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Modal anusing Ful

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Natio

Proonal Seminar



.

xiv




nd ember 4 ‐ 5, 2019.

NatioPro

onal Seminar oceedings: 35on ‘Trends an


.




nd ember 4 ‐ 5, 2019.

1

Study of Performance, Combustion and Emissions of biodiesels and Diesel additive(2‐EHN) blends in DI‐Diesel engine and calibrations of NOX‐SOOT‐BTHE Trade‐off characteristics through Taguchi‐Fuzzy

based Multi‐objective Optimization Technique

Dr. Swapan Bhaumik

Vice President, IEI & Former Head, Dept of Mech Engg, NIT Agartala

Introduction

The variation of world energy graph has logically attributed to the retribution of

painless world energy trade and professions. Presently, 7 billion people model the entire

world energy structure and have an undeviating impact on the foundation of energy

demand. The effects of the world economy, security and environmental design are the

impact of energy. Energy is the first principles to the modern world, and as the

population increases from 7 billion to 9 billion by 2040, a challenged to overcome energy

crisis to build superior lives achievable. The Country like China, India and the Middle

East has projected for the rise of energy requirement beyond one-third from 2035 to

2045 by 60% of the growth. Pollution vandalization and passing fossils fuel reservoir

forced many scientist, researchers, and engineers to undertake the investigation on the

substitution to fossil fuel. Effects of increased environmental pollution from motors and

increased fossils fuel price enforced biodiesel platform as a substitute to fossils fuel.

Worldwide biodiesel production has risen practically sevenfold since 2005. Besides the

world biofuel production of 127.7 bills/liters in 2014, bioethanol considered to be 74%

and biodiesel considered to be 23%.

Currently, the ongoing inquiry and found inspection effects about the substitution of the

diesel fuel with the fusion of biodiesel and ethyl alcohol like diesel supplements in diesel

engine was found victorious due to the closer fuel properties to diesel fuel and biodiesel

content. Diesel additive plays a vital role in the world of motors combustion. The

utilization of the diesel additive, intake fuel temperature and inlet air temperature are

the contemporary recommendation to excel viscosity, tribology and completion in fuel

vaporization. Blending alcohol with the commercial diesel is an authentic technique for

decoding lubricity and vaporization complication. Nevertheless, the immiscible

character of diesel and alcohol could be intricate because of splash blending, thermal

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cracking, and dissociation by another process. This complication can overcome by the

emulsifiers or co-solvent.

Biodiesel as an alternative fuel.

Vegetable oils are an organic oil (triglycerides) extracted directly from the plant product,

animal product, and waste product. Vegetable oil for the diesel engine is not a new

thought. Scientist Dr Diesel in 1911 ran his diesel engine on pure vegetable oil extracted

from peanut. However, the vegetable oil has employed in the compression ignition

engine until1920s. Throughout the 1920s, the manufacturer of the diesel engine

redesigns their diesel engine to run on the lower viscosity (petrodiesel) instead of

vegetable oil, which attribute to some disadvantage of vegetable oils properties. With

the expanding of time before the world war-II in South Africa, the first everutilization of

trans esterified vegetable oil (biodiesel) was effortlessly powering heavy-duty motor

Vehicles.

Generally, since biodiesel came in to picture, its application extended for combustion in

the diesel engine after meeting the specification of ASTM-D6751 standard.

Experimental engine test with methyl and ethyl ester have manifested that methyl

ester released higher power and torque when related to ethyl ester. Methyl ester

(biodiesel) obtained from net-vegetable oil is brown or amber-yellow colour, viscosity

similar to diesel fuel, non-flammable, non-explosive, biodegradable, non-toxic and reduce

emissions when burning in the diesel engine. Under many circumstances, biodiesel has

an advantage as well as disadvantage given below.

The Advantage of biodiesel is its availability, portability, renewability, underneath

sulfur, excessive combustion efficiency and aromatic content, excessive biodegradability

and unreasonable cetane number. Besides all the advantages of biodiesel, domestic

origination is the central advantage of biodiesel, which would diminish local energy

demand, biodegradability, sky-high flash point, and lubricity.

The main drawbacks of biodiesel are predominantly its excessive viscosity and density,

beneath energy content, high pour point and cloud point, lower power and engine speed,

engine affinity, fuel injector coking, greater engine scratch, excessive NOX emissions,

and significantly high cost. Another demerit is the technical complications due to the

biodiesel and diesel blends leading to fuel chilling in winter, minimised energy density,

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fuel degradation under lengthy periods of storage, and layers deposits inside the tank,

hoses and blocks the fuels filters. Nevertheless, this blocked fuel filter can be

maintained and replaced.

Concerning to this climax, this present experimental investigation significantly

manifests the ability of methyl ester in compression ignition engine. Biodiesel utilisation

in the diesel engine is the successful technique of exchanging petrodiesel in the long run.

Since biodiesel is environmentally friendly, it has outstanding prospective to utilise as a

substitute in diesel engine

Significant Confidential of 2-ethyl-hexyl-nitrate.

Ignition quality in a compression ignition engine gambols all the important parameter

predicting how the quality performances and emissions delivered by a diesel engine.

Thus the improvement of combustion quality can be obtain by the various approach. The

present experimental work adopts 2-Ethyl-hexyl-nitrate (2-EHN) as cetane improver to

achieve quality combustion.

Chemically, 2-Ethyl-hexyl-nitrate (2-EHN) is an organic compound called ester of nitric

acid shown in Fig. 1(Test tube-D), where, test tube-A, B, C, and D are filtered neem

biodiesel, filtered cotton biodiesel, diesel and 2-Ethylhexyl nitrate. 2-EHN is 99% purity

which is built by a chemical reaction of HNO3 (nitric acid) with C8H18O (2-Ethylhexanol)

as detailed below.

HNO3 + C8H18O = C8H17 NO3 + H2O↓

The industry work group of 2-ethyl-hexyl-nitrate (2-EHN) was organised in the year

2002 in Europe by the manufacturers of the technical committee of petroleum additive

(ATC), members affiliated by the council of European chemical industry (CEFIC). It

incorporates of various members of ATC companies including all the European and

North American producers of 2-EHN, along with the auxiliary input from the oil

manufacturing companies, European Federation for health, environment, and security

in concentrating and dispensation.

2-Ethyl hexyl nitrate, when blended with petrodiesel fuel is predominantly to increase

cetane number, to accelerate the diesel fuel auto-ignition properties, shorten the

duration of combustion and improve combustion characteristics.

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1. Miscibility test and blend preparation.

In this experimental investigation filtered neem seed methyl ester (NSME) and filtered

cotton seed methyl ester (CSME) were fused with pure diesel and most significantly

with 2-ethyl-hexyl-nitrate (2-EHN) as an emulsifier in volume fraction (3:2:1) V/V%

basis. The significant footprint of this miscibility test was base on the questions of the

blending ability of pure diesel and 2-EHN with a much higher concentration of biodiesel.

This comprehensive miscibility test in a volume fraction (3:2:1) basis was equivalently

states as (U:V:W) in test tube- A, and (X:Y:Z) in test tube- B. where, ‘U’, ‘V’ and ‘W’ are

2-EHN, Diesel and Neem biodiesel, simultaneously X, Y, and Z are 2-EHN, Diesel and

cotton biodiesel respectively.

These two blends were compared with 100%NSME and 100%CSME and finally with

100%Diesel as a whole. After obtaining the complete requirements, the properties of the

required fuel of the net-diesel, net- methyl esters and additive blends were obtained by

IS: 1448 (Protocol) within the ASTM standards limits.

Experimental setup and methodology.

The experimental setup is a single cylinder, four strokes and water cooled DI-Diesel

engine (Make- Kirloskar, IS-No. IS: 11170-1985) as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Experimental Setup completes Circuit Diagram.

The diesel engine connected to an eddy current type dynamometer (Make- Kirloskar) is

for loading. It is connected with the necessary sensing device for measuring combustion

pressure inside the cylinder and also for measuring Crank Angle. These two sensing

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devices connected to a computer is for obtaining P-Ɵ diagram. Other interfaces are also

made for fuel flow, air flow, and load measurement and also sensing the temperature at

different loading conditions. The experimental set up has stand-alone panel box

consisting of air box, two fuel tanks, manometer, vertical buerate attached to control

panel, transmitters, process indicator and engine indicator. Rotameters was provided for

measuring water flow and also for cooling the engine. The experimental setup enables

the study of VCR engine performance for all the developed power, pressure, efficiency,

specific fuel consumption, A/F ratio, and heat balance. Engine Performance Analysis

software provided was for measuring all the performance and combustion evaluation.

Experimental Methodology

Initially, the experimentation of this present works was run by the pure Diesel, filtered

Neem biodiesel, filtered cotton biodiesel, 2-EHN, and its blends at different

compositions. The experiment was run on VCR engine at various loading conditions with

a constant speed of 1500 rpm (± 2%). The variable load test was conducted at the

injection timing of 230 BTDC, and at the fixed injection pressures of 200 bars.

Initially, the engine was warm-up with Net-diesel (D100) for 30 minutes for stabling the

diesel engine. After that, the data was taken for the reference and also for the

comparison of performance and emissions characteristics with various chosen blends.

All the instruments interfaced to the control panel was for revealing the desired data.

Once the base data obtained from the base fuel, the blended fuels were injected once at a

time for experimentation. The blended fuels were also allowed to settle down for the

proper and homogenous mixture. Technically all the instruments were interfaced to a

computer DAQ system as well as synchronized with a crank angle encoder to software.

The experimental data were so obtained was by the DAQ system. The standalone control

panel fitted and connected with sensing devices helps to regulate the entire machine.

The eddy current dynamometer was connected to a voltage controller for adjusting the

loads (from 0% to 100%). In additions, for acquiring an accurate reading for every blend,

the fuel flow line was thoroughly cleaned with acetone. Further, the experimentation

was continued base on the same technique and process. The NOX emissions sampled was

obtained with the 5-gas analyzer (Make: AVL India, Model: 444).

Uncertainty analysis.

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Error analysis is a part of experimentation. It safeguard the repeatability of the

experiment and also acknowledge the gentility of the instruments of the manufacturer.

Uncertainty analysis or error identifications of any specific apparatus of an

experimental engine explicitly manifest the requirement and repeatability of the

experimental work paradigm. Vitally, the Uncertainty analysis of performance and

emissions parameters are found out by the root mean square method given by Eq. (1).

∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ (1)

Where, ∆U the total uncertainty of the projected number Q is accountable on the various

variables Q = f (X1, X2,…,Xn) possessing ∆X1, ∆X2,…, ∆Xn aswell defined errors.

Results and Discussion

Different blended fuels prepared are experimentally investigated in the DI-Diesel

engine at a constant speed of 1500 rpm. The effect of the tested fuels has been

determined by the engine performance parameter, combustion characteristics and

emissions characteristics as enormously described below.

Combustion characteristics.

In-cylinder pressure.

In-cylinder pressure of a diesel engine has directly attributed to the fraction of fuel

burned during the initial combustion stages (premixed combustion). At 0.8kw load,

D100 attained the maximum pressure (46.50 bar) registered around 3700 crank angle

(TDC) than others tested fuels. Simultaneously the ignition delay of all the tested fuels

in this same load was prolonged from 3600 to 3640 crank angle which indicates late

combustion.

Pure cotton seed methyl ester (100% CSME) at 1.4kw load shows maximum in-cylinder

pressure (49.91 bar) registered at 3700 crank angle (TDC). The increased in in-cylinder

pressure is directly attributed to oxygen content in biodiesel molecules resulting in

maximum pressure. Diesel additive (2-EHN) concentration in the tested fuels shows

maximum pressure at higher loads. 5%EHN1 attained consistent in-cylinder pressure

rise (maximum) from 2kw to 3.2kw are 54.25bar, 56.87bar and 57.72bar respectively.

Whereas, 5%EHN2 follow the same trends as 5%EHN1 from 2.6kw to 3.2kw loads are

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56.25bar and 57.03bar. Most significantly, the maximum in-cylinder pressure of

5%EHN1 than others fuels is the effective result of 2-EHN addition in the blends which

forced the pressure near the TDC. This maximum pressure rise is attributed to low

auto-ignition temperature, shorter ignition delay.

NOx emission.

Figure 8shows the effect of diesel, Net-biodiesels, and 2-EHN additive on the NOx

emissions concerning various engine brake power. Exhaust NOx emissions increases

with the increase in engine brake power. Exhaust emissions contain eight oxides of

nitrogen which are composed of 5% NO2 by volume, 5% N2O+N2O3+N2O5 by volume and

90% NO by volume. The combustion temperature inside the cylinder, duration of high

temperature and in-cylinder oxygen concentration are the vital factors for NOx

generation.

Soot emission

Soot emissions is the major complication of the diesel engine. Even though, Diesel fuel

being the top contender for compression ignition engine, its particulates consist of

carbonaceous materials directly indicated as Soot and some organic or inorganic

compounds were also discovered.

in brake power. Whereas, 5%EHN1 crack the overall prominent BTHE, lowest SOOT

emissions with the penalty of NOX emissions as shown in point Fat higher load (2.6kw).

The increased or decreased of NOX, SOOT and BTHE are being undeviatingly ascribed

to combustion efficiency of the test fuels.

When differentiated with 100%diesel, 100%NSME and 100%CSME, 2-EHN

concentration in the blends enhance combustion model revealing the increasing trend of

BTHE, reducing trends of UHC and SOO Temissions and quantum of NOX emissions

penalty.

Optimum Input Parameters Selection by Taguchi-Fuzzy based Approach.

The current experimental investigation data’s are being governed by L25 orthogonal

arrangement of the Taguchi artistry by utilizing 25 permutations of five engine brake

power and five tested fuel which are noted as A and B in the Table 6. The center of

attention of the present investigation was not on the design of collection and inspection

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of experimental data’s, but on the signals to noise ratio (S/N) to grasp the experimental

data are in Taguchi orthogonal ordering. The integrated governable set of parameters by

an orthogonal arrangement in Taguchi technique can yield undeviating complication

effect. The number of experiment and the accuracy of the experimental analysis results

can be optimized by implementing the Taguchi technique. Thus, the Taguchi technique

minimizes the duration and caliber the lone character of the experimental analysis.

“Larger-the-better” and “Smaller-the-better” are numerically investigated based on the

outcomes of the factor to achieve the signals to noise ratios (S/N). So, the operation

factors by model arrangement for sole characteristics like BTHE, UHC, NOX and SOOT

can be attained. The characteristics of the value of signals to noise ratios (S/N) of

“Larger-the-better” have implemented. Thus, BTHE is the focus in these sorts of

analysis. As for conveyingin Eq. (3)

10Ʃ

(3)

Besides that, “Smaller-the-better” is implemented for the characteristics like UHC, NOX

and SOOTas shown in Eq. (4)

10Ʃ

(4)

Where, n = number of measurement taken.

Y = numbered ith characteristic.

Conclusion

The ultimate focus of the contemporary experimental investigation was to exploit

filtered methyl ester of neem seed oil, cottonseed oil and its blend with diesel along with

the diesel additive (2-EHN) concentration and analyze the combustion, performance and

emissions characteristics of a diesel engine at non-identical loads and blend.

Concurrently, the succeeding focus on this experimental investigation was multi-

objective optimization to minimize the experimental endeavor, to blueprint the

experiments and simultaneously to optimize the performance and emissions parameters

of a particular DI-Diesel engine. The consecutive effects drawn from the experimental

investigations are attested below.

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1. The outcome of the filtered methyl ester of neem seed oil and filtered cotton seed oil

with and without diesel and also with the minor diesel additive (2-EHN)

concentration manifest the future substitute to diesel fuel.

2. Improvement of Brake thermal efficiency (BTHE) has been distinguished for non-

identical blends point of view when compared to D100 at different loading

conditions.

3. Tri-ingredients blends of NSME, Diesel, and 2-EHN showed reduced UHC and

SOOT at various load condition when compared to D100.

4. The overall verified conclusion notify that the particular method is suitable for

optimizing the performance and emissions parameters of a diesel engine.

This present experimental investigation narrates a multi-objective optimization

approach to ascertain the optimum engine constrain when fueled with filtered methyl

ester (neem and cotton oil) - 2-EHN (additive) - Diesel fuel blends for the performance

and emissions characteristics improvement exhibit that the 5%EHN1 at higher loads

will deliver optimum outcomes.

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Naturl Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites for Automotive Applications: Mechanical and Tribological Properties: A view

K. Palani Kumar1 and A.Shadrach Jeya Sekaran2 1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Sai Ram Institute of Technology, West Tambaram, Chennai, India.

[email protected] 2Department of Mechanical Engineering, St. Peter’s College of Engineering and Technology, Chennai, India.

[email protected]

Abstract

Natural fiber reinforced composite materials are finding improved applications in many fields.

Especially these composites are used in automotive industry. The use of natural fiber reduces the

weight of the components; on the other hand it reduces the adverse environmental impact of

polymer based composites. In the present work, the importance of the natural fiber reinforced

composite materials is reviewed. The importance and need for the requirement of the natural fiber

reinforced composite materials is reviewed in conjunction with the mechanical properties and

tribological properties. Finally the growth prospectus of the natural fiber reinforced composite

materials is discussed and presented.

Keywords: Natural fibers, mechanical properties, Tribological performance, automotive

applications.

1. Introduction

The interest in natural fiber-reinforced polymer composite materials is rapidly growing

both in terms of their industrial applications and fundamental research. They are

renewable, cheap, completely or partially recyclable, and biodegradable. Plants, such as

flax, cotton, hemp, jute, sisal, kenaf, pineapple, ramie, bamboo, banana, etc., as well as

wood are used from time immemorial as a source of lignocellulosic fibers. Hence they are

often applied as the reinforcement of composites. Their availability, renewability, low

density, and price as well as satisfactory mechanical properties make them an attractive

ecological alternative to glass, carbon and man-made fibers, which are used for the

manufacturing of composites. The natural fiber-containing composites are more

environmentally friendly, and are used in transportation (automobiles, railway coaches

and aerospace) military applications, building and construction industries (ceiling

paneling, partition boards), packaging and consumer products. Natural fiber reinforced

biodegradable polymer composites are the materials, that have the capability to fully

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degrade and compatible with the environment (Sahari 2011). However, there is still

uncertain prevails on which type of manufacturing processes is suitable for producing

these natural composites. For small to medium sized components, injection and

compression mouldings are preferred due to their simplicity and fast processing cycle.

However, for large structures, they are typically manufactured by open moulding and

autoclave processes.

Similar to other plastic products, the complexity of shape of a product also influences the

type of manufacturing processes to be used. For example, filament winding is the most

suitable method for manufacturing pressure vessels and cylinders. Pultrusion is mainly

used for producing long and uniform cross section parts. In some extent, optic fiber is

integrated into the pultrusion process to produce self-structural-health monitored

composite structures (Mei-po Ho et al. 2012).

Mounting global environmental and social concern, high rate of decline of petroleum

resources, and novel environmental policy have enforced the search for green composite

materials, attuned with the environment. The strategy is discussed in this report; it

aims to add value to the crops by processing the fibers into so called natural fiber

composites (Abilash & Sivapragash 2013).The success of natural fiber reinforced

polymeric composites is always dependent on the appropriate processing techniques and

modification of fibers is to improve the adhesion between fiber and the biopolymer.

Matrix modification and after treatment is also be adapted to improve the performance

as well as long-term durability and fire retardancy for the composites (Omar et al.

2014).

Agricultural wastes such as rice husk, rice straw and the waste extracted from sugar

cane, pineapple, banana and coconut have produced huge quantity of biomass, which are

denoted as natural fibers in various industries as an alternative to the raw materials for

producing biocomposites, automotive component, biomedical and others (Rudi et al.

2016). Palmyra epoxy composite is fabricated with the volume fraction of 40-60, and it is

suggested for the sound absorbing application (Nithyakalyani et al. 2016). Helmet outer

sell manufacturing is carried out by hybrid natural fiber composite, instead of plastic.

This is due to its high stiffness (Prasannasrinivas & Chandramohan 2012). Applications

of natural fibers, natural fiber composite and hybrid natural fiber composite are

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reviewed and discussed for various applications in engineering sectors such as

automotive, aerospace, marine, sporting goods and electronic industries (Sanja et al.

2016).

2. Classification of natural fibers

Fibers are a class of hair like material, that are continuous filaments or in discrete

elongated pieces, similar to pieces of thread. They can be spun into filaments, thread, or

rope. They are used as a component of composites materials. They are also matted into

sheets to make products such as paper or felt. Fibers are of two types, natural fiber and

man made or synthetic fiber. Fig. 1 illustrates the woven natural fibre mats produced

from aloevera and sisal plants and Fig. 2 shows the classification of natural fibers.

Natural fibers are those made from plant, animal and mineral sources. Natural fibers

are classified according to their origin. Animal fiber generally comprises proteins;

examples mohair, wool, silk, alpaca, angora. These fibers are extracted from animals or

hairy mammals, for example sheep’s wool, goat hair (cashmere, mohair), alpaca hair and

horse hair.

Silk Fibers are collected from dried saliva of bugs or insects during the preparation of

cocoons, and the examples include silk from silk worms. Avian Fibers are taken from

birds, example feathers and feather fiber. Mineral fibers are naturally occurring fiber or

slightly modified fiber procured from minerals. The Asbestos is the only naturally

occurring mineral fiber. Ceramic fibers are glass fibers (Glass, wood and Quartz),

aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, and boron carbide, where as aluminum fiber is one of

the metal fibers.

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Fig. 1 Woven natural fibre mats produced from aloevera and sisal plants (Source: Shadrach et al. 2015)

Fig.2 Classification of natural fibers which can be used as reinforcement of Polymer (Source: Shehu et al. 2014)

Plant fibers are generally comprises cellulose, and the examples include cotton, jute,

flax, ramie, sisal and hemp. Cellulose fibers are used in the manufacture of paper and

cloth. Fibers are collected from the seed and seed case example cotton and kapok. Fibers

are collected from the leaves example sisal, aloevera and agave. Fibers are collected

from the skin or bast surrounding the stem of their respective plant. These fibers have

higher tensile strength than other fibers. Therefore, these fibers are used for durable

yarn, fabric, packaging, and paper. Some examples of plant fibers are flax, jute, banana,

hemp, and soybean. A typical fiber and its microbril are presented in Fig. 3. Fibers are

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collected from the fruit of the plant, example coconut (coir) fiber. Fibers are actually the

stalks of the plant example straws of wheat, rice, barley, and other crops including

bamboo and grass. Tree wood is also a fiber.

The natural fibers are used to reinforce both thermosetting and thermoplastic matrices.

Thermosetting resins, such as epoxy, polyester, polyurethane, phenolic, etc. are

commonly used today in natural fiber composites, inwhich, the composites require

higher performance applications. They provide sufficient mechanical properties, in

particular stiffness and strength, at acceptable low price levels. Considering the

ecological aspects of material selection, replacing synthetic fibers by natural ones is the

first step to support our environment. The emission of green house effect is restricted to

avoid gases such as CO2 into the atmosphere and an increasing awareness of the

depletion of fossil energy resources. It leads to develop new materials that are entirely

based on renewable resources.

Fig. 3. Typical fiber (kenaf): Scanning electron micrograh (a) schematic macrofibril (b) and natural plant microfibril (c) (Source: Baillie, 2004 and Mei-po Ho et al. 2012)

3. Applications and advantages of natural fibers as automotive components

The natural fiber composites have very cost effective material for following

applications.The reasons for the application of natural fibers in the automotive industry

include:

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Low density, which leads to a weight reduction of 10 to 30 %.

Acceptable mechanical properties, good acoustic properties.

Favorable processing properties, for instance low wear on tools.

Options for new production technologies and materials.

Favorable accident performance, high stability, less splintering.

Favorable eco balance for part production.

Favorable eco balance during vehicle operation due to weight savings.

Occupational health benefits, when it is compared to glass fibers during production.

No off-gassing of toxic compounds. Reduction of fogging behavior.

Price advantages both for the fibers and the applied technologies.

The main advantages of natural fiber composite are,

Low specific weight results in a higher specific strength and stiffness than glass

fiber.

It is a renewable source, the production requires little energy, where CO2 is

used..

Producible, with low investment at low cost.

Minimal wear of tooling, healthier working condition, and no skin irritation.

Thermal recycling is possible, because glass causes problem in combustion

furnaces.

Good thermal and acoustic insulating properties.

In construction, automobile and manufacturing industries, composites with natural

fibers are highly expected because of its high tensile strength and modulus, as well as

for its low density and low elongation. The proper research right now always focuses and

attracts various sectors to move towards these natural fiber composites

(Venkateshwaran & Elayaperumal 2010).Industrial waste, mainly seeds and fibers, of

acai fruit and these fibers are used to obtain composites with natural rubber from

different clones and it is investigated for its mechanical and thermal properties. They

are comparable to those with other fibers used in polymer composite industries (Martins

et al. 2008). Recently, human hair fiber is used as an alternative reinforcement for fiber

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reinforced polymer due to its well characterized microstructures (Akarsh et al.

2016).The components made by the natural fiber reinforced composite for Mercedes-

Benz car is presented in Fig. 4.The mechanical properties of the natural fibers are

presented in Table 1.The natural fiber composites used in various automobiles are

presented in Table 2.

Fig.4 Components made by natural fibers for Mercedes-Benz E-Class components (source: Sue Elliott-Sink, 2005)

Table 1 Mechanical properties of natural fibers

Fiber Density (g/cm3)

Diameter (µm)

Tensile strength

(MPa)

Young’s modulus

(GPa)

Elongation at break (%)

Jute 1.3 -1.45 25-200 393-773 13-26.5 1.16-1.5

Hemp - - 690 - 1.6

Kenaf - - - - 2.7

Flax 1.5 - 345-1100 27.6 2.7-3.2

Ramie 1 - 400-938 61.4-128 1.2-3.8

Sunn - - 1.17-1.9 - 5.5

Sisal 1.45 50-200 468-640 9.4-22 3-7

Cotton 1.5-1.6 - 287-800 5.5-12.6 7-8

Kapok - - - - 1.2

Coir 1.15 100-450 131-175 4-6 15-40

Banana - - 1.7-7.9 - 1.5-9.0

PALF - 20-80 413-1627 34.5-82.5 1.6

Source: Ramakrishna et al. 2009

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Table 2 Automotive models, manufacturers, and components using natural fiber composites

Model Manufacturer Components

A2,A3,A4, A4 Avant, A6, A8 Road star, Coupe

Audi Seat back,side and back door panel, boot lining, hat rack, spare tyre liner

C5 Citroen Interior door paneling

3,5,7 series BMW Door panels, headliner panel, boot-lining, seat back, noise insulation panels, molded foot well linings

Eco Elise Lotus Body panels, spoiler, seats, interior carpets

Punto, Brava, Marea, Alfa Romeo 146,156

Fiat Door panel

Astra, Vectra, Zafira Opel Instrumental panel, headliner panel, door panels, Pillar cover panel

406 Peugeot Front and rear door panels

2000 and others Rover Insulation, rear storage shelf/panel

Raum, Brevis, Harrier, Celsior

Toyota Door panels, seat backs, floor mats, spare tier cover

Golf A4, Passat, Variant, Bora

Volkswagen Door panel, seat back, boot-lid finish panel,boot-liner

Space star, Colt Mitsubishi Cargo area floor, door panels, instrumental panels

Clio, Twingo Renault Rear parcel shelf

Mercedes A,C,E,S class, Trucks EvoBus (exterior)

Daimler-Benz Door panels, windshield/dashboard, business table, Piller cover panel, glove box, instrumental panel support, insulation, molding rod/apertures, seat backrest panel, trunk panel, seat surface/backrest, internal engine cover, engine insulation, sun visor, bumper, wheelbox, roof cover

Pilot Honda Cargo area

C70,V70 Volvo Seat padding, natural foams, cargo floor tray

Cadillac Deville, Chevrolet Trial Blazer

General Motors Seat backs, cargo area floor

L3000 Saturn Package trays and door panel

Mondeo CD 162, Focus, freestar

Ford Floor trays, door panels, B-piller, boot liner

Source: Omar et al. 2014

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3. Mechanical Properties of Natural Fiber Reinforced Composites

Composites made from short sun hemp, banana, and sisal are studied for its tensile

properties and it identifies the sun hemp, which shows favorable tensile strength

(Udaya et al. 2007).Increment of tensile strength up to 90 % is noted on the composite,

which is made from pseudo-stem banana woven fabric reinforced into epoxy resin, when

it is compared with virgin epoxy (Maleque et al. 2007). Mechanical properties of particle

size, short fiber and long fiber are randomly oriented and are intimately mixed with

Hibiscus sabadariffa natural fiber reinforced along with urea formaldehyde resin

composite. This is tested for its tensile and compressive strength for its various fiber

loadings and the mechanical behavior of this composite is observed to be more effective

(Singha & Vijay 2008).

The cellulosic content of the fibers varies from fiber to fiber, influences the mechanical

properties of composites mainly by the adhesion between matrix and fibers. Chemical

and physical modification methods are incorporated to improve the fiber–matrix

adhesion resulting in the enhancement of mechanical properties of the composites

(Ramakrishna et al. 2009). Flax fiber reinforced epoxy composites are arranged by

quasi-unidirectional method, which shows an increment of tensile and flexural strength

(Igor et al. 2010). The alkali treatment is found to be an effective for improving the

tensile and flexural properties, while the impact strength is decreased for Roystonea

regia (royal palm) natural-fiber-reinforced epoxy composites (Govardhan & Rao

2011).Hybrid composites of sisal/banana and its tensile properties are determined by the

Rule of hybrid mixture. Its values are found to be higher when compared with

experimental values. Variations of tensile properties are also observed due to the

occurrence of micro voids in the composites during the fabrication (Venkateshwaran et

al. 2012).

Fibers obtained from rice husk, jute, banana, and coconut have an excellent physical

and mechanical property. Among this, mechanical properties of banana fiber reinforced

composite are optimally good (Naresh & Kumar 2012). Higher tensile strength is

observed for the treated fibers by Silane and Alkali in plantain empty fruit bunch fiber

than that of untreated fibers (Chimekwene et al. 2012). The mechanical properties of the

hybrid composites are found to be enhanced linearly with the volume fraction of high

strength fibers up to certain maximum value, beyond which a negative hybrid effect has

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been observed because of the formation of agglomerates (Srinivas Nunna 2012). Fig. 5

shows the typical stress strain curve for some the omposites tested.

Fig. 5 Typical stress-strain curve observed for tensile and flexural loading of different composites (AK alovera and kenaf, SK sisal and kenaf, ASK alovera, sisal and kenaf)

(Source: Shadrach et al. 2017)

Resin transfer moulding and compression moulding methods are used to make banana

fiber phenol formaldehyde resin composites and its tensile properties are determined as

a function of fiber length and fiber loading. Fiber loading values are found to be higher

for RTM when compared with CM composites for its tensile properties (Indira et al.

2013). The mechanical properties for some of the natural fiber composites with GFRPS

are evaluated and their comparisons are presented in Table 3.

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Table 3 Mechanical properties of natural fibre composites compared with regenerated cellulose composites and GFRPS

Fibre Matrix Fibre

content

(m%)

Tensile

strength

(MPa)

Stiffness

/Young’s

Modulus

(GPa)

Flexural

Strength

(MPa)

Flexural

Modulus

(GPa)

Impact

strength

(KJ/m2

or J/m)

Notes: Processing

/length/treatment

Sisal (aligned) Epoxy 73 410 6 320 27 Alkali treated

bundles CM/leaky

mould

Sisal (aligned) Epoxy 77 330 10 290 22 Untreated bundles

CM/leaky mould

Enzyme extracted

RTM

Flax (aligned) Epoxy 46/54 280/279 35/39 223 14 CM

Harakeke

(aligned)

Epoxy 50/55 223 17

Harakeke

(aligned)

Epoxy 52 211 15 CM

Sisal (aligned) Epoxy 48 211 20 RTM

Sisal (aligned) Epoxy 37 183 15 RTM

Flax yarn

(aligned)

Epoxy 45 311 25 Not stated

Hemp (aligned) Epoxy 65 165 17 180 9 15 (c) CM

Flax yarn

(aligned)

Epoxy 31 160 15 190 15 Hand lay up

(Knitted yarn)

Flax yarn

(aligned)

Epoxy 45 133 28 218 18 Autoclave

Flax (aligned) Epoxy 37 132 15 RTM

Flax hackled

(aligned)

Epoxy 28 182 20 Pultruded

Flax yarn

(aligned)

VE 24 248 24 RTM

Flax (silver)

(aligned)

UP 58 304 30 Soxhlet extracted

Vacuum

impregnated/CM

Flax yarn

(aligned)

UP 34 143 14 198 17 RTM (knitted yarn)

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Alfa (aligned) 48 149 12 Alkali treated then

bleached

Flax yarn

(aligned)

UP 72 321 29 Filament wound

Flax yarn

(aligned)

PP 30 89/70 7/6 88/115

(c)

Pultrude flax/PP

yarn

Flax (aligned) PP 50 40 7 751 (i) Needle punched

flax/PP mats CM

Kenaf (aligned) PHB 40 70 6 101 7 10(c) CM

Flax silver

biaxial/major

axis

Epoxy 46 200 17 194 13 Wrap spun, silver

woven,weft:warp

strength 10:1

Flax (woven) Epoxy 50 104 10 Sized and dried

prior to pre-preg

Flax yarn

(woven)

VE 35 111 10 128 10 RTM

Jute (woven) UP 35 50 8 103 7 11(c) RTM

Harakeke

(DSF)

PLA 30 102 8 Alkali treated CM

Hemp (DSF) PLA 25 87 9 Alkali treated CM

Source: Pickering et al. 2016

Flax fiber reinforced polymeric composites show the improvement in the interface

between fibers and matrix, where the flax fibers have under gone chemical treatments,

such as mercerization, silane treatment and benzoylation etc., Also, the use of

nanotechnology flax nanofibers and the addition of nanoclays in flax composites highly

improves the mechanical performances (Jinchun et al. 2013). Different weight ratios

such as 100/0, 75/25, 50/50, 25/75 and 0/100 for jute and banana fibers are reinforced

into epoxy matrix. Increment of mechanical and thermal properties is noted, where 50 %

of banana fiber are added into jute/epoxy composites. Moreover, moisture absorption is

also found to be decreased (Boopalan et al. 2013). Tensile strength of hemp shive

composite is increased upto 40 % of its content, after that, decrement takes place due to

the formation of particles agglomerations after that, the filler exceeds the optimal filler

content value (Marcel et al. 2013).

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A green composite Oil Palm Trunk Lumber is made by reinforcing oil palm shell with

formaldehyde resin. The changes in mechanical properties are observed by keeping it in

natural weathering for the period of 6 to 12 months. This investigation makes the way

for natural composites to be improved in outdoor conditions (Nazrul et al. 2013). Tensile

strength, flexural stress, flexural strain and tangent modulus of the bamboo fiber and

PVC foam sheet composites are increased, while the tensile strain decreases with the

subsequent fiber addition to the PVC sheets (Humayun et al. 2014). Banana and flax

hybrid composites are fabricated with lamination of glass fiber reinforcement polymer

on either side. Mechanical and surface properties have increased due to the lamination.

As well as, hybrid composite has observed to have good strength than individual fiber

composites (Srinivasan et al. 2014). Silicon carbide is added as a filler material for the

natural fiber composite, and it shows an increase in its mechanical properties such as

hardness, tensile strength, interlaminar strength, flexural strength and impact strength

(Madhusudhan & Keerthi 2016). Young’s modulus and ultimate tensile strength have

been increased in the epoxy composite, when it is reinforced with fermented degraded

wheat straw while compare with non-degraded straw (Maria et al. 2016). Fig. 6 shows

the typical scanning electron microscope observed for the alovera and kenaf, SK sisal

and kenaf, ASK alovera, sisal and kenaf composites.

Treatment of the natural fibers shows an improvement in adhesion and reduction of

water absorption by beating and heating in physical treatments and alkalization, silane,

acetylation and benzoylation in chemical treatments, and hence there is an

improvement in the mechanical properties of the natural fiber composites

(Venkatachalam et al. 2016).Mechanical properties such as impact, flexural and

compression strength on the pseudo stem banana woven fabric reinforced unsaturated

polyester composite is found to be good compared to virgin unsaturated polyester

composite (Bushra et al. 2010). Impact strength of natural fiber has been gradually

increased along with its stiffness by including the effect of moisture and weathering on

these properties. This is due to the improvements in selecting, treating, extracting and

processing the fiber to composites, made its applications to a greater extension

(Pickering et al. 2016). Tensile, compressive, flexural and hardness strength are

observed to be varied in human hair fiber reinforced epoxy composite by varying fiber

and resin percentage (Prakash & Christu 2016).

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Fig. 6 SEM micrograph observed for the alovera and kenaf, SK sisal and kenaf, ASK alovera, sisal and kenaf (Source: Shadrach et al. 2017)

4. Tribological Properties of Natural Fiber Reinforced Composites

The wear over the material is simply defined as the loss of mass on a surface of a solid

progressively during relative motion, leads to surface damage or rupture (Bressan et al.

2007). With the drastic improvement in material science, particularly natural fibers,

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which are light in weight and have high mechanical properties, research on tribological

properties is carried out by reducing the weight of various wear components, thereby

reducing weight of machines (Semenov 2007). Natural fibers are utilized in various

applications of wear and friction. The advantage of natural fibers over traditional

reinforcing materials includes low density, low cost, biodegradability and recyclability.

Figure 7 Pin on disc wear tester used for dry sliding wear test

Abrasive wear rate is tested by using a two body abrasion wear tester and the bagasse

fiber reinforced epoxy composite strongly depends upon load and abrasive grit size. With

an increase of load and grit size, the wear rate increases. The orientation of fiber in

composites has a significant influence on the wear rate of composite (Punyapriya &

Acharya 2010).The importance of natural fibre with the advent of sustainable

development is narrated, and the composite material has now become more prominent

in many applications. Many natural fibres in polymeric composites are being introduced

in aviation industry, construction, industrial applications, automotive parts, bearing

and many others, making tribo-testing more demanding (Nirmal et al. 2011). The

typical wear testing machine used is presented in Fig. 7. Natural fibres application is an

important material substitution, which traditionally takes place also in automotive

industry. This paper from the application point of view, deals with the friction

properties, analysis of polypropylene and polyactide, which are filled by selected natural

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fibres of vegetable and animal origin mainly coconut, fleece, flax and cellulose fibres

(Lubos 2012). Abrasive wear behavior of Lantana camara fiber reinforced in epoxy

matrix is experimented. Wear tests are carried out in dry conditions on a pin-on-disc

machine against 400 grit size abrasive paper with the test speed of 0.314 m/s and

normal load 5,10,15,20 and 25 N. The optimum wear reduction is obtained, when the

fiber content is 40wt %. It is observed that, abrasive wear loss increases with an

increase in the normal load (Chittaranjan & Acharya 2010).

Wear studies are carried out on bio-waste coir dust reinforced Polymer composites in

erosive and abrasive mode ,it is found that, coir dust loading influences the erosive and

abrasive wear behaviour of the composite (Aireddy & Mishra 2011). The friction and

wear behaviors of polyimide composites sliding against GCr15 steel rings are evaluated

on an M-2000 model ring-on-block test rig. The results show that, the surface of the

treated carbon fiber becomes rougher and it forms lots of active groups after rare earth

treatment. The friction coefficient and wear rate of polyimide composites with rare earth

treated carbon fiber are lower than the untreated carbon fiber (Zhang et al. 2007).

The effect of the reinforcement of thermosetting polyester with short glass fibers has

been investigated for its tribological behavior. The wear rate of polyester composites is

much lower than that of the unreinforced polyester. The wear rate and the coefficient of

friction are both at a minimum with a fiber-glass proportion of 10 percent weight, and

they both increase, when this proportion is made either lower or higher. With increasing

sliding speeds, the wear rate increases but there is no significant effect on the coefficient

of friction (Bahadur & Zheng 1990). The incorporation of rice husk in to epoxy

significantly reduces the abrasive wear loss. The optimal wear resistance property is

obtained at a fiber content of 10 percent weight fraction. Wear resistance of the rice

husk reinforced epoxy composite is increased, if the surface of the rice husk is treated

suitably (SudhakarMajhi et al. 2012). Many types of nano- filling martials, including

SiC, Si3N4, SiO2, ZrO2, ZnO, CaCO3, Al2O3, TiO2, and nano-CuO, have been used to

different types of polymers such as PEEK; PMMA; PTFE and epoxy. Good tribological

properties are obtained for polymers filled with nano-scale fillers, when it is compared

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with the filled micro-scale particles. The friction and wear resistance of these composites

are found to increase by increasing the filler concentration (Ayman et al. 2012).

Hybrid bamboo/glass fiber reinforced epoxy composites are fabricated by simple hand

lay- up technique. In steady, state erosion rate is concerned with respect to impact

velocity and so all the composites show gradual increase in erosion rate except in 0wt. %

of bamboo/glass fiber reinforced epoxy composites which shows quite reverse in trend at

higher impact velocity. This is due to the neat epoxy, which losses its properties and

then starts melting. It is also clear that, neat epoxy shows maximum erosion rate and

15wt. % of bamboo/glass fiber shows least erosion rate, whereas 30wt. % and 45wt. % of

hybrid composites lie in between the other two composites. Similarly, as far as

impingement angle is concerned, all the hybrid composites show maximum erosion rate

at 60° impingement angle irrespective of fiber loading. So the mode of wear is neither a

ductile erosion mode nor brittle erosion wear mode, it behaves like semi-brittle mode of

erosion wear (Sandhyarani & Prity 2012).

The use of natural fibers increases due to their unique property by increasing the

strength in the composite material. Sudhakar majhi, has developed a polymer matrix

composite (epoxy resin) using modified and unmodified rice husk as reinforcement and

has studied their tribological properties by using pin-on disc machine. The modified RH

composite is found to give better tribological properties than unmodified RH composite

(Sudhakar et al. 2012).Tensile analyses are done for E glass woven roving and chopped

strand mat composites. Finite element results naturally involve in some deviations from

exact solutions due to characteristics of composites. Matrix crack, fiber failures and

increasing stiffness are considered in deformation mechanics of real testing process, and

it is not considered in theoretical approach (Gutu 2012).

Rice straw is treated with alkali and acids to remove impurities and waxy substance and

it gets improvement in the quality of fiber by using statistical analysis and design of

experiments. This has shown an enhancement in the mechanical properties (Irene et al.

2012). The surface behaviors of boiled egg shell and rice husk particulates are studied.

The maximum surface roughness value (Ra) is obtained in coir length of 10 mm, 10 % wt.

of fiber content and 15 % wt. of hybrid particles (rice husk and boiled egg shell each).

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The least surface roughness value (Ra) is obtained in coir length of 30 mm, 10 % wt. of

fiber content and15 % wt of hybrid particles (Karthik et al. 2014).Hand layup technique

is employed for preparing the glass fiber based epoxy hybrid composite samples, by

varying weight fraction of bi-directional glass fiber (40 % wt., 60 % wt. and 80 % wt.).

The ratio of filler is fixed with/without 10 % wt. and it is observed that, wear rate

decreases with an increase in the fiber weight percentage. Mechanical properties of

composites increase with an increase in the fiber loading. The mechanical and wear

behavior of filled composites are more superior than unfilled composites (Sandeep et al.

2013). Percentage of fiber with respect to weight shows difference in tensile and flexural

strength of glass fiber reinforced epoxy composites than unreinforced epoxy. Tensile

strength is increased by 14.5 % and flexural is about to 123.65 %, when 20 % of fiber

weight is added over pure epoxy. Because of high flexural strength, stiffness of the

composite is improved drastically. Maximum stresses are observed for tensile and

flexural at the middle of the specimen, where the fracture is originated, and it is proved

by the results of finite element analysis (Satnam et al. 2013).

Tribological behavior of Short PALF reinforced Bisphenol-A composite is investigated.

The composites reinforced with the fiber length of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 mm are

subjected to wear test. The wear behavior of the composites is performed using pin on

disc machine at varying loads of 5 N, 10 N and 15 N and at constant sliding distance,

velocity and speed. The result shows that, the wear rate increases with an increase in

load for the composite specimen, which has less interfacial bond strength. From this

experimental study, it is observed that, the fiber length greatly influences the wear

properties of reinforced composites (Supreeth et al. 2014).There-body abrasive wear of

the hybrid composites are studied under different filler loading, treatment of the coir

sheath, and abrading distance. The results of the abrasive wear test have revealed that,

the wear volume increases with an increase in the abrading distance and specific wear

rate is high for the untreated composites, when it is compared to alkali treated

composites and silane treated composites (Divya et al. 2014).Fig. 8 shows the typical

three D response graph for wear loss and co. efficient of friction for kenaf fiber

reinforced composites.

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a. d.

b. e.

c. f.

Fig. 8 Typical three D response graph for wear loss and co. efficient of friction for kenaf fiber reinforced composites with respect to two different parameters by keeping the third parameter at

constant middle level

1.44

1.8

2.16

2.52

2.88

9.81 13.08

16.35 19.62

22.89 26.16

29.43

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Wea

r lo

ss f

or k

enaf

com

posi

te m

m3/

m

A: Load (N)B: Sliding speed (m/s)1.44

1.8

2.16

2.52

2.88

9.81 13.08

16.35 19.62

22.89 26.16

29.43

0.3

0.36

0.42

0.48

0.54

0.6

Co.

eff

of

fric

tion

of k

enaf

com

posi

te

A: Load (N)B: Sliding speed (m/s)

ed value

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

9.81 13.08

16.35 19.62

22.89 26.16

29.43

0.1

0.22

0.34

0.46

0.58

0.7

Wea

r lo

ss f

or k

enaf

com

posi

te m

m3/

m

A: Load (N)C: Sliding Distance (m)

ted value

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

9.81 13.08

16.35 19.62

22.89 26.16

29.43

0.3

0.36

0.42

0.48

0.54

0.6

Co.

eff

of

fric

tion

of k

enaf

com

posi

te

A: Load (N)C: Sliding Distance (m)

ed value

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

1.44

1.8

2.16

2.52

2.88

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Wea

r lo

ss f

or k

enaf

com

posi

te m

m3/

m

B: Sliding speed (m/s)C: Sliding Distance (m)1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

1.44

1.8

2.16

2.52

2.88

0.3

0.36

0.42

0.48

0.54

0.6

Co.

eff

of

fric

tion

of k

enaf

com

posi

te

B: Sliding speed (m/s)C: Sliding Distance (m)

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Mechanical properties for the fabricated wool fiber reinforced polypropylene composites

is optimized by using Box-Behnken method with three levels and three variables using

temperature, time, and pressure, as independent variables and tensile, flexural, and

impact strengths as dependent variables. Molding pressure and time are significant for

tensile and flexural strengths, while they are insignificant for impact strength

(Rajkumar et al. 2014). Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene composites with talc

and glass fiber as particulates are fabricated. Pin-on-disc tribometer is used to

determine the wear and friction properties of these hybrid composites with different

operating conditions of applied loads, sliding speeds and sliding distances based on

response surface Box–Behnken design. GF/ZnO/UHMWPE has exhibited better wear

performance, when it is compared to talc/ZnO/ UHMWPE hybrid composites. (Boon et

al. 2014). Groundnut Shell Vinyl Ester Composites are prepared with different process

parameters, namely, particle size, filler loading and alkali treatment of particles From

parametric analysis, it is revealed that tensile strength and tensile modulus increase

with an increase in the filler loading up to 50-wt % and beyond 5 % NaOH treatment of

particles (Raju et al. 2015).

Woven flax/PLA composite mechanical properties are optimized with the application of

RSM using Box Behnken design The ANOVA data shows that, the variables have

affected the impact strength significantly. (Mat Kandar & Akil 2016).Short palmyra

fiber reinforced epoxy composites are tested for dry sliding wear and it is observed that,

the fiber content and the sliding velocity are the most significant, factors that affect the

wear performance of the composites. ANN specific wear rate is predicted beyond the

experimental domain (Somen & Alok 2016). Hence, silicon carbide is used as a filler

material in the hybrid glass and basalt epoxy composite, and its flexural modulus and

flexural strength are found to be increased. Specific wear rate decreases with an

increase in the sliding distance for all the samples. When 6 % Silicon carbide is used as

filler material, it shows better dry sliding wear resistance (Prasanna et al. 2016).

Carbon and coir fibre polyester composite are filled with graphite and coconut shell

powder, and they are used as particulate reinforcements. Wear rate and co efficient

friction are calculated by using Pin on disc tribometer for various speed and loads and

wear resistance is higher for fiber loaded composite (Ibrahem 2016). Natural fiber

reinforced composites have comparable mechanical properties and also have

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improvement in tribological properties. Experimental study reveals that, normal

oriented fibers exhibit better friction and wear behavior than the treated fibers. Normal

orientation of fibers against sliding direction is found to be the best orientation and it is

one of the factors, that affects wear and friction behavior. Fiber and matrix selection

based on volume fraction and applied load vary in friction and wear performance.

Generally, the wear rate increases by increasing the applied load (Emad et al. 2016).Fig.

9 shows the US composite industry revenue based on the fiber used. The figure clearly

indicates the trend of future usage of natural fibers and hence the natural fibers are

playing vital role in the parts manufacturing of the automotive industry.

Fig. 9US composite industry revenue based on the fiber used (Source: Grand View research)

Conclusions

In the present work, the use of natural fiber composite materials in automotive

industries and related trends are discussed and reviewed.

Natural fiber reinforced composite materials posses good strength and triblogical

properties and hence, these composites can be used as a replacing materials for

plastics which is commonly used.

Many composnents related to the automotives are manufactured by means of

natural fibres. World car manufacturers are using natural fibers in their cars

and related vehicles.

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The natural fibers are environmental friendly and are able to replace the

synthetic fibers.

The trends in usage of natural fibers indicate that the natural fiber industries

are growing world wide rapidly.

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Investigative Study of Variation of Static Stability Factor of Small Passenger Cars

Avik Chakraborty, Abhinav Atul, Koustav Basu and Aniket Maiti

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Techno International New Town,

Block ‐ DG 1/1, Action Area 1,New Town, Rajarhat, Kolkata – 700156

Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]

Abstract:

Indian auto industries is booming day by day. India has overtaken Germany to become the fourth

largest automobile market in the world. In current Indian scenario the top selling segment of

vehicles is small passenger cars specifically light motor vehicles (engine capacity of 1000cc or less).

Indian consumers are mainly concerned with budget friendly and fuel efficient cars only. While

considering safety of a vehicle the static stability factor of the vehicle is one of the most vital

factors. So the purpose of this report is to track the static stability factor of various vehicles and to

determine how prone they are to rollover. If the consumer use this information to purchase vehicles

with higher rollover reliability ratings, then manufacturers would presumably produce vehicles to

meet that public demand. So in this report 5cars under 1000cc engine capacity and ex-showroom

price of up to 5lacs have been selected. And their static stability factor at various conditions have

been derived. In this report a comparison of the static stability factors of different cars have been

graphically depicted.

Keywords: Centre of gravity; track width; static stability factor; vehicle rollover.

Introduction

The Indian automotive safety standards have been criticized as being insufficient and

ineffective. India has the world's fourth-largest car market, but is still the only country

among the global top ten car markets without a testing program that measures the

safety of vehicles.

India has seen more road deaths per year than any other nation since 2006, costing lives

at the rate of 230,000 annually. The number of deaths due to road accidents in India is

around three to four times that of European countries like France, Germany and Spain.

Rollover crashes kill more than 10,000 occupants of passenger vehicles each year. It has

been defined that ‘rollover’ as a 1/4 axial rotation, or equivalently at the point where the

mass center reaches its highest position above the ground. The analysis shows that the

SSF is a prominent term in the governing equations of motion.

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One of the primary means of assessing rollover risk is the static stability factor (SSF), a

measurement of a vehicle’s resistance to rollover. The higher the SSF, the lower the

rollover risk. The SSF of a vehicle is an at-rest calculation of its rollover resistance,

based on its most important geometric properties. Basically, SSF is a measure of how

top-heavy a vehicle is.

For this project it has been decided to evaluate the location of centre of gravity and its

relation with roll over propensity of a vehicle considering its track width so 5 different

vehicles have been selected that are most commonly used by middle class population of

the country. All the 5 different vehicles have ex-showroom price of less than 5 lacs. The

data related to the vehicles physical structure have been acquired from credible online

sources. Most of the data were collected by conducting physical measurement on real

models of the car. For this measurement process measuring tape and steel rule were

used. Most of the data related to track width and wheel base were acquired by

conducting such physical measurements. After collecting all the data, we have put them

in an organized manner by using MS excel.

After that the location of Centre of gravityof all the cars were calculated by using tilting

method (explained in further report). The changes in Location of Centre of gravity at

different conditions were also calculated. Stating ‘different conditions’ means changing

the number of passengers and changing the location inside the vehicles.

After all the locations of the Centre of gravity have been calculated. Their respective

static stability factor related to location of Centre of gravity and the track width were

calculated.

After all this data were calculated, collected and organized in a proper way then all the

data were graphically represented for understanding the variation of static stability

factor of a car in different situations.

Static Measure of Roll Over Propensity

Vehicle roll over is a complex event that has been a subject of investigation since 1950s.

The term “roll over” is described to condition of at least 90 degree rotation of the vehicle

about its longitudinal axis. When lateral forces create a large enough moment about the

vehicles Centre of gravity for a sufficient amount of time the vehicle will roll over. A

wide variety of testing has been performed to understand the event of roll over properly.

The testing generally falls into one of the two major categories:

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W= M*g

{Where g is acceleration due to gravity}

So, equation (1) becomes,

M*a*h > M*g*t/2

a*h > g*t/2

a/g> t/2h (2)

This relationship is a scientifically valid statement of the physics of the motion of this

vehicle model and cornerstone of the utility of the static stability factor.

In some real life scenario (not involving a smooth road surface) the large lateral force

resulting in rollover can be generated by interactions between the tires and a curb, a

pothole, a roadside slope, a furrow ploughed during an off road manoeuvre, or some

other tripping mechanisms.

Table I

CAR Alto 800 ALTO K10 WAGON R KWID

800CC

KWID

999CC

Height 1475 1475 1700 1513 1513

Wheel Base 2360 2360 2400 2422 2422

Length 3430 3545 3599 3697 3697

Track Front 1295 1295 1295 1420 1420

Track Rear 1290 1290 1290 1400 1400

Kerb Weight 695 740 870 669 699

Type of Drive front front front front front

Kerb Weight in Newton 6817.95 7259.4 8534.7 6562.89 6857.19

Weight With Driver 7455.6 7897.05 9172.35 7200.54 7494.84

Tyre Size 145/80R12 155/65R13 145/80R13 155/80R13 155/80R13

Distribution of mass or weight in front side &

rear side

65-35 65-35 65-35 65-35 65-35

SSF of vehicle without passenger 1.3741 1.4157 1.4321 1.4711 1.4836

SSF of vehicle with driver 1.3352 1.3798 1.4052 1.4357 1.4496

SSF of vehicle with driver + 1 passenger 1.3045 1.3451 1.3648 1.3963 1.4056

SSF of vehicle with driver + 2 passengers 1.3169 1.3628 1.3957 1.4212 1.4243



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Fig. 1 Variation of SSF of Alto K10 Fig. 2 Variation of SSF of Alto 800

Fig. 3 Variation of SSF of WagonR Fig. 4 Variation of SSF of Kwid 800

1.3741

1.3352

1.3045

1.3169

1.3369

1.3657

1.26

1.28

1.3

1.32

1.34

1.36

1.38SSF of vehichle

without passenger

SSF of vehichle with

driver


driver +1

passenger


driver +2

passenger


driver +3

passenger


driver +4

passenger

SSF

Alto 800

1.4157

1.3798

1.3451

1.3628

1.3788

1.4015

1.3

1.32

1.34

1.36

1.38

1.4

1.42

1.44

SSF of vehichle

without …

SSF of vehichle

with driver

SSF of vehichle

with driver +1

…

SSF of vehichle

with driver +2

…

SSF of vehichle

with driver +3

…

SSF of vehichle

with driver +4

…

SSF

ALTO k10

1.4321

1.4052

1.3648

1.39571.4011

1.4147

1.32

1.34

1.36

1.38

1.4

1.42

1.44

SSF of vehichle

without passenger


driver


driver +1

passenger


driver +2

passenger


driver +3

passenger


driver +4

passenger

SSF

WAGON R

1.4711

1.4357

1.3963

1.4212

1.42941.4421

1.34

1.36

1.38

1.4

1.42

1.44

1.46

1.48

SSF of vehichle

without …

SSF of vehichle

with driver

SSF of vehichle

with driver +1

…

SSF of vehichle

with driver +2

…

SSF of vehichle

with driver +3

…

SSF of vehichle

with driver +4

…

SSF

KWID 800

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Fig. 5 Variation of SSF of Kwid 999 Fig. 6 SSF of various cars in their kerb weight condition.

The following graphs(Figure1 to Figure5) shows the relationship of static stability

factor of various cars in accordance with the number passenger in vehicle such as, in

curb weight of car, with driver, with driver and one passenger, with driver and two

passenger, with driver and three passenger, with driver and four passenger.

The graphs show that SSF of vehicle is maximum in case of curb weight and it

decreases with number of passenger in front seats. That is as the reaction force on the

front wheel increases the car becomes statically more unstable. Again it starts

increasing with the number of passenger in rear seats. . That is the reaction force on the

rear wheel increases the difference between the reaction force on front wheel and the

rear wheel decreases and the static stability factor increases.

The following graph( Figure6: SSF of various cars in their kerb weight condition)gives a

comparative analysis of static stability factor of various cars. We can see that SSF is

lower in case of Alto 800. For Alto K10 and WAGON R the value of SSF are nearly same.

1.4836

1.4496

1.4056

1.4243

1.4387

1.4577

1.36

1.38

1.4

1.42

1.44

1.46

1.48

1.5

SSF of vehichle

without …

SSF of vehichle

with driver

SSF of vehichle

with driver +1

…

SSF of vehichle

with driver +2

…

SSF of vehichle

with driver +3

…

SSF of vehichle

with driver +4

…

SSF

KWID 999

1.3741

1.4157

1.4321

1.47111.4836

1.3

1.32

1.34

1.36

1.38

1.4

1.42

1.44

1.46

1.48

1.5

Alto

800

ALTO

K10

WAGO

N R

KWID

800CC

KWID

999CC

SSF

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Again for KWID 800 and KWID 999 the value of SSF are highest and nearly same. The

SSF of any vehicle under 1000cc should be ranging between 1.3 to 1.5.

Through a rigid-body model, SSF relates a vehicle’s track width, T, and center of gravity

height, H, to a clearly defined level of the sustained lateral acceleration that will result

in the vehicle’s rolling over. The rigid-body model is based on the laws of physics and

captures important vehicle characteristics related to rollover.

Conclusion:

The experimental study of the Static Stability Factor is an excellent concept. This

concept is easy to understand and it produces data which permits a straight forward

analysis of the data. In addition, a simple analysis can be performed to define the

mean and standard deviation about a point and provide an understanding of the

nature of the trend (when done on a large sample set).

The SSF of a vehicle is maximum in case of kerb weight and it decreases with

number of passenger in front seats. That is as the reaction force on the front wheel

increases the car becomes statically more unstable.

Again it starts to increase as the number of passenger in rear seats increases. That

is the reaction force on the rear wheel increases the difference between the reaction

force on front wheel and the rear wheel decreases and the static stability factor

increases.

By comparatively analyzing the results of the experiment conducted on this very

small sample set of vehicles it can be stated that Renault Kwid 1000 has the

highest value of Static Stability Factor under kerb weight. So it is very clear that it

is the most stable car among the sample set of five shortlisted vehicles.

In this report the variation of static stability factor in different conditions have been

evaluated on a small sample set of just five small passenger vehicles.

This project model can be applied to a larger sample set that is each and every vehicle

present in the market. By doing so the variation in the value of the static stability factor

of each and every vehicle in different conditions can be compared.

And by considering proper standardization, a star rating can be assigned to each car

based on its propensity to rollover. Which in due course will help the customers to

choose the best (safest) option available.

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References

1. Fundamentals of vehicle dynamics by Thomas D. Gillespie.

2. Automobile Engineering by Er. A.K. Babu and Er. Ajit Pal Singh.

3. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET). [ www.irjet.net]

4. Wong, J. (1978)." Theory of ground vehicles. 1st Ed. New York: Wiley.

5. Automobile Mechanics by N.K. Giri.

6. Trends in the Static Stability Factor of Passenger Cars, Light Trucks, and Vans (DOT HS

809 868 NHTSA Technical Report).

7. Physics of Automobile Rollovers by L. David Roper (http://arts.bev.net/roperldavid),

[email protected]

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Formulation of Lithium Based Bio‐Grease from Coconut Oil Added With Cerium Oxide and Molybdenum Disulphide Nanoparticles

for Automotive Applications

Chacko Preno Koshy1, Ajumal Shamsudeen1, Abhiram Anil Kumar1, Harikrishnan Bhageeradhan1,

Aslam Shadh1, Reuben Thomas1 and M D Mathew1 1Advanced Measurement Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Saintgits College of Engineering, Pathamuttom P.O., Kottayam ‐ 686532, Kerala, India

E‐Mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

This paper presents the preparation of nano-grease with the combination of ceria (CeO2) and

molybdenum disulphide (MoS2) nanoparticles. The ceria nanoparticles are found to be a potential

semi-lubricant additive due to its higher oxygen storage capacity (OSC). The molybdenum

nanoparticles are quite flexible. It has low shear strength and layered structure. CeO2

nanoparticles are synthesized by chemical precipitation and MoS2 nanoparticles are synthesised

using solvo-thermal process. The characterization techniques, namely, Scanning Electron

Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) are carried out. Coconut oil is used

as the base-stock and lithium hydroxide (LiOH) is used as the thickener. A uniform colloidal

dispersion of coconut oil added with optimized concentration of CeO2 and MoS2 nanoparticles is

prepared using an ultra-sonicator. Further, the fatty acids in coconut oil are treated with LiOH

salt in definite proportion resulted in formation of the desired Nano-Lithium Grease (NLG).

Tribological properties such as coefficient of friction (COF) and wear scar diameter (WSD) of the

formulated nano-greases are evaluated using a four-ball tester in accordance with ASTM

standards. Moreover, the cone penetration test and the rheological properties are also estimated.

The results from the current experimental study envisaged the credibility of bio-based nano-

greases for future prospect

Keywords: Chemical precipitation; Solvothermal process; cone penetration test.

Introduction

Friction is inevitable in every mechanical system. It cannot be eliminated, but can only

be reduced. The effective method to reduce friction is lubrication. Lubrication can be

effectively done by using lubricating oil or greases. There are mainly three components

present in a grease system; base oil, thickener and additives. Here we selected base oil

as coconut oil and thickener as lithium hydroxide and additive as cerium oxide

nanoparticle [1-2]. To create a sustainable and eco-friendly environment, bio-greases can

meet the challenges with suitable modifications. The recent research around the globe

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concentrates on nanoparticles and their applications to many areas including

lubrication. Studied about tribofilms formed from nanoparticles in the nano-lubricant

under boundary/thin film lubrication conditions were done [3-4]. The tribological

performance is linked to the tribofilms properties and consequently to the lubricating

conditions. The addition of nanoparticles into the greases is found to significantly reduce

the friction coefficient and increase the load-bearing capacity of the sliding parts in

mechanical systems [5-7]

A. Experimental methodology

1) Synthesis of CeO2 nanoparticles: CeO2 nanoparticles can be synthesized from

homogeneous precipitation of alcohol/water mixed solvents. It is found that the CeO2

nanoparticles obtained from alcohol/water mixed solvent were primary particles

confirmed by quite good consistency in the particle sizes [8]. The various precursors used

in the synthesis of CeO2 nanoparticle are, Cerium nitrate hexahydrate, Iso propanol and

Distilled water. The reagent used is ammonia solution. Firstly the precursors are mixed

in a definite ratio. Then the solution is mixed thoroughly using a magnetic stirrer at 60

°C which makes the solution transparent. Then aqueous ammonia solution (ammonium

hydroxide) is added to the solution in order to maintain the pH level above 10, so that

the solution will be always acidic. When the value of the pH don’t alters with time and

the colour of the solution changes i.e. the colour turns deep red and then to pale yellow

precipitate, then the solution completely turns basic. After a certain period of time the

precipitate formed is taken out and filtered using filter paper. The slurry of the

precipitate formed after filtering is collected in a crucible. Then it is subjected to

calcinations at 600 °C for 5 hours. Then particle thus formed is crushed in to fine

powders and again it is subjected to calcinations at 600 °C.

2) Synthesis of MoS2 nanoparticles: 1.6 g of AHM tetra hydrate and 0.92 g of citric acid

were dissolved in distilled water under magnetic stirring and kept at 120° C on a hot

plate for 30 min. The white suspension was continuously stirred with a final pH of 4.

Then, 3.34 mL of Ammonium polysulfide in water was added drop-wise to the solution.

Finally, the solution was transferred to a Teflon-lined stainless-steel autoclave. The

autoclave was maintained at 180 °C for 12 h, and left to cool down to 25 °C. Finally, the

black precipitates were collected through centrifugation. Then filtered and washed four

times with distilled water and acetone. The final precipitates were dried under vacuum

at 120 0C for 6 h.

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3) Formulation of nano-grease: The basic component of any lubricant is base oil. The

base oil used is coconut oil and the additive used is cerium oxide nanoparticle and

molybdenum disulphide nanoparticles. The required amount of base-oil (500mL) is

mixed with the nanoparticle additives in proper proportion and mixed thoroughly using

a magnetic stirrer/ ultra-sonicator for a period of 1hr to get the required nano-lubricant.

Then the required amount of LiOH is added to the nanolubricant. After stirring it for a

while the solution gets hard to obtain the required grease. The formulated nano-grease

is then stored in air tight glass containers.

B. Results and Discussions

In this work, the various types of advanced laboratory devices including SEM, EDS and

DLS analysis techniques are used to characterize the nanoparticles.

1.Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

In SEM a monochromatic electron beam is passed over the surface of the specimen

which creates different changes in the sample. The final particles from the sample are

used to create an image of the specimen. The information is derived from the surface of

the sample can be recorded. The novel feature of SEM is its large depth of field. Typical

SEM (Hitachi, JAPAN, SU6600) is used to analyze the topography and morphology of

the specimen 2D images are available.The SEM image of the CeO2 and MoS2

nanoparticles produced by the solvothermal method is shown in Figure 1

Fig. 1 SEM images of synthesized (a) CeO2& (b) MoS2 nanoparticles

(a)

(b)

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From the SEM analysis we inferred that the produced cerium oxide particle size are in

the nanometer scale. And most of the CeO2 and MoS2 nanoparticles size lies between 20-

30 nm and30-40 nm range. From the SEM analysis we concluded that the produced

CeO2 and MoS2 nanoparticles are suitable for further experimental procedures.

2. Energy dispersive spectrum

EDS analysis was done on the synthesized cerium oxide and molybdenum disulphide

nanoparticle. The EDS spectrum of the synthesized cerium oxide and molybdenum

disulphide nanoparticle is shown in Fig. 2. The formation of CeO2 and MoS2 confirmed

from the spectra which shows the peaks for cerium and oxygen atoms.

Fig.2 EDS spectrum obtained from synthesized (a) CeO2& (b) MoS2 nanoparticles

3.Analysis of Coefficient of frictionon nano-grease

The tribological studies to determine the frictional and wear properties of the prepared

nano-greases were performed using a four ball tester. The test method is used to

determine the relative wear preventive properties and load bearing capacity of grease in

sliding contact under the prescribed test conditions. Coefficient of friction and wear scar

diameter is determined by this method. Eight different sample of grease are selected for

tests, Grease without and with nanoparticles. Also there is a composition variation in

the selected grease. Fig. 3 shows the difference in the coefficient of friction obtained by

using different sample.

Fig.3 Coefficient of friction

(a) (b)

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Initially coconut oil with 7.5% lithium hydroxide is selected as the sample. Additive is

not added in this sample. From the result shows that, coefficient of friction is high

nearly up to 0.95%. This is because when additive is not added anti wear property of the

grease is not increased. Grease is act only as semi-solid substances between the meshing

components. Second sample consist of coconut oil and 10% lithium hydroxide. In this

sample also additive is not added. But weight percentage of lithium hydroxide is varied.

Amount of LiOH is increased by 2.5%. From the plot it is clear that coefficient of friction

is decreased by more than 10%. This due to that when more amount of thickener is

added film formation around the meshing surface is stable for more time. But when

amount of thickener is less then semi solid grease at initial stage is rapidly converted

into liquid phase this will increase the friction and the use of grease is ineffective. Third

sample consist of coconut oil and 15% of thickener. From the plot it shows that the

coefficient of friction of this sample is greater than that of second one. This is because of

that when the amount of thickener is increased then it is difficult to convert the

thickener in solid phase into a film formation around the meshing surface. Grease does

not reach the entire surface when the amount of thickener is increased. And also high

temperature is required to convert the solid phase grease into film formation of grease

around the meshing surface. In fourth sample, 0.5% cerium oxide were added along with

coconut oil and lithium hydroxide. So the new grease possesses additional properties

because of the presence of nanoparticle. When nanoparticle is added anti wear and

thermal properties of grease will increase. Part of the grease flows next to the running

tracks, where it will stay due to its consistency and part of the grease finds it way inside

the bearing, such as under the cage bars or in the cage pocket. It is clear that, while

adding 0.5% CeO2 nanoparticles the coefficient of friction was 0.63.In fifth sample we

added cerium oxide along with coconut oil and lithium hydroxide. Here 1% of cerium

oxide was added. When adding 1% CeO2 nanoparticles the coefficient of friction is 0.67.

In sixth sample, molybdenum disulphide is added along with coconut oil and lithium

hydroxide. Here also the grease possesses additional properties because of the presence

of nanoparticles. It is clear that while adding 0.5% MoS2 nanoparticles the coefficient of

friction was reduced 0.58. In seventh sample is added with 1% molybdenum disulphide

along with coconut oil and lithium hydroxide. While adding 1% MoS2 nanoparticles the

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coefficient of friction was reduced 0.42. In eighth sample molybdenum disulphide and

cerium oxide were added along with coconut oil and lithium hydroxide. Here also the

grease possess additional properties because of the presence of nanoparticles. It is

clearly is visible that while adding 1% MoS2 and 0.5% CeO2 nanoparticles, the coefficient

of friction was reduced 0.38.

4. Analysis of Wear scar diameteron nano-grease

Table 1 shows the value of wear scar diameter obtained while using different

composition of grease. From the obtained wear scar images and the wear scar diameter

values it can be observed that the nano-greases possess a greater lead over the greases

without nanoparticles. The friction and wear properties were found to be better due to

the presence of CeO2 nanoparticles. Wear scar diameter were found to be better for

nano-grease with 0.5% CeO2 and 1% MoS2 particles. When the amount of nanoparticles

increases the wear scar diameter also varies which implies that the percentage of

nanoparticles is also an important factor. As the amount of particles increases

agglomeration of particles occurs and particles are no longer in nano scale and it does

not shows the properties of nanoparticles.

TABLE 1 Wear scar diameters of nano-grease

Grease Composition (%) Wear scar diameter (mm)

Coconut oil + 7.5% LiOH (without nanoparticles) 0.82

Coconut oil + 10% LiOH (without nanoparticles) 0.71

Coconut oil + 15% LiOH (without nanoparticles) 0.85

Coconut oil + 10% LiOH + 0.5% CeO2 nanoparticles 0.63

Coconut oil + 10% LiOH + 1% CeO2 nanoparticles 0.67

Coconut oil + 10% LiOH + 0.5% MoS2 nanoparticles 0.58

Coconut oil + 10% LiOH + 1% MoS2 nanoparticles 0.42

Coconut oil + 10% LiOH + 0.5% CeO2 + 1% MoS2

nanoparticles

0.38

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Fig.4 SEM images of wear scar diameter of nano grease (Coconut oil + 10% LiOH + 0.5% CeO2 + 1% MoS2 nanoparticles)

Wear scar diameter were found to be better for nano-grease with 0.5% CeO2 and 1%

MoS2 particles. When the amount of nanoparticles increases the wear scar diameter also

increases as shown in Fig. 4 which implies that the percentage of nanoparticles is also

an important factor. As the amount of particles increases agglomeration of particles

occurs and particles are no longer in nano scale and it does not shows the properties of

nanoparticles.

Conclusions

The following conclusions are derived from the experimental study.

Nanoparticles with uniform size distribution is prepared by the chemical process like precipitation method and solvo-thermal process

From characterization of nanoparticles using SEM and EDS the below detailed results are obtained:

(a) The sizes of nanoparticles are less than 100 nm.

(b) The particles possess spherical and sheet layered morphology.

(c) The presence of Cerium, Oxygen, Molybdenum and Sulphur in the composition is confirmed using EDS analysis.

The four ball tester results confirmed that efficiency of nanogrease is comparable with mineral oil based greases.

Coconut oil and lithium hydroxide with 0.5% CeO2 and 1% MoS2 nanoparticles give wear scar diameter value of 0.38 which is remarkable among all.

Coefficient of friction in case of nanogreases was also comparatively less.

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The reduction in wear and friction can be due to the application of both sliding and rolling motion by the presence of spherical ceria and layered molybdenum nanoparticles.

Acknowledgment

We would like to convey our heartfelt gratitude to Centre for Engineering Research and

Development (CERD), Trivandrum for providing the financial assistance for this

initiative.

References

1. Jayadas, N. H., & Nair, K. P. (2006). Coconut oil as base oil for industrial lubricants-

evaluation and modification of thermal, oxidative and low temperature properties. Tribology

international, 39(9), 873-878.

2. Jayadas, N. H., Nair, K. P., &Ajithkumar, G. (2007). Tribological evaluation of coconut oil as

an environment-friendly lubricant. Tribology International, 40(2), 350354.

3. Koshy, C. P., Rajendrakumar, P. K., &Thottackkad, M. V. (2014). Experimental Evaluation of

the Tribological Properties of CuONanoLubricants at Elevated Temperatures. In Proceedings

of International Conference on Advances in Tribology and Engineering Systems (pp. 391-402).

Springer India.

4. Koshy, C. P., Rajendrakumar, P. K., &Thottackkad, M. V. (2015). Analysis of Tribological and

Thermo-Physical Properties of SurfactantModified Vegetable Oil-Based CuO Nano-

Lubricants at Elevated Temperatures-An Experimental Study. Tribology Online, 10(5), 344-

353.

5. Koshy, C. P., Rajendrakumar, P. K., &Thottackkad, M. V. (2015). Evaluation of the

tribological and thermo-physical properties of coconut oil added with MoS2 nanoparticles at

elevated temperatures. Wear, 330, 288-308.

6. GuangpingZh, Jianlin S, Bing W, Yizhu W (2011) Study on tribological properties of the

rolling fluid containing nano-MoS2 for cold rolling of steel strip. China Petro Proc Petrochem

Technol 13(1):64–69

7. Prabhakar S V, Vattikuti, Chan Byon, Venkata Reddy, B. Venkatesh, Jaesool Shim -

Synthesis and structural characterization of MoS2 nanospheres and nanosheets using

solvothermal method J Mater Sci (2015) 50:5024–5038

8. Chen, H. I., & Chang, H. Y. (2004). Homogeneous precipitation of cerium dioxide

nanoparticles in alcohol/water mixed solvents. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physiochemical and

Engineering Aspects, 242(1),61-69.

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Experimental Evaluation of Thermo‐Physical and Tribological Properties of Coconut Oil Added with Tungsten Disulfide Nanoparticles

for Lubricant Applications

Chacko Preno Koshy1, Oswin Lazar1 and M D Mathew1 1Advanced Measurement Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Saintgits College of Engineering

Kottukulam Hills, Pathamuttom P.O., Kottayam‐686532, Kerala.

[email protected],[email protected]

Abstract

The present work aims to synthesize and characterize tungsten disulfide (WS2) nanoparticles for

lubricant applications. WS2 nanoparticles are synthesized by reverse micelle technique. The

synthesized WS2 nanoparticles are characterized by Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy

(FESEM), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS), Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) technique and

X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis. Nanoparticles are added separately to coconut oil and

ultrasonic agitation is carried out to formulate the required nano-lubricant at different

concentrations of nanoparticles. The tribological properties, viz., coefficient of friction (COF) and

specific wear rate (SWR) of the formulated lubricants have been experimentally studied for a

temperature range of 30 - 120 °C, for various concentrations of nanoparticles. Based on the

experimental data from pin-on-disk tribometer, a Response Surface Model (RSM) is formulated

using Box Behnken Design (BBD). ANOVA and regression analyses are performed to check the

adequacy of the model and the simulation results are used to optimize the concentration of

nanoparticles for the best tribological properties. Enhancements of thermo-physical properties

such as kinematic viscosity, flash and fire-point of the base-oil and nano-lubricants at various

temperatures have been evaluated for different nanoparticle concentrations.

Keywords: Nanoparticles; Nano-lubricants; Micelle; Microscopy; Tribological

1. Introduction

Nanotechnology is thought to be the foremost revolutionary technology of the twenty-

first century. It will be employed in several fields and ushers material science into a

brand new era. There have been several investigations on the tribological properties of

the lubricants added with different nanoparticles [1-8]. A large variety of papers have

reported the addition of nanoparticles to lubricants is effective in reducing wear and

friction. Nanoparticles including WS2 and MoS2 used as additives in lubricating oils

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exhibits good friction reduction and anti-wear behaviour. The physical and chemical

properties of nanoparticles determine the behaviour of lubricants to a large extent [9-

11]. Particular attention has been given on metal dichalcogenides nanomaterials such as

MoS2 and WS2 due to their layered structure. This layered structure provides lamellar

lubrication between contacting surfaces resulting in reduction of friction and wear [12-

13].The literature has proved that the concentration of nanoparticle has a major role

when compared to other significant factors affecting lubrication by nano-lubricants

[14,15]. The efficiency of nanoparticles to be a potential candidate in the formulation of

nano-lubricants, from the literature were identified to be the following: (i) the small

particle size which helps them to stay dispersed in the base medium by brownian motion

and pass through the filters, (ii) less interaction with the other additives (iii) ability to

form films on different types of surfaces [16] (iv) the ability to adapt different

mechanisms of motion and activity to reduce wear and friction [17] (v) high thermal

stability [18,19].

There are many physical processes such as high energy ball milling [20], flame spray

pyrolysis [21], inert gas condensation [22] etc. and chemical processes namely

precipitation method [23,24], solvothermal synthesis [25], electrochemical synthesis [26]

etc. for the preparation of nanoparticles of which the latter holds preference for its

better control on the particle size and ease of procedure.. In this work, tungsten disulfide

nanoparticles are prepared by reverse micelle method [27]. The synthesized

nanoparticles are then subjected to various advanced characterization techniques to

determine its shape, size, and chemical composition.

A theoretical prediction based on experimental observations is the essence of useful

research. Proper use of statistical methods greatly improves the efficiency of the

experiments and helps to draw meaningful conclusions from the experimental data.

There are two basic aspects of concern in scientific experimentation: the design of

experiment and the statistical analysis of the data. The RSM technique finds application

in problems where the output is affected by a number of input variables. RSM can be

employed as two distinguished designs namely Central Composite Design (CCD) and

Box Behnken Design (BBD). The former is known for its complexity and adequacy while

the latter for its simplicity and ease of analysis [28-31].

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2. Experimental methodology

2.1 Synthesis of nanoparticles

Reverse micelle method is employed in the present work for the synthesis of WS2

nanoparticles. In this method, anionic surfactant AOT (bis (2-ethylhexyl)

sulfosuccinate), ammonium tetra thiotungstate ((NH4)2WS4), sulfuric acid, n-hexane and

de-ionized water are used as the starting materials. All the chemicals are purchased

from M/s Sigma-Aldrich, USA and are used without further purification. In order to

obtain the optimum conditions for the synthesis of WS2 nanoparticles, a series of trials

are conducted by changing the molar ratio of water-to surfactant, the weight of the

precursors and aging time of the reaction. The synthesis methodology is done with an

optimized 0.5 M sulfuric acid aqueous solution and the AOT concentration is kept

constant to 0.1 M with respect to the total microemulsion volume. The procedure for the

synthesis of WS2 nanoparticles is carried out in two steps. At ambient temperature and

pressure during the first step of synthesis, reverse microemulsions are prepared by

dissolving 8.9 g of AOT in n-hexane (200 ml) and adding precisely 0.34 ml 0.5 M sulfuric

acid aqueous solution to this mixture in order to have the desired water-to-surfactant

molar ratio. The sample is sealed in containers and is vigorously shaken using an

ultrasonicator for 2 h to reach the thermodynamic equilibrium. In the second step of

process to synthesize WS2 nanoparticles, 200 ml of the 0.1 M AOT/n-hexane/sulfuric acid

microemulsion is added with 6.9 ml of a 0.005 M (NH4)2WS4 aqueous solution. This

process is carried out while stirring and the solution gives a yellowish optically clear

color. The solution is vigorously stirred using the magnetic stirrer for 24 h and the

yellowish color completely disappears progressively during the aging time as the

tungsten disulfide nanoparticles form. During the process of aging time, the production

of H2S gas is observed which clearly shows the physical evidence for the production of

WS2 nanoparticles. The advantage of synthesis of WS2 nanoparticles by microemulsion

technique is that it does not require extreme conditions of pressure and temperature

leading to lower cost in contrast to the quartz reactor method. Prepared WS2

nanoparticles are stored in air tight glass containers, separately for further

characterization and formulation of nano-lubricants.

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Fig.1 Synthesized WS2 nanoparticles

2.2 Formulation of nano-lubricant

500mL of coconut oil is used for making the nano-lubricant. Specific gravity of coconut

oil is measured on weight to volume basis using pycnometer and a precision balance.

Weighted WS2 nanoparticles are added to the coconut oil. The coconut oil with WS2

nanoparticles is agitated using ultra-sonicator for 30 minutes. The formulated nano-

lubricants are then stored in air tight glass containers. Fig. 2 shows the photographs of

prepared coconut oil nano-lubricants at atypical concentration of 0.5% WS2

nanoparticles along with pure coconut oil.

Fig. 2 Photographs of (a) Pure coconut oil (b) coconut oil with 0.5 wt.% WS2 nanoparticles before ultra-sonification (c) coconut oil with 0.5 wt.% WS2 nanoparticles after ultrasonification

2.3 Tribological studies

Tribological studies of the nano-lubricant has been conducted using pin-on-disc (P-O-D)

tribometer in accordance with ASTM G99-05 standards. An aluminium alloy (Al-86%, Si

12% and other elements-2%) and steel (EN-31, 60 HRC) were chosen as the pin and disk

materials respectively of the pin-on-disk tribometer. Diameter and length of the pin are

8 mm and 27 mm, respectively. Similarly, the diameter and the thickness of the steel

disk were chosen to be 90 mm and 5 mm respectively. The sliding distance is taken as

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1000 m

acetone

sliding

advanc

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3. Resu

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The par

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TABLE I Experimental Design and Results (Un-coded Factors)

Run Order

A - Load (N)

B - Speed (rpm)

C - Temp. (˚C)

D - Conc. (%)

COF WEAR RATE (mm3/Nm)

1 150 100 30 0.5 0.048 4.87E-06

2 200 100 75 0.5 0.053 4.72E-06

3 200 200 120 0.5 0.059 4.71E-06

4 200 200 30 0.5 0.048 4.74E-06

5 150 200 120 1 0.073 4.55E-06

6 150 300 120 0.5 0.063 4.89E-06

7 150 200 30 1 0.073 4.55E-06

8 100 300 75 0.5 0.057 4.53E-06

9 150 300 75 1 0.073 4.54E-06

10 200 300 75 0.5 0.071 4.71E-06

11 150 100 75 0 0.11 6.04E-06

12 200 200 75 0 0.11 5.87E-06

13 100 200 120 0.5 0.057 4.53E-06

14 150 200 75 0.5 0.063 4.89E-06

15 150 300 30 0.5 0.063 4.88E-06

16 150 200 75 0.5 0.063 4.89E-06

17 150 200 30 0 0.11 6.02E-06

18 150 100 75 1 0.073 4.54E-06

19 100 200 30 0.5 0.057 4.53E-06

20 100 200 75 1 0.066 4.18E-06

21 100 100 75 0.5 0.057 4.52E-06

22 150 300 75 0 0.11 6.04E-06

23 150 200 120 0 0.11 6.03E-06

24 150 200 75 0.5 0.063 4.89E-06

25 150 100 120 0.5 0.063 4.87E-06

26 100 200 75 0 0.11 5.68E-06

27 150 200 75 0.5 0.063 4.89E-06

28 200 200 75 1 0.079 4.38E-06

29 150 200 75 0.5 0.063 4.87E-06

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3.3 Analysis of COF and SWR

The ANOVA table showing the significant factors corresponding to COF of the lubricant

is as shown in Table II, where A, B, C, D corresponds to load, speed, temperature and

concentration of nanoparticles respectively. The model F-values for COF is 109.01,

implying that model is significant.

TABLE II ANOVA table for COF of the nano-lubricant

Source Sum of squares Df Mean square F-Value p-value

Model 0.0118 10 0.0012 109.01 < 0.0001

A 0.0000 1 0.0000 1.97 0.1770

B 0.0001 1 0.0001 8.40 0.0096

C 0.0001 1 0.0001 5.21 0.0348

D 0.0041 1 0.0041 383.62 < 0.0001

AB 0.0001 1 0.0001 7.50 0.0135

AD 0.0000 1 0.0000 3.91 0.0635

BC 0.0001 1 0.0001 5.21 0.0349

A² 0.0001 1 0.0001 5.62 0.0292

C² 0.0001 1 0.0001 5.62 0.0292

D² 0.0065 1 0.0065 603.17 < 0.0001

Residual 0.0002 18 0.0000 - -

Lack of Fit 0.0002 14 0.0000 - -

Pure Error 0.0000 4 0.0000 - -

Cor Total 0.0120 28 - - -

Further, p-value, < 0.0001 implies that model terms are significant with negligible

influence of noise for nano-lubricants. On careful examination of the F and p-values for

each input parameter, it is seen that factor D (concentration) has the most significant

effect on COF for coconut-oil based nano-lubricants. Further, the regression analysis

data for COF of the nano-lubricant is as shown in Table III. The Predicted R² of 0.9541

is in reasonable agreement with the Adjusted R² of 0.9747.

TABLE III Regression analysis table for COF of nano-lubricant

R - Squared 0.9838

Adjusted R - Squared 0.9747

Predicted R - Squared 0.9541

Adequate Precision 31.6787

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Similarly, the ANOVA table showing the significant factors corresponding to SWR of the

lubricant is as listed in Table IV. The model F-values for SWR is 27395.1, implying that

model is significant. Further, p-value, < 0.0001 implies that model terms are significant

with negligible influence of noise for nano-lubricants. On careful examination of the F

and p-values for each input parameter, it is seen that factor A (load) and factor D

(concentration) have the most significant effect on COF for coconut-oil based nano-

lubricants.

TABLE IV ANOVA table for SWR of nano-lubricant

Source Sum of squares Df Mean square F Value p-value

Model 8.606E-12 4 2.151E-12 27395.10 < 0.0001

A 1.121E-13 1 1.121E-13 1427.81 < 0.0001

D 6.660E-12 1 6.660E-12 84806.39 < 0.0001

A² 4.649E-13 1 4.649E-13 5920.17 < 0.0001

D² 1.135E-12 1 1.135E-12 14447.46 < 0.0001

Residual 1.885E-15 24 7.854E-17 - -

Lack of Fit 1.565E-15 20 7.824E-17 0.9780 0.5803

Pure Error 3.200E-16 4 8.000E-17 - -

Cor Total 8.608E-12 28 - - -

Further, the regression analysis data for SWR of the nano-lubricant is as shown in

Table V. The R-Squared and Adjusted R-Square values corresponding to the

experimental data was found to be convincing for the generated model to be valid.

Adequate precision is found to be 501.7218.

TABLE V Regression analysis table for SWR of nano-lubriicant

R - Squared 0.9998

Adjusted R - Squared 0.9997

Predicted R - Squared 0.9997

Adequate Precision 501.7218

Fig. 8 shows the normal probability plots of COF and SWR for coconut oil nano-

lubricants. The normal probability plot is the result of testing of the normality of the

experimental results and it shows the predicted versus actual values for the design

matrix. For any ANOVA analysis, normal probability plot should be checked for the

range of residuals which should lie close to the mean line. From Fig. 8 it is evident that

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the values of residuals are very small and the data closely fitted for both the cases, the

Box-Cox plot does not suggest a power transform for the models generated and hence a

quadratic model is sufficient for developing the equations for COF and SWR. Otherwise,

the model should be power transformed to other higher levels polynomials for accurate

results.

Fig. 8 Normal probability plots of (a.) COF and (b.) SWR for coconut oil nano-lubricants

Fig. 9 Influence of concentration of nanoparticles and load on COF of the nano-

lubricant

Fig. 10 Influence of speed and temperature on COF of the nano-lubricant

Parametric variations of COF and SWR in terms of the significant input variables are

graphically represented in Figs. 9 to 12, for coconut oil nano-lubricants. Fig. 9 (a) shows

the response surface plot as a function of load and concentration on COF at mean speed

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of 200 rpm and mean temperature of 75 °C. Within the chosen range of concentrations

(0-1%), COF decreases to a minimum value and increases with further addition of WS2

nanoparticles. The trend is more visible in contour plot as shown in Fig. 9(b). At low

temperature and minimum load, optimum value of COF is obtained which is shown in

Fig. 10.

Surface and contour plots representing the influence of influencing variables on SWR

show that a minimum value of applied load coupled with an optimum value of WS2

nanoparticle concentration results in minimum SWR for the tribo-pair. This condition is

predicted for coconut oil nano-lubricants as illustrated in Fig. 11(a) and (b). It may be

noted that nano-lubricant temperature within the operating range has no influence on

SWR. Fig. 12 shows a slight increase in SWR when load increases to its maximum

value. Increasing speed of tribometer doesn’t affect SWR of the lubricant. Temperature

has no effect on SWR of the lubricant.

Fig. 11 Influence of concentration of nanoparticles and load on SWR of the nano-

lubricant

Fig. 12 Influence of speed and load on SWR of the nano-lubricant

Finally, the optimization of the concentration of WS2 nanoparticles in the prepared

coconut oil based lubricant for maximum efficient performance is achieved using

desirability function. The values of COF and SWR is at optimal minimum when the

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concentration of WS2 nanoparticles in the lubricant is at 0.76 wt% with a desirability of

98.24%.

Fig. 13 Influence of concentration of nanoparticles and load on desirability of the nano-lubricant

3.4 Analyses of thermo-physical properties

The thermo-physical property analyses viz. viscosity, flash and fire-point tests were

conducted using Saybolt Viscometer and Cleveland Open Cup (COC) apparatus

respectively. The results obtained are as detailed below.

The rheological property (viz., kinematic viscosity) and thermo-physical properties (viz.,

flash-point and fire-point) are determined for WS2 nano-lubricants with varying

concentrations. Fig. 14 shows the variation of kinematic viscosity of nano-lubricants

with operating temperature. The addition of nanoparticles suppresses the rate of

reduction of viscosity with increase in temperature, making the oil more suitable for

high temperature applications. An appreciable increase in viscosity with WS2

nanoparticle concentration is observed for coconut oil, particularly at high temperature.

Fig. 14 Kinematic viscosity with temperature for coconut oil nano-lubricants

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Fire-point of coconut oil nano-lubricants shows that an increase with increase in

concentration of WS2 nanoparticles whereas a distinct trend is observed for flash-point

in Fig. 15. A possible reason for the monotonous increase in fire-point is the

inflammability of WS2 nanoparticles which requires a much higher temperature for its

continuous burning. Flash-point of of coconut oil nano-lubricants is centered around 278

°C for the entire range of WS2 nanoparticle concentration.

Fig. 15 Flash and fire-points with concentration for coconut oil nano-lubricants

4. Conclusions

Synthesized WS2 nanoparticles has layered lamellar flaky structure.

Reverse micelle method does not require extreme conditions of pressure and

temperature leading to lower cost in contrast to the quartz reactor method.

EDS analysis of WS2 nanoparticles shows the presence of sulphur and tungsten.

Average particle size is found to be 36.57 nm for the WS2 nanoparticles

synthesized by reverse micelle method.

XRD pattern of the prepared nanoparticles can be indexed to hexagonal WS2

nanoparticles with high crystallinity.

The ANOVA, regression analysis and normal probability plots proved the credibility of the model developed by employing RSM.

The analysis of experimental values of COF and SWR obtained using pin-on-disk tribometer conducted by BBD method confirmed that the most significant parameter was found to be the concentration of WS2 nanoparticles in the lubricant.

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The optimized concentration of WS2 nanoparticles for minimum value of COF and SWR determined using desirability function was 0.76 wt% of the lubricant.

The viscosity, flash and fire point test results proved the credibility of surfactant modified WS2 added coconut oil nano-lubricant over the other samples due to its high viscosity, flash and fire-point values.

Acknowledgments

We would like to convey our sincere gratitude to CERD-KTU with Reference No.

KTU/RESEARCH 2/2743/2017 for providing the financial assistance for this initiative.

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optimization of cutting conditions for surface roughness, J. Mater. Process. Technol.170

(2005)11–16.

30. T.L.Ginta, A.K.M.N.Amin, H.C.D.M. Radzi, M.A.Lajis, Tool life prediction by response

surface methodology in end milling titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V using uncoated WC–Co inserts,

Eur.J.Sci.Res.28(2009)533–541.

31. G.E.P. Box, K.B. Wilson, On the experimental attainment of optimum conditions, J.R. Stat.

Soc.13(1951)1–45.

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Tribological and Synergetic Effect of Synthesized MoS2 Nano‐Particles in Coconut Oil at Elevated Temperature for Automotive Applications

Chacko Preno Koshy1, Reuben Thomas1 and M D Mathew1 1Advanced Measurement Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Saintgits College of Engineering, Pathamuttom P.O., Kottayam ‐ 686532, Kerala, India

E‐Mail: [email protected], reubenz410@gmail.

Abstract

Molybdenum disulfide nanoparticles have been successfully synthesized, for lubricant

applications, by solvothermal method. Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS), X-Ray Diffraction

(XRD) & Dynamic light scattering (DLS) are used to find the characterization of synthesized

MoS2. Nanoparticles (surfactant modified and unmodified) are added separately to coconut oil

and ultrasonic agitation is carried out to formulate the required lubricant at different

concentrations of nanoparticles. Tribological properties of the nano-lubricants have been

estimated using pin-on-disc tribometer and four-ball tester in accordance with respective ASTM

standards. Comprehensive variation in properties with respect to various process parameters such

as speed, load, the concentration of nanoparticles and temperature of the lubricants have been

evaluated for the major output tribological parameters, viz. coefficient of friction (COF) and

specific wear rate (SWR).The friction-reduction and anti-wear properties of the nano-lubricants

have been experimentally evaluated between 30°C & 120°C, for various concentrations of

nanoparticles. The experimental data are used to formulate a response surface methodology (RSM)

model in ANOVA using Box Behnken Design (BBD).The simulation results are used to optimize

the concentration of nanoparticles for the best tribological properties. The optimum concentration

of MoS2 nanoparticles in coconut oil is estimated to be 0.52 weight percentage.

Keywords: Nanoparticle; Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2); Solvothermal; Ammonium

heptamolybdate.

Introduction

In recent years, there has been worldwide attention towards preparing high-

performance nano-materials and coatings for tribological applications for reducing

friction to a greater extent. In addition, nanomaterials and nanostructures, because of

their special dimensional effects, reveal totally different tribological and mechanical

properties compared with traditional materials [1-3]. The combination of nanoparticle

additives and base lubricants is a promising way to achieve the optimization of

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lubricating materials [4-7]. Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) nanoparticles perform very

well in lubricant application. MoS2 has a layered close-packed hexagonal crystal

(honeycomb) structure (strong covalent bond) surrounded by vertically stacked

monolayers bond (S-S bonds) together by weak van der Waals forces[8,9]. This flexible

structure is the most important feature for solid lubrication as well as lubricating oils.

The utilization of MoS2 nanoparticles as inorganic lubricant activities has also raised

much focus over recent years due to their outstanding properties as well as chemical

inertness, even at elevated temperature [10-14].

A. Experimental Procedure

A series of trials were carried out to derive the optimal conditions. The concentration of

the starting materials, the solvent volume ratio, the reaction time, and temperature

were changed. All the substances used in this method were of analytical grade.

1. Synthesis of MoS2 nanoparticles

To generate the nanoparticles of MoS2, ammonium heptamolybdate (AHM) tetrahydrate

(NH4)6Mo7O24.4H2O), citric-acid (C6H8O7), and thiourea (CH4N2S) were used as the

initial chemicals and the sulfur source. Here, 4.8 g of AHM tetrahydrate and 2.92 g of

citric acid (or keep AHM and citric acid in the molar ratio 1:1, 1:2, and 1:4) were

dissolved in 400 ml waterby means of magnetic stirring and kept at 80 ºC for half an

hour. Adjust the pH level at 4 with the precise and careful addition of ammonia water

drop wise. The obtained white suspension must be continuously stirred. Then, 7g of

thiourea completely dissolved (20 wt% solution) in water, added drop-wise to the above

solution and carried to the muffle furnace. Then the muffle furnace was sustained at a

temperature of 180ºC for 12 h. Then the reactor was left to cool down normally to room

temperature 25 ºC. Finally, through centrifugation the black precipitates were

cumulated and washed 4-5 times with water and followed by acetone. The final

precipitates were kept dried under vacuum at 120 ºC for 6h.

2. Formulation of Nano-Lubricant

In this present work, lubricants added with MoS2 nanoparticles as additives at

variousconcentrations are termed as 'nano-lubricants' and are prepared by two-step

method. Ananolubricant is prepared by adding nanoparticles to the base lubricant and

agitating using anultra-sonicator.500mL of coconut oil is used for making the nano-

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lubricant. Specific gravityof coconut oil is measured on weight to volume basis using

pycnometer andprecisionbalance. The measured specific gravity of coconut oil is 0.915 as

per ASTM D5355-95.Nanoparticles are accurately weighted using precision balance in

different concentrations onweight percentage basis, such as 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1% of

the corresponding base oil.Coconut oil with 0.5 wt % MoS2 nanoparticles are used in the

present work. Weighted MoS2nanoparticles are added to the coconut oil. The coconut oil

with MoS2 nanoparticles isagitated using ultra-sonicator for 30 minutes. The

formulated nano-lubricants are then storedin air tight glass containers.

B. Results and Discussions

1. Energy dispersive spectrum

The Energy dispersive spectrum is taken for obtaining the elemental composition in the

sample prepared. EDS (Horiba Ltd., Japan, EMAX, 137 eV) analysis was done on

Molybdenum disulfide nanoparticles which were prepared by the means of the

solvothermal method. The EDS spectrum of the MoS2 nanoparticle is shown in Fig. 1,

which reveals the weight and atomic percentage ofeach component present in the

synthesized sample as shown in Table 1

Fig.1 EDS spectrum obtained from primary MoS2 nanoparticles

Table 1 Weight and atomic percentage of elements present in synthesized MoS2 nanoparticles from EDS data

Element Weight % Atomic %

S 42.62 68.97

Mo 57.38 31.03

TOTAL 100.00 100.00

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conditions which have to be encounteredwhen the lubricant will be employed practically

in an engine. The factors and the variouslevels for experimentation is as detailed in

Table 2

Table 2 Factors and Levels for experiments.

Factors Parameters (Unit) Levels for BBD

-1 0 1

A Load (N) 100 150 200

B Speed (rpm) 100 200 300

C Concentration (%) 0 0.5 1

D Temperature (ºC) 30 75 120

The total number of experiments required to be conducted is 34 i.e. 81 experiments. But,

using the BBD method of the RSM the 81 experiments required to model the boundary

lubrication with the developed nanolubricant was minimized to 29 experiments. The

tribological studies conducted using the advanced pin-on-disk tribometer with heating

arrangement was phenomenal in determining the friction and wear properties of the

formulated nanolubricant. The frictional force was directly obtained using a load cell

which measures and furnishes the output through a display screen. Moreover, the wear

value was measured by weighting the aluminium alloy pin before and after sliding. The

procured wear value is then converted to specific wear rate using Archad’s Law. The

output parameter values of COF and SWR corresponding to the various experiments are

tabulated in Table 3

Table 3 Experimental Design and Results (Un-coded Factors)

Run Order A-Load

(N)

B -Speed

(rpm)

C – Conc.

(wt%)

D –Temp

( )

COF SWR

(mm3/Nm)

1 100 200 0 75 0.0995 6.07E-06

2 150 100 0 75 0.1005 6.16E-06

3 200 300 0.5 75 0.0503 5.65E-06

4 100 100 0.5 75 0.0473 5.47E-06

5 200 200 0.5 120 0.0623 5.71E-06

6 200 200 0.5 30 0.0588 5.60E-06

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7 150 200 0 120 0.1115 6.21E-06

8 100 200 0.5 120 0.0613 5.53E-06

9 150 200 0.5 75 0.0423 5.56E-06

10 200 200 1 75 0.0867 6.13E-06

11 150 300 1 75 0.1047 6.08E-06

12 150 200 1 120 0.0987 6.13E-06

13 100 300 0.5 75 0.0403 5.47E-06

14 150 300 0 75 0.0985 6.17E-06

15 150 300 0.5 30 0.0618 5.51E-06

16 150 200 0.5 75 0.0433 5.56E-06

17 150 200 0.5 75 0.0433 5.55E-06

18 150 100 0.5 30 0.0538 5.51E-06

19 150 200 1 30 0.0952 6.02E-06

20 150 300 0.5 120 0.0643 5.62E-06

21 150 100 1 75 0.0977 6.07E-06

22 150 100 0.5 120 0.0603 5.61E-06

23 100 200 1 75 0.0827 5.99E-06

24 150 200 0 30 0.108 6.11E-06

25 150 200 0.5 75 0.0423 5.57E-06

26 150 200 0.5 75 0.0423 5.56E-06

27 200 200 0 75 0.1025 6.25E-06

28 100 200 0.5 30 0.0598 5.42E-06

29 200 100 0.5 75 0.0483 5.65E-06

4. Tests for Model Significance

The ANOVA table showing the significant factors corresponding to COF of the lubricant

is as shown in Table4, where A, B, C, D corresponds to load, speed, concentration

andtemperature respectively. It can be seen that the concentration of the nanoparticles

and thetemperature are the most significant deciding parameters compared to the other

factors. Thefactor C corresponding to speed was eliminated as it doesn’t show any

significance in themodel.

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Table 4 ANOVA table for SWR of the nanolubricant

Similarly, the ANOVA table showing the significant factors corresponding to SWR of the

lubricant is as listed in Table 6. It can be seen that temperature and concentration are

the most significant deciding factors along with load. The speed factor was eliminated as

it showed no significance. Moreover, the Predicted R-Squared value for the COF and

SWR data was obtained to be around 0.9which clearly depicts the adequacy of the

model.

Table 6 ANOVA table for SWR of the nanolubricant

Source Sum of Squares DoF Mean Square F-value p-value

Model 2.309E-12 5 4.619E-13 9986.85 < 0.0001

A-LOAD 9.013E-14 1 9.013E-14 1948.87 < 0.0001

C-CONC 2.521E-14 1 2.521E-14 545.06 < 0.0001

D-TEMP 3.413E-14 1 3.413E-14 738.04 < 0.0001

AC 4.000E-16 1 4.000E-16 8.65 0.0073

C² 2.160E-12 1 2.160E-12 46693.62 < 0.0001

Residual 1.064E-15 23 4.625E-17 - -

Lack of Fit 8.637E-16 19 4.546E-17 0.9092 0.6148

Pure Error 2.000E-16 4 5.000E-17 - -

Cor Total 2.310E-12 28 - - -

Source Sum of Squares DoF Mean Square F-value p-value

Model 0.0144 6 0.0024 139.52 < 0.0001

B-SPEED 0.0000 1 0.0000 0.6004 0.4467

C-CONC 0.0002 1 0.0002 12.67 0.0018

D-TEMP 0.0000 1 0.0000 1.81 0.1928

B² 0.0001 1 0.0001 6.82 0.0159

C² 0.0139 1 0.0139 807.64 < 0.0001

D² 0.0010 1 0.0010 55.60 < 0.0001

Residual 0.0004 22 0.0000 - -

Lack of Fit 0.0004 18 0.0000 87.07 0.0003

Pure Error 9.654E-07 4 2.413E-07 - -

Cor Total 0.0148 28 - - -

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Since the Box-Cox power transformation plot suggest a power transformation for

thismodel, the developed regression equations retrieved from the model for COF and

SWR are given by equations (1) and (2), respectively for coconut oil based MoS2 nano-

lubricants

SWR= (5.78*10-06) + (1.93*10-09*L) - (2.25*10-06*C) + (1.18*10-09*T) - (4.01*10-10*L*C)

+(2.22*10-06*C2)(1)

COF1.05= (+0.13) - (0.00016*S) – (0.191*C) –(0.00085*T) + (4.18E-07*S2 )

+(0.182*C2)+(5.894*10-06*T2) (2)

where L = Load, S = Speed, C = Concentration and T = Temperature

The variation of COF and SWR with concentration of nanoparticles and other factors(3D

and contour plots) are as shown in Fig. 3 and 4 respectively. It can be seen thatthe COF

and SWR is minimum at a concentration between 0.35 and 0.7 weight percentage(wt%)

of the nanoparticles in the lubricant. The effect of load is almost linear in both caseswith

a minimum variation between its low and high values.

Fig. 3 Influence of concentration of nanoparticles and load on COF of the

nanolubricant

Fig. 4 Influence of concentration of nanoparticles and load on SWR of the

nanolubricant

The significance of theconcentration of nanoparticles in the lubricant on COF and SWR

can be verified from theircorresponding plots. The contour plot helps in accurate

interpretation of the varioussignificant values.Finally, the optimization of the

concentration of MoS2 nanoparticles in the preparedcoconut oil based lubricant for

maximum efficient performance is achieved using desirabilityfunction. The values of

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COF and SWR are at optimal minimum when the concentration ofMoS2 nanoparticles in

the lubricant is at 0.52 wt% with desirability of 94.6%.Based on the above, it can be

noted that the concentration of nanoparticles plays asignificant role in the friction and

wear behaviour of lubricants. The increase or decrease inthe quantity of nanoparticles

can drastically affect its efficiency. So their quantity should bemaintained at an

optimum level derived using desirability function. In addition, the effect ofspeed on COF

and SWR is found to be negligible from the ANOVA, regression analysis, 3Dsurface and

contour plots. Although, the load and temperature has a greater influence, theireffect is

linear and can be controlled by suitable measures. Overall, the reduction in frictionand

wear by the presence of MoS2 nanoparticles in the lubricant can be due to change

insliding to rolling motion of parts, tribo-film formation, filling of asperities.

Conclusions

The following conclusions are derived on the basis of the synthesis processes carried out

for preparation of MoS2 nanoparticles and the various surface morphology analyses

conducted on them:

MoS2 nanoparticles are synthesized by the solvothermal method. Particle size

varies from 40-100 nm & average sizes of the nanoparticles were found to be

68.46 nm.

Analyses of the synthesized nanoparticles were conducted using characterization

techniques such as EDS, XRD, and DLS. The uniform distribution of spherical

nanoparticles is proved using EDS analysis.

The Solvothermal method is proven to be a simple and cost-effective method for

the formulation MoS2 nanoparticles. The production cost of the synthesized

nanoparticles was found to be very economical compared to their market prices.

Nanolubricant is formulated (coconut oil with 0.5 wt %MoS2 nanoparticle

additive)

The ANOVA, regression analysis and normal probability plots proved the

credibilityof the model developed by employing RSM.

The analysis of experimental values of COF and SWR obtained using pin-on-disk

tribometer conducted by BBD method confirmed that the effect of speed on both

the factors considered was insignificant. The most significant parameter was

found to bethe concentration of MoS2 nanoparticles in the lubricant.

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The optimized concentration of MoS2 hybrid nanoparticles for minimum value

ofCOF and SWR determined using desirability function was 0.52 wt% of the

lubricant.

Acknowledgment

We would like to convey our heartfelt gratitude to Centre for Engineering Research and

Development (CERD), Trivandrum for providing the financial assistance for this

initiative.

References

1. L. Rapoport, Y. Feldman, M. Homyonfer, H. Cohen, J. Sloan, J.L. Hutchison, R. Tenne,

“Inorganic fullerene-like material as additives to lubricants: structure–function relationship”,

Wear 225–229 (1999) 975–982.

2. L. Rapoport, V. Leshchinsky, I. Lapsker, Y. Volovik, O. Nepomnyashchy, M. Lvovsky, R.

Popovitz-Biro, Y. Feldman, R. Tenne, “Tribological properties of WS2 nanoparticles under

mixed lubrication”, Wear 255 (2003) 785–793.

3. H.D. Wang, B.S. Xu, J.J. Liu, D.M. Zhuang, “Characterization and anti-friction on the solid

lubrication MoS2 film prepared by chemical reaction technique”, Sci. Tech. Adv. Mater. 6

(2005) 535–539.

4. Y. S. Zhang, L. T. Hu, J. M. Chen, and W. M. Liu, “Lubrication behavior of Y-TZP/Al2O3/Mo

nanocomposites at high temperature,” Wear, vol. 268, pp. 1091–1094, 2010

5. Philip JT, Koshy CP. Synthesis and characterization of ceria, ceria-zirconia hybrid and surfactant-modified

hybrid nanoparticles for lubricant applications.

6. Koshy, Chacko Preno, P. K. Rajendrakumar, and Manu V. Thottackkad. "Experimental Evaluation of the Tribological Properties of CuO Nano-Lubricants at Elevated Temperatures." Proceedings of International

Conference on Advances in Tribology and Engineering Systems. Springer, New Delhi, 2014.

7. Koshy CP, Rajendrakumar PK, Thottackkad MV. Analysis of Tribological and Thermo-Physical Properties

of Surfactant-Modified Vegetable Oil-Based CuO Nano-Lubricants at Elevated Temperatures-An

Experimental Study. Tribology Online. 2015 Nov 15;10(5):344-53.

8. Kadantsev, Eugene S., and PawelHawrylak. "Electronic structure of a single MoS2 monolayer." Solid State Communications 152.10 (2012): 909-913.

9. [24] Scalise, Emilio, et al. "Strain-induced semiconductor to metal transition in the two-dimensional

honeycomb structure of MoS2." Nano Research 5.1 (2012): 43-48.

10. Sahoo RR, Biswas SK (2014) Effect of layered MoS2 nanoparticles on the frictional behavior and

microstructure of lubricating greases. TribolLett 53:157

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11. GuangpingZh, Jianlin S, Bing W, Yizhu W (2011) Study on tribological properties of the rolling fluid

containing nano-MoS2 for cold rolling of steel strip. China Petro Proc Petrochem Technol 13(1):64–69

12. Praveena M, Jayaram V, Biswas SK (2012) Friction between a Steel Ball and Steel Flat Lubricated by

MoS2 Particles Suspended in Hexadecane at 150°C. IndEngChem Res 51:1232

13. Kogovsˇek J, Remsˇkar M, Kalin M (2013) Lubrication of DLCcoated surfaces with MoS2 nanotubes in all

lubrication regimes: surface roughness and running-in effects. Wear 303:361

14. Chacko Preno Koshy, Perikinalil Krishnan Rajendrakumar, Manu Varghese Thottackkad, “Evaluation of

the tribological and thermo-physical properties of coconut oil added with MoS2 nanoparticles at elevated

temperatures”, Wear, 2015, 330-331, pp, 288-308.

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A Review of Heat Transfer Studies on Hydrogen Fuelled Internal Combustion Engines

Siddharth S S and Karthick S

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amrita School of Engineering,

Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham Amritanagar, Ettimadai, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu – 641112

[email protected]

Abstract

The transportation sector generates the largest share of greenhouse gas emissions by burning fossil

fuels. These activities lead to the increase in the air pollution which also increases the global

temperature. Many alternative fuels have been experimented to replace the fossil fuels, one of the

alternative being Hydrogen. Hydrogen fuelled internal combustion engines offer the potential of

near zero greenhouse gas emissions. Due to this, design and development of hydrogen based

internal combustion engines is important. Designing the hydrogen fuel based internal combustion

engines varies drastically from the fossil fuels based internal combustion engines. One of the vital

factor which needs to be addressed during the engine development is Heat Transfer studies in the

Internal Combustion Engines. The heat loss is a major limiting factor for the efficiency of internal

combustion engines. The heat flux to the fossil fuel based engine's surface varies from zero to as

high as I0 MW/m2 and back to zero again in less man 10 msec. The flux also varies dramatically

with position and varies cycle-to-cycle. This adds to the complexity of modeling the heat transfer in

engines. This research article is a review of various literature dealing with the study and modeling

of heat transfer during the design and development of hydrogen fueled internal combustion

engines.

Keywords: hydrogen, internal combustion engine, heat transfer, measurement methods, design

and development

References

1. MirkoBovo (2014) "Principles of Heat Transfer in Internal Combustion Engines from a Modelling standpoint", Doctoral Thesis, Department of Applied Mechanics, Chalmers University of Technology,Sweden.

2. Fayaz, H., Saidur, R., Razali, N., Anuar, F. S., Saleman, A. R., & Islam, M. R. (2012). "An overview of hydrogen as a vehicle fuel." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(8),5511–5528.

3. Verhelst, S., Verstraeten, S., &Sierens, R. (2007). "A comprehensive overview of hydrogen engine designfeatures."

4. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, 221(8), 911–920.

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Effect of Diethyl Ether on LHR Engine Characteristics of a using Papaya Methyl Ester‐Eucalyptus Oil Blend

C.Sivakandhan1, R.Silambarasan2, I.Satyanarayana3, P.Vijay Kumar4 and M.V.B.Kalyan5 1,3,4,5.Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Indu Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad.

2Department of Mechanical Engineering, J.K.K.Nattraja College of Engineering and Technology, Kumarapalayam.

Abstract :

The present experiment deals the study of addition of diethyl ether on the performance and

emission characteristics of LHR engine using papaya methyl ester-eucalyptus oil blends. The test

blends are CPME30Eu70 (Carica papaya methyl ester 30% and Eucalyptus oil 70%),

CPME30Eu70+10%DEE and diesel. The optimum results we get with presence of DEE in

CPME30Eu70 in LHR engine. The presence of DEE creates a lean mixture and its low viscosity,

high cetane number and volatility improves performance for a large degree. The graph depicts

that addition of 10% diethyl ether gives the best performance in BSEC, BSFC, BTE and emission

wise when coupled with LHR engine. Most notably NOx emission rate is decreased by the presence

of the DEE and BSFC is brought under acceptable limit. BSEC decreases in CPME30Eu70+10%

DEE and betters the performance of diesel in conventional engine. It also said to improve the cold

flow properties of the CPME-eucalyptus oil blend

Keywords: Diethyl ether; Papaya methyl ester; LHR; emission and combustion characteristics

1. Introduction

With the Paris Agreement behind us, There has been increasing awareness of climate

change, which will create an atmosphere very open to research and preventive measures

regarding climate change, even at the cost of national interests. If the Agreement’s

ambitious vision of reducing the temperature increase to 2% is to become a reality, it

would largely depend on how we deal with usage of fossil fuels and especially of the

transportation sector. The world still depends on fossil fuels for 88% of its energy. And

though in recent years there has been an increase in production of biodiesels, it has also

been a time of simultaneous increase in the consumption of fossil fuels. Any substantial

improvement in this regard has to come by the aid progressive governmental policies to

fund research and possible subsidies on biodiesel production. With the creeping of far-

right parties in Western Europe and a president of a country, which accounts for one-

fifth of emissions, having anti-environmental policies, we have legitimate reasons to be

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concerned. Climate change is quite evident with 2016 being named the hottest year ever

[1-3]

Research for alternative fuels is not something new. It is as old as the engine itself. It

seems Rudolph Diesel operated the engine using peanut oil in 1900s. Much has changed

though since. After 1920s, Fossil fuel was made readily available, cheaper with

governments playing a positive part promoting it. Because of availability of fossil fuels,

the use of vegetable oils declined and went into oblivion. Until 1970s oil embargo

imposed by OPEC, the need for alternate fuel sources was not taken seriously. Now the

problem lied in the fact the engines were designed for running fuels with high volatility

and low viscosity. Straight Vegetable oils which have characteristically high viscosity

and low heating value was not suited for to be used in the engines.

Biodiesel also known as FAME (fatty acid methyl ester) is created from oil extracted

from animal and vegetable fats. The biodiesel production primarily depends on source.

The source is in accordance with both availability and economy. The most common

source of vegetable oils is plants of jatropha, rapeseed, mustard, cotton, neem etc.

Western Europe was a leader in cultivation of crops for biodiesel, because of ambitious

government policies from respective governments. Lately we have seen others

challenging this hegemony, with Asia closing the gap by accounting for 28% in 2010.

Biodiesel have properties very near to that of diesel. Hence it can be utilized without

even changing the engine design. Types of production of biodiesel are pyrolysis, micro-

emulsification, supercritical production and transesterificaton. The most powerful

method of production of Biodiesel is transesterificaton, because of its good conversion

rate. It is done by reacting triglyceride of the base oil with alcohol in the presence of

catalyst at high temperatures [4-10].

On running biodiesel on standard engine, research has shown a decrease in emissions of

CO, unburned HC, and soot formation except for NOx. There is a slight increase in bsfc

and a relatively smaller decrease in full load power. This researchers have attributed to

the presence of oxygen in biodiesel, which gives complete combustion and to that to the

almost absence of sulphur content gives good emission characteristics [13-16]

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LHR engines are engine which are supplied with ceramic coating of cylinder chamber

wall and head long with inlet and exhaust valve. The idea is to decrease the heat lost

through chamber walls to the cooling system will be available heat inside the cylinder to

be converted in to useful work. This also increases the thermal efficiency of the engine

[17, 18]

The main reason behind the NOx emission rates is the presence of oxygen and

temperature. Higher the temperature and oxygen content, higher is the NOx emission

rate. This is the main reason behind its increase in biodiesel and LHR engine with its

characteristics oxygen content and high combustion chamber wall temperature.

Researchers have tried to reduce NOx emissions by altering injection timing of both

diesel and LHR engines using biodiesel with varied success [24-26].

The performance, emission characteristics can be changed by changing the operation

conditions or changing the fuel properties. Fuel properties can be changed by adding

chemical additives. Anti-oxidant additives such as DEE are added to reduce NOx

formation inside the cylinder. Several researches have been done on performance of

LHR engine but not extensively. Some of them slight improvements in NOx [27-34]. R.

Senthil et al. reports that DEE when added with blends of biodiesel-eucalyptus oils

(B20E70DEE10) have properties very near that of diesel [29].

The authors humbly hope that the present experiment adds to existing scholarship and

assists further study. The present experiment deals the effect of DEE on the

performance, combustion and emission characteristics of LHR engine using papaya

methyl ester-eucalyptus oil blends. The test blends are CPME30Eu70 with and without

10% DEE and diesel as reference fuel.

2. Concept and Procedure

2.1 Biodiesel and its production

To improve the engine performance, modifications can be done either in the engine

design or the fuel characteristics. The change in diesel engine design is not feasible and

might be expensive. Hence modifying the fuel properties, so that it is compatible with

the engine design is the commonly held position. Biodiesel fits these criteria perfectly.

Biodiesel are long chain methyl esters derived from edible resources such as animal and

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vegetable fats. The absolute decrease in sulphur content and increase in oxygen content

helps in reducing harmful emissions and gives complete combustion. The viscosity is

brought near acceptable limits for the diesel engine Vegetable oil, which has very low

calorific value and high viscosity is not suited for diesel engine. These vegetable oils are

converted into biodiesel by processes like pyrolysis, micro-emulsification or

transesterificaton. Of which transesterificaton has the highest rate of conversion

complimented by an relatively simple process. Fuels are usually composed of HC and

other impurities such as sulphur, dust etc. By changing the structure of these HC and

its position, fuel properties are altered. Transesterification the triglyceride structure of

HC of oils, derived from animal and vegetable fats, is treated with alcohol in the

presence of a catalyst. The alcohol used usually is methanol, ethanol or butanol. For the

biodiesel to be renewable, it is necessary that the alcohol used is also renewable.

Catalyst can be of acid, alkali or lipase. The one we have used for our purpose is an

alkali catalyst. The end product is layer of methyl ester and glycerine. Glycerine is

removed, and then water content is removing to attain biodiesel. The one we have used

for our purpose is an alkali catalyst. Carica Papaya is usually found in parts of India,

South America, Mexico and Indonesia. Tropical climates favour its production. They are

growing as tall as 10m. The size of the seeds that it contains is very small. Vegetable oil

is extracted by using conventional mechanical screw type expellers. Papaya methyl ester

is reacted with methanol in a ratio (5:1). 0.5% of sodium hydroxide is used as catalyst.

The mixture is heated for 2 hours at around 70oC and 80oC. As the fractional

distillation, the papaya methyl ester is removed after of glycerine. It has methyl oleate

and methyl linoleate as major contents, with composition of around 65% and

20%..Aromatic and other unstable compounds are almost non-existent.

2.2 Eucalyptus oil

Eucalyptus trees can be found in tropical and temperate climate. Oil distilled from

leaves of eucalyptus, of which there is many times, is known commonly as eucalyptus

oil. These have high heating value, a low viscosity and agreeable flash point. The

drawback lies in it having a very low cetane number, which will result in poor starting

characteristics. This can be compensated by blending it with biodiesel. Blend, it seems

gives properties very near to that of diesel.

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2.3 LHR engine

An engine coated with insulating ceramic material inside combustion chamber walls is

called LHR engine. In a standard engine, of the heat released by the fuel one-third is

converted into useful work. Of the remaining heat release half goes as EGT and the

remaining passes through the cooling system. By using thermal barrier coating inside

the cylinder, we can enhance BTE which depends primarily on engine design and

introduce the ability to use fuels with low cetane rating. This is the case because of

increased in-cylinder temperature, which will result in shortening of ignition delay. It

enhances fuel economy. The BTE is better, but not drastic. LHR results in increase in

EGT. The standard diesel engine is converted into LHR (low heat rejection) engine by

plasma spray method. The coating is applied on the inner cylinder chamber wall, piston

head, chamber head and inlet and exhaust valves. The coating is of two layers: bond coat

and the thermal barrier coat. Over the substrate a bond coat is applied, over which the

thermal barrier coating is applied. The bond coat is used to relax thermal stresses

between the substrate and thermal barrier coat.

2.4 DEE

An engine is also filled with additives. Additives it is combustion of numerous chemical

it is used to improve the performance of the engine. The additives will help to overcome

the limitations of the biodiesel fuel such as the properties like density, toxicity, viscosity,

auto ignition, cetane number and flash point. The additives protect the engine from

corrosion. The types of additives are metal based additive, oxygenated additives, ethers,

antioxidants and fuel dyes. In the metal based it is used as catalytic effect., by using this

the emission is reduced and the reason is metal react with water vapour to form

hydroxyl and react with carbon atom so that the discharging of the oxidation of

temperature is formed .the oxygenated additives useful for the combustion process and

cetane rating. The cetane number is for minimizing the ignition delay.

3. Experimental setup

The testing engine is a kirloskar tv1 model single cylinder four stroke water-cooled

diesel engine developing 5.2 kW at a speed of 1500 rpm. Thermal barrier coating of PSZ

is applied on the cylinder head, combustion chamber wall, piston head and on the

surface of inlet and outlet valves. The specifications of the engine mentioned below in

the Table 1. This engine is directly coupled and connected to an AG10 model water

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cooled eddy-current dynamometer (MakeSaj Test Plant Pvt.Ltd.) with a control system.

Lab view based Engine Performance Analysis software package “EnginesoftLV” is used

for on line performance evaluation. There is a orifice meter where there is surge tank

placed on the inlet side of an engine is to maintains constant air flow. The exhaust

temperature is measured by using a thermocouple, which is a K type thermocouple in

conjunction with a digital temperature indicator. The fuel flow rate is measured on

volume basis using a burette and stop watch. On the basis of NDIR (non-dispersive

infrared) selective absorption principle by using the AVL 444 DI gas analyzer the

exhaust gas emission HC (hydro carbon), CO (carbon monoxide), CO2 (carbon dioxide)

and NOX (oxides of nitrogen) has been measured from the engine. AVL 444 DI gas

analyzer technical specification is given in Table 2. By using AVL437C smoke meter the

smoke level is measured. And the smoke emission is measured based on principle of

light extinction wherein, the amount of light blocked by the sample of exhaust gas from

the engine.

Table 1. Specification of engine design

Sl. No Details specifications

1 Type

Four stroke, kirloskar make, Compression ignition, Direct injection and water cooled

2 Rated power & speed 5.2 kW & 1500 rpm

3 Number of cylinder Single cylinder

4 Compression ratio 17.5: 1

5 Bore & stroke 87.5 mm & 110 mm

6 Method of loading Eddy current dynamometer

7 Dynamometer arm length 0.185 m

8 Type of injection Mechanical pump-nozzle Injection

9 Inlet valve opening 4.5 ° before TDC

10 Inlet valve closing 35.55 ° after TDC

11 Exhaust valve opening 35.55 ° before BDC

12 Exhaust valve closing 450 after TDC

13 Injection timing 230 after TDC

14 Injection pressure 220 bar

15 Lubrication oil SAE40

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4. Test

The en

Initiall

blends

minute

engine

current

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Sl. No Properties Diesel Papaya oil Eucalyptus oil

1 Density @ 150C (kg/m3) 840 910 895.5

2 Kinematic viscosity @ 400C (Cst) 2.9 36 2

3 Flash Point (oC) 54 162 58

4 Fire point (oC) 64 280 64

5 Gross heating value (kJ/kg) 42700 41570 43270

6 Cetane number 49 60 18

Table 3. After Transesterification:


1 Density @ 150C (kg/m3) 840 867 713

2 Kinematic viscosity @ 400C (Cst) 2.9 4.5 0.23

3 Flash Point (oC) 54 152 -45

4 Fire point (oC) 64 158 -



4.1Test fuels

Fuel properties where measured by standard ASM methods. Table 2 and 3 shows the

fuel properties before and after transesterificaton. The sole biodiesel blend being used is

CPME30Eu70. Eucalyptus oil and CPME have mutual complimenting properties.

Eucalyptus oil has high calorific value but a low cetane index, which dents its cold flow

properties, whereas CPME has a good cetane number. DEE will be added for only 10%

of the total quantity of the blend. DEE has low viscosity, good volatility. This improves

cold flow properties and gives better atomization and better combustion. DEE is an

oxygenated additive but moreover because of cold flow properties it might bring down

Nox emission rate.

5. Result and discussion

5.1 Brake Specific Energy Consumption

The Figure 2 shows the variation of BSEC with respect to brake power for

CPME30Eu70 and neat diesel in LHR and standard CI engine. Brake specific energy

consumption measures the amount of input energy required to develop 1 kilowatt power.

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It tries to show how efficiently fuel energy content has been converted into power. Now,

the factors that might affect the BSEC are density, viscosity, heating value of the fuel

employed and volumetric fuel injection system. Generally in LHR engine, BSEC is

reduced because of decrease in ignition delay caused by high in-cylinder temperature. At

full load condition, BSEC for CPME30Eu70 added with 10% DEE is 11.5 kg/kw.hr,

which is lesser than all other testing conditions. The BSEC for CPME30Eu70 with

added 10% DEE, which is run in LHR engine, is 4% lesser compared to that for diesel

run in conventional engine, this is because of the better combustion process resulting

from addition of DEE. This might be also attributed to high energy content of the fuel

because of high calorific value of eucalyptus oil.

Fig.2 Shows variation of BSEC with brake power

5.2 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

The Figure 3 shows the variation of BSFC with respect to brake power for

CPME30Eu70 and neat diesel in LHR and standard CI engine. The BSFC is the amount

of fuel consumed for generating 1kW of power per unit hour per kg. The graph indicates

that BSFC decreases with increase in load. It can be seen that fuel consumption is less

for diesel compared to other fuels. This is because of higher calorific value of diesel

compared to other fuels. Of the five tests LHR CPME30Eu70 added with 10% DEE and

LHR diesel have the best BSFC rates. At full load, LHR CPME30Eu70 added with 10%

DEE exhibits BSFC which is 6%, 13% and 14.5% lesser than that of LHR diesel, diesel

in conventional engine and CPME30Eu70 in conventional engine. DEE added to

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0 1 2 3 4 5

DIESELCPME30EU70LHR DIESELLHR CPME30E70LHR CPME30EU70+10%DEE

BP(kW)

BSEC (kg/kW.hr)

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CPME30Eu70 decreases the BSFC because of its higher volatility, which speeds up the

mixing velocity of fuel air mixture and results in good combustion process.

Fig.3 Shows variation of BSFC with brake power

5.3 Brake Thermal Efficiency

The Figure 4 shows the variation of BTE with respect to brake power for CPME30Eu70

and neat diesel in LHR and standard CI engine. Off the total heat energy generated by

the chemical reaction of the fuel is, in a conventional engine, (1) 1/3rd passes as heat

transfer through combustion chamber walls; (2) 1/3rd flows through exhaust gas as

exhaust gas temperature and the remaining (3) 1/3rd is utilized as work. This is the case

irrespective of the fuel used. By changing the fuel the fuel economy can be improved but

not BTE. Improvement in BTE can be brought by only engine design modification. The

LHR engine because of its ceramic coating helps in reducing heat loss through cooling

medium and it results in increasing fuel energy utilization. At full load, the LHR

CPME30Eu70 with added 10% DEE has thermal efficiency of 32.9%, which is 1.2%,

2.73%, 7.3% and 10.3% greater than LHR CPME30Eu70, LHR diesel, diesel and

CPME30Eu70 in standard engine respectively. DEE has lower kinematic viscosity,

which when mixed with CPME30 helps in better atomization and mixing of fuels which

will decrease ignition delay and has a positive effect (though negligible) in BTE.

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

0 1 2 3 4 5

DIESEL

CPME30Eu70

LHR DIESEL

LHR CPME30Eu0

LHR CPME30Eu70+10%DEE

BP(kW)

BSFC(kg/kW

.hr)

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Fig.4 Shows variation of BTE with brake power

5.4 Exhaust Gas Temperature

The Figure 5 shows the variation of EGT with respect to brake power for CPME30Eu70

and neat diesel in LHR and standard CI engine. The EGT is an indication of heating

capacity of the fuel used and also the engine design. Usually 1/3rd of the heating

capacity comes out as EGT. In LHR, EGT increases considerably because of the decrease

in heat transfer through combustion chamber walls. The graph shows clearly that in a

conventional engine EGT is low when compared to LHR engines. At full load condition,

the EGT of CPME30Eu70 with added 10% DEE used in LHR engine is 415oC which is

1.2%, 3.6%, 8.4%, 12% higher than LHR CPME30Eu70 and diesel, CPME30Eu70 and

diesel in a conventional engine respectively. The addition of DEE seems to increase the

peak cylinder temperature and hence has higher EGT than others

Fig.5 Shows variation of EGT with brake power

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

0 1 2 3 4 5

DIESELCPME30Eu70LHR DIESELLHR CPME30E70

BP(kW)

BTE (%)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

0 1 2 3 4 5

DIESEL

CPME30Eu70

BP(kW)

EGT (�C)

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5.5 CO emission

The Figure 6 shows the variation of CO emission rate with respect to brake power for

CPME30Eu70 and neat diesel in LHR and standard CI engine. CO is an intermediate

combustion product that is formed, mainly because of incomplete combustion. At the

completion of the combustion process, CO2is formed. This is caused because of lack of

oxygen and low gas temperature. So at lean gas mixtures the CO emission will be low.

This is why biodiesel have remarkably low CO emission characteristics; the abundant

oxygen content available in the fuel improves the combustion process. It can be seen

from the graph that diesel because of relatively lower oxygen content observes high CO

emission rates on both standard and LHR engine. At full load, CO emission rate for

CPME30Eu70 with added 10% DEE is 20% and 42% less than diesel in LHR and

conventional engine respectively. CPME30Eu70 with added 10% DEE in LHR engine

shows the optimum results because DEE creates a relatively lean mixture with low

viscosity suited for improved atomization and combustion of the fuel.

Fig.6 Shows variation of CO emission with brake power

5.6 HC emission

The Figure 7 shows the variation of UHC emission rate with respect to brake power for

CPME30Eu70 and neat diesel in LHR and standard CI engine. The fuel used for

combustion is largely composed of HC (hydrocarbons) structure and other impurities.

These fuels need oxygen content with sufficient temperature and pressure to mix with

air supply. It should be also noted that air-fuel mixture in CI engine is heterogeneous,

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0 1 2 3 4 5

DIESEL

CPME30Eu70

LHR DIESEL

LHR CPME30Eu70


CO(%

)

BP(kW)

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which there both lean mixture and rich mixture portions are of fuel content in the

engine. At lean mixture portions the HC emission is low and vice versa for rich mixture

portions. From the chart it is clearly discerned that diesel in both conventional engine

and LHR engine have high UHC emissions. In general with increasing load the HC

emission rate increases. At the full load condition, LHR CPME30Eu70 added with 10%

DEE has only 37 ppm for HC emission, which is 32% less than that for diesel in

conventional engine.

Fig.7 Shows variation of HC emission with brake power

5.7 NOx emission

The Figure 8 shows the variation of NOx emission rate with respect to load for various

test fuels in LHR and conventional engine. The oxygen doesn’t readily react with

nitrogen to form NOx. It is a endothermic reaction, and hence high temperature is

required to form NOx. The graph shows in general that the NOx emission rate increases

with increasing load. DEE addition relatively decreases the NOx emission in

CPME30Eu70. This is because DEE acts as a cooling agent. At full load condition, diesel

exhibits NOx emission, when run by standard diesel engine, of 800 ppm which is lesser

than LHR CPME30Eu70 by 21.2%. DEE slightly decreases the NOx emission for LHR

CPME30Eu70 with added DEE by 9.2% compared to CPME30Eu70 run on LHR engine

without DEE.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0 1 2 3 4 5

DIESEL

CPME30Eu70

LHR DIESEL

BP(kW)

HC (ppm)

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Fig.8 Shows variation of NOx emission with brake power

5.8 Smoke emission

The Figure 9 shows the variation of smoke opacity with respect to brake power for

CPME30Eu70 and neat diesel in LHR and standard CI engine Smoke emission is an

indication of incomplete combustion. CPME has absolutely no sulphur content and has

more lean mixture portions of the fuel, this is the reason behind the lower smoke

emission compared to diesel. DEE exists in gaseous form in room temperature with a

flash point of merely -45oC. This leads again to an increase in the smoke emissions in

the presence of high in-cylinder temperature of LHR engine. This is why at full load

condition, LHR CPME30Eu70 added with 10% observes an increase in smoke opacity of

7% compared to CPME30Eu70 run in standard engine.

Fig.9 Shows variation of smoke with brake power

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0 1 2 3 4 5

DIESEL

CPME30Eu70

LHR DIESEL

LHR CPME30Eu70


BP(kW)

NOx (ppm)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0 1 2 3 4 5

DIESELCPME30Eu70LHR‐DIESELLHR‐CPME30Eu70LHR‐CPME30Eu70+10DEE

BP(kW)

SMOKE (HSU

)

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6. Conclusion

The present study arrives at the conclusion, confirming the previous scholarship, that

diethyl ether can be added as a fuel property improver in biodiesel as a replacement for

fossil fuels. That being further investigation on the formation of emissions while using

DEE and its possible side effects has to be done. Some of the highlighting conclusions

are

NOx emission rate while using diethyl ether decreased the emission by 90ppm

when compared to blend without diethyl ether.

BSFC, BSEC performance while using diethyl ether is better than diesel. This is

attributed to physical properties of diethyl ether, which improves cold flow

properties and atomization because of low viscosity and good cetane number.

CO and HC emission is 32% (absolute terms) and 42% lesser than diesel

emission.

References

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18. B. RajendraPrasath, P.Tamilporai and Mohd. F. Shabir. Analysis of combustion, performance and emission characteristic of low heat rejection engine using biodiesel. International Journal of Thermal Science, 9, 2010, 283-2490.

19. R. Senthil, E. Siakumar, R. Silambarasan and G. Mohan. Performance and emission characteristics of a low heat rejection engine using Nerium biodiesel and its blends.International Journal of Ambient Energy, DOI: 10.1080/0130750.2015.1076517

20. N.Venkateshwara Rao, M.V.S. Murali Krishna and P.V.K. Murthy. Investigation on performance parameters of ceramic coated diesel engine with tobacco seed oil biodiesel. International Journal Of Advances in Engineering and Technology, Nov. 2013, Vol. 6, Issue 5, pp.2286-2300.

21. M.V.S. Murali Krishna, N. DurgaPrasada Rao, A. Anjeneya Prasad and P.V.K. Murthy.Performance Evaluation of Rice Brown Oil in Low Grade Low Heat Rejection Diesel Engine. International Journal of Engineering and Science. ISSN: 2278-721, Vol. 1, Issue 5 ( October 2012), PP1-12.

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22. Can Hasimoglu, Murat Ciniviz, Ibrahim Ozsert, YakupIcingur, Adnan Parlak and M. Sahir Salman. Performance characteristics of a low heat rejection diesel engine operating with biodiesel. Renewable Energy, 33, 2008, 1709-1715.

23. HanbeyHazar and UgurOzturk. The effects of Al2O3-TiO2 coating in a diesel engine on performance and emission of corn oil methyl ester. Renewable Energy, 35, 2010, 2211-2216.

24. EkremBuyuukkaya and MuhammedCerit. Experimental study of NOx emissions and injection timing of a low heat rejection diesel engine. International Journal of Thermal Science, 47, 2008, 1096-1106.

25. Adnan Parlak, HalitYasar, Can Hasimoglu and AhmetKolip. The effects of injection timing on NOx emissions of a low heat rejection indirect diesel injection engine. Applied Thermal Science, 25, 2005, 3042-3052.

26. T. Ganapathy, R.P. Gakkhar, K.Murugesan. Influence of injection timing on performance, combustion and emission characteristics of Jatropha oil. Applied Energy, 88, 2011, 4376-4386.

27. M. Mohamed Mushtafa. Synthetic lubrication oil influences on performance and emission characteristic of coated diesel engine fuelled by biodiesel blends. Applied Thermal Engineering, 96, 2016, 607-612.

28. H.K. Rashedul, H.H. Masjuki, M.A. Kalam, A.M. Ashraful, S.M. Ashrafur Rahman and S.A. Shahir. The effect of additives on properties, performance and emission of biodiesel fuelled compression ignition engines. Energy Conversion and Management, 88, 2014, 348-364.

29. R. Senthil, E. Sivakumar and R. Silambarasan. Effect of diethyl ether on the performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine using biodiesel-eucalyptus oil in blends. RSC Adv., 2015, 5, 54019.

30. D.H. Qi, H. Chen, L.M. Geng and Y.Z. Bian. Effect of diethyl ether and ethanol additives on the combustion and emission characteristics of biodiesel –diesel blended fuel engine. Renewable Energy, 36, 2011, 1252-1258.

31. Amr Ibrahim. Investigating the effect of using diethyl ether as a fuel additive on diesel engine performance and combustion. Applied Thermal Engineering, 107, 2016, 853-862.

32. Obed Ali, RizwanaMamat, H.H. Masjuki, Abdul Adam Abdullah. Analysis of blended fuel properties and cycle-to-cycle variation in a diesel engine with a diethyl ether additive. Energy Conversion and Management, 108, 2016, 511-519.

33. S.Imtenan, H.H. Masjuki, M. Varman, M.I. Arbab, H.Sajjad, I.M. Rizwanul Fattah, M.J. Abedin and Abu Saeed Md. Hasib. Emission and performance improvement analysis of biodiesel-diesel blends with additives. Procedia Engineering, 90, 2014, 472-477.

34. Effect of Butanol addition on performance and emission characteristics of a DI diesel engine fueled with pongamia-ethanol blend. International Journal of ChemTech Research, 2015, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp 59-67.

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Progressive Damage Characterization of Biaxial Glass Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Composites

H Muralidhara and Dr. R Suresh

Department of Industrial Automation Engineering, VTU P.G Studies, VTU, VTU PG Centre, Mysuru‐570029

Email: [email protected]

Abstract:

The objective of the work was to investigate bi-axial characteristics of composite materials with

cruciform geometry in both experimental and numerical techniques. The glass reinforced fibers

with epoxy composites prepared by hand lay-up technique with various stacking sequences such as

0°/90°, 45°/45°, 15°/75° and 30°/60°. The fabricated composites were machined in cruciform

shape, having different notches namely circular, square and rhomboidal according to ASTM –

D6856 standard by abrasive water jet machining to ensure dimensional accuracy of ± 0.1mm. The

prepared cruciform specimens were tested using a biaxial fixture developed indigenously by taking

the specifications of universal testing machine. The Young’s modulus, proof stress, ultimate tensile

strength and fracture toughness were evaluated for 16 specimens of different fibre orientations and

notches using software.. The response from the biaxial tensile test showed highest stress

developing in [0/90] GFRP composites of 61.37 MPa with highest ultimate tensile strength of

71.93 MPa experimentally. Numerical simulation with ANSYS was showing maximum stresses

developing in [0/90] GFRP composites 65.37 MPa.

Keywords: Biaxial tensile test, GFRP, Youngs modulus, Numerical analysis.

Introduction

Polymer composites having high strength to weight ratio along with cost effective nature

showing better performance than conventional material such as Aluminium,

increasingly used in aerospace, marine industries, automotive, research and

development sector etc. [1].In general, laminates in composites exposed to in plane

forces or out-plane forces in a range of application such as uniaxial or biaxial loading,

twisting or bending moment. Need of biaxial testing with application in real structures

showing higher performance than uniaxial testing becauseDesign engineer requires a

multi axial experimental data for designing structure and generally composites

structure in real working condition are subjected to biaxial/multi-axial loading

conditions so performance showing in uniaxial condition will not give approximate

results as compared to biaxial loading conditions[2-3]. This suggests that finding

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strength of new material in composites which contains many research areas in previous

studies[4]. Considering various research on finding mechanical properties of new

material like elastic strength, hardness etc. have been made showing immense practice

in variety sector like aerospace ,marine, R&D industries[6-7].

To derive from complex stress state leads to give an understanding of advanced

composite materials, showing importance of studying behaviour of structures under

multi axial loading conditions precisely. Taking well-known biaxial or multi-axial test is

not at all straight forward process which may require expensive experimental setup for

performing that test and there are large techniques available for in plane and out-plane

loading[8-9]. Studies concerning the multi axial loading condition have been poorly

assumed by experimental data just because difficulty in fabricating and modelling of

complex test specimen as well as exposing them to such loading conditions need

expensive multi axial loading machines. Any integration of tensile-tensile stress in a 2D

stress state can be generated in biaxial stress test. The significance of biaxial test is that

its configuration of fixture can be employed with singleset up prepared on any uniaxial

material system machine[10-12]. The main objective of this project was to perform

biaxial tensile test and study the biaxial behaviour of cruciform shaped composites with

and without notches. It includesfabrication of glass / epoxy composites with different

fibre orientations (0/90, 15/75, 30/60, 45/-45) anddevelopment of biaxial test rig.

Experimental Study

Epoxy resins are thermoset resins which are widely used for easy fabrication of several

complicated parts. In this work LY556 (Bisphenol-A-Diglycidyl-Ether) epoxy resin was

chosen for its good quality for fabrication of GFRP composite. The HY-951(Tri-ethylene

Tetramine) hardener is a curing agent to be properly mixed with LY 556 epoxy resin.

Both the epoxy resin and hardener procured from the market.

Epoxy resins are thermoset resins which are widely used for easy fabrication of several

complicated parts. In this work LY556 (Bisphenol-A-Diglycidyl-Ether) epoxy resin was

chosen for its good quality for fabrication of GFRP composite. The HY-951(Tri-ethylene

Tetramine) hardener is a curing agent to be properly mixed with LY 556 epoxy resin.

Both the epoxy resin and hardener procured from the market. In this work, S-glass

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woven fibres were taken as the reinforcement material for fabrication of cruciform

specimens. For fabrication of woven GFRP composite hand lay-up technique is chosen.

Fig 1 Used for simulation and analysis (i) cruciform specimen without notches (ii) circular notch (iii) square notch (iv) rhomboid notch

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig 2. 1Load vs. deflection curves of specimen of orientation 0/90 and for different notches and fiber oreinttiona) 45/45, b) 15/75, c)0/90 & d) 30/60.

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During biaxial tensile experiments the specimens are set-up in biaxial retrofittine with

followed by a procedure which is followed during the experiment and explained below.

This experimental procedure is undertaken with proper care and leading to successful

experimentation. Gripper plate which is placed between cruciform specimen and H block

of gripper, that is locked by nut and bolt assembly and tightened by LN key. Sandpaper

is also used in gripper below the gripper plate for giving better friction to cruciform

specimen so that slipping of specimen from gripper will be avoided or small rubber wrap

can be used.Then all arms of a test H-bar is attached by not and bolt assembly and then

the retrofit is gently placed in UTM machine.

Experimental and FE Study

To study numerical analysis is approached for FRP composites in biaxial tensile loading.

It includes study of material behavior for different fiber orientations as well as various

notched cruciform specimens shown in Fig. 1. The macro-mechanics analysis of woven

epoxy/glass composites is used to compute stress analysis and stress concentration

factor. This analysis estimates in ANSYS and Modelling of specimen for different

notches is done by Solid-works. In this analysis composite specimen is layered with

desired thickness and fibre orientation in worksheet. Mesh concept is used before

structural analysis of specimens.They are subjected with equal loads in 3 directions and

one edge is fixed to perform successful simulation.`

Result and Discussion

Load and deflection data for all cruciform specimens which was subjected to biaxial

tensile experiment in UTM is plotted in graphs for different notches and fibre

orientations. Regressions models are taken for measurement of properties of woven

glass/epoxy composites. The readings from UTM are subjected to graphs which are

shown in below figure. These curves are manipulated with approximate polynomial

graph having similar characteristics. By considering curve fitting method i.e. “Least

Square Technique” these characteristics equation is established. From below graphs

blue and red curves are shown which shows approximate characteristics and actual

characteristics of woven glass/epoxy composite in biaxial tensile experiment. From these

graphs behaviour of specimens with respect to fibre orientation and with respect to

notches can be analysed. From above curves load vs. deflection are plotted until failure

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of specimen. In this graphs it is seen that initially it is behaving linear until peak then

showing nonlinear behaviour till failure. Circular notches among all the notches is

showing highest load bearing capacity against deformations and square notch is

showing maximum deformation at failure.

From Fig. 2(a) are plotted until failure of specimen. In this graphs it is seen that

initially it is behaving linear until peak then showing nonlinear behaviour till failure.

Circular notches among all the notches is showing highest load bearing capacity against

deformations and square notch is showing maximum deformation at failure.

From Fig. 3(b) are plotted until failure of specimen. In this graphs it is seen similar way

as before that initially it is behaving linear until peak then showing nonlinear behaviour

till failure. Circular notches among all the notches is showing highest load bearing

capacity against deformations and square notch is showing maximum deformation at

failure.

From Fig.3(c) are plotted until failure of specimen. In this graphs it is seen similar way




failure.

From Fig 3(d) are plotted until failure of specimen. In this graphs it is seen similar way




failure.

Effect of stress concentration factor

Fig. 3(a) shows notchless cruciform specimen is subjected to biaxial loading where one

edge is fixed. Stack sequence is given as 0/90 with 6 layers to get 0.88mm thickness. It

is observed that fillet edges are subjected to high stress zone where crack will propagate.

This is generating 65.941 MPa of stresses with same load, material property and size as

per experimental conditions.

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Fig. 3(

where

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As it is discussed about effect of stress concentration factor in numerical calculation

using equation no stress concentration factor is calculated shown in Fig. 4. SCF value of

woven GFRP is changing with increase in fibre orientation of laminates. This is also

changing with notch geometry of specimen. Then this is validated with finite element

analysis. Effect of stress concentration factor in cruciform specimen is shown through

numerical simulation. It is observed that square notch is giving lesser stress

concentration effect, then followed by rhombus and square notch in cruciform specimen

is getting high stress concentration effect.

Fig. 4. Comparison of theoretical to FEA of stress values

To validate experimental results from biaxial tensile test numerical simulation has done

which is shown in chapter5. Numerical results from simulation are changing with

respect to fibre orientation of composite laminates. In numerical simulation same load

is applied to cruciform specimen under biaxial loading with notches (circular, square,

rhombus) and without notch. As expected, stresses are coming higher at stress

concentration zone area i.e. central zone area of cruciform specimens. It is observed that

notched specimen is creating lesser stress than notched specimen. Though central zone

area is larger in un-notched specimen it is giving lesser stress than others.

In numerical simulation it is observed that woven fibre-glass /epoxy composite with

0°/90 fibre orientation yields high strength when compared to 45°/-45 of orientations

for the same load, size & shape. Stresses are being generated less in un-notched

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specimen and square notched specimen is giving higher stress than other notches. This

analysis from theoretical to FEA is giving 4to5% error.

Conclusion

It is concluded that biaxial behaviour of woven GFRP composite via FEA was validated

with experimental results with (4-5) % error which was an acceptable percentage of

error with same size, property and load. It was observed that woven glass/epoxy

composite with 0°/90 fibre orientation was yielding high strength and 45°/-45 of

orientation was giving least strength. It was also concluded that stress concentration

value was showing lesser effect on circular notches then rhomboid notches and then

square notches. From morphological studies it was observed that failed specimen was

contributing mechanism of failure with various kinds of damages in fibre-matrix

interface. So the biaxial tensile rig which helped to successfully complete this project

work can be adapted to any kind of material not only composites.

References

1. Welsh J.S., Mayes J.S. and Biskne A.C., 2-D Biaxial Testing and Failure Predictions of

IM7/977-2 Carbon/Epoxy Quasi-Isotropic Laminates, Composite Structures, Vol. 75, (2006)

No. 1-4, pp. 60-66,.

2. Rashedi A., Sridhar I., K.J. Tseng b– “Fracture characterization of glass fiber composite

laminate under experimental biaxial loading”, School of Mechanical and Aerospace

Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, composite structures 138, (2016) pp 17-29,

Singapore 639798.

3. Smits A., Van Hemelrijcka D., Philippidisb T.P. and Cardona A., Design of a Cruciform

Specimen for Biaxial Testing of Fibre Reinforced Composite Laminates, Composites Science

and Technology, vol. 66, 7-8, (2006) pp. 964-975.

4. Andrusca L, Goanta V, P D Barsanescu and R Steigmann, “Numerical and experimental

study of cruciform specimens subjected to biaxial tensile test” Materials Science and

Engineering 147 (2016) 012091, Mechatronics and Robotics Department, National Institute

of R&D for Technical Physics, Iasi, Romania.

5. K KMahato, M Biswal, D K Rathore, R K Prusty, K Dutta, B C Ray, “Effect of loading rate on

tensile properties and failure behavior of glass fibre/epoxy composite”, Composite Materials

Group, Materials Science and Engineering 115 (2016), 012017, Metallurgical and Materials

Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela-769008, India.

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6. H. Kumazawa and T. Takatoya, “Biaxial Strength Investigation of CFRP Composite

Laminates by Using Cruciform Specimens” Airframes and Structures Group, Japan

Aerospace Exploration Agency 6-13-1,(2012), Ohsawa, Mitaka, Tokyo, JAPAN 181-0015

7. A. Barroso, E. Correa, J. Freire, M.D. Pérez, F. París, “Biaxial Testing Of Composites In

Uniaxial Machines”: European Conference on Composite Materials, Venice, Italy, 24-28 June

(2012), School Of Engineering, University Of Seville, Camino De Los Descubrimientos S/N

41092 Sevilla.

8. M. Brieu, J. Diani, “A New Biaxial Tension Test Fixture for Uniaxial Testing Machine- a

Validation for Hyper elastic Behaviour of Rubber-Like Materials” Published in Journal of

Testing and Evaluation (2007) vol. 35(4) pp. 1-8, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India.

9. Luis Fernando Puente Medellina, Jose Angel Diosdado De la Penaa, “Design of a biaxial test

module for uniaxial testing machine” Departamento de IngenieríaMecánica , (2017) 7911–

7920 Universidad de Guanajuato, Salamanca, GTO36885, México.

10. Yong Yu, Min Wan, Xiang-Dong Wu, Xiang-Bin Zhou, “Design of a cruciform biaxial tensile

specimen for limit strain analysis by FEM” school of mechanical engineering and automation

, received 26 February (2001), Beijing university of aeronautics and astronautics, P. O. Box

703, 37 Xueyuan Road, HaidianDistrcit, Beijing100083, and P R China.

11. D V Hemelrijck, A Makris, C Ramult, “Biaxial testing of fiber-reinforced composite

laminates”, Journal of Materials: Design and Application, Vol. 222 Part L, (2007), pg. 209-

218.

12. A. Escárpita1, H. Elizalde, R.A.Ramírez, E. Ledezma, S.T.Pinho, “Modified Cruciform

Specimen for Biaxial Testing of Fibre-Reinforced Composites” Composites: Part A 37 (2006)

165–176.

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Synthesis, Characterization and Production of ABS Material Blended with Recyclable Material used in Automotive Industry

S.Ponsuriyaprakash1 and P.Udhayakumar2

1Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLN College of Engineering, Pottapalayam.

[email protected] 2Professor & Head of the Department, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KLN College of Engineering,

Pottapalayam. [email protected]

Abstract

In Automobile Industry, Plastics play 66% of their role in Production. The current economic and

environmental needs are the use of modern materials like aluminum and carbon fiber, but the

wise allocations of plastics are making an increasing difference in automobile industry and the

light weight of plastics makes for more fuel efficient vehicles. On those plastics, Acrylonitrile-

Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) is a durable thermoplastic, resistant to weather and some chemicals. It

is a rigid plastic with rubber like characteristics having high impact and energy absorption

properties and itredistribute energy during an impact. Therefore, the role of ABS in Automobile

Industry is more pronounced. On the other hand, ABS is mostly used in the Additive

manufacturing technology on the process of Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) as a principal

material. Therefore, Incorporating AM technology in automotive industry will be the next stage in

production. By using FDM, ABS could be made into wide variety of service parts in automotive

industry, but such wide spread application needs specific performance enhancements as

demanded by the various usage conditions. The objective of this research is the enhancement of

mechanical and metallurgical properties of ABS by synthesizing with compatible recyclable

materials for use in FDM.

Keywords: Automotive Engineering, ABS Material, FDM Machine, Additive Manufacturing,

1.Introduction

The present investigation on ABS material is to blended with an Cellulose i.e.,

Recyclable and Bio-degradable material which enhance themechanical, metallurgical

characterization and their properties. ABScomposited with cellulose in the form of wire

(1.75mm dia) for the purpose of Fused deposition modeling (FDM)Additive

Manufacturing technology. It could be used in all automobile, aero, marine and

mechanical spare parts or secondary components. Here comes the followings are the

objectives of this research,

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To fabricate a number of cellulose based ABS composites with different weight

percentages (wt. %) of Matrix and filler reinforcement materials by using

polymer dissolution and mold casting method were used for the fabrication of

cellulose based ABS composite materials. Here, ABS is used as the base matrix

material, recyclable material is the primary reinforcement.

To perform mechanical (tensile, flexural), metallurgical (SEM, XRD, EDX),

thermal and thermo gravimetric analysis of the ABS composite materials.

To identify and optimize the ABS composite materials based on above mentioned

analysis.

To fabricate the optimized ABS composite materials with the form of 3d printing

wire for the application of automobile spare parts and secondary parts

production.

Therefore in Automobile industry, ABS with Cellulose composites helps the body to

absorb and redistribute energy during an impact and keeping passengers safe and it

gives good impact resistance. Producing these blended composites with biodegradable

materials will give rise to non-expensive, natural, renewable materials with a piece of no

negative impacts on the environment.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Bonding Material Identification

By means of several literature review, which are the materials are having blending

properties with ABS could be absorbed is studied. After the survey the Cellulose is

selected as a primary reinforcement because of their blending properties and their

thermal stability and also based on easy availability, environment friendly, cost wise

lower than other materials and the cellulose available on powder form it makes easy to

mixture the materials.

2.3 Optimizing by Ratio of Mixing

Before it turns to solid manner, by tabulating the different ratios of adding cellulose

with ABS to find the best ratio for rich properties. The ratio of mixturing the ABS with

cellulose on the basis of ABS: Cellulose manner, the ratios taken as per kg of ABS and

the %of cellulose.

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As per

charact

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2.5 Comparing samples with Existing Properties

After the above testing, we have to find which ratio withstand their best properties

among them all ratios mentioned in table1. Now the best ratio could be compared to

normal ABS mold and tabulate normal and existing ABS properties and Cellulose

bonded ABS properties.

2.6 Methodology of 3D printing

After all the process and finalized ratio could be again mouldedand crushed into pellet

formats. The fig.2 intimates the second half of research.

2.6 Extruding

Extruding is the process of making wire form for 3D printing by FDM process. The wire

is to be 1.75mm of dia. For making wire DIY method of 3D printer. The Fig.3 shows the

extruders construction and working principles.

Fig.3 DIY method of Filament Extruder

The hopper contains the ABS with cellulose composite pellets. With the help of motor

the shaft inhibits screw which gets pellets from hopper to heater. On heater the pellets

get melts and pushes out via 1.75mm diameter feed pipe. The feeding wire is make cool

and roll via feeder. Finaly the Wire reel looks like Fig.4.The colour ABS pellets makes a

reel also colorful.

Fig.4 ABS with Cellulose wire reel as 1.75 dia

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2.7 Additive manufacturing

The Additive manufacturing is also known as 3D printing and Rapid Prototyping too.In

additive manufacturing there are lot of process. Among those process FDM i.e, Fused

deposition modelling is wide range of using process .

Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)is an process in which a physical object is created

directly from a computer-aided design (CAD) model using layer-by-layer deposition of a

feedstock ABS blended with cellulose filament material extruded through a nozzle.

Fig.5. FDM Process

With Cellulose having an effect of properties of ABS was not lowered, which is the great

quality of manufacturing.

3. Applications of ABS based composites in Automobiles

Front and Rear Bumpers in cars ,

Dashboard console,

Wing Mirror cover, Interior and some Exterior parts specially made on ABS,

Door Outer panel,

Spoiler,

Wheel Covers,

Radiator guard,

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Steering Wheel,

Etc.,

4. Conclusion

From this research, it is concluded that extraction and dryingprocedures of cellulose

have a dramatic effect on dispersion and thermal stability of polymer matrices. It also

discovered that polymer dissolution is a very useful technique for the improvement of

cellulose filled ABS composites.

References

1. K.Crews,C.Huntley,Influence of cellulose on Mechanical and thermal stability of ABS

composites,Inrenational Journal of Polymer science,2016

2. I. Vroman and L. Tighzert, “Biodegradable polymers,” Materials, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 307–344,

2009.

3. R. J. Moon, A. Martini, J. Nairn, J. Simonsen, and J. Youngblood, “Cellulose nanomaterials

review: structure, properties and nanocomposites,” Chemical Society Reviews, vol. 40, no.

7,pp. 3941–3994, 2011

4. Jian Zhang,” Research on Thermostability of Flame-retardant PC / ABS-Blends with PyGC

“Procedia Engineering 135 (2016) 83 – 89.

5. R. MerijsMeri, J. Zicans , T. Ivanova, R. Berzina, R. Saldabola, R. Maksimovs,” The effect of

introduction of montmorillonite clay (MMT) on the elastic properties of polycarbonate (PC)

composition with acrylonitrile-butadiene styrene (ABS)” Contents lists available at Science

Direct

6. Nowadays most of the automotive parts are manufactured by FDM process only as per fig.5.

7. So, Plastics plays an main role in Automobile industry.

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Future Aspects of Automobile Industry

Er. Pravin V. Tembe, AMIE, CEng (India)

Proprietor of Tembe Competent Services, & Dy. Manager at Hallmark Boilers Pvt. Ltd., Baramati.

43B, BhikobaTambe Nagar, Bhigwanroad M.I.D.C., Baramati


Abstract:

Upcoming decade will be the golden decade in the future of automobile sector, in the world.

Various revolutions in automobile industries are carried out day by day. This paper is deals with

various concepts of future vehicle. Advance propulsion systems of Electric Vehicles (EVs), Water

Fueled Vehicles are discussed in this paper. Newly concept like driverless cars (self-driving cars)

& Flying Cars are also discussed in this paper. This paper is also highlights of new concept of Air

Fueled Vehicles. Effect on national economy & lifestyle of peoples are discussed in this paper.

Merits, demerits & challenges for researchers have been briefly discussed which is followed by

conclusion.

Keywords: Electrical Vehicles (EVs); Water Fueled Vehicles; Driverless Car; Flying Cars; Air

Fueled Cars.

Introduction

Now a day, India & rest of world is fighting against greenhouse effect & pollution.

Emission of greenhouse gases like CO & SO2 from automobiles is main cause of

greenhouse effect. Conventional fuels also have very limited resources on earth. This is

why non-conventional fuel system vehicles are required to be adopted. Adoption of

automobiles having advance propulsion system like EVs (electrical vehicles), water

fueled cars reduce emission of these greenhouse gases.

World is working on new advanced revolutionary cars like driverless cars & flying cars.

Preliminary tests on driverless car & flying cars have been successfully carried out. Now

days, we can make water from atmospheric air. Such water can be utilized in water

fueled vehicles & in this way we can run the vehicles in future on air. There is lot of

scope of research to develop air fuel cars.

Electrical Vehicles (EVs)

One of the solutions to reduce & control over greenhouse gases is accepting, launching &

adoption of electrical vehicles on road. Govt. of India planned to make infrastructure &

runs EVs on road by 2020.

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In coming days electric cars are going to run on Indian roads.

Electrotherm India Ltd. have already introduces electric scooters like YoBikes. Pune

based Tork Motors have introduced T6X e-bike. Atom Motors are famous for their e-

cycles which amplify pedaling & go faster.

India’s first electric bus was launched in Bengaluru in 2014 by BMTC. Ashok Leyland,

Tata Motors and M&M have already launched their electric & hybrid buses. They also

launched their mini pick-up trucks. Bengaluru is also famous for first electric taxi

services in country.

Indian railways have successfully tested solar panel mounted trains where power

generated will be used for fans & lights inside the train. GOI announced that entire rail

network in country will be electrified by 2022.

Types of Electric Vehicles: Main types of EVs are: (i) Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) in

which only electric battery is used as an energy source. Here high traction powered

batteries are required & no use of IC engine, (ii) Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)

or Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV)where electric motor powered by battery, plug into

electric grid to charge, and use alternative fuel to run IC engine.

Primary Components:

Important components of electric cars shown in “Fig. 1”: (i) Battery, (ii) Power inverter,

(iii) Motor, (iv) BMS

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i. Battery: Lithium-Ion batteries are used to store DC charge. DC charging will

charge battery directly.

ii. Power Inverter: It converts DC to AC which is input of electric motor to drive the

vehicle.

iii. Electric Motor: High traction electric motor runs on AC is used to drive EV.

iv. Battery Management System (BMS) / Controller: It’s called as a brain of vehicle.

It manages charging & discharging of batteries. Every model of vehicle have

unique BMS controller.

Even though we are going towards bullet trains & EVs it is required to mentioned that

we are very far from global growth where world is using magnetic trains & marching

towards driverless cars, flying cars, water fuel & air fueled cars.

Water fueled vehicles:

Now days, world have concentrates on lot of research on this water fuel technology. As

name suggest water is used as fuel in these vehicles. Water is a compound of hydrogen

& oxygen. Water is electrolyzed to form H2 & O2 by means of electrolyzer. Electricity

from solar panel on vehicle or from battery is used to split water into H2 & O2, reaction

is shown in “Fig. 2”.

Electrolysis

2H2O 2H2 + O2

Brown’s gas is common ducted oxy-hydrogen; it can be produced in an electrolyzer as

shown in “Fig. 3”, below. Series cell parallel plate electrolyzer is most efficient common

ducted electrolyzer. Plates are made of stainless steel; it avoids corrosion due to water.

Both gases mixed to form Brown’s gas.

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There is several systems that works together to control a driverless car as shown in “Fig.

4”. Destination to reach is feed into map. Positions of nearby vehicles are shown on the

car monitor by various dots with the aid of radar sensors. Video camera detect traffic

light, read road signals & keep track of other vehicles, while also looking for other

obstacles. Sensor helps to detect the edges of roads and identify lane markings by

bouncing pulses of light off the car’s surrounding. At the time of parking, sensors in

wheels can detect the position of curbs & other vehicles inside of parking. Finally central

computer gather & analyse all these data from various sensors to manipulate

acceleration, braking and steering. In this way driverless car can run on road.

Flying Cars:

Flying car is a car that can be run on the ground as well as in the air whenever wants. It

must be capable of safe, reliable & ecofriendly operation. To create large market it

should fly without any qualified pilot.

Flying car has folded wings which are folded during runs on road while these wings get

open at the time of fly into sky, as shown in “Fig. 5”.Some companies like Kitty Hawk

Corporation, Uber Technologies, Boeing, Airbus, and Dubai Hover Bikes are working on

realizing their dream of flying cars.

In case of power failure batter supply support is provided to these cars. This vehicle can

accommodate 3 passengers & size is of standard SUV.Dutch firm PAL-V show off their

liberty flying car in Geneva Motor Show 2018 and claimed it is a world’s first flying car.

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AIR FUELED CARS:

Author is indicated here a principle on which this car works. Recently Bharat Electronic

Ltd. has being successfully manufactured atmospheric water generator (AWG) in

collaboration with CSIR-IICT &Maithri, a start-up company in Hyderabad. It is a large

unit. If we can manufacture it in small size then generated water can be utilized as a

fuel by using water fuel car technology. However there is requirement of lot of research

& development in this field.

Effect on National Economy & Lifestyle of People:

As all discussed future technology is ecofriendly, there is no any polluted byproduct of

propulsion system. These maintain & increase average health of peoples. Since

commercial fuel like oil is not required nation can save lot of money on oil import. It

decrease fiscal deficit & increase economic wealth of nation.

Merits:

(i) No use of conventional fuel increases economic wealth of nation. (ii) We can generate

pollution free atmosphere which increases life span of national citizens. (iii) Clean

energy resources are utilized. (iv) Driverless car can reduces number of accidents. (v) It

reduces traffic jam problems. (vi) Driverless car & flying cars enhance the lifestyle of

people.

Limitation:

(i) Still lot of research is required in each & every field of discussed vehicles for adoption

of future cars. (ii) Speed of installation of charging station for EV is not at satisfactory

level in India, it requires lot of infrastructure. (iii) Initial purchase Cost of EV is high, it

requires to control. (iv) Government should adopt simplicity in scraping policy of

conventional vehicles & also properly encourage buying by giving tax concessions in all

type of EVs. (v) Water fuel cars are unable to use where water is not easily available e.g.

desert like Sahara,(vi) There are some chances of hacking of driverless cars. (vii)

Driverless car reduces job opportunity to work as driver. (viii) In driverless car sensors

can fails in drastically weather condition which lead to unexpected accidents. (ix) Space

required by flying cars is somewhat large. (x) Air traffic control & its rules are required

to draft and apply on flying cars.

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Challenges to Researcher:

Researchers have to do lot of research to increase life span of Lithium-Ion batteries.

They have to develop such a system that no one can hack central computer of driverless

cars. Space taken by flying car is high it requires to reduce. Scientist should work on

reduce size of atmospheric water generator to such extent that it can be utilize for air

fueled cars.

Conclusion:

After all we are coming to the following conclusions:

All discussed future cars can change the face of world. Life style of people dramatically

gets changed. Peoples will get clean & pollution free air that increase average health of

country. Nation can save money by reducing fuel import cost & reducing fiscal deficit,

increase economic health of nation.

References:

1. Pravin V. Tembe, “Water as a fuel – an invention,” Technical volume, The Institution of

Engineers (India) , Convocation 2008.

2. Online news, News18.com, June 21, 2019.

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_vehicle_industry_in_India.

4. Peter Campbell, “Motor Industry Correspondent,” Financial Times, March 15, 2018; pp. 11.

5. The Telegraph, 2 November 2018,on website www.telegraph.co.uk

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Adoption of Additive Manufacturing in Automotive Supply Chain ‐ A Review

S. Sabarish1, T. Subhavaishnavi2 and P. Udhayakumar3

1Research scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering K.L.N College of Engineering Sivagangai,

Tamil Nadu, India, [email protected] 2P.G Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering K.L.N College of Engineering Sivagangai,

Tamil Nadu, India, [email protected] 3Professor & Head of the Department, Mechanical Engineering, K.L.N College of Engineering Sivagangai,

Tamil Nadu, Indiam, [email protected]

Abstract:

Additive Manufacturing (AM) is fast evolving to become one of the predominant methods for production of

parts and products. This includes production of complex parts and simplification of complex product designs

constrained previously by traditional manufacturing technologies. AM has highly potential applications in

various fields such as healthcare, automotive, food, textile, robotics industries, etc. AM have a huge positive

impact on logistics and supply chain activities towards improving the Supplier Consolidation, Distributed

Manufacturing, and Increased Responsiveness, Reduce the Inventory on demand production and also to

reduce or skip the many steps of traditional manufacturing process. This review presents the challenges and

implications of implementing AM in existing supply chain networks in the automotive spare parts industry. A

literature survey was sought for analyzing the scientific and technical literature, available published

research results to investigate the impact of additive manufacturing technologies adoption in the automotive

supply chain. Specifically, the paper aims to explore the influence of additive manufacturing technologies

adoption on lean and agile concepts of supply chain management in the automotive industry. The results

illuminate the existing barriers towards implementing AM in existing Supply Chain Networks.

Keywords: Additive Manufacturing; 3D Printing; Automotive Industry; Supply Chain Simplification; Lean

Manufacturing

1. Introduction

AM has steadily potential to replace subtractive production technologies. It is capable of

joining various materials and creating a product from computer modeled data by

building them up in layer by layer fashion. This technology enables to customized goods

to be made at the behest of the customers` specific needs. In addition, AM offers the

ability to construct complex geometry parts allows to make a component with several

parts be consolidated into a single, lighter component. Furthermore, the product`s

functionality can be further improved by exploiting the surface optimized designs that

AM is capable of realizing, thereby reducing the amount of energy, fuel, or natural

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resources required for its operation (Chu et al.2008). Customers tend to pay more and

wait for customized product than they would for standards products (Lee et al.2002).

But then customized products calls for tighter integration of customers into the

production process and production costs may become higher due to expensive AM

machinery costs and utilization efficiency. The change of the production technology will

lead to a redesign of production and its processes such as product life-cycle planning,

supply chain design, logistics and also consumer behavior. Because customized products

require high levels of flexibility in the production process, an agile supply chain is

warranted rather than a lean supply chain (Christopher et al 2000; Gosling & Nain

2009). Currently a few industries are looking to capitalize on the advantages of AM by

incorporating them in their respective fields with Aviation and Automotive industries

being the frontrunners adopting AM, cf.AM Platform (2014). Particularly in Automotive

sector, the design flexibility is one of the most important arguments to move to AM, next

to the fast realization of prototyped or low-volume car parts. Experimentation with large

scale prints may motivate further applications and indicate the interest to secure weight

and thus fuel savings very much like in the aerospace sector, cf. Ford (2017). In regards

to the aforementioned industries customer value is related to keeping the products in

operational condition with high reliability. To lessen the costs and improve efficiency the

maintenance and repair operations must be closely related to the accessibility of proper

parts and skills at whatever demand occurs. However, the ability to provide the required

parts with at high demand rates at low costs is a big challenge to overcome [Zanoni et

al.2005] and it is the one that digital manufacturing technologies are expected to solve

[Holmstrom et al.2010]. Traditionally, firms should invest heavily in their spare parts

supply chain operations to meet their high demand and reliability goals [Cohen et

al.2006]. The reason to hold such a relatively large inventory of parts nearer to the

demand location leads to side effects such as a high warehousing and inventory

obsolescence costs and capital costs related to slow-moving parts. These problems are

now being steadily addressed using product lifecycle management tools such as

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)softwares. Now it’s high time to utilize these tools

in incorporating AM with the automotive supply chain networks. The objective of this

paper is to find, investigate, sort and review the information relevant to the implications

of adopting additive manufacturing in the automotive spare parts supply chain. This

paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides a brief background of additive

manufacturing technologies and their characteristics. Section 3 explores the impact of

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AM in supply chain management wile Section 4 offers a comparative study on

traditional supply chain network with an AM adopted supply chain. Finally, a summary

analysis is presented in Section 5.

2. Additive Manufacturing

A general explanation of the production process in AM is as follows. The process begins

with the generation of a detailed three-dimensional Computer Aided Model (CAD) model

of the part with the specified dimensions. Then, the three-dimensional CAD file is

converted into slices of two-dimensional (2D) cross sections (layers) by a specialized

computer program. These 2D layers are then sent via a computer terminal connected to

the three-dimensional printing machine one layer at a time. Then the machine prints

the object by building each layer on top of the previous one, employing various methods

to ‘cure’ (solidification) the raw material in its process bed (Gibson et al.2009). The

production process may take time from a few hours to days to be made depending upon

the design, process and the material involved.

These following points illustrate the benefits of AM over conventional manufacturing methods.

No need for tooling (economies of scale does not exist, which makes customization

and design revisions possible).

The ability to produce small product batches economically.

Product design optimization for optimal function.

Ability to support quick changes in design.

Potential for allowing smaller inventories and benefitting from lesser lead times

and agile supply chains.

Moreover the possibility of reducing material waste is significant (Markillie. 2012) by

additive manufacturing. These characteristics enable to produce a part at any time on

any given location in batch sizes given the required machine setup and material as

opposed to traditional means which would incur expensive tooling and lead time.

In its present state, AM cannot provide a complete alternative to conventional

manufacturing technology (Stein A. 2012). This situation pertains to most industrial

field especially in the mass production field because of the following drawbacks

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Size limitations. The raw materials for AM processes generally are liquid polymers,

or powdered resin or plaster, or polymers in the form of wire spools. Large-sized

objects also often are impractical due to the extended amount of time need to

complete the build process.

Imperfections. Generally the parts produced using AM processes often possess a

rough and ribbed surface finish due to plastic beads or large-sized powder particles

that are stacked on top of each other. This leads to another post production surface

finishing process.

Cost. AM equipment is considered an expensive investment. Entry level 3D printers

average approximately $5,000 and can go as high as $50,000 for higher-end models,

not including the cost of accessories and resins or other operational materials.

A lot of research is undergoing to offset the aforementioned setbacks which gear AM

towards an important role in manufacturing as a complementing technology.Since AM

still being relatively in its infancy it might soon enough become a revolutionary

production technology not only in automotive sphere but in almost every aspects of the

consumer product industry,

3. Impact of AM in Supply Chain

Previous studies have analyzed the potential for a spare parts supply chain (5.

Holmstrom et al.2010) and have pointed out the implications of introducing a production

system utilizing AM technology (Pe´re`s et al.2006). Specifically, AM technology offers

two opportunities: (1) to redesign products with fewer components and (2) to

manufacture products near the customers (i.e., distributed manufacture). The net effect

is the reduction in the need for warehousing, transportation, and packaging. AM can

improve the efficiency of an automotive lean supply chain through just in time (JIT)

manufacture and waste elimination (Tuck et al.2007). Because AM only requires 3D

data and raw materials in order to produce a complex part, it will reduce setup and

changeover time thereby results in the reduction of the part assembly and lower

inventory holding. Also JIT being induced in the shop floor further builds upon the

savings achieved by JIT through parts suppliers. This results in a lean supply chain

with low cost. For example Bugatti Veyron automobile dashboards are customized

andprinted by using AM. By doing so, Bugatti enables the purchaser to customize their

low-volume production car while simultaneously reducing assembly time. BMW also

offers several 3D printed components in their high-end models (Campbell et al.2013).

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AM can improve the responsiveness of an agile supply chain by implementing a build-to-

order strategy to ensure that no stock out would occur. Moreover in AM the labor cost is

greatly reduced therefore the only overriding costs are of the machines and materials.

This is crucial as it is economical for facility for AM production is not labor but the

machines and raw materials, which makes it economical to locate production facilities

near the end customers. In addition, it is possible to customize products to meet

individual customer needs. This will facilitate the implementation of a build-to-order

strategy and increase responsiveness.

4. Traditional Supply Chain versus AM Supply Chain

AM significantly streamlines traditional methods and has the potential to be-come the

norm over the decade to come. AM is a powerful tool of customization of products. By

involving clients in the design and production, stages and tailoring individualized offers

to each customer, AM has the potential to reduce costs and increase profits. Due to this

a typical automotive supply can react quickly to the unexpected changes in the market.

As Fig 1 illustrates, the removal of assembly and pre-assembly steps, and the potential

to reduce the supplier base of the company have also been mentioned as other AM

benefits. Table 1 highlights the advantages of AM impacted supply chain over

traditional supply chain.

Table 1: Advantages of AM implemented supply chain over Traditional supply chain

Key factors Advantages

Cost savings Eliminate need for large inventory

Reduction in transportation cost

Elimination of redesign cost

Economical mass customization

Reduction of labour inputs

Response speed Shorter lead time

Improved product flexibility

On demand manufacturing

Quality improvement

Reduction in production waste

Optimum product design and performance

Less demand uncertainty

Environmental impact

Improved sustainability

Less carbon emission footprint

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Manufacturing flow management comprises of the activities needed for

obtaining, implementing and managing the manufacturing flexibility and the

flow of goods in the supply chain.

Product development and commercialization refers to the activities involved in

the joint development and launch of products with suppliers and customers.

Order fulfillment, demand, customer relationship and customer service

management deal with the development and maintenance of the relationships

with customers, the administration of product and service agreements, the

balancing of customer demand with supply chain capabilities as well as the

activities needed to fulfill customer requests.

Returns management comprises all activities in the supply chain concerned with

reverse logistics and returns, including the avoidance of unwanted returns as

well as the management of reusable assets (e.g. reusable packaging or materials).

5. Summary Analysis

The advantage of AM technology break the barrier of integral and modular product

architectures so that the efficiency of production can be further upgraded. Another

insight is that AM reshapes the SC structure to become flat due to the simplicity of

manufacturing process. This reduces the complexity of management and increase the

flexibility as well as resilience of SC operation. A supply chain includes suppliers,

assemblers and after service as described in this paper. The decision about the location

of the companies’ production is very important and influential in the profitability and

sustainability aspects of the business. More and more companies start thinking about

switching their production closer to the customer and many are already in this process.

Situation in Economy and also political issues especially in cross international sphere c

and political further intensify the process. The desire to increase internal production or

economic sanctions introduces additional obstacles in a current supply chain with

overseas production.

Based on our literature analysis, we developed propositions of AM technology adoption

in customized parts production. It is evident that AM has extensive implications on

automotive supply chain management, but also on various fronts such as supplier

relationship management, product development, order fulfillment, demand, customer

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relationship and customer service management, as well as on returns management.

Therefore, similar to manufacturers, suppliers and customers alike are affected by the

changeover to AM induced supply chain network. On the supply-side, AM technology

adoption needs close collaboration between material and machine suppliers, because the

materials and machines for AM need to be compatible with each other in order to

achieve the expected optimum results. This is highly important in potential fields of AM

application, such as spare parts or lightweight construction. Due to a switchover from

manual production to AM, Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) have to develop

new selection criteria that are specific to the procurement of AM machines. Similarly

long-term calculations such as strategic production plans also have to be considered,

since a potential transition from single unit to batch production needs to fit in well with

the overall production system within optimal performance. Furthermore, an experience

in AM seems to be a vital factor assessing and distribution of quality control tasks

between manufacturers and AM suppliers. In contrast, firms with short-term AM

experience tend to leave more quality control related tasks towards their suppliers.

This may be attributed to these firms` stronger focus on other AM affected activities,

which cannot easily be transferred, such as tasks in manufacturing flow management.

Once the corresponding processes run smoothly, firms have the capacity to redirect their

resources to the internalization of previously outsourced tasks. The maturity of the

adopted AM technology seems to be another relevant situational factor for explaining

the degree to which AM related quality control measures are transferred to suppliers. It

is possible that the impact of AM technology adoption on SCM processes and

components in supplier relationship management will be different for firms, which do

not engage in AM themselves, but source customized AM parts from contract

manufacturers. A greater product variety and the higher need for manual labor

compared to mass manufacturing make it harder to ensure object replicability and a

consistent product quality in such areas. On the demand-side, AM of custom products

may increase the level to which customers are virtually integrated in a manufacturer’s

supply chain. This can eliminate certain inbound or outbound deliveries and reduce

order lead time.

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Conclusion

The next disruptive step is considered to be connected with Industry 4.0 realization. The

emergence of new manufacturing technologies oriented on facilitating the local

production adds additional value. For example, AM including 3D printing became one of

the instrument of Industry 4.0. AM is a fast-paced technology. Every day, the quality

and/or speed of printing improves gradually. With regard to returns management, AM

not only increases material utilization, but it also speeds up replacement processing by

replicating custom products based on stored digital representations of the object. The

level of virtual integration with customers in ordering and replacement processes seems

to be contingent upon a firm’s experience with AM.

References

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Computer Aided Des Applications 5:686–696.

2. Lee, S.-E., Kunz, G., Fiore, A.M. and Campbell, J.R. (2002), “Acceptance of mass

customization of apparel: merchandising issues associated with preference for product,

process, and place”, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 138-46.

3. Gosling, J. and Naim, M.M. (2009), “Engineer-to-order supply chain management: A

literature review and research agenda”, International Journal of Production Economics, Vol.

122 No. 2, pp. 741-754.

4. Christopher, M. (2000), “The agile supply chain: competing in volatile markets”, Industrial

Marketing Management, Vol. 29 No. 1, pp. 37-44.

5. Ford (2017). Ford Tests Large-Scale 3D Printing with Light-Weighting and Personalization

in Mind. url: https://media.ford.com/content/fordmedia/fna/us/en/news/2017/03/06/ford-tests-

large-scale-3d-printing.html.

6. S. Zanoni, I. Ferretti, L. Zavanella, Multi echelon spare parts inventory optimisation: a

simulative study, in: Proceedings 19th European Conference on Modelling and Simulation,

2005.

7. J. Holmstro¨m, J. Partanen, J. Tuomi, M. Walter, Rapid manufacturing in the spare parts

supply chain: alternative approaches to capacity deployment, Journal of Manufacturing

Technology Management 21 (6) (2010) 687–697.

8. M.A. Cohen, N. Agrawal, V. Agrawal, Winning in the aftermarket, Harvard Business Review

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9. Jaarsveld& Dekker (2011).On the use of installed base information for spare parts logistics:

A review of ideas and industry practice. International Journal of Production Economics,

143(2), pp/ 536-545

10. Walter, M., Holström, J., &Yijölä, H. (2004). Rapid manufacturing and its impact on supply

chain management. Logistics Research Network Annual Conference. Dublin

11. P. Markillie, A third industrial revolution, The Economist, 2012, Available at:

http://www.economist.com/node/21552901 (accessed 05.12.12).

12. I. Gibson, D.W. Rosen, B. Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to

direct digital manufacturing, Springer, New York, USA, 2009.

13. J.P. Kruth, M.C. Leu, T. Nakagawa, Progress in additive manufacturing and rapid

prototyping, CIRP Annals-Manufacturing Technology 47 (2) (1998) 525–540.

14. D.L. Bourell, J.B. Beaman, M.C. Leu, D.W. Rosen, A brief history of additive manufacturing

and the 2009 roadmap for additive manufacturing: looking back and looking ahead, in: US-

Turkey Workshop on Rapid Technologies, 2009.

15. G.N. Levy, R. Schindel, J.P. Kruth, Rapid manufacturing and rapid tooling with layer

manufacturing (LM) technologies, state of the art and future perspectives, CIRP Annals-

Manufacturing Technology 52 (2) (2003) 589–609.

16. Schumpeter, Additive manufacturing: Print me a jet engine, The Economist, 2012, Available

at:http://www.economist.com/blogs/schumpeter/2012/11/additive- manufacturing (accessed

05.12.12).

17. W. Cole, Breaking the Mold: Boeing engineers and technologists are constantly developing

better ways to design and make products, Frontiers, 2004, Available at:

http://www.boeing.com/news/frontiers/archive/2004/december/ts_sf03.html (accessed

10.03.13).

18. I. Gibson, D.W. Rosen, B. Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to

direct digital manufacturing, Springer, New York, USA, 2009.

19. J.P. Kruth, M.C. Leu, T. Nakagawa, Progress in additive manufacturing and rapid

prototyping, CIRP Annals-Manufacturing Technology 47 (2) (1998) 525–540.

20. J. Holmstro¨m, J. Partanen, J. Tuomi, M. Walter, Rapid manufacturing in the spare parts

supply chain: alternative approaches to capacity deployment, Journal of Manufacturing

Technology Management 21 (6) (2010) 687–697.

21. F. Pe´ re` s, D. Noyes, Envisioning e-logistics developments: making spare parts in situ and

on demand: state of the art and guidelines for future developments, Computers in Industry

57 (6) (2006) 490–503.

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22. P. Markillie, A third industrial revolution, The Economist, 2012, Available at:

http://www.economist.com/node/21552901.

23. Stein A (2012) Disadvantages of 3D printers.eHow TECH.http://www.ehow.com/facts_

7652991_disadvantages-3d-printers.html.

24. Tuck C, Hague R, Burns N (2007) Rapid manufacturing: impacton supply chain

methodologies and practice. IJSOM 3:1–22

25. Campbell, T.A.; Ivanova, O.S. Additive manufacturing as a disruptive technology:

Implications ofthree-dimensional printing. Technol. Innov. 2013, 15, 67–79. [CrossRef]

26. Çetinkaya, C.; Özceylan, E. Impacts of 3D printing on supply chain management.In

Proceedings of the 13thInternational Logistics and Supply Chain Conference, ˙Izmir, Turkey,

22–23 October 2015; pp. 649–657.

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Popular Mechanics, Hearst Communications, 4 November 2013.

28. AM Platform (2014). Additive Manufacturing: Strategic Research Agenda 2014

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Modal and Frequency Response Analysis of Vehicle Suspension System using Full Car Model

Sanjay Sharma1, Manoj Chouksey2, Vinod Pare3 and Pranay Jain4

1,2,3Department of Mechanical Engineering, SGSITS, 23, Park Road, Indore, 452003, M.P., India 4VECV Commercial Vehicles, Pithampur


Abstract

This work attempts simulated studies in modal analysis and frequency response analysis for a

vehicle suspension system. Ride comfort and vehicle handling are two important considerations

while finalizing the design of the vehicle suspension. However, both of these are conflicting to each

other. Ride comfort and vehicle handling depend on dynamic characteristics of the vehicle (i.e.

natural frequencies, mode shapes, frequency response functions etc.) too among other parameters.

Hence it is very important to carry out modal analysis of the vehicle suspension system to find out

the natural characteristics of the system. The same has been attempted in this work using full car

model having seven degree of freedoms. The degrees of freedom include pitching, bouncing and

rolling motion along with motion of the un-sprung masses. The software tools namely ANSYS

Workbench and MATLAB has been employed for the modal analysis. In ANSYS Workbench the

block diagram based approach is used for the modal analysis, whereas in MATLAB a code has

been written for the same. The two tools has been used to establish the validity of the results.

Natural frequencies and mode shapes of the vehicle has been analysed.

Keywords: Natural Frequency; Modal Analysis; Frequency Response; Ride Comfort.

1. Introduction

A vehicle suspension system is a complex vibration system, which can be conveniently

modelled using multiple degrees of freedom. The purpose of the suspension system is to

isolate the vehicle body from the road inputs. Suspension system serves a dual purpose

— contributing to the vehicle's road holding and handling. It is important from the point

of view of vehicle stability during braking, driving pleasure and comfort, and isolation

from road noise, bumps, and vibrations, etc.

Today, there are many challenges to automobile companies in the cutting edge competition to survive and excel in the market. The competition among automobile companies has forced them to

seek better alternative strategies in suspension systems through research studies.One of

the performance requirements is advanced suspension systems which aims to achieve better ride comfort and handling while increasing riding capabilities and performing smooth drive. The purpose

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of the suspension system is to provide a smooth ride and to maintain vehicle control over rough terrain or in case of sudden stops. Larger suspension stroke and smaller damping in the wheel hop mode leads better ride comfort [1].

Suspensions systems may be classified on various basis. On the basis of control, it is

classified into three types, namely (i) Passive suspension systems, (ii) Semi active

suspension system, and (iii) Active suspension system. Most of the vehicles are

suspended in passive manner, where the suspension system includes basically springs

and dampers. In passive suspension system, the characteristics of the components, i.e.

the values of spring constant and damping coefficients, are fixed. The disadvantage of

the passive suspensions system is that their performance remains effective only over a

certain frequency range. Semi active suspensions were proposed in the early 1970’s and

can be almost as effective as fully active suspension in order to improve the quality of

vehicle behavior. A semi-active system is a combination of passive spring element and a

controllable damper element. It enables automatic adjustment/control of the damping

coefficient based on control strategy. The controllable damper operates through an

embedded controller and a set of sensors using external power. When the control system

fails, the semi active suspension maycontinue to operate on a passive condition. An

active suspension system enables variation/adjustment of damper element as well as

spring element. The force actuator in such systems is able to both add and dissipate

energy from the system, unlike in passive systems which can only dissipate energy.

Unlikely to the passive suspension, the active suspension can improve the performance

of the suspension system on a comprehensive frequency range. Aly and Salem [2]

discussed the application of intelligent technique to control a continuously varying

damping automotive suspension system. An active suspension system has been proposed

to improve the ride comfort in their study. Many studies have been carried out on

suspensions system models to make it function efficiently by optimizing its parameters.

Active and Semi-active suspensions have been used for many years to increase stability

and handling of all types of vehicles. Bose, Daimler Chrysler, Land Rover, and Delphi

have used these types of systems either as factory or aftermarket applications

successfully. Controlling or aiding in stabilizing a car’s roll, pitch, and yaw through the

suspension would be especially beneficial for vehicles with a high center of gravity such

as SUVs, trucks, and ATV [3].

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Griffin [4] has discussed the human response to vibration excitation discussing about

both whole body vibration and hand-transmitted vibration using analytical as well as

experimental studies while considering various aspects like psychology, physiology etc.

The author reports that the human whole-body fundamental Natural frequency is in the

range of 3 Hz – 7 Hz.

Provision of cabin suspension may be a good option in heavy duty vehicles, as drivers of

such vehicles spend about 12-14 hours on wheels a day [5]. A good ride is a prime

requirement of these vehicles. Cabin suspension isolate cabin and driver much better

than fixed cab mounting. Jain [5] worked to improve the ride comfort of heavy duty

vehicle by introducing cabin suspension system.

Gillespie [6] in his book ‘fundamental of vehicle dynamics’ described that a soft

suspension helps in ride isolation as the sprung mass acceleration was found to be

minimum for lower values of natural frequencies. In the case considered, the sprung

mass acceleration was found to be minimum at 1 Hz natural frequency. However, other

practical considerations constrain the natural frequencies for most cars in the range of 1

to 1.5 Hz. In performance cars, where vehicle handling is more important than ride

comfort, the natural frequency is in the range of 2 to 2.5 Hz.

Correct estimation of such frequencies is very important. Hence, it becomes necessary to

model the vehicle suspension system accurately. This paper, therefore, discusses

modelling of the vehicle suspension system through developing own code (MATLAB in

this work) and using ready software tools (in this work ANSYS workbench

environment). The results produced in this way have also been compared and validated.

Bode plots are also drawn to study frequency response of the system.

2.Modelling of the Suspension System

The numerical problem as considered in this work is shown in the Fig. 1. The

Suspension System and wheels are considered as spring and Damper System. It may be

noted that MU1, MU2, MU3, MU4 denotes the Un-sprung masses while MS denotes the

Sprung mass of the vehicle. The notations ZU1, ZU2, ZU3, and ZU4 denote the vertical

displacement of the un-sprung masses while ZS denotes the vertical displacement of

sprung mass. Ɵ and Ø denote the degree of freedom corresponding to pitching and

rolling motion respectively. The notations KS1, KS2, KS3, KS4 and CS1, CS2, CS3, CS4 denotes

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the stif

KW3, K

Wheels

wheels

right an

Table I

ffness and

KW4 and CW

s of vehicle

from the c

nd left whe

I shows the

damping p

W1, CW2, CW

e. The nota

center of g

eel distance

Fig. 1.

e values of p

S. No

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

parameters

W3, CW4 are

ations 'a' a

gravity (CG

e from CG o

. Seven degr

parameters

Table I (P

Model Pa

MU1,MU2,

M

KS1,KS2,

CS1,CS2,

KW1,KW2,

CW1,CW2,

a=

c=

Ix

Iy

136

s of the Su

e the stiffn

and 'b' den

G) of Sprun

of Sprung m

ree of freedo

s considere

Parameters

arameter

,MU3,MU4

MS

,KS3,KS4

,CS3,CS4

,KW3,KW4

,CW3,CW4

=b

=d

xx

yy

uspension

ness and d

note the dis

ng mass, w

mass.

om Full Car

d for the nu

of System)

Value

62.8

1005

55000

0

37000

0

1.4

0.8

689.37

225.15

System, Si

damping pa

stance of t

while 'c' and

Model.

umerical Si

Unit

kg

kg

N/m

N-s/m

N/m

N-s/m

m

m

Kg-m2

Kg-m2

imilarly KW

arameters

the front a

d 'd' repres

imulation.

W1, KW2,

of Four

nd rear

sent the

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2.1 Equations of Motion

below as: . .

0M Z K Z (1)

M, K denotes Mass and Stiffness Matrix respectively.

Where;

1

2

3

4

0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0

S

XX

YY

U

U

U

U

M

I

I

M M

M

M

M

(2)

..

..

..

.. ..

1 1..

2 2..

3 3..

4 4

S S

U U

U U

U U

U U

Z Z

Z ZZ Z

Z Z

Z Z

Z Z

(3)

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 42 2 2 2

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4 1

( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) (

S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S

S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S

S S S S S

K K K K aK aK bK bK cK dK cK dK K K K K

aK aK bK bK a K a K b K b K acK adK bcK bdK aK aK bK bK

cK dK cK dK acK ad

K

2 2 2 22 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4

) ( )( ) 0 0 0

0 ( ) 0 00 0 ( ) 00 0 0 ( )

S S S S S S S S S S S

S S S S W

S S S S W

S S S S W

S S S S W

K bcK bdK c K d K c K d K cK dK cK dK

K aK cK K K

K aK dK K K

K bK cK K K

K bK dK K K

2.2 Ansys Workbench Model

Line body elements of “Ansys Workbench" software have been used for modal analysis of

the Suspension System to obtain the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the

system. The use of line body elements enables accurate modelling of the system with

lesser degrees of freedom as compare to the use solid elements. It may be noted that the

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degrees

tool. Si

environ

2.3 The

Modal

shapes

degrees

vectors

frequen

about t

[V, D] =

column

The res

and val

2.4 Res

The re

Table-I

through

almost

approa

of the m

rolling

s of freedo

imilar anal

nment and

F

e Code for

analysis i

of the sys

s of freedom

s of the s

ncies and d

the mode sh

= eig (A) pr

ns are the c

sults as ob

lidated in t

sults

sults obtai

II along wit

h the two d

negligible.

ches can be

mode shape

and pitchi

m, which

lysis has a

the results

ig. 2. Ansys

r Modal An

s used to

stem [7, 8]

m model. T

suspension

damping in

hapes. The

roduces a d

orrespondi

btained thr

the next sec

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th percenta

different ap

. This also

e reliable e

es showed t

ing of the

are not con

also been c

s have been

Workbench

nalysis

find out n

. A MATL

he code can

n systems.

n various m

“eig” comm

diagonal m

ing Eigenve

rough ANSY

ction.

NSYS Wor

age differen

pproaches a

establishes

employed fo

that the fir

vehicle res

138

nsidered, h

arried out

n listed in t

h Model with

natural fre

LAB code h

n be used t

Eigenval

modes, whe

mand has b

matrix D of

ectors so th

YS Workbe

rkbench an

nce. It may

are in close

s the valida

for the mod

rst, second

spectively.

have been

by develop

the next sec

h seven degr

quencies, d

has also b

to compute

ues give

ereas eigen

een used fo

Eigenvalue

hat "A*V = V

ench and M

nd using M

y be noted t

e agreemen

ation of the

dal analysis

and third

The positi

constraine

ping a code

ction.

ree of freedom

damping f

een develo

the Eigen-

informatio

nvectors pr

or this purp

es and a fu

V*D".

MATLAB a

MATLAB co

that the re

nt, as the p

e work. Hen

s of the sys

mode corre

ion of pitch

ed in the s

e in the M

m.

factors and

oped for th

-values and

on about

rovide infor

pose [9].

ull matrix V

are also cor

ode are sh

esults as co

percentage

nce, any of

stem. The a

esponds to

h, bounce a

software

MATLAB

d modes

e seven

d Eigen-

natural

rmation

V whose

rrelated

hown in

omputed

error is

the two

analysis

bounce,

and roll

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center

shapes

the veh

S

2.5 Fre

Fig.3 sh

system

frequen

Fig. 4 s

in Tabl

mentio

of the veh

(eigen-vec

hicle.

S.No Mo

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

7 7

equency R

hows the S

. Bode plo

ncies. The

shows the B

le II, are cl

ned in the

Fig. 3

icle affects

tors) may a

ode

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Response (

SIMULINK

ots are us

Simulink m

Bode plot fo

learly visib

plot.

3. SIMULINK

s the ride c

also be use

Table II (

Fre

Ansys Work

1.396

2.218

2.218

6.091

6.359

6.930

6.930

(Bode Dia

K model for

sed to find

model is em

or the syste

ble in the p

K diagramfo

139

comfort an

ed to compu

(Natural Fre

equency (Hz

kbench

1

6

8

6

3

1

3

agram)

r the Seven

d out the

mployed to

em. The pea

lot. The ac

or seven deg

nd vehicle h

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equencies)

z)

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1.3962

2.2186

2.2188

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6.3593

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6.9303

n degree of

response

o study the

aks, at the

celeration

gree of freed

handling. F

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%

ab

2

6

8

6

3

1

3

f freedom fu

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e Bode plo

natural fre

values at t

omFull Car

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and roll ce

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0.0

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0.0

0.0

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full car sus

ystem at d

ts for the

equencies a

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model

he mode

nters of

pension

different

system.

as listed

s is also

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Fig. 4. Bode plot for the system

3. Conclusion

The work presented studies in modal and frequency response analysis of a vehicle using

seven degrees of freedom full car model. The results have been computed using two

different approaches, i.e. first writing a code and second using a software tool. The

results obtained by the two approaches are found to be in close agreement. Hence, it is

concluded that any of the two approaches can be reliably employed for the modal

analysis of the system. In Bode plot the peaks are observed at the natural frequencies as

found out from the results of modal analysis.

References

1. S. K. Sharma, Vinod Pare, Manoj Chouksey, B.R. Rawal. "Numerical studies using full car

model for combined primary and cabin suspension" Procedia Technology 23, 171-178

2. Aly, A. A. and F. A. Salem (2013). "Vehicle suspension system control: A Review."

International Journal of control, automation& system: 46-53.

3. Rabun Wallace, Bikiran Guha, Aniruddha Mitra, PhD, PE, "Suspension Simulation Model

Verification Through Experimental Data For Lateral Force In Figure-8 Testing”.

4. Griffin, M J. Handbook of Human Vibration, Academic Press; 2012.

5. Jain, P. Design and Analysis of a Tractor-Trailer Cabin Suspension, No. 2007-26-047. SAE

Technical Paper; 2007.

6. Book:-Thomas D. Gillespie - “fundamentals of vehicle dynamics”.

7. M Chouksey, JK Dutt, SV Modak “Model updating of rotors supported on journal bearings”.

Mechanism and Machine Theory 71, 52-63

8. M Chouksey, SV Modak, JK Dutt “Influence of rotor-shaft material damping on modal and

directional frequency response characteristics”. Proceedings of ISMA-2010, 1543-1557

9. MATLAB: help, ‘éig function’, ver. R2018a’.

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Effect of Diethyl Ether on LHR Engine Characteristics of a using Papaya Methyl Ester‐Eucalyptus Oil Blend

C.Sivakandhan1, R.Silambarasan2, I.Satyanarayana3, P.Vijay Kumar4 and M.V.B.Kalyan5 1,3,4,5.Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Indu Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad.

2Department of Mechanical Engineering, J.K.K.Nattraja College of Engineering and Technology, Kumarapalayam.


Abstract

The present experiment deals the study of addition of diethyl ether on the performance and

emission characteristics of LHR engine using papaya methyl ester-eucalyptus oil blends. The test

blends are CPME30Eu70 (Carica papaya methyl ester 30% and Eucalyptus oil 70%),

CPME30Eu70+10%DEE and diesel. The optimum results we get with presence of DEE in

CPME30Eu70 in LHR engine. The presence of DEE creates a lean mixture and its low viscosity,

high cetane number and volatility improves performance for a large degree. The graph depicts

that addition of 10% diethyl ether gives the best performance in BSEC, BSFC, BTE and emission

wise when coupled with LHR engine. Most notably NOx emission rate is decreased by the presence

of the DEE and BSFC is brought under acceptable limit. BSEC decreases in

CPME30Eu70+10%DEE and betters the performance of diesel in conventional engine. It also said

to improve the cold flow properties of the CPME-eucalyptus oil blend

Keywords: Diethyl ether; Papaya methyl ester ; LHR ; emission and combustion characteristics

1. Introduction

With the Paris Agreement behind us, There has been increasing awareness of climate

change, which will create an atmosphere very open to research and preventive measures

regarding climate change, even at the cost of national interests. If the Agreement’s

ambitious vision of reducing the temperature increase to 2% is to become a reality, it

would largely depend on how we deal with usage of fossil fuels and especially of the

transportation sector. The world still depends on fossil fuels for 88% of its energy. And

though in recent years there has been an increase in production of biodiesels, it has also

been a time of simultaneous increase in the consumption of fossil fuels. Any substantial

improvement in this regard has to come by the aid progressive governmental policies to

fund research and possible subsidies on biodiesel production. With the creeping of far-

right parties in Western Europe and a president of a country, which accounts for one-

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fifth of emissions, having anti-environmental policies, we have legitimate reasons to be

conc

Research for alternative fuels is not something new. It is as old as the engine itself. It

seems Rudolph Diesel operated the engine using peanut oil in 1900s. Much has changed

though since. After 1920s, Fossil fuel was made readily available, cheaper with

governments playing a positive part promoting it. Because of availability of fossil fuels,

the use of vegetable oils declined and went into oblivion. Until 1970s oil embargo

imposed by OPEC, the need for alternate fuel sources was not taken seriously. Now the

problem lied in the fact the engines were designed for running fuels with high volatility

and low viscosity. Straight Vegetable oils which have characteristically high viscosity

and low heating value was not suited for to be used in the engines.

Biodiesel also known as FAME (fatty acid methyl ester) is created from oil extracted

from animal and vegetable fats. The biodiesel production primarily depends on source.

The source is in accordance with both availability and economy. The most common

source of vegetable oils is plants of jatropha, rapeseed, mustard, cotton, neem etc.

Western Europe was a leader in cultivation of crops for biodiesel, because of ambitious

government policies from respective governments. Lately we have seen others

challenging this hegemony, with Asia closing the gap by accounting for 28% in 2010.

Biodiesel have properties very near to that of diesel. Hence it can be utilized without

even changing the engine design. Types of production of biodiesel are pyrolysis, micro-

emulsification, supercritical production and transesterificaton. The most powerful

method of production of Biodiesel is transesterificaton, because of its good conversion

rate. It is done by reacting triglyceride of the base oil with alcohol in the presence of

catalyst at high temperatures [4-10].

On running biodiesel on standard engine, research has shown a decrease in emissions of

CO, unburned HC, and soot formation except for NOx. There is a slight increase in bsfc

and a relatively smaller decrease in full load power. This researchers have attributed to

the presence of oxygen in biodiesel, which gives complete combustion and to that to the

almost absence of sulphur content gives good emission characteristics [13-16]

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LHR engines are engine which are supplied with ceramic coating of cylinder chamber

wall and head long with inlet and exhaust valve. The idea is to decrease the heat lost

through chamber walls to the cooling system will be available heat inside the cylinder to

be converted in to useful work. This also increases the thermal efficiency of the engine

[17, 18]

The main reason behind the NOx emission rates is the presence of oxygen and

temperature. Higher the temperature and oxygen content, higher is the NOx emission

rate. This is the main reason behind its increase in biodiesel and LHR engine with its

characteristics oxygen content and high combustion chamber wall temperature.

Researchers have tried to reduce NOx emissions by altering injection timing of both

diesel and LHR engines using biodiesel with varied success [24-26].

The performance, emission characteristics can be changed by changing the operation

conditions or changing the fuel properties. Fuel properties can be changed by adding

chemical additives. Anti-oxidant additives such as DEE are added to reduce NOx

formation inside the cylinder. Several researches have been done on performance of

LHR engine but not extensively. Some of them slight improvements in NOx [27-34]. R.

Senthil et al. reports that DEE when added with blends of biodiesel-eucalyptus oils

(B20E70DEE10) have properties very near that of diesel [29].

The authors humbly hope that the present experiment adds to existing scholarship and

assists further study. The present experiment deals the effect of DEE on the

performance, combustion and emission characteristics of LHR engine using papaya

methyl ester-eucalyptus oil blends. The test blends are CPME30Eu70 with and without

10% DEE and diesel as reference fuel.

2. Concept and Procedure

2.1 Biodiesel and its production

To improve the engine performance, modifications can be done either in the engine

design or the fuel characteristics. The change in diesel engine design is not feasible and

might be expensive. Hence modifying the fuel properties, so that it is compatible with

the engine design is the commonly held position. Biodiesel fits these criteria perfectly.

Biodiesel are long chain methyl esters derived from edible resources such as animal and

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vegetable fats. The absolute decrease in sulphur content and increase in oxygen content

helps in reducing harmful emissions and gives complete combustion. The viscosity is

brought near acceptable limits for the diesel engine Vegetable oil, which has very low

calorific value and high viscosity is not suited for diesel engine. These vegetable oils are

converted into biodiesel by processes like pyrolysis, micro-emulsification or

transesterificaton. Of which transesterificaton has the highest rate of conversion

complimented by an relatively simple process. Fuels are usually composed of HC and

other impurities such as sulphur, dust etc. By changing the structure of these HC and

its position, fuel properties are altered. Transesterification the triglyceride structure of

HC of oils, derived from animal and vegetable fats, is treated with alcohol in the

presence of a catalyst. The alcohol used usually is methanol, ethanol or butanol. For the

biodiesel to be renewable, it is necessary that the alcohol used is also renewable.

Catalyst can be of acid, alkali or lipase. The one we have used for our purpose is an

alkali catalyst. The end product is layer of methyl ester and glycerine. Glycerine is

removed, and then water content is removing to attain biodiesel. The one we have used

for our purpose is an alkali catalyst. Carica Papaya is usually found in parts of India,

South America, Mexico and Indonesia. Tropical climates favour its production. They are

growing as tall as 10m. The size of the seeds that it contains is very small. Vegetable oil

is extracted by using conventional mechanical screw type expellers. Papaya methyl ester

is reacted with methanol in a ratio (5:1). 0.5% of sodium hydroxide is used as catalyst.

The mixture is heated for 2 hours at around 70oC and 80oC. As the fractional

distillation, the papaya methyl ester is removed after of glycerine. It has methyl oleate

and methyl linoleate as major contents, with composition of around 65% and

20%..Aromatic and other unstable compounds are almost non-existent.

2.2 Eucalyptus oil

Eucalyptus trees can be found in tropical and temperate climate. Oil distilled from

leaves of eucalyptus, of which there is many times, is known commonly as eucalyptus

oil. These have high heating value, a low viscosity and agreeable flash point. The

drawback lies in it having a very low cetane number, which will result in poor starting

characteristics. This can be compensated by blending it with biodiesel. Blend, it seems

gives properties very near to that of diesel.

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2.3 LHR engine

An engine coated with insulating ceramic material inside combustion chamber walls is

called LHR engine. In a standard engine, of the heat released by the fuel one-third is

converted into useful work. Of the remaining heat release half goes as EGT and the

remaining passes through the cooling system. By using thermal barrier coating inside

the cylinder, we can enhance BTE which depends primarily on engine design and

introduce the ability to use fuels with low cetane rating. This is the case because of

increased in-cylinder temperature, which will result in shortening of ignition delay. It

enhances fuel economy. The BTE is better, but not drastic. LHR results in increase in

EGT. The standard diesel engine is converted into LHR (low heat rejection) engine by

plasma spray method. The coating is applied on the inner cylinder chamber wall, piston

head, chamber head and inlet and exhaust valves. The coating is of two layers: bond coat

and the thermal barrier coat. Over the substrate a bond coat is applied, over which the

thermal barrier coating is applied. The bond coat is used to relax thermal stresses

between the substrate and thermal barrier coat.

2.4 DEE

An engine is also filled with additives. Additives it is combustion of numerous chemical

it is used to improve the performance of the engine. The additives will help to overcome

the limitations of the biodiesel fuel such as the properties like density, toxicity, viscosity,

auto ignition, cetane number and flash point. The additives protect the engine from

corrosion. The types of additives are metal based additive, oxygenated additives, ethers,

antioxidants and fuel dyes. In the metal based it is used as catalytic effect., by using this

the emission is reduced and the reason is metal react with water vapour to form

hydroxyl and react with carbon atom so that the discharging of the oxidation of

temperature is formed .the oxygenated additives useful for the combustion process and

cetane rating. The cetane number is for minimizing the ignition delay.

3. Experimental setup

The testing engine is a kirloskar tv1 model single cylinder four stroke water-cooled

diesel engine developing 5.2 kW at a speed of 1500 rpm. Thermal barrier coating of PSZ

is applied on the cylinder head, combustion chamber wall, piston head and on the

surface of inlet and outlet valves. The specifications of the engine mentioned below in

the Table 1. This engine is directly coupled and connected to an AG10 model water

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cooled eddy-current dynamometer (Make Saj Test Plant Pvt. Ltd.) with a control system.

Lab view based Engine Performance Analysis software package “Engine soft LV” is used

for on line performance evaluation. There is a orifice meter where there is surge tank

placed on the inlet side of an engine is to maintains constant air flow. The exhaust

temperature is measured by using a thermocouple, which is a K type thermocouple in

conjunction with a digital temperature indicator. The fuel flow rate is measured on

volume basis using a burette and stop watch. On the basis of NDIR (non-dispersive

infrared) selective absorption principle by using the AVL 444 DI gas analyzer the

exhaust gas emission HC (hydro carbon), CO (carbon monoxide), CO2 (carbon dioxide)

and NOX (oxides of nitrogen) has been measured from the engine. AVL 444 DI gas

analyzer technical specification is given in Table 2. By using AVL437C smoke meter the

smoke level is measured. And the smoke emission is measured based on principle of

light extinction wherein, the amount of light blocked by the sample of exhaust gas from

the engine.

Table 1. Specification of engine design

Sl. No Details specifications

1 Type

Four stroke, kirloskar make, Compression ignition, Direct injection and water cooled

2 Rated power & speed 5.2 kW & 1500 rpm

3 Number of cylinder Single cylinder

4 Compression ratio 17.5: 1

5 Bore & stroke 87.5 mm & 110 mm

6 Method of loading Eddy current dynamometer

7 Dynamometer arm length 0.185 m

8 Type of injection Mechanical pump-nozzle Injection

9 Inlet valve opening 4.5 ° before TDC

10 Inlet valve closing 35.55 ° after TDC

11 Exhaust valve opening 35.55 ° before BDC

12 Exhaust valve closing 450 after TDC

13 Injection timing 230 after TDC

14 Injection pressure 220 bar

15 Lubrication oil SAE40

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4. Test

The en

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Table 2. Before Transesterification:


1 Density @ 150C (kg/m3) 840 910 895.5

2 Kinematic viscosity @ 400C (Cst) 2.9 36 2

3 Flash Point (oC) 54 162 58

4 Fire point (oC) 64 280 64



Table 3. After Transesterification:


1 Density @ 150C (kg/m3) 840 867 713

2 Kinematic viscosity @ 400C (Cst) 2.9 4.5 0.23

3 Flash Point (oC) 54 152 -45

4 Fire point (oC) 64 158 -



4.1Test fuels

Fuel properties where measured by standard ASM methods. Table 2 and 3 shows the

fuel properties before and after transesterificaton. The sole biodiesel blend being used is

CPME30Eu70. Eucalyptus oil and CPME have mutual complimenting properties.

Eucalyptus oil has high calorific value but a low cetane index, which dents its cold flow

properties, whereas CPME has a good cetane number. DEE will be added for only 10%

of the total quantity of the blend. DEE has low viscosity, good volatility. This improves

cold flow properties and gives better atomization and better combustion. DEE is an

oxygenated additive but moreover because of cold flow properties it might bring down

Nox emission rate.

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5. Result and discussion

5.1 Brake Specific Energy Consumption

The Figure 2 shows the variation of BSEC with respect to brake power for

CPME30Eu70 and neat diesel in LHR and standard CI engine. Brake specific energy

consumption measures the amount of input energy required to develop 1 kilowatt power.

It tries to show how efficiently fuel energy content has been converted into power. Now,

the factors that might affect the BSEC are density, viscosity, heating value of the fuel

employed and volumetric fuel injection system. Generally in LHR engine, BSEC is

reduced because of decrease in ignition delay caused by high in-cylinder temperature. At

full load condition, BSEC for CPME30Eu70 added with 10% DEE is 11.5 kg/kw.hr,

which is lesser than all other testing conditions. The BSEC for CPME30Eu70 with

added 10% DEE, which is run in LHR engine, is 4% lesser compared to that for diesel

run in conventional engine, this is because of the better combustion process resulting

from addition of DEE. This might be also attributed to high energy content of the fuel

because of high calorific value of eucalyptus oil.

Fig.2 Shows variation of BSEC with brake power

5.2 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

The Figure 3 shows the variation of BSFC with respect to brake power for

CPME30Eu70 and neat diesel in LHR and standard CI engine. The BSFC is the amount

of fuel consumed for generating 1kW of power per unit hour per kg. The graph indicates

that BSFC decreases with increase in load. It can be seen that fuel consumption is less

for diesel compared to other fuels. This is because of higher calorific value of diesel

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0 2 4 6

DIESEL

CPME30EU70

BP(kW)

BSEC

(kg/kW

.hr)

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compared to other fuels. Of the five tests LHR CPME30Eu70 added with 10% DEE and

LHR diesel have the best BSFC rates. At full load, LHR CPME30Eu70 added with 10%

DEE exhibits BSFC which is 6%, 13% and 14.5% lesser than that of LHR diesel, diesel

in conventional engine and CPME30Eu70 in conventional engine. DEE added to

CPME30Eu70 decreases the BSFC because of its higher volatility, which speeds up the

mixing velocity of fuel air mixture and results in good combustion process.

Fig.3Shows variation of BSFC with brake power

5.3 Brake Thermal Efficiency

The Figure 4 shows the variation of BTE with respect to brake power for CPME30Eu70

and neat diesel in LHR and standard CI engine. Off the total heat energy generated by

the chemical reaction of the fuel is, in a conventional engine, (1) 1/3rd passes as heat

transfer through combustion chamber walls; (2) 1/3rd flows through exhaust gas as

exhaust gas temperature and the remaining (3) 1/3rd is utilized as work. This is the case

irrespective of the fuel used. By changing the fuel the fuel economy can be improved but

not BTE. Improvement in BTE can be brought by only engine design modification. The

LHR engine because of its ceramic coating helps in reducing heat loss through cooling

medium and it results in increasing fuel energy utilization. At full load, the LHR

CPME30Eu70 with added 10% DEE has thermal efficiency of 32.9%, which is 1.2%,

2.73%, 7.3% and 10.3% greater than LHR CPME30Eu70, LHR diesel, diesel and

CPME30Eu70 in standard engine respectively. DEE has lower kinematic viscosity,

which when mixed with CPME30 helps in better atomization and mixing of fuels which

will decrease ignition delay and has a positive effect (though negligible) in BTE.

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

0 1 2 3 4 5

DIESEL

CPME30Eu70

LHR DIESEL

BP(kW)

BSFC(kg/kW

.hr)

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Fig.4 Shows variation of BTE with brake power

5.4 Exhaust Gas Temperature

The Figure 5 shows the variation of EGT with respect to brake power for CPME30Eu70

and neat diesel in LHR and standard CI engine. The EGT is an indication of heating

capacity of the fuel used and also the engine design. Usually 1/3rd of the heating

capacity comes out as EGT. In LHR, EGT increases considerably because of the decrease

in heat transfer through combustion chamber walls. The graph shows clearly that in a

conventional engine EGT is low when compared to LHR engines. At full load condition,

the EGT of CPME30Eu70 with added 10% DEE used in LHR engine is 415oC which is

1.2%, 3.6%, 8.4%, 12% higher than LHR CPME30Eu70 and diesel, CPME30Eu70 and

diesel in a conventional engine respectively. The addition of DEE seems to increase the

peak cylinder temperature and hence has higher EGT than others

Fig.5 Shows variation of EGT with brake power

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

0 1 2 3 4 5

DIESELCPME30Eu70LHR DIESELLHR CPME30E70

BP(kW)

BTE (%)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

0 1 2 3 4 5

DIESEL

CPME30Eu70

BP(kW)

EGT (�C)

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5.5 CO emission

The Figure 6 shows the variation of CO emission rate with respect to brake power for

CPME30Eu70 and neat diesel in LHR and standard CI engine. CO is an intermediate

combustion product that is formed, mainly because of incomplete combustion. At the

completion of the combustion process, CO2is formed. This is caused because of lack of

oxygen and low gas temperature. So at lean gas mixtures the CO emission will be low.

This is why biodiesel have remarkably low CO emission characteristics; the abundant

oxygen content available in the fuel improves the combustion process. It can be seen

from the graph that diesel because of relatively lower oxygen content observes high CO

emission rates on both standard and LHR engine. At full load, CO emission rate for

CPME30Eu70 with added 10% DEE is 20% and 42% less than diesel in LHR and

conventional engine respectively. CPME30Eu70 with added 10% DEE in LHR engine

shows the optimum results because DEE creates a relatively lean mixture with low

viscosity suited for improved atomization and combustion of the fuel.

Fig.6 Shows variation of CO emission with brake power

5.6 HC emission

The Figure 7 shows the variation of UHC emission rate with respect to brake power for

CPME30Eu70 and neat diesel in LHR and standard CI engine. The fuel used for

combustion is largely composed of HC (hydrocarbons) structure and other impurities.

These fuels need oxygen content with sufficient temperature and pressure to mix with

air supply. It should be also noted that air-fuel mixture in CI engine is heterogeneous,

which there both lean mixture and rich mixture portions are of fuel content in the

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0 1 2 3 4 5

DIESEL

CPME30Eu70

LHR DIESEL

LHR CPME30Eu70


CO(%

)

BP(kW)

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engine. At lean mixture portions the HC emission is low and vice versa for rich mixture

portions. From the chart it is clearly discerned that diesel in both conventional engine

and LHR engine have high UHC emissions. In general with increasing load the HC

emission rate increases. At the full load condition, LHR CPME30Eu70 added with 10%

DEE has only 37 ppm for HC emission, which is 32% less than that for diesel in

conventional engine.

Fig.7 Shows variation of HC emission with brake power

5.7 NOx emission

The Figure 8 shows the variation of NOx emission rate with respect to load for various

test fuels in LHR and conventional engine. The oxygen doesn’t readily react with

nitrogen to form NOx. It is a endothermic reaction, and hence high temperature is

required to form NOx. The graph shows in general that the NOx emission rate increases

with increasing load. DEE addition relatively decreases the NOx emission in

CPME30Eu70. This is because DEE acts as a cooling agent. At full load condition, diesel

exhibits NOx emission, when run by standard diesel engine, of 800 ppm which is lesser

than LHR CPME30Eu70 by 21.2%. DEE slightly decreases the NOx emission for LHR

CPME30Eu70 with added DEE by 9.2% compared to CPME30Eu70 run on LHR engine

without DEE.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0 1 2 3 4 5

DIESEL

CPME30Eu70

LHR DIESEL

LHR CPME30Eu70


BP(kW)

HC (ppm)

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Fig.8 Shows variation of NOx emission with brake power

5.8 Smoke emission

The Figure 9 shows the variation of smoke opacity with respect to brake power for

CPME30Eu70 and neat diesel in LHR and standard CI engine Smoke emission is an

indication of incomplete combustion. CPME has absolutely no sulphur content and has

more lean mixture portions of the fuel, this is the reason behind the lower smoke

emission compared to diesel. DEE exists in gaseous form in room temperature with a

flash point of merely -45oC. This leads again to an increase in the smoke emissions in

the presence of high in-cylinder temperature of LHR engine. This is why at full load

condition, LHR CPME30Eu70 added with 10% observes an increase in smoke opacity of

7% compared to CPME30Eu70 run in standard engine.

Fig.9 Shows variation of smoke with brake power

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0 1 2 3 4 5

DIESEL

CPME30Eu70

LHR DIESEL

LHR CPME30Eu70


BP(kW)

NOx (ppm)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0 1 2 3 4 5

DIESEL

CPME30Eu70

LHR‐DIESEL

LHR‐CPME30Eu70

LHR‐CPME30Eu70+10DEE

BP(kW)

SMOKE (HSU

)

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6. Conclusion

The present study arrives at the conclusion, confirming the previous scholarship, that

diethyl ether can be added as a fuel property improver in biodiesel as a replacement for

fossil fuels. That being further investigation on the formation of emissions while using

DEE and its possible side effects has to be done. Some of the highlighting conclusions

are

NOx emission rate while using diethyl ether decreased the emission by 90ppm when

compared to blend without diethyl ether.

BSFC, BSEC performance while using diethyl ether is better than diesel. This is

attributed to physical properties of diethyl ether, which improves cold flow

properties and atomization because of low viscosity and good cetane number.

CO and HC emission is 32% (absolute terms) and 42% lesser than diesel emission.

References

1. Lin Lin, Zhou Cunshan, Saritporn Vittaapadung, Shen Xiangqian and Dong Mingdong. Opportunities and challenges for biodiesel fuel. Applied Energy, 88, 2011, 1020-1031.

2. Magin Lapuerta, Octavio Amas, Jose Rodriguez-Fernandez. Effect of biodiesel fuels on diesel engine emissions. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 34, 2008, 198-223.

3. Lakshmanan Singaram. Biodiesel - An eco-friendly alternative fuel for the future – A Review. Thermal Science, Vol. 13, 2009, No. 3, pp. 185-199.

4. Adriana Gog, Marius Roman, Monica Toşa, Csaba Paizs and Florin Dan Irimie. Biodiesel production using enzymatic transesterificaion – Current State and perspectives. Renewable Energy, 39, 2012, 10-16.

5. Mehdi Atapour, Hamid –Reza Kariminia. Characterization and transesterification of Iranian bitter almond oil for biodiesel production. Applied Energy, 88, 2011, 2377-2381.

6. Purnanand Vishwanathrao Bhale, Nishikant. Deshpande, Shashikant B. Thombre. Improving the low temperature properties of biodiesel fuel. Renewableenergy, 34, 2009, 794-800.

7. Alemayehu Gashaw, Tewodros Getachew and Abile Teshita. A Review on Biodiesel Production as Alternative Fuel. Journal of Forest Products and Industries, 2015, (2), 80-85.

8. Deepak Verma, Janmit Raj, Amit Pal and Manish Jain. A critical review on production of biodiesel from various feedstocks. Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research, 2016, 5(2), 51-58.

9. Avinash Kumar Agarwal. Biofuels (alcohols and biodiesel) applications as fuels for internal combustion engines. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 33, 2007, 233-271.

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10. Wuttichai Roschat, Theeranun Sritanon, Boonawan Yoosuk, Taweesak Sudyoadsuk and Vinich Promarak. Rubber seed oil as potential non-edible feedstock for biodiesel production using heterogeneous catalyst in Thailand. Renewable Energy, 101, 2017, 937-944.

11. B.P. Singh. Performance and emission characteristics of conventional engine running on jatropha oil. Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology, 27(8), 2013, 2569-2574.

12. Orhan Arpa, Recep Yumrutas and Onder Kaska. Desulfurization of diesel-like fuel produced from waste lubrication oil and its utilization on engine performance and exhaust emissions. Applied Thermal Engineering, 58, 2013, 374-381.

13. Md. NurunNabi, Md. Mustafizur Rahman and Md. Shamim Akhter. Biodiesel from cotton seed oil and its effect on engine performance and exhaust emissions. Applied Thermal Engineering, 29, 2009, 2265-2270.

14. N.R. Banapurnath, P.G. Tewari and R.S. Hosmath. Performance and emission characteristics of a DI compression ignition engine operated on Honge, Jatropha and sesame oil methyl ester. Renewable Energy, 33, 2008, 1982-1988.

15. K. Suresh Kumar, R. Velraj and R. Ganesan. Performance and exhaust emission characteristics of a CI engine fueled with Pongamiapinnata methyl ester (PPME) and its blends with diesel. Renewable Energy, 33, 2008, 2294-2302.

16. N. Saravanan, Sukumar Puhan, G. Nagarajan and B. Rajendra Prasath. An experimental investigation on mahua oil (madhuacaindica oil) methyl and ethyl ester as a renewable fuel for diesel engine system. Proceedings of the 19th National Conference on I.C. Engines and Combustion, Annamalai University, Chidambaram. Dec21-23, 2005. pp. 65-69.

17. M.J. Abedin, H.H. Masjuki, M.A. Kalam, A. Sanjid, A.M. Ashraful. Combustion, performance and emission characteristics of low heat rejection engine operating on various biodiesels and vegetable oils. Energy Conversion and Management, 85, 201,173-189.

18. B. Rajendra Prasath, P.Tamilporai and Mohd. F. Shabir. Analysis of combustion, performance and emission characteristic of low heat rejection engine using biodiesel. International Journal of Thermal Science, 9, 2010, 283-2490.

19. R. Senthil, E. Siakumar, R. Silambarasan and G. Mohan. Performance and emission characteristics of a low heat rejection engine using Nerium biodiesel and its blends.International Journal of Ambient Energy, DOI: 10.1080/0130750.2015.1076517

20. N.Venkateshwara Rao, M.V.S. Murali Krishna and P.V.K. Murthy. Investigation on performance parameters of ceramic coated diesel engine with tobacco seed oil biodiesel. International Journal Of Advances in Engineering and Technology, Nov. 2013, Vol. 6, Issue 5, pp.2286-2300.

21. M.V.S. Murali Krishna, N. DurgaPrasada Rao, A. Anjeneya Prasad and P.V.K. Murthy.Performance Evaluation of Rice Brown Oil in Low Grade Low Heat Rejection Diesel Engine. International Journal of Engineering and Science. ISSN: 2278-721, Vol. 1, Issue 5 ( October 2012), PP1-12.

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22. Can Hasimoglu, Murat Ciniviz, Ibrahim Ozsert, YakupIcingur, Adnan Parlak and M. Sahir Salman. Performance characteristics of a low heat rejection diesel engine operating with biodiesel. Renewable Energy, 33, 2008, 1709-1715.

23. Hanbey Hazar and Ugur Ozturk. The effects of Al2O3-TiO2 coating in a diesel engine on performance and emission of corn oil methyl ester. Renewable Energy, 35, 2010, 2211-2216.

24. Ekrem Buyuukkaya and Muhammed Cerit. Experimental study of NOx emissions and injection timing of a low heat rejection diesel engine. International Journal of Thermal Science, 47, 2008, 1096-1106.

25. Adnan Parlak, Halit Yasar, Can Hasimoglu and Ahmet Kolip. The effects of injection timing on NOx emissions of a low heat rejection indirect diesel injection engine. Applied Thermal Science, 25, 2005, 3042-3052.

26. T. Ganapathy, R.P. Gakkhar, K.Murugesan. Influence of injection timing on performance, combustion and emission characteristics of Jatropha oil. Applied Energy, 88, 2011, 4376-4386.

27. M. Mohamed Mushtafa. Synthetic lubrication oil influences on performance and emission characteristic of coated diesel engine fuelled by biodiesel blends. Applied Thermal Engineering, 96, 2016, 607-612.

28. H.K. Rashedul, H.H. Masjuki, M.A. Kalam, A.M. Ashraful, S.M. Ashrafur Rahman and S.A. Shahir. The effect of additives on properties, performance and emission of biodiesel fuelled compression ignition engines. Energy Conversion and Management, 88, 2014, 348-364.

29. R. Senthil, E. Sivakumar and R. Silambarasan. Effect of diethyl ether on the performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine using biodiesel-eucalyptus oil in blends. RSC Adv., 2015, 5, 54019.

30. D.H. Qi, H. Chen, L.M. Geng and Y.Z. Bian. Effect of diethyl ether and ethanol additives on the combustion and emission characteristics of biodiesel –diesel blended fuel engine. Renewable Energy, 36, 2011, 1252-1258.

31. Amr Ibrahim. Investigating the effect of using diethyl ether as a fuel additive on diesel engine performance and combustion. Applied Thermal Engineering, 107, 2016, 853-862.

32. Obed Ali, Rizwana Mamat, H.H. Masjuki, Abdul Adam Abdullah. Analysis of blended fuel properties and cycle-to-cycle variation in a diesel engine with a diethyl ether additive. Energy Conversion and Management, 108, 2016, 511-519.

33. S.Imtenan, H.H. Masjuki, M. Varman, M.I. Arbab, H.Sajjad, I.M. Rizwanul Fattah, M.J. Abedin and Abu Saeed Md. Hasib. Emission and performance improvement analysis of biodiesel-diesel blends with additives. Procedia Engineering, 90, 2014, 472-477.

34. Effect of Butanol addition on performance and emission characteristics of a DI diesel engine fueled with pongamia-ethanol blend. International Journal of Chem Tech Research, 2015, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp 59-67.

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158

Mechanical and Tribological Behavior of Al 5083‐ Gr /SiO2/B4C Hybrid Composites

T. Hariprasad, L. Shakeel Ahmed, K. Srinivasan and S.V. Suresh Babu 1234Department of Mechanical Engineering, Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur‐635109, India.

Abstract

In this present study, an attempt is made to compare the microstructural, mechanical&

tribological properties of Al-B4C-Gr, Al-SiO2-Gr hybrid composite fabricated by stir

casting technique with constant 5% B4C, 5 % SiO2 and 2, 4 and 6 % of Gr. The hardness

gradually increased with the presence of SiO2-Gr, compare to B4C-Gr the hardness of

11% of hybrid composite reinforced with Al-SiO2-Gr is 64 HRC is higherthan all other

samples. The tensile strength of the hybrid composite was better to compare to

reinforcement B4C-Gr, the microstructural analysis reviews the presenceof

reinforcement; the distribution of reinforcement particles was uniformly distributed.

The wear test was carried out by using a pin-on-disc wear tribometer by varying

parameters like normal load (5, 10N), sliding speed (1, 1.5m/s) with constant sliding

distance (2000m). The worn surface of the samples is examined by using SEM, and the

wear properties of the hybrid composite are found to be exhibit superior wear resistance

properties than composites. The Al-SiO2-Gr wear rate was better than the Al-B4C-Gr.

Keywords: Al 5083, Gr, SiO2, B4C, Wear, Pin-On-Disc.

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159

Application of machine learning to optimize Mg recovery in the Al‐Mg alloy produced by modified stir casting method

Rajesh Kumar Behera1*, Birajendu Prasad Samal2 and Sarat Chandra Panigrahi3

1*Research Scholar, Biju Patnaik University of Technology, Odisha, [email protected] 2Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Orissa Engineering College, Bhubaneswar, [email protected]

3Ex‐Prof., IIT Kharagpur, Professor and Head R&D, R.E College, Bhubaneswar, India. [email protected]

Generally Al-Mg alloy are used for its light weight and high strength properties in

automobile and aeronautical fields. Conventional methods used for preparing Al-Mg

alloys are associated with low mg recovery. Loss of magnesium during the process

makes it uneconomical and environmental unfriendly. However modified stir casting

method facilitates high recovery of magnesium in molten aluminum to meet desirable

mechanical properties. In the present study an attempt is made to investigate the

optimum magnesium recovery during the preparation of Al-Mg alloy. The process

involves a modified stir casting method where plungers are used to feed magnesium

turnings into the molten aluminium metal for Al-Mg alloy production. Use of artificial

intelligence technique has been the recent trends in various fields. In the present study,

Genetic algorithm has been used as an optimization technique to calculate Mg recovery

in the Al-Mg alloys using experimental data. Different genetic operators like crossover

and mutation has been used in the computational algorithm for optimized solution.

Genetic algorithms (GAs) are biologically inspired computing techniques, based on

Darwinian concepts of natural selection. They are highly robust and efficient for most

engineering optimizing studies. GAs based studies are increasingly making their

presence felt in many different aspects of this discipline. In recent times, GAs have been

successfully used in numerous problems in the areas of atomistic material design, alloy

design, polymer processing, powder compaction and sintering, ferrous production

metallurgy, continuous casting, metal rolling, metal cutting, welding, and so on. In the

present study, an effort has been made to use this technique in evaluation of Mg

recovery in Al-Mg alloy.A fuzzy logic technique is also introduced as the part of

investigation for determination of Mg recovery in the alloys produce using temperature,

rpm and percentage of magnesium addition as the input parameters to the fuzzy model.

The result from the fuzzy model has been compared with the experimental result and

was found to be in good agreement.

Keywords: Al-Mg Alloys, Mg recovery, Genetic Algorithm, Fuzzy logy, Modified Stir

Casting Method.

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160

A Brief glimpse on Coating techniques, properties for Materials used for Auto‐component Fabrication

Soumya Mukherjee1 and Rajib Ranjan Pal2

Department of Metallurgical Engineering, School of Mining & Metallurgy, Kazi Nazrul University,

Asansol‐713340, India

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering, Heritage Institute of Technology,

Kolkata‐700107, India

Abstract:

Fuel saving, low energy-reduction of CO2 emission, corrosion resistance; wear resistance

are important desirable characteristics for materials used in Automobile component

manufacturing. Material properties are dominant for quality, sustainable application for

auto components and for modern automobile engineering. Coating techniques plays a

major role for fabricating various components like engine cam, engine cylinder liners,

piston, brakes, piston skirts of automobile engine and others. Various coating process

like CVD, PVD, Diamond Like coating, screen printing of different materials/composite

based material are practised for enhanced wear, tribological, corrosion properties for

better performance of automotive components. Material substrate preparation and some

specific types of heat treatment also induced textural/morphology reformation for

enhanced performances. In the present article, focus is done on some of the techniques

carried for different materials to improve the engine life, reduction of failure for

automobile components.

Keywords: Coating, Automobile, tribology, wear-corrosion,

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161

Mechanical Behavioural Aspects of Sintered Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites through P/M Route

Rajesh Kumar Behera

Research Scholar, Biju Patnaik University of Technology, Odisha, India. E‐mail: [email protected]

The present material world requires a new variety of composite materials. Aluminium

metal matrix composites (AMMC's) has been replaced the present composites for its

attractive mechanical behavioral aspects due to its light weight, high strength, ductility,

corrosion resistance, ease of assembly, low cost and offering unique combinations of both

strength, stiffness, wear resistance, and elevated temperature stability. They are

produced by powder metallurgy route. The main objective in developing aluminium

metal matrix composites is to provide enhanced characteristic performances and

properties from the currently available materials. AMMCs have gained its wide

applications in automotive, aerospace and electronic equipments etc. Based on the

literature, a new type of aluminium composite is developed which may offer attractive

mechanical properties such as high strength, light weight, less corrosion, easy

machinability, appreciable density and low manufacturing cost etc. In the present study,

aluminum powders of 99.55% purity and 325 mesh sizes are mixed with alloying metal

powders like Copper, Magnesium, Silicon and Silicon Carbide in a precisely controlled

quantity. During the process of powder metallurgy (P/M) product preparation, it was

minutely observed to attain the maximum efficiency and accuracy. Aluminium used

here as a main raw material called as matrix material and was reinforced with Cu, Mg,

Si, SiC. The composite material was developed with the process starting with selection

of metal powders, weighing, mixing/blending, compacting and sintering. Thecompaction

was carried out with help of a C-45 steel die by power compaction press with a load of

150KN to 250KN. The obtained green products were sintered in a Muffle furnace to

produce the final aluminium metal matrix composites product.The composites were

under gone different mechanical properties tests and found it has better and high

performance material properties for industrial applications due to its appreciable

properties over the traditional aluminium or its alloys.

Keywords: Aluminium Metal Matrix Composite, Powder Metallurgy, Sintering,

Microstructure, Mechanical Properties.

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162

Internet of Things (IOT) for New Generation Automobiles

Soumya Mukherjee1, Mohammed Shahnawaz2 and Rajib Ranjan Pal2

Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Kazi Nazrul University, Asansol‐713340, India

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering, Heritage institute of technology,

Kolkata‐70107, India

Abstract:

IOT is a new term that revolutionizes modern concept of manufacturing, service sectors

in global and national scenario. IOT actually gives birth to fourth generation of

industrial revolution with modern approach to the concept of product, processing and its

utility. IOT is a further step to the concept of autonomous car and industrial

automation. Smart car of present time which consists of myriads of modern entities like

navigation, cab services, entertainment is already a step towards high end automation,

driverless car concept. IOT actually helps in more advancement of such concept leading

to communication between devices and sensors installed in car for better traffic control,

positioning, navigation, anti-theft and others. Due to IOT there will be possibility of

connected cars playing a major role in the roads and for economy in future. IOT will also

cause a major shift in automobile industry from concept focussing on products to

services, experiences, from hardware to software, functionality to information as key

objective for value creation along with industry silos to complex connected systems.

Keywords: IOT, automation, automobile.

*******

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163

Effect of Intake Manifold Material on Engine Performance

P. Arjunraj1, P.D. Jeyakumar2, M.Bharathiraja3 and Dr. RagupathyKaru4 1Research Scholar, 2Associate Professor,

Department of Mechanical Engineering, B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science and Technology,

Vandalur, Chennai, Tamilnadu‐ 600048 3, 4Associate Professor, Department of Automobile Engineering, Bannari Amman Institute of

Technology,Sathyamangalam, Tamilnadu, India – 638401 [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],

[email protected]

Abstract

The breathing of the engine is important for power production and it is controlled by

intake manifold. The flow in the intake manifold is considered as pipe flow where in the

frictional losses will be more. The finishing and surface roughness of the material is

important and can be attained by manufacturing process. This project intends to

compare the performance of an engine with three different intake manifolds with

different materials. The materials are PA6GF30, PA66GF30 and AlSi8Cu3. The original

engine manifold is made up of AlSi8Cu3. The manifold of other two materials are

prepared to the required dimensions and conducted the performance analysis on the

engine by keeping other parameters as constant. The results have shown better

improvement in the power and torque developed with Intake manifold material of

PA6GF30.The brake specific fuel consumption decreases for PA6GF30 manifold for all

loads when compared to PA66GF30 and AlSi8Cu3 manifolds. The volumetric efficiency

and airflow rate increases for PA6GF30 manifold for all loads when compared to

PA66GF30 and AlSi8Cu3 manifolds. The results show the suitability of PA6GF30

material for manifold in order to get better performance.

Keywords: PA6GF30, PA66GF30, AlSi8Cu3, Performance, BSFC

*******

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nd ember 4 ‐ 5, 2019.

164

Statistical Analysis of Biodiesel Utilization by various countries –Review

Balaji A, Naresh G, Saranya K, Manivasagan V and Ramesh Babu N.G

Department of Biotechnology, Adhiyamaan college of Engineering, Hosur‐635130, Tamilnadu


Abstract

The rises in population as created a drastic demand on conventional fuels because of

their sources are finite. This causes the consumption rates as low by 2040 it is believed

to be exhausted. It is therefore, necessary to develop a alternative renewable source

using oils extracted from plant, vegetable, cooking and animal fats. This review

describes about an alternative source for the production of biodiesel gained from

sunflower oil, economic analysis and its properties. According to reports 3920 kg of

sunflower seeds is required for the extraction of 1000 litres of sunflower oil for the

production of biodiesel. Energy value for 1000 L was estimated as 9 million kcal

.Sunflower as 26% oil content which is quite high when compared to the soybean oil. The

cost for the production of one litre is Rs. 80-120.The countries which produce major

biodiesel are European union countries like Germany (28%) where, 2.2 million tons per

year is utilized(2015) ,France (22%),Spain(9.5%),Italy (8%) and some other countries

contributing in less .European union is believed to share more than 10 % of bio fuels

by 2020.European countries use sunflower as their major feedstock for the biodiesel

production which plays a role in reducing green houses gases. The process is carried out

by subjecting sunflower oil to transesterification reaction and NAOH as catalyst,

improves efficiency with ethanol resulting in the by product of glycerine. These

processes were developed on focussing simple, cost effective and environmentally

friendly. Therefore, sunflower oil derived biodiesel can be used as a substitute for the

conventional fuels.

Keywords: Transesterification, NAOH catalyst, biodiesel, statistical analysis, green

house gases

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165

Impact of thermal barrier coating application on the combustion, Performance and emissions of a diesel engine fuelled with

Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel oil–diesel blends

V.Dattatreya1,, B.R.Ramesh Bapu2 and B.Durga Prasad3 1Research scholar JNTUniversity, Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh

2Prof., Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chennai Institute of Technology, Chennai, India. 3Prof., Dept. of Mechanical Engg., JNTUniversity, Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh, India.

*corresponding author e‐mail id : [email protected]

Abstract

The rapid increase in fuel price, decreasing supply of high grade fuels in the market and

environmental concerns stimulated research on more efficient engines and also led to

revolution of using alternative fuels. The efficiency of IC engines can be enhanced by

reducing the heat loss. Lower heat rejection from the combustion chamber through

thermal insulated components can be achieved by thermal barrier coatings. The

Calophyllum Inophyllummethyl ester(CIME) biodiesel blends, were tested for their

alternate resource in diesel engines. The piston crown was coated with the partially

stabilized ZrO2 and Cr3C2 coatings over the piston crown to provide thermal insulation

which leads to better combustion performance and wear resistance. Coating was done by

thermal sprary and by HVOF methods. Experimental investigation on combustion

characteristics, such as, heat release, peak pressure and brake thermal efficiency, is

studied for varying loads 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100% for both coated and uncoated piston.

The biodiesel blends prepared from CIME oil is prepared through esterification process.

From the combustion study, the results reveal that, combustion parameters (peak

pressure and heat release ) is improved by 10 % on a compression ratio of 18:1for the

coated piston with CIME biodiesel blends. The hardness of piston was increased from

1.4 to 24.5 GPa by coating Cr3C2 and this could increase the load capacity of the piston.

Keywords Calophyllum Inophyllum, HVOF, thermal spray, compression ratio,

Biodiesel,

*******

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166

Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Al 5083 Reinforced with B4C and TiO2 Pareicles

T. Hariprasad and L. Shakeel Ahmed 12 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur‐635109, India.

Abstract:

In this study, the Al 5083 matrix hybrid composites is fabricated with 3, 5 & 7 weight

percentage of Boron Carbide (B4C) particle along with constant 5 weight percentage of

Titanium Dioxide (TiO2). The microstructural analysis of the samples were studied by

using SEM, EDX. The reinforcement particles are uniformly distributed through the

matrix alloy. The EDX reviews the presence of reinforcement. The wear properties of the

samples were investigated by pin-on-disc wear tribometer, with different parameters

like load (10, 20, 30 N), speed (525 rpm). The corrosion behavior of the samples were

analyzed by Immersion Test and Potentiodynamic Polarization Test in 3.5 wt. % of NaCl

solution. Increasing the volume fraction of B4C reduces significantly corrosion rate of the

hybrid composites. The corroded surface of hybrid composites were studied through

SEM.

Keywords: Al 5083, TiO2, B4C, Wear, Pin-On-Disc, NaCl.

*******

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nd ember 4 ‐ 5, 2019.

167

Electro‐optical systems in ISRO Remote Sensing Program and Signal and Image Processing on Satellite Data for Natural Resources

C J Jagadeesha FIE

Former Scientist ISRO, Bengaluru

Abstract

Indian remote sensing satellite systems are under the umbrella of National Natural

Resources Management System (NNRMS) and is coordinated at the national level by

planning committee of NNRMS which comprises of Indian Space Research Organisation

and various other ministries representatives like department of agriculture, water,

minerals, telecommunications, urban, rural development, forests, environment and

many more. In electro-optical systems for sensing the earth resources we have visible

and near-infrared sensors, thermal infrared sensors, microwave sensors, spectroscopy

methods of sensing. These are also called as spectral data systems as compared to

photographic systems. The principles of radiometry is applied in these remote sensing of

spectral regions of electromagnetic radiation. Indian Space Research Research

Organisation has put most of the remotely sensed electro-optical sensors data gathered

from remote sensing satellites in ISRO and other governmental websites like BHUVAN,

MOSDAC, India WRIS, NDEM, NRDMS and even in State Remote Sensing Centres.

Both signal processing and image processing are playing increasingly important roles in

remote sensing. As most data from satellites are in image form, image processing has

been used most often, whereas signal processing contributes significantly in extracting

information from the remotely sensed waveforms or time series data. The basic

principles of image processing of satellite images like image compression, restoration,

segmentation and classification will be highlighted with practical examples on earth

resources exploration and sustainable management point of view in this paper. Image

processing methods and their utilisation on satellite multispectral images, hyper

spectral images and microwave images will be explained briefly. Real time systems of

image processing may need advanced techniques using VLSI (VHDL). Theses will be

discussed.

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168

Progress of Emission Pollution Control

Prof V J Lawrence1, Stephin Janvel2 and Mounika A3

SJIM, Bangalore, [email protected] 2&3Student, SJIM

The adverse impact of emissions on the planet has been established beyond doubt. The

vehicular population has been seeing a spiraling increase. The vehicle density is leading

to lot of emanations on the roads. The emission norms have been revised periodically to

help in control of the vehicular emissions. There are huge challenges to the auto

industry to continually upgrade to ensure that the conformance to standards are

adhered to. The aim of this paper is to track the history of emission controls and what is

happening currently, besides understanding the various controls for vehicular pollution

within India and also comparing it to benchmark standards worldwide

*******

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169

Challenges to Electric car adoption in India

Prof V J Lawrence1, Anthony Felix2 and Bosco Sylvester3

SJIM, Bangalore, [email protected] 2&3Student, SJIM

The automotive industry has grown by leaps and bounds in our country. The impact of

the traditional automobiles on the environment is being monitored vigorously. It is in

this context that the advent of the electric vehicles was welcomed with open hands. The

world is looking forward to the large scale migration of the current players to switch

over to manufacture of electric vehicles. There are several bottlenecks to the

implementation of the electric vehicles both in India and elsewhere. One, is the large

scale investment by the existing players by way of created facilities for the regular

vehicles manufacture. Besides, the infrastructure availability may not comply with the

readiness for launch of electric vehicles. The aim of this paper is to identify the various

bottlenecks that can hamper the launch of electric vehicles in India in the near future.

*******

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170

Structural Analysis and Design of FSAE (Formula Society of Automotive Engineers) Car

Mahaboob Tabriz B1, Sandeep B. S2, Dr.Muzzamil Ahamed S.3 and Dinesh H. A4 1Professor and Head, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, H.K.B.K. College of Engineering,

Visvesvaraya Technological University, Bangalore, India, 2Assistant professor, H.K.B.K. College of Engineering Visvesvaraya Technological University, Bangalore, India,

3Principal, H.K.B.K. College of Engineering, Visvesvaraya Technological University, Bangalore, India, 4Assistant professor, H.K.B.K. College of Engineering Visvesvaraya Technological University, Bangalore, India,

Abstract

Design model was prepared using anthropometric parameters of tallest driver (95th

percentile male), SAE rules book and previous design knowledge. Static and dynamic

load distributions were calculated analytically followed by extensive study of various

boundary conditions to be applied during diverse FEA tests. Stress distributions, lateral

displacements during static, dynamic and frequency modes were analyzed and found

considerable factor of safety as required.

The tubular space frame chassis fabricated for the car is safe as it has been analyzed to

withstand all possible forces that it might encounter in a racing circuit. It has been

made as light as possible while not compromising on the strength of the chassis. The

manufacturing of the chassis has been carried out in a very professional manner and the

final product adheres to thedesign. The chassis has also been validated for its torsional

rigidity to ensure the final chassis is in tandem with the analysis.

Keywords: Chassis, FSAE car, Structural Analysis and Dynamic load.

*******

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171

Study on Friction Stir Processing of Al‐Zn‐Mg Alloy for Automobile Applications

P.K. Mandal

Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Amal Jyothi College of Engineering,

Kanjirapally‐686518, Kerala, India. E‐mail: [email protected]

Abstract

The high strength Al-Zn-Mg alloys (7xxx series) have many important properties such

as spontaneous age-hardening nature, high strength-to-weight ratio as well as grain

refinement achieve by scandium (Sc) addition during solidification. The high strength

aluminium alloy is broadly used in aircraft, marine, aerospace and automobile

industries. The addition of minor Sc (<0.25 wt.%) rapidly precipitates high volume

fraction of coherent Al3Sc dispersoids in cast aluminium alloys. Due to limited solubility

of Sc in aluminium can suppress the free migration of vacancies because they diminish

the diffusion rate in the matrix. The specific behavior of Al3Sc precipitates and its

substantial influence on the microstructure and properties of aluminium alloys will

subject of intensive research. Friction stir processing (FSP) is an emerging surface-

engineering technique which locally eliminate casting defects and refines microstructure

to enhance specific properties to some considerable depth. The severe plastic

deformation and thermal exposure of material significantly enhance microstructural

changes during FSP. FSP results in significant temperature rise (400-500oC) within and

around the processed zone. Generally, FSP creates three different microstructural

regions namely nugget zone or stir zone (SZ), thermo-mechanically affected zone

(TMAZ) and heat affected zone (HAZ). The processed zone is characterized by a

recrystallized fine grains (2-15 μm) with uniformly distributed MgZn2 and Al3Sc

particles. The tool design, rotational speed and traverse speed are the main parameters

which have to optimize the sound and defects free processed area thereby improving

mechanical properties of aluminium alloy. FSP resulted in a significant improvement in

tensile properties, particularly in the ductility and toughness. The significant

improvement in mechanical properties of FSP for aluminium alloy is attributed to

microstructural refinement and homogenization and elimination of porosity. It is

important to note that the modification and heat-treatment techniques followed in this

task can eliminate the porosity effectively in Al-Zn-Mg castings and redistributed the

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second-phase particles uniformly into the matrix. But optimum mechanical properties

have been achieved at T4 + FSP + Post aged at 140 oC for 2h condition. It has to mention

this works have conducted by double passes friction stir processing of aluminium alloys.

The experimental materials have been picked up from the processed zone and

investigated through Vicker’s hardness measurements, optical microscopy, SEM,

FESEM, DSC, and TEM analysis. The goal of the present work has to focus on

strengthening mechanisms responsible for the formation of microstructural refinement,

and effects of FSP parameters on resultant microstructure and final mechanical

properties.

Keywords: Al-Zn-Mg alloy, FSP, Al3Sc particles, TEM, mechanical properties.

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Effects on Variable Compression Ratio Diesel Engine Performance and Emission characteristics in Corn Bio Diesel Fuel

B.Venkata Subbaiah1, M. Nagaphani Sastry2 and K.Hemachandra Reddy3

1Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, JNTU‐Ansnthapur, Andrapradesh‐India 2 Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, GPulla Reddy Engineering College,

Kurnool,Andrapradesh‐India 3Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,JNTU‐Ansnthapur, Andrapradesh‐India

*Corresponding Email.id:[email protected]

Abstract:

Environmental degradation and scarcity are the main problems associated with

petroleum-derived diesel fuel. Biodiesels have emerged as an alternative in recent days.

Many biodiesels obtained from edibles oils giving good performance and less emission

compared to diesel but it will cause the hike in the price of edible oils and food crisis.

Present work concentrated on producing biodiesel from non-edible oil (Corn oil) by two-

stage transesterification process. The biodiesel properties compared with diesel.

Conventional engines work on Fixed compression ratio. The compression ratio has been

varied to achieve the higher efficiency and good performance. The effect of compression

ratio was studied on diesel engine without any modification with Corn biodiesel as a

fuel. The optimum parameters were found to prepare biodiesel from the crude Corn oil.

The prepared biodiesel has 20.12% less calorific value than the diesel and 35.5 % higher

kinematic viscosity. UHC and CO2 were less in the case of biodiesel. Higher compression

ratio is better for biodiesel as it is showing better performance and less emission.

Keywords: Corn oil; VCR CI engine; combustion; emission; diesel engine

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Design and Fabrication of ‘Ovatego’

S.Venkatesh1 and R. Jagadeesh Kumar2

Mechanical Engineering dept., Lendi Inst. of Engg. & Technology, [email protected]

Mechanical Engineering Dept., Lendi Inst. of Engg. & Technology

Abstract

An OVATE’GO’ is a device that uses a running-like elliptical motion to propel a bicycle.

Elliptical cycling combines the best of running, cycling and the elliptical trainer to give

you a fun and effective way to exercise outdoors. Because it is a low-impact exercise,

elliptical cycling builds cardiovascular fitness, while being easy on the joints,

which makes it great for everyone – young or old, health conscious to elite. Elliptical

cycling is a great way to revolutionize your fitness. Elliptical bicycle is a completely new

kind of exercise device and performs differently from other machines you may have used

in the past. “We treat it with respect, keep it maintained, and use it as intended, our

OVATE GO bike should provide with many advantages of enjoyable outdoor exercise as

well as travelling usage.”

Customization design is a trend for developing a bicycle in recent years. Thus, the

comfort of riding a bicycle is an important factor that should be paid much attention to

while developing a bicycle. From the viewpoint of ergonomics, the concept of “fattiness

object to the human body” is designed into the bicycle frame in this study. Firstly the

important feature points like riding posture, frame design, wheel size, and materials

required method of manufacture and types of failures are discussed. Further this study

proposes a detailed methodology which is helpful for the designer to develop an elliptical

bicycle in an efficient and economical manner.

Keywords: elliptical bicycle, customization design, travelling usage, fitness, materials.

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