (Prensky 2005). Teachers’ behaviors are associated with

gender roles, respectful communication, problem solving, supportiveness and

responsiveness to individual differences (La & Pianta, 2003). When teachers lack

managerial qualities, their students show lower achievement and interest

(Marzano, Marzano & Pickering (2003). Under these conditions, teachers may

resort to reactive and excessively punitive responses that do not contribute to self-

sustaining classroom. Some supportive qualities female and male teachers must

show in promoting teaching and learning include among others: wholesome

characteristics; leadership qualities; kindness; patience; humour; sympathy; sense

of justice; fairness in dealing with students; sensitivity to students needs;

professional insight and the ability to establish social relationship with students

(Stewart, 2006 and McCombs, 2004). Hidi & Harackiewicz (2000) observed that

classroom interactions are determined by how students are motivated and the kind

of reinforcement given during teaching-learning situations. They emphasized that

reinforcement and motivation determine teaching efficiency in the classroom

setting. Autocratic teacher creates a stormy and passive emotional climate within

and outside the classroom and those who choose to be laissez-faire are doing

nothing more than paying lip-services to the principle of teaching. However, in a

research conducted to ascertain the impact of teacher-students’ relations on

academic performance in chemistry, Ogunniyi (2006) found a significant

difference between male and female teacher-student relations. Many research

studies have provided reports on gender differences in sciences in favour of males

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(Arigbabu & Mji 2004; Brotman & Moore (2008). It is in response to this

conflicting view on gender differences that this paper keyed into determining

which of the teacher gender, motivation and reinforcement predict girls’

completion of secondary school in chemistry.

Completion Pattern in Science by Gender

The completion of secondary school in chemistry can also be gleaned

from the viewpoint of teachers’ gender. The issue of gender is very important in

science education especially with increasing emphasis on manpower

development. Girls of today must have basic information if they are to succeed in

life. To educate a woman means educating the whole nation. Students have

preferences towards school subjects but across different countries, chemistry is

usually regarded as hard and primarily attributed to male teachers (Riegle-Crumb,

Moore & Ramos-Wada, 2011; Osborne & Collins, 2001; Colley & Comber

(2003). In several countries, the number of girls in the field of sciences is

relatively low (Riegle-Crumb et.al. 2011). This lack of qualified and inadequate

females in the fields of science across countries is linked to non-completion of

early schooling in the sciences which is the foundation where interest in

chemistry is motivated or marred (Okafor, 2013). Arigbabu et.al. (2004)

identified that girls’ shy away and even drop-out without completing high school

education due to curriculum overload, non reinforcement, lack of praise,

inadequate commitment and teacher gender. Girls’ vulnerability in the completion

of secondary school education in chemistry may largely be their pre-occupation

with house-hold chores. It was posited that the choice of study in sciences is

influenced by socialization pattern and educational policies (Hofstein et.al 2004;

Cai, 2003). Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) on gender parity in primary

and secondary enrolments have been very slow to actualize. Serious barriers still

exist among girls and women having access to science education as well as

completion of schooling (UNESCO, 2007). It is adduced that many school girls’

lack basic knowledge of science literacy needed for continuity. Okafor (2013) and

Okogie (2001) reported that girls have lower access to, and completion of

chemistry education than boys. Many countries like Australia, Nigeria and India

have also reported decreasing proportion of school girls in sciences (Lyons, &

Quinn, 2010; Okafor, 2013; Garg & Gupta, 2003). This implies that the problem

of under-representation of females in the scientific profession is a global

phenomenon. The National Science Board (2002) recommends restructuring SME

curriculum to include investigative learning through laboratory experience and

collaborative work. Programs that provide opportunities to hands-on activities

should be integrated in the secondary school chemistry curriculum with adequate

monitoring for improvement in female enrolment, completion and retention in

schools (Farrell, 2002). Mentoring and role modeling have been identified to

positively promote girls interest and completion of schooling. Increased


133

participation of women and girls in sciences and chemistry in particular is

essential in socio-economic development of the nation. UNICEF (2007) stated

that the socio-economic development of a country is closely linked to the

educational level of its female population. Appropriate steps need to be taken in

the reduction of social and educational barriers that persist among girls in science.

Theoretical Framework

This study was developed from a theoretical view of teaching based on

non-pedagogical traits of educators. Teacher gender, motivation and

reinforcement were the three primary frameworks of the study. These concepts

are defined in goal achievement and trait model of Northouse (2004). They

illustrated female and male teachers’ capacity to effectively guide the students in

accomplishing specific concepts or tasks. Northouse (2004) explained the

importance of a leader in influencing individual or groups to achieving common

goals. This is synonymous to the definition of teaching. Classroom teaching can

be seen as a process of leadership (Stewart (2006). The process and goal

attainment models in teaching are similar to the variables of this study. The

difference is the organization of the teacher gender dynamic and the informal

structures that teachers must develop to be successful. The extenuating theory that

also fits into this study is the transformational model that develops a positive

culture which inspires followers to change and develop themselves beyond simple

goal attainment (Northouse, 2004). Area of interest in this study was geared

towards girls completing their secondary school education in chemistry through

effective and efficient male and female teachers’ motivation and reinforcement.

Potential exists for teachers to understand and integrate model of transformation

in all facets of educational careers. It is an integral part of teaching and learning

that male and female teachers should employ motivation and reinforcement

during classroom activities; though some may integrate and be successful, while

others may not. It becomes imperative that transformational framework should be

used in understanding the influence of independent variables in predicting girls’

completion of secondary school in chemistry.

Problem

There is apparent belief that chemistry is difficult for girls’ because of its

abstraction and volatility. Several studies have identified motivation, gender,

reinforcement, poor pedagogies and un-favorable relationship of teachers as

impediments to girls’ completion of secondary school in chemistry (Okafor,

2013). UNESCO (2007) reported unhealthy relationship, poor motivation and

lack of praises as hindrances for girls’ non-completion of schooling. The use of

positive reinforcement as an effective strategy in improving students’

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performance is well documented (Okogie, 2001; Ogunninyi 2006; Garg & Gupta

(2003). The reason why girls are vulnerable in the completion of secondary

school chemistry may be due to the home front chores. Prensky (2005) explained

that today’s learners require simultaneous engagement in hands-on-activities. He

further asserted that adequate incentives such as reinforcement and extrinsic

motivation could be appropriate in fostering successful completion of secondary

school chemistry when male and female teachers show candid commitment and

devotion to teaching. Nnaka and Anaekwe (2006) study reported that retention

and completion rate of secondary school girls in physical sciences is low. Njoku

(2005) found that the removal of gender biases in science and technology

instructions could be effective in improving girls’ achievement and completion of

education in sciences. This implies that girls excluded by gender biases would

achieve and compete favourably with the boys. This paper therefore has

examined teachers’ gender, motivation and reinforcement as predictors of girls’

completion of secondary school in chemistry. It has also determined the joint and

relative contributions of teachers’ gender, motivation and reinforcement in

predicting girls’ completion of secondary school in chemistry in Abia State,

Nigeria. Three research questions guided the study and they include:

(1) What are the relationships among teachers’ gender, motivation and

reinforcement in predicting girls’ completion of secondary school in

chemistry?

(2)What is the joint contribution of teachers’ gender, motivation and


chemistry?

(3)What are the relative contributions of teachers’ gender, motivation and


chemistry?

Methodology

The paper adopted a correlational survey research design. The design was

suitable as to generate variances in predicting the contributions of independent

variables to girls’ completion of secondary school chemistry. Stratified random

technique was used in selecting four educational zones in Abia State, Nigeria. Only co-educational public secondary schools that have graduated chemistry students in

the last 30 years were considered. Only One Hundred (100) secondary schools met the

criteria. In each of the schools, only the teachers’ that hold masters degree in chemistry education were selected. On the whole, the sample consisted of Two Hundred

participants. Three research instruments were used in data collection and they include:

Teacher Motivation Questionnaire (TMQ), Teacher Reinforcement Questionnaire (TRQ)

and Girls’ Completion Questionnaire (GCQ). Each of the instruments consisted of Bio-data (teacher gender) and Fifteen (15) item-statements which the participants were

compelled to respond on a Four-Point-Likert Scales of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A),

Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD). The three instruments were validated by a


135

senior research fellow who also is a chemistry education evaluator. Reliability indices of

the instruments were ascertained for internal consistency using Cronbach Alpha. The Cronbach alpha value for Teacher Motivation Questionnaire (TMQ) was 0.812, Teacher

Reinforcement Questionnaire (TRQ) was 0.834 and Girls’ Completion Questionnaire

(GCQ) was 0.886. Data was collected for a period of four weeks and analyzed based on the research questions. Mean, standard deviation, multiple regression and Analysis of

Variance (ANOVA) were employed in data analysis. Statistical Package for Social

Scientist (SPSS) Version 16.0 was also employed for data analysis at significant level of

α=.05.

Results

The results are stated below based on the outcome of the research questions

Research Question 1

What are the relationships among teachers’ gender, motivation and reinforcement in predicting girls’ completion of secondary school in chemistry?

Table 1

Descriptive Statistics and Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient of

Girls’ Completion of Secondary School in Chemistry

VA Mean SD TM TR CR

TG

TM 46.05 3.70 1.000 .651**

.350**

.162*

TR 48.45 3.77 .651** 1.000 .236**

.167*

CR 50.25 4.08 .350** 236** 1.000

.151*

TG 50.28 4.05 .162* .167* .151*

1.000

** Significant at .01 level * Significant at .05 level TM=Teachers’

Motivation TR=Teachers’ Reinforcement CR=Completion Rate TG=Teachers’

Gender

VA=Variables

Table 1 indicates that teachers’ motivation significantly predicted girls’

completion of secondary school chemistry ( x =46.05; SD =3.70, r=.236, p<.05).

Also, teachers’ reinforcement shows a significant relationship and predicted girls’

completion of secondary school chemistry ( x =48.45; SD =3.77, r=.350, p<.05).

Teachers’ gender also significantly predicted girls’ completion of secondary

school chemistry ( x =50.28; SD =4.05, r=.151, p<.05).

Research Question 2

136

What is the joint contribution of teachers’ gender, motivation and

reinforcement in predicting girls’ completion of secondary school in chemistry?

Table 2

Model Summary Table of Girls’ Completion of Secondary School in

Chemistry

Model R R2 Adjusted R

2 Std. Error of

Estimate

1 .713 .517 .510 2.86

Predictors: teachers’ gender, motivation and reinforcement

Table 2 shows that the multiple correlations as indicated by R among the

independent and the dependent variable was 0.713. The variances accounted for

by multiple correlation squared was 0.517. When the multiple correlations were

adjusted, it gave a value of 0.510 which is an indication that the variance

contribution of teachers’ gender, motivation and teacher reinforcement on girls’

completion of secondary school chemistry was 51.0%. This implies that teachers’

gender, motivation and reinforcement were effective and reliable in contributing

to girls’ completion of secondary school chemistry.

Table 3

Analysis of Variance on Girls’ Completion of Secondary School in Chemistry

Model Sum of Square Df Mean Square F Sig. of P

Regression 1715.725 3 571.908

Residual 1601.775 196 8.172 69.981 .000

Total 3317.500 199

Significant at p<0.05

Analysis of Variance in Table 3 shows that the independent variables

jointly contributed in predicting girls’ completion of secondary school in

chemistry (F(3,196) = 69.981), p<0.05). This implies that girls’ completion of

secondary school in chemistry can be adequately explained from teachers’ gender,

teacher motivation and teachers’ reinforcement.

Research Question 3


137

What are the relative contributions of teachers’ gender, motivation and

reinforcement in predicting girls’ completion of secondary school in chemistry?

Table 4

Table of Coefficient on Girls’ Completion of Secondary School in Chemistry

Un-standardized Coefficient Standardized Coefficient

B Std. Error Beta t Sig

Constant 52.707 2 .830 18.622 000

Teachers’ Gender 1 .210 .412 .148 2.940 004

Teacher Motivation .949 .072 .861 13.126 000

Teacher Reinforcement .889 .071 .821 12.514 000

Significant at p<0.05

Table 4 shows the various contributions of the predictor variables on girls’

completion of secondary school in chemistry. Teacher motivation was the most

influential variable in predicting girls’ completion of secondary school in

chemistry (β=.861, t= 13.126, p=.000). Girls’ completion of secondary school in

chemistry increases positively by 0.861 units, when teacher motivation increases

by one unit. Teacher reinforcement was the next most significant variable in

predicting girls’ completion of secondary school in chemistry (β =.821, t= 12.514,

p=.000). Beta value indicates that girls’ completion of secondary school in

chemistry increases positively by 0.821 when there was an increase of one unit in

teacher reinforcement. Teacher gender, though significant was the least

contributor to the prediction of girls’ completion of secondary school in chemistry

(β =.148 t= 2.940, p=.004). Beta value shows that girls’ completion of secondary

school in chemistry increased positively by 0.148 when there was an increase of

one unit in chemistry teachers’ gender.

Discussion

Research Question 1 result indicates that teachers’ motivation highly

predicted girls’ completion of secondary school in chemistry. Motivation is what

gets individuals to excel in real life situation. The result supports the study of

Ryan et.al (2001) who found that teachers’ mutual respect for the students

through praises and motivation, contribute to them having adaptive patterns of

learning. Hidi et.al. (2000) also supported that motivation significantly influences

learning outcomes with minimal drop-out rates. This study has confirmed the

strong link between motivation and completion of school careers especially in

chemistry education. Similarly, there was a significant prediction of

reinforcement on girls’ completion of secondary schooling in chemistry. The

138

finding corroborates with Prensky (2005) who observed that classroom

interactions are determined by today’s learners and the quality of reinforcement

given during teaching-learning situations. The result further explains that

reinforcement is very crucial to learning and if an individual is to achieve mastery

of any problem, he/she must gain knowledge of his/her performance. Such

feedback or knowledge of result of the students’ performance must not come too

soon, otherwise it stifles motivation and therefore must be delayed, otherwise the

learner might learn wrong ideas which may be very difficult to unlearn.

Chemistry teachers therefore must be aware that feedback to the students’ should

be constructive and detailed rather than the usual reinforcement such as: excellent,

good or very bad which are highly watery.

Teacher gender also positively predicted girls’ completion of secondary

school in chemistry. Motivation has the highest prediction, followed by

reinforcement and the least is teacher gender. The result depicts that female

teachers relate well and more favorably disposed with girls for completion of

secondary school in chemistry than the male teachers. Gender difference has

remained the main focus of concern in the field of science education and

chemistry in particular based on the biases and misconceptions women and girls

experience. Many studies have provided reports on gender differences in the

cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains (Arigbabu et.al; 2004; Koch 2002).

Some studies have found the dominance of males over the females and vice versa

in science learning outcomes. Okafor (2013) earlier stated that the socio-

economic development of a country is closely linked to the educational level of its

female population. The educated female teachers who acted as mentors and role

models have contributed to some girls completing secondary school in chemistry.

Appropriate steps need to be taken to ensure that more female chemistry teachers

are recruited whenever there is inadequacy in teacher supply. This also contradicts

Osborne, et.al. (2001), that discussed that, across different countries, chemistry is

hard to teach and attributed to male teachers.

Result of research question 2 shows joint contributions of teachers’

gender, motivation and reinforcement on girls’ completion of secondary school in

chemistry. The joint contributions of the variables corroborates with McCombs

(2004) findings that caring, motivation and praises are central to shaping

meaningful, supportive, and productive relationship between students and

teachers in the teaching-learning environment. This implies that male and female

chemistry teachers should always exercise effective classroom management with

emphasis on motivation and reinforcement to ensure that secondary school girls’

studying chemistry do not only complete but are retained in the field of chemistry

education(Ryan et. al. 2000).


139

In research question 3, the result delineated relative contributions of

teachers’ gender, motivation and reinforcement as predictors of girls’ completion

of secondary school in chemistry. Teacher motivation was found to be the most

predictive, followed by reinforcement and lastly teacher gender (Motivation>

Reinforcement>Teacher gender). This suggests that male and female chemistry

teachers can positively motivate girls’ in completing secondary education in

chemistry through the use of instructional pedagogies that cater for individual

differences in the classrooms as well as relating lessons to students’ real life with

positive reinforcement.


Motivation is an individual’s internal disposition that must be combined

with ability and environmental factors to influence productive works. It is related

to leadership because good leadership sets examples, provides guidance,

encouragement and instructions. Since most secondary school girls’ drop-out of

school, it becomes necessary that male and female chemistry teachers direct girls’

attentions towards well defined concepts objectives as well as determine what

efforts need reinforcing meaningfully to improve performance in chemistry. It is

also important to note that the girl-child needs immediate feedback by breaking

tasks into smaller steps, working from simple to complex, concrete to abstract and

known to unknown to eliminate misconceptions that might lure them out of

completing secondary schooling. Reinforcement can also be established as

classroom routines, modeling desired attributes and building natural positive

reinforcement aimed at sustaining and retaining girls in school. These should be

constantly motivated by the teachers, parents, principals and administrators. To

this end, the states and federal governments should promote girls education by

giving incentives to the best chemistry students like scholarships to afford them

the leverage in completing secondary school in chemistry and other science

subjects.

Recommendations

The paper recommends that;

Chemistry teachers should create conducive classroom environment where

male and female chemistry students would feel safe and comfortable for

meaningful learning to take place.

Teachers should also establish engaging but interactive classroom

atmosphere that is gender-sensitive. The pasting of posters of scientists

and chemists within and outside the school wall would be very desirable

to girls completing secondary education in chemistry.

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Positive reinforcement should always be enhanced by the teachers through

immediate feedback so that girls’ willing to drop-out should make u-turn

in reaping the dividends of

Chemistry education.

Parents should ensure that secondary school girls are equally given

complex and difficult tasks usually assigned to boys such as washing cars,

fixing bulbs or climbing ladders as opposed to the house chores girls were

usually assigned to perform such as; washing dishes, cooking and

cleaning.

Role models and mentors should be invited occasionally to the school that

would influence both boys and girls when they speak on their

achievements in the fields of sciences and chemistry in particular.

Chemistry teachers irrespective of gender should be committed and

dedicated to their teaching especially in understanding the individual

differences among the male and female students for successful completion

of their schooling especially in Abia state, Nigeria.

Programs that can provide girls and boys with opportunities of engaging in

hands-on activities that are interactive should be introduced in the

chemistry curriculum. Such programs in turn may enhance

female enrolment, completion and retention of secondary school girls.

Private organizations should make provisions for incentives in motivating

the school girls’ by awarding scholarships, donating books and plaques to

the best female performers in secondary school chemistry.

State and Federal Governments should improve on the salaries and

welfare packages of science teachers. This would enable them to be

favorably disposed in discharging their duties in the classrooms.

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HOW DOES EDUCATION RESPOND TO THE NEEDS OF

CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY?

Lilian-Rita I. Akudolu

Department of Educational Foundations

Nnamdi Azikiwe University,Awka, Nigeria.

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Abstract

The major role of education is to equip people with knowledge and skills to contribute to the

transformation of the 21st century society. In the present technology dominated society, one

wonders the extent and how education is playing this unique role. This communication

http://www.ungei.org/infobycountry/nigeria_1809.html

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examines the relationship between education and society. It then goes on to discuss not only

the major demands of the contemporary society but also ways in which education can be

repositioned to enable the society respond strategically to its needs and become sustainable.

Keywords: society, education, information, technology, culture

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Societies all over the world are scampering to reap the benefits of

information and communication technologies (ICTs) for the improvement of all

aspects of life of the citizens. The advent of ICTs has resulted in unprecedented

changes in human endeavours to the extent that while enjoying the benefits of

ICTs, human beings are making concerted effort to tap into the array of

knowledge opened by technology. This has given rise to the knowledge economy

in which progress in the society depends on, not only the quality and quantity of

available information but above all, on the individual’s ability to access and use

the available information. In this regard, education constitutes one of the bed

rocks of the knowledge economy in the sense that education equips the individual

with the ability to produce, share and use knowledge for personal needs and needs

of the society. Bearing in mind the precarious nature of the society in this

knowledge economy, one wonders how Education responds to the needs of the

society or how education prepares the contemporary society to fulfil her needs.

Here lies the thrust of this communication which is presented under the following

sub-headings:

Society as proprietor and beneficiary of education;

The demands of contemporary society and re-designing education to

respond to these demands; and

Conclusion: Major challenges to adapting education to the needs of the

contemporary society.

Society as Proprietor and Beneficiary of Education

Education is a concomitant aspect of human life and its use dates to the

early years of human existence because human beings have always found means

of imparting knowledge and skills to individuals for their personal development

and that of the society. In the families, children learn from parents, siblings and

other relations, the ways things are done in the society, the acceptable norms, the

taboos and the expectations for a particular age grade and gender. The family and

kindred based education is continued in the society through the activities of age

grades and other groups in the society. The advent of western education resulted

in a more organized and systematic form of education but it did not alter the aim


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of education which is preparation for life. Every human society has its own

conceptions of what constitutes this preparation for life.

Consequently, education has always occupied a central position in the life

and development of any society. This is based on the premise that education is

concerned with the total development of the individual which results in the

development of the society. Through education, the individual’s mind is

enlightened and the society’s progress assured. Education prepares a person to

think, feel and behave in a manner expected of a member of a group. This is

because education is both a process and a system. It is the process of transmission

of knowledge, values, appropriate attitude and skills that are considered desirable

in a society. In brief, it is a process of cultural transmission and knowledge

dissemination (Azikiwe, 2012). Through education, a society transmits her

cultural heritage from one generation to the other. In this regard, education

becomes the instrument used by the society to achieve stability and progress.

Apart from being a process, education is “a complex system embedded in a

political, cultural and economic context----- these dimensions are interdependent,

influencing each other in ways that are sometimes unforeseeable” (UNICEF,

2000, p. 3). Inadequacy in the education sector affects all other aspects of the

society, including the political, cultural, and economic dimensions.

Besides, the level and quality of education in a society influences

development and other life activities in the society. In fact, the major

distinguishing feature of education is development. This is because education is

concerned with the overall development of the individual as well as the

development of the society. Hence, the former Nigerian Minister for Education,

Ahmed Rufa’i (2010, p. v) declares that “Education is the foundation of all

development.” She goes on to assert that “in many countries of the world,

development is proportional to the quality of education.”

It is true that the society is the proprietor of education in the sense that the

society determines the appropriate knowledge, skills and values that learners need

to acquire for the continued growth and reconstruction of the society. On the other

hand, education as a product of thesociety, sustains the society and functions for

its continuous existence and evolution” (Obanya, 2011). Education derives its

sustenance from the society while the society depends on education for continuity

and growth. Above all, educational development drives social development

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which in turn promotes educational development. Fig. 1 aptly shows the

reciprocal relationship between society and education.

Fig. 1 Reciprocal Relationship between Society and Education

The society does not only establish education but also reaps the benefits

from education and these concepts are represented in Fig. 1. The society uses

Education as the instrument for creating, promoting and disseminating knowledge

as well as for its sustainability.In performing these functions, Education equips

human beings with the ability not only to create and share knowledge but also to

use knowledge for the solution of problems in all aspects of life. Thus, education

transmits culture, and develops desirable attitude and behaviour in the learners.

This reiterates the fact that though the society creates education, the society is

shaped and sustained by education. The necessary ingredients of education are

SOCIETY

EDUCATION


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fashioned by the society as much as the future of the society is mapped by

education. Consequently, development in any society cannot rise above that

society’s level of education. The implication is that for any nation to join the

league of developed nations, such a nationneeds a dynamic and sustainable

education system.

The Demands of the Contemporary Societyand Redesigning Education to

Respond to these Demands

The twenty-first century society is experiencing multi-dimensional

changes in the economic, social, education, environmental, leisure, travel,

commerce and other aspects of life. These changes present varying degrees of

challenges to both the individual and the society. Examination of these changes

and challenges is the main stay of this section of our discussion.

One of the major demands of the contemporary society is to develop into a

network society. Already the society is experiencing structural transformation

which is moving it towards the direction of network society. This is a society in

which economic, political, cultural and social activities are structured by social

and network digital information and communication technologies such as

microelectronics and digital computer networks. Basically social and media

networks constitute the back bone for the organization of a network at the

individual and group levels(Van Dirk, 2006).Hence, the network society is borne

of information and communication technologies (ICTs). It is ICT- enabled society

and consequently communication is the major currency in this type of society. In

fact, a network society is

pervasive throughout the planet, its logic transforms, extends to every

country in the planet, as it is diffused by the power embedded in global

networks of capital, goods, services, labour, communication, information,

science, and technology. So, what we call globalization is another way to

refer to the network society, although more descriptive and less analytical

than what the concept of network society implies (Castells, 2005, p. 5).

From Castells observation, the terms knowledge society, information

society and globalization, have almost the same meaning as network society but

the latter is more analytical than the others. The transformation of society into

network society is affecting life activities in the society. For instance, people are

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experiencing new forms of sociability in which communication has gone beyond

face-to–face interaction to include all forms of electronic communication. Hence,

Face book and Twitter as well as email and instant messaging and other internet

sites are examples of network society. In the present century, some people

engage more in communication through digital means than face to face. These

new forms of communication increases sociability but each requires new

knowledge and a certain level of ICT (Information and Communications

Technology) literacy.

Also, the network society has given rise to the new economy which is

network economy in which there is digital organization, distribution and

management of production. Consequently, to be relevant in the network society,

the individual needs to adapt to the requirements of the new workplace such as

the acquisition and reacquisition of skills. So, the labour force in a network

society requires innovative people that can easily adapt to change and that can

work autonomously or people that are self- programmable.

The network society has also given rise to new social demands and

communities of learning. Nations all over the world are making frantic effort to

catch up with development in ICTs. In fact, the level of availability and use of

ICTs in different nations is intensifying the digital divide in which some nations

are developing and enjoying the fruits of technology while other nations are

scampering to join the information super high way. However, world events

indicate that the extent modern technologies are developed and used in a society

depends on that society’s ability to generate and use new knowledge which in turn

depends on the society’s level of education. Also, the level of technological

development in a nation determines not only the society’s level of preparedness to

rise among other nations in the arena of global competitiveness but also the living

standards in that society. This reiterates the fact that technology drives societal

transformation while the “society shapes technology according to the needs,

values, and interests of people who use the technology” (Castells, 2005, p. 3).

Hence, since the 20th

century, technological breakthroughs have moved

human endeavours along a continuum, from Agricultural age to Industrial Age

and then to Knowledge age. While possession of land was the central issue at the

Agricultural age and possession of capital was the central issue at the Industrial

age, emphasis in the present century is on the possession of knowledge or on a


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person’s ability to use knowledge for the solution of problems. One of the

characteristics of the knowledge age is that knowledge gets easily obsolete as new

knowledge is generated very fast, thanks to the fast developments in information

and communication technologies. This has resulted in a shift in the structure of

human activities from routine to non-routine and analytical tasks. The implication

is that the contemporary society needs citizens that can generate, manage and use

knowledge in a non-routine way to solve problems. People that use knowledge in

this way are knowledge workers and these include all workers that solve problems

through the use of creative thinking skills, such as educationists, engineers,

scientists, lawyers etc. Prior to the technological advancements that ushered in the

21st century, routine work was the order of the day and one could anticipate

problems in a given situation. However, in this era of knowledge economy in

which new knowledge is continuously being generated, every citizen needs to be

flexible not only in knowledge generation and management but also in using

knowledge as capital.

Apart from the ability to generate and use knowledge, every citizen needs

to possess a certain level of digital literacy which is not only a life skill in the

sense that it is required in all aspects of human existence but is also a gate skill.

Digital literacy is a gate skill because it is a veritable route to other skills that are

needed in a work place or life activity in the present era of information and

communication technologies. In fact, digital literacy “comprises a set of basic

skills which include the use and production of digital media, information

processing and retrieval, participation in social networks for creation and sharing

of knowledge, and a wide range of professional computing skills” (UNESCO,

2011, p. 1). So, digital literacy encompasses ICT literacy, technological literacy

and information literacy. The possession of digital literacy equips the individual

with the skills required for the non-routine tasks of the new work place which

UNESCO (2011, p. 2) presents as the “ability to respond flexibly to complex

problems, communicate effectively, manage information, work in teams, use

technology, and produce new knowledge.”

The ability of human beings to produce new knowledge is enhanced by

the technological development in the society. However, it is necessary to point

out that technological development has both positive and negative consequences

on the society. While these technology born developments have engineered

improvements in almost every aspect of human existence, they have created

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demarcations in the social order. Apart from creating the digital divide (such as

geographical divide - among nations , gender divide – between male and female,

and economic divide- between rich and poor) between those who have access to

technology and those that have not, one social impact of the digital divide is the

inferiority complex shared by those at the negative side of the digital divide. This

type of feeling can dwarf motivation and make those concerned to rely solely on

developments in other nations or by other people instead of striving to achieve

their own technological development. Besides, the rate of cybercrimes in the

society has increased significantly in the twenty-first century, thanks to the

tremendous developments in information and communication technologies

(ICTs). Apart from instances of piracy violations in the use of information on the

internet, different nations are currently facing different security challenges

ranging from leaking of national security information to the world, to the

establishment of crime-based international and national networks such as Boko

Haram among others.

Nigeria like some other nations entered the 21st century with a baggage of

security challenges which continues to manifest with intensity that increases

every day. Most of these security challenges emanate from political, religious,

economic and ethnic crises. Incidences of killings, bomb blasts, vandalisation

ofpipelines, child trafficking, kidnapping and all forms of domestic terrorist

activities that used to occur rarely in the past have become part of daily news in

recent times. In fact, the return to democracy in 1999 gave rise to cases of fierce

rivalries among politicians, at the states and national levels as well as violent

agitations in some regions. Prominent among the violent agitations is the current

Niger Delta militancy; the Boko Haram movement; and kidnapping. The Niger

Delta militancy activities started in the 1990s as a conflict between foreign oil

corporations and the Niger Delta ethnic groups. Most Nigerians became aware of

the Boko Haram or Yusifyya movement when it launched its deadly attack on

Borno State in September 2010. Among the aims of the group are the Islamization

of the Northern states and the eradication of western education. In this regard, the

members engage in indiscriminate killings and destruction of institutions. These

activities of Boko Haram and other security challenges make life unbearable in

the society. In fact, the fear of kidnappers and bombings is the beginning of

security in the present day society. Therefore, the security of persons, facilities

and institutions is a very big challenge to the modern society because security is

both a constitutional requirement and a basic platform for development.


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Attempt has been made in this section of our discussion to present the

demands of the contemporary society in the present era. How the society handles

these challenges determines whether the society can join the competition in the

global arena or sink deep into the technological Dark Age. In this regard, every

society looks unto education to prepare the citizens and equip them with relevant

knowledge and skills to face these challenges and contribute to the advancement

of the society. To achieve this feat, there is need for the overhauling and

repositioning of the educational system.

The network society requires the type of education that is based on

effective and efficient generation, acquisition and transformation of knowledge as

well as innovative instructional process. The establishment of this type of

educational system requires educational policy that must be geared towards

ensuring:

up-to-date pedagogical competence in the information society;

the integration of new pedagogic opportunities;

equal and flexible access to education; and

effective and flexible education structure and organization (UNESCO, 2004,

p. 6).

Close examination of these UNESCO recommendations indicates that the

first port of call for repositioning the educational system for the development of

network society is the pedagogical preparation of teachers. This preparation

includes the training of teachers in pedagogic methods and in the instructional use

of the new technologies. Since the advent of information and communication

technologies (ICTs), there has been a shift in instructional methods from teacher-

centered to learner-centered, problem-based and project-based learning. Teaching

and learning process is becoming more of knowledge development rather than

knowledge transfer. Educationists have realized that knowledge does not come

from teachers and book shelves but results from the learner’s interaction with the

learning content and environment. The teacher is no longer the custodian of

knowledge but a facilitator and a stimulator. The teacher facilitates the learning

process by stimulating the learners to learn through various means. The aim is to

develop in learners the ability to think critically and transform them from being

mere absorbers of information to evaluators of information. Also, the effective

use of problem–based and project-based instructional strategies develops in

learners the ability to organize and participate actively in learning communities

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and learning networks and consequently become active citizens of the network

society.

There is also need for educational policies that can lead to the

development of schools where knowledge is not only interacted with and acquired

but also created. These are “knowledge-creating schools” and “network schools”

(Castells, 1999). In knowledge-creating schools, emphasis goes beyond the

acquisition of numeracy and literacy to include the acquisition of skills for

performing present tasks and future tasks or tasks that are not yet known or

foreseen. This implies that instructional strategies are geared towards the

development of critical and creative thinking skills in the learner. These are the

thinking skills that can transform the learner into a competent problem solver and

a fast decision maker. On the other hand, in networked-schools, teachers and

learners share knowledge and skills on teacher-teacher, learner-learner and

teacher-learner basis and at intra and inter school levels. Networked schools

enable teachers to share information and improve on their instructional skills.

Intra-school network involves teachers in a given school working in teams in such

a way that they complement one another and share information while inter-school

network involves teachers in different schools sharing skills and knowledge and

sometimes working on collaborative projects. Repositioning education for the

advancement of the contemporary society requires the type of Education that

equips the learner with the basic groups of 21st century skills and competencies as

shown in Figure 2.


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Fig. 2 Basic 21st century skills and competencies

Education in the contemporary society is expected to equip the learner with

the basic 21st century skills and competencies as presented in figure 2. These are the

skills and competencies to be acquired in knowledge-creating schools and networked

schools. This implies that teachers who are the learning facilitators and guides must

not only possess but must demonstrate the pedagogical abilities to help learners

develop these skills and competencies. For teachers to function effectively in

knowledge-creating schools and networked schools, they must be technologically

literate and pedagogically competent. Such teachers need to demonstrate the ability to

use new technologies in the instructional process as well as adopt appropriate

pedagogic methods in the delivery of instruction. This implies that teacher-education

has to be realigned to the demands of the 21st century learning to ensure that they are

equipped with knowledge and skills to help learners maximize the development of

their potentialities. Most teachers entered the 21st century with instructional delivery

strategies that are based on the 19th and 20th centuries learning theories. Learning in

the 20th century differs remarkably from that of the 21st century. Whereas the 20th

century learner depended on the teacher for what to learn, how and the extent to learn

the limited and known or pre-constructed information; the 21st century learner has

access to limitless information anytime and anywhere and can use as well as share the

information through the use of appropriate technology.

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The 21st century learner’s extent of acquiring knowledge depends on the

learner’s ability to use information and communication technologies (ICTs) to

source, create and share knowledge. Above all, instructional delivery in the 20th

and 21st centuries differs in terms of objectives, skills and methodologies.

Consequently, for education to respond to the needs of the society, teacher

education needs to be redesigned so as to equip these teachers with the 21st

century compliant skills, attitude and knowledge.

Besides, fast developments resulting from the use of ICTs have given

knowledge such a short life span that often when a student wants to solve a life

problem with knowledge he/she has recently acquired, the student is surprised

that the solution to the problem cannot be found in the so called new knowledge

but in a more current knowledge. Hence, lifelong and life-wide learning skills

which imply skills for learning throughout life as well as learning in different

circumstances and stages of life are a prerequisite for effective life in the 21st

century society. Among the lifelong and life-wide learning skills are self-skills

(e.g. skills of self-motivation, self-confidence and self-direction); critical

thinking; problem solving; communication and collaboration skills. Teachers need

to possess the necessary skills and competencies for developing these learning

skills in the learners thereby transforming the learners into self-monitoring,

lifelong, life-wide learners. With this type of ability, the learner becomes self-

directed or self-guided in learning and this is a necessary condition for sustainable

learning all through life and in different areas and circumstances of life. In fact, a

21st century teacher needs not only to possess the lifelong, life-wide learning

skills but also the ability to develop same in the learners. This brings to the fore

the teachers’ need of knowledge versatility as well as the skills of creativity and

innovation in instructional delivery.

Bearing in mind the fleeting and interconnected nature of knowledge, a

teacher needs to demonstrate versatility in the possession of knowledge. This

implies that teacher- preparation-education has to include general knowledge,

field knowledge and specialization knowledge. The application of ICTs is

gradually eroding the demarcation among fields and areas of knowledge in the

sense that problem solution in the contemporary society often involves

interconnection between and among different areas of knowledge. A teacher

needs the type of general knowledge that is broad enough to cut across disciplines

or areas of knowledge as well as deep knowledge in a given field and


155

specific/specialization knowledge. This knowledge versatility imbues teachers

with the required attitude and capability to integrate the 21st century

interdisciplinary themes into core subjects. Among these themes are global

awareness, civic literacy and entrepreneurial literacy.

Apart from versatility in knowledge, a teacher in the contemporary society

needs to be equipped with creativity and innovation skills (CISs). The CISs

enable a teacher to originate, develop, implement and communicate new ideas. A

teacher’s level of inventiveness depends on the degree of that teacher’s possession

of CISs. Instructional activities in this 21st century must among other things, be

transformative enough to equip the learner with capabilities to make a difference

in the present and future life of the society. To help learners develop

transformative skills requires that teachers possess adequate knowledge of the

CISs and the ability to apply each skill appropriately to the solution of present and

future problems. In this regard, teacher education needs to be repositioned to be in

line with the 21st century education model which is transformative, learner-

centered, problem-based and interactive. Teachers must be equipped with the

capabilities for creative and innovative delivery of instruction so as to develop

and implement the new education model. This involves the use of enabling

pedagogies in the instructional process. Whitby (2007) observes that

enabling pedagogies encourage curiosity and a sense of wonder. They

provide learning opportunities that are meaningful and relevant to

students, encouraging learners to critique and question, to seek meaning,

to make choices and to create and express ideas with skill and confidence

(p. 7).

These enabling pedagogies differ from the 19th and 20th centuries’

pedagogies that focused more on theory and replication of knowledge with little

or no room given for innovations. On the other hand, the 21st century pedagogies

“can be employed in creative, transparent and intuitive ways” (Whitby, 2007, p.

6) in helping learners not only to learn and acquire skills but to become self-

directed learners.

Above all, for education to respond to the demands of the contemporary

society which is information and communication technologyy (ICT) driven, both

teachers and learners need to be not only information, media and technology

156

(IMT) literate but IMT versatile. This implies refocusing education to ensure that

learners and teachers demonstrate fundamental knowledge of which, when and

how to access and use IMT to facilitate learning and also demonstrate

understanding of ethical issues involved in the use of IMT. However, no matter

the extent to which education is redesigned, this national tool for societal

development and emancipation cannot be effective in serving the needs of the

society if the society lacks a safe and secure environment. Therefore there is

need to redesign education and make it a tool that is geared not only towards the

development of individual and the society but above all, towards security and

peace.

Education is the major instrument the society can use to establish political,

social and economic security because education shapes the minds of human

beings. It is in this regard that the preamble to the 1945 constitution of UNESCO

affirms that “since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that

the defences of peace must be constructed.” This implies that sustained security

can only be established through education (which develops and tilts the minds of

men and women in the desired direction) and not through the use of violence. In

this regard, Obanya (2013, p. 6) presents ten non sequential steps to be followed

in enhancing security through education and these include “good politics;

education for all; education demand and supply; values promotion; emphasis on

quality as well as investing in instead of spending on education.” Obanya (2013)

calls on every society to invest in education because it is the major avenue to the

establishment of security.

The 21st century society is facing a lot of national security challenges.

These are off shoots of human security challenges and human security is based on

freedom from fear (such as fear of being kidnapped, abused, persecuted, killed,

etc) and want (e.g. abject poverty). Having shelter, food, water, sustainable job,

human dignity and love constitute the fundamentals of human security and each

can be promoted through appropriate education.

For education to promote national and human security there is need for a

redirection of instructional purposes and strategies to ensure that the learners

acquire appropriate skills, knowledge, exposure and values to enable them on

graduation to be employable or to be self-employed and job creators. In fact,

education should equip learners with the abilities to succeed in work and life.


157

What is required is not education for the few that can afford it but education for

all so that every citizen acquires the capabilities of human security that are

necessary for national security. In fact, the rate of security risk of a country is as

high as the level of lack of education among the citizens. For education to boost

human and national security, quality education should be the norm, with emphasis

placed on the all-round development of the individual and instructional

endeavours projecting security awareness education. Teachers and other members

of staff need security training not only to be able to identify security threats and

hazards but also to develop and be ready to use emergency plan when the need

arises.

Conclusions: Major Challenges to Adapting Education to the Needs of the

Contemporary Society

Our discussion so far has established the fact that education can and

should be repositioned to serve the needs of the contemporary society. Among the

challenges to this repositioning are those related to the type of knowledge that

learners need to acquire, the teacher quality and availability as well as the

availability of condussive environment and information and communication

technology facilities.

To equip lerners with knowledge and skills for survival in a society in

which knowledge valuation depends on the extent that knowledge is applied to

problem solutions, presents education systems with the challenge of equipping

learners with generic rather than subject specific skills.Generic skills are

discipline independent knowledge or cognitive strategies that are applied to

problem solutions in different subject areas and domains. Among these are

thinking, communication, problem-solving, learning, and metacognitive skills.

These are the skills every individual needs for a successful and productive life in

the society. To achieve this goal of developing generic skills in learners requires a

paradigm shift in educational endeavours, from exposing learners only to specific

domain knowledge and skills to the integration of these generic skills across

subject areas. Consequently, educationn systems are facing the challenge of

ensuring that content, learning experiences, instructional methods and evaluation

strategies are reviewed and updated to be 21st century compliant. Definitely, the

19th and 20th century curricular cannot prepare learners for effective life in a 21st

century society.

158

However, the development of generic skills in the learners can only be

realized if the teachers possess 21st century skills and competences. The era of of

basing professional competence solely on the acquisition of certificate is gone.

The high rate of unemployment in the society despite employment opportunities

in some areas of the economy, indicates a variation between the knowledge or

certificate acquired in schools and the job demands in the society. This situation is

more demanding in the education sector where teachers are expected to prepare

learners for productive life in a society that has been rendered unpredictable by

technological exploits. The implication is that the possession of life and

pedagogic application skills, the possession and demonstration of learning to

learn skills as well as life-long and life-wide learning skills and ICT

versatilityshould be the norm to every teacher. These are the qualities that can

enable a teacher help learners to acquire “core knowledge instruction” and

“esential skills for success in today’s world such as critical thinking, problem

solving, communication and collaboration” (Partnership for 21st Century Skills,

2009, p. 1).The challenge of teacher-quality is coupled with that of teacher–

availability.

Despite the fact that information and communication technologies make

knowledge available to every learner, anywhere, at any time and has changed the

position of the teacher from that of the know-it-all professional who dishes out

knowledge at will to that of a guide and a learner, teacher availability is a

challenge to realizing the needs of the society through Education. The lackof or

insufficient number of teachers in some subject areas, notably Languages,

Mathematics and the Sciences make it difficult and sometimes impossible for

some learners in Nigeria and some African countries to access the required

knowledge. In most cases, these learners are simply helped at study centers to

prepare for Junior or Senior Secondary School Certificate examinations. This

practice fills the society with secondary school graduates with certicates but

shallow or no knowledge. Such people, instead of contributing to the solution of

problems in the society, become problems to the society. Effective learning

requires the availability of qualified teachers who can keep the learners actively

engaged in the learning process. Learner engagement leads to authentic learning.

Another problem that needs to be solved for Education to satisfy the needs

of the contemporary society is the inadequate provision or non-availability of

learning and infrastructural facilities such as accommodation, condusive learning


159

environment as well as information and communication technology (ICT)

facilities. To prepare learners for life in a network society where activities and

interactions are based on media networks requires the provision of ICT devices

such as notebooks, mobile phones, tablets and other interactive media in the

learning environment. The recommendations by the Broadband Commission

Working Group on Education(BCWG) as presented in the ITU & UNESCO

Concept Note for Partnership (ITU & UNESCO, 2004 p. 2) include:

1. Increase access to technology and broadband;

2. Incorporate technology and broadband into job training and continuing

education;

3. Teach ICT skills and digital literacy to all educators and learners.

Recognizing the fact that “broadband is a great education enabler at all

levels and in all forms is inextricably linked to the benefits offered by affordable

high – speed connectivity”, the BCWGin ITU & UNESCO (2014, p. 2) calls on

governments, IT providers, civil society, education authorities and other

stakeholders to bridge the technological divide between countries. This

technological divide can be eradicated not by simply importing the facilities into

developing countries but by ensuring that learners acquire ICT skills and digital

literacy in schools. This will enable the society fast track movement from lone to

network society.

REFERENCES

Ahmed, Rufa’i Ruqayyatu (2010): Forewarding Julius Okojie, Ishaq, Olayede and Pai,

Obanya (Eds). 50 years of University Education in Nigeria: Evolution,

Achievements and Future Directions(p. I). Ilorin: University of Ilorin and National Universities Commission.

Azikiwe, Uche (2012). Multicultural Education in Nigeria. In U.M.O. Ivowi and Ben Akpan ( Eds). Education in Nigeria : From the Beginning to the Future (pp. 461-

474). Nigeria, Ibadan : Foremost Educational Services Ltd.

160

Castells, Manuel (1999). The Social Implication of Information and Communication Technologies. Retrieved from

http://glotta.ntua.gr/Is-social/Knowledge-Social/Castells_info-comm-tech pdf

Castells, Manuel (2005).The network society: From knowledge to policy. In Manuel Castell & Gustave, Cardoso (Eds). The network society from knowledge to

policy(pp. 3-31). Washington DC, USA: Center for Transatlantic relations.

Obanya, Pai (2011).Education for society and society for education. Paper presented at

the Fifth Annual Conference of the Associationof Sociologists of Education of

Nigeria. PortHarcourt. University of Port Harcourt.

Obanya, Pai (2013, July).Education : An investment in security. Paper presented to the

Nigeria Union of Teachers.Nigeria: Asaba

Van Dijk,Jan (2006). The network society. Second edition. London : SAGE

Whitby, George B. (2007). Pedagogies for the 21st Century : Having the courage to see freshly. Australia: ACEL International Conference

UNESCO (2011). Policy brief: Digital literacy in education. Retrieved from http:iite.unesco.org

UNICEF (2000). Defining quality in education. Working paper series. Retrieved from

http://www.unicef.org

INDEX

A

A Re-writing of the 5-P Education Chain, 37

Adebayo and Olabode (2014), 108

Adeniji, 2009, 111

Advanced Learners Dictionary, 77

Aghenta (2008, 63

Agun, (2008), 127

Ajakaye & Adeyeye, 2001, 113

Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education

Owerri, 66

http://glotta.ntua.gr/Is-social/Knowledge-Social/Castells_info-comm-tech%20pdf


161

Amadeker, (2005), 60

Aminigo (2003), 47

Amnesty International, 2005, 109

Arigbabu & Mji 2004, 133

Arigbabu et.al. (2004), 133

B

Benneth, Grasel, Parchmann & Waddington,

2005, 131

Best Practices in pedagogy for pre-service

teacher education, 57

Best Practices Needed in the 21st Century

Teacher Education, 56

Best, 2007 and Ugochukwu, 2012, 107

Boko Haram, 42, 46, 112, 151

Brotman & Moore (2008), 133

Bulte, Westbroek & Gilbert, 2006, 131

C

Cai, 2003, 133

Castells, 1999, 153

Castells, 2005, 148, 149

CEDAW NGO, 2008, 111

CEDAW, 1994, 106

Changes merely decreed into existence, 13

Chazan, Lewis, Mortimer, Rothchild, Stedman,

1999, 107

Chibok girls, 112

Children and Family Court Advisory and support

Service, 2007, 108

Colley & Comber (2003), 133

Collier and Sambanis, 2005, 107

Completion Pattern in Science by Gender, 133

Croninger & Lee, 2001, 132

Cultural access, 5

D

Decree No.7 of 1978, 54

Derby-Shire, 2005, 118

Distance Learning Systems (DTS), 54

Doing the Wrong things for the Wrong Reasons,

21

Domestic Violence Crisis Service (DVCS)

(2014), 107

Douglas (2010), 56

Dr. Christine Dottever, 112

Dysfunctionality when applied to Education, 2

E

Economic access, 3

Economic and Financial Crime Commission

(EFCC), 45

Economic/Financial Abuse, 110

Education Wife Assault, 1997, 108

Education with a CapitalE, 1

Egbe, 1998, 79

Eko (2006), 119

Ekwuma (2003), 118

Emotional/Psychological Violence, 110

Empty Promises, 10

Eni (2005), 77

Evaluation of Students’ Stress at School (ESSS),

66

Exam Failure as Symptomatic of a deep-seated

Problem, 35

Extensive Use of Information Communication

Technology, 57

Eyisi, (2002), 53

Ezeude (2004, 45

F

Face-saving changes, 13

Facilitating teachers’ life-long learning, 58

Fake Success Stories, 10

Farrell (2002), 132

Federal University of Technology Owerri, 66

Festa (2009), 64, 72

Flexible and clear course design, 56

Florida department of education (2015), 55, 60

Forms of Domestic Violence, 109

G

Garg & Gupta (2003), 135

Gender Equality, Domestic Violence and

Sustainable Peace and Security, 113

The Convergence, 113

Globalization and Youth, 46

Globally and locally networked teacher learning,

58

162

H

Has Nigeria ever had policies on Education?, 12

Helas (2009), 65, 71

Helax (2009), 65

Hidi & Harackiewicz (2000), 132

Hidi et.al. (2000), 139

Hofstein & Lunetta, 2004), 131

Hofstein et.al 2004, 133

How does Politics Impact on Education?, 7

How has politics aided or hindered the

development of Education in Nigeria?, 9

I

Ill-thought-out/feebly implemented ideas, 14

Immediate Personal Gain Disease, 10

Implications for Counselling, 47

Independent Corruption Practices and other

related offenses Commission (ICPC), 45

Individualization, 56

Individualized curriculum, 57

Inequity in all its forms, 32

Information and communication technology

(ICT), 57

Isiakpere (2001), 44

K

Keith M Lewin (2007), 3

Koch 2002, 139

L

La & Pianta, 2003, 132

Lagos and Oyo States, 111

Learner reflection, 56

Lefoka (2004), 118

Likert scale, 66

Liman (1996), 44

Localized curriculum, 57

Lyons, & Quinn, 2010, 134

M

Ma, 2003, 132

Major Challenges to Adapting Education to the

Needs of the Contemporary Society, 158

Major-General Muhammadu Buhari, 45

Marzano, Marzano & Pickering (2003), 132

Matlin, 2004, 112

McCombs, 2004, 132

Meaningful interactivity, 56

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 86,

113, 133

Mistaking Examinations for Education, 28

Mkpa, 119

Multiple sources of teacher learning, 58

Musical Chair syndrome, 14

N

National Teachers' Institute (NTI), 54

Near-Total Abandonment of Implicit Curriculum,

21

Nichols (2001), 55

Nigeria, 4, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 22,

23, 24, 25, 27, 30, 31, 32, 37, 41, 42, 43, 44,

45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 56, 58,

60, 75, 76, 81, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 94, 95,

96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109,

111, 112, 114, 115, 116, 119, 126, 130, 131,

133, 135, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 151, 159,

161

Unheard Voices, 2005, 106

Nigerian Conservation Foundation (1993), 77

Nigerian University Students’ Standing on

Workplace Valued Skills., 36

Njoku (2005), 135

Nnaka and Anaekwe (2006), 135

Noibi & Lawal (1991), 77

Northouse (2004), 134

O

Obanya, PAI (2011), 3

Obasi, 2000, 107

Obasi, 2013, 107

Obi (1993), 77, 80

Obih and Akaraonye (2014), 109, 110

Oden (2008), 78

Oden 2008, 78

Ogunniyi (2006), 133

Ogwuche and Tamita (2011), 119, 127, 128

Okafor, 2013, 133, 135

Okeke (2011), 64


163

Okogie (2001), 133

Okoli (2008), 47

Okoro, Emenyonu and Akaraonye (2012, 119

Okorodudu (1995), 46

Onwuagboke (2006), 118

Onyemerekeya, 2002, 55

Osborne & Collins, 2001, 133

Osborne, et.al. (2001), 139

Overall Conditions of Life as the Ultimate

Concern of Teachers’ Unions, 39

Owugah (2004), 46

Ozigbo, 2002, 120

P

Penal Code (Law of the Northern Nigeria Cap

89),, 109

Perceptions of Curriculum, 18

Perpetuation of divisiveness, 10

Perraton (2007), 51

Persistence of Two Divergent Cultures, 19

Peters, 1993, 76, 81

Physical access, 4

Physical Violence, 109

Piecemeal-Dominated Efforts, 10

Policy Making Taken for Genuine Policy

Development, 15

Politically-motivated shakeups, 14

Poor Governance and Management, 22

Potentials of Environmental Education, 79

Prensky 2005, 132

Preponderance of Non-educative schools, 25

Pre-service Teacher Education in Nigeria, 53

President Olusegun Obasanjo’s administration,

45

Prevalence of Violence against Women, 110

Problems that could hinder the implementation of

best practices in the Nigerian teacher

education system, 58

Process Level Highlights and Challenges, 22

Project Alert (2001), 111, 116

Psychological access, 4

Q

Quality Information, 56

R

Relevance of Environmental Education to

Teaching/Learning, 79

Reversing the Dysfunctionality Trend, 37

Riegle-Crumb, Moore & Ramos-Wada, 2011,

133

Road Show Syndrome, 10

Routine administrative interventions, 13

Ryan & Deci (2000), 132

Ryan & Patrick (2001)., 132

Ryan et. al. 2000, 140

S

Sani, 2007, 107

Sociological access, 4

Some distinguishing features of good and bad

politics, 7

Stewart (2006), 134

Suberu, 1996, 107

T

Teacher Gender, Motivation and Reinforcement,

132

Teaching Environmental Education in the

Classroom Setting, 81

Teaching without Teachers, 27

The 5-P Educationeering Process Chain, 6

The Belgrade international workshop (1975), 77

The Broad Spectrum of Stakeholders in

Education, 15

The Concept of Gender Equality, 113

The Concept of Violence, 106

The Curriculum Development Process, 17

The Environment and Environmental Education,

76

The Five Pivots of the Educationeering Process,

5

The Menace of Curriculum Overload, 20

The Multiple Faces of Inequity in Nigerian

Education, 33

The Nigerian Constitution of 1999, 109

The Products Level, 30

Full Manifestations of Dysfunctionality, 30

The Programme Dead-End in Nigerian

Education, 16

164

The UN Declaration on the Elimination of

Violence against Women, 106

Three Inter-connected/mutually reinforcing

elements of a Curriculum, 16

Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000, 111

U

UNESCO (2007), 135, 144

UNESCO, 1980, 78

United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural

Organization (UNESCO) (2005), 51

United States Office of Violence against Women

(OVW, 2007, 108

Un-planned Development, 23

Unsustainable rules and directives, 13

Usman (2004), 120

USOVW, 2007, 108

V

Values and Value re-orientation, 43

Van Dirk, 2006, 148

W

Waku (2008), 46

What do we mean by ‘Best Practices’?, 55

What is Curriculum?, 16

Wheeler (1975), 77

Wikipedia, 2014, 107

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (2015), 51, 61

World-class and globalized curriculum, 57

World-wide IT pedagogical environment, 58

Z

Zemelman, Daniels, and Hyde 2005, 55

Zone Five, 3

Zone Four, 3

Zone One, 3

Zone Six, 3

Zone Three, 3

Zone Two, 3

Zone Zero, 3

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