Preclassic Maya Population: Human Remains, Osteology, and Health

CHAPTER 12

Preclassic Maya Population:

Human Remains, Osteology, and Health

Rhan-Ju Song

As an organic substance, bone is highly subject to its depositional environment and its

preservation can vary tremendously depending upon its burial context. In the Maya lowlands,

owing to external factors, preservation is generally poor to fair for human skeletal remains, which

has limited osteological research. Soil conditions, water leaching, insect and animal activity,

rootlet acidity and bioturbation from tree roots have all acted to deteriorate bone and tooth

enamel, and have sometimes produced misleading pseudo-pathologies (e.g., Saul and Saul 1989).

Some of the older, Preclassic period human remains, especially, have not withstood the passage

of time very well.

Due to the often poor preservation of human remains, many early osteological investigations

of Maya remains were, historically, descriptive in nature (see Comas 1970). Like the discipline

of biological anthropology in general, early research was often engrossed with anthropometric

analyses and skeletal evidence of cranial and dental modification (e.g., Blom 1933; Cave et al.

1939; Cifuentes 1963; Elliott and Bleibtreu 1965; Genoves 1970; Hambly 1937; Longyear 1940;

Romero 1970; Stewart 1941, 1974). A general assessment of ancient health, if it was even

examined (e.g., Gann 1918), was often interpreted independently of the cultural context.

Fortunately, following Saul’s (1972: 8) example, most current physical anthropologists

utilize an “osteobiographic” approach to investigate ancient human remains, with the

acknowledgment that “life history (can be) recorded in bone”. This approach reflects the

conscious attempt of biological anthropologists and archaeologists alike to integrate the two

subfields of anthropology (e.g., Blakely 1977; Buikstra 1977; Martin and Bumsted 1982; among

others). Importantly, such bioarchaeological studies examine human remains holistically, within

the context of archaeological evidence, paleodietary, environmental and ecological models, and

ethnohistoric data.

One area in which skeletal data has been scrutinized to explain archaeological findings

concerns the “Classic Maya collapse”. Citing results from Saul's (1972) study of the Maya from

Altar de Sacrificios, which suggested increased anemia, infection, and ill health in the Late

Classic period, ecological and biological models of the collapse have been proposed (Culbert

1988; Santley 1990; Santley et al. 1986; Willey and Shimkin 1973). However, in this case, more

recent skeletal data has refuted the theory that increased population pressure, reduced food

resources, concomitant malnutrition and disease were the direct catalysts for the collapse of

Classic period Maya socio-politico-economic systems (see review in Wright and White 1996).

Due to a previous preoccupation with Classic period monumental archaeology (especially of

the elite class), poor preservation factors in the tropical lowlands, and practical difficulties

accessing early burials, the quality and quantity of Preclassic period human remains is limited.

To date, very few significant assemblages of Formative period skeletal material have been

recovered from lowland Maya sites.

Notable Maya sites with Preclassic remains that have been analyzed and reported include

Altar de Sacrificios (Saul 1972) and Cuello (Saul and Saul 1991). At Altar de Sacrificios, 21

individuals were from Preclassic contexts (ca. 1000 B.C.-A.D. 300) (Saul 1972: Table 1).

Significantly, at Cuello, 131 Preclassic period individuals were recovered, with 29 of these from

the Early-Middle Formative (Swasey and Bladen phases: 1200-650 B.C.), and 102 from the Late

Formative Chicanel phase (Hammond et al. 1995; Saul and Saul 1991). This is, by the far, the

most significant assemblage of Preclassic Maya remains.

Aside from these, skeletal remains from several other sites have enhanced the

osteobiographic record of Preclassic Maya. From the burial data, more than 10% of the

interments found at both Altun Ha and Copan are Formative in date. This amounts to 58

individuals from 33 Middle and Late Preclassic burials at Altun Ha (Pendergast 1979, 1982,

1990; see Welsh 1988: Table IX), and 60 or more individuals at Copan, also dating to the Middle

and Late Preclassic (Storey 1992). In addition, skeletal remains excavated at Uaxactun consist of

five Middle Preclassic individuals and 15 Late Preclassic period individuals (Ruz 1965; see

Welsh 1988: Table VII).

Remains exist from several other sites in the Maya Lowlands, but poor preservation hinders

their utilization in comparative osteological analyses. At Lamanai, for example, 11 Preclassic

individuals are very poorly preserved and not amenable to complete analysis (White 1986), while

a similar situation characterizes the seven Late Preclassic period burials from the site of Blue

Creek in northern Belize (H. Haines, personal communication, 1997). Lastly, at Colha, a small

sample of Middle Preclassic remains has been excavated, with osteological analyses of four

individuals reported, so far, by Young (1994).

Immediately outside the Maya sphere, Preclassic remains from a much different burial

context have been recorded by J. Brady (1997). In this case, reconnaissance of caves

immediately southeast of the Maya area has revealed Preclassic Mesoamerican ceramics as well

as human remains. At Talgua Cave, in northeastern Honduras, the remains derive from large

surface ossuaries below and above the water line, amounting to between 100 and 200 interments

(Brady 1997: 24). Unfortunately, due to the cave environment, the skeletal remains could not be

analyzed due to poor preservation or calcite “crystallization”.

Interestingly, numerous Preclassic human interments or offerings have been recorded in

caves in lower Central America (Brady 1995; Gordon 1898; Healy 1974; Rue et al. 1989). While

not unequivocally Maya, the ceramics directly associated with the human remains appear clearly

influenced by Mesoamerican cultures such as the Maya (Brady 1997).

However, while a pattern of early cave interment exists for lower Central America, the

evidence northward is scant due to lack of research interest and logistical difficulties (Brady

1997). An exception is the recent cave investigations in Belize by the Western Belize Regional

Cave Project (see Awe 1998; Awe and Lee 1999), but while Preclassic Maya ceramics have been

recorded at cave entrances (J. Awe, personal communication, 1998), no human material has been

associated with such early pottery.

In sum, because of the scarcity of such early human remains compared to the relative

abundance of Classic period skeletons, any discovery of Preclassic period human skeletal

remains is noteworthy. Comparisons of Preclassic period skeletal health will be made herein

only with remains from Altar de Sacrificios (Saul 1972) and Cuello (Saul and Saul 1991), and

with some reference to the dental data from Altun Ha (Song 1997). Skeletal samples from other

sites are either too small for significant comparisons, or their osteological analyses are pending or

incompletely published.

The Burial Record at Cahal Pech and Pacbitun

Identifications were made by the author using standard osteological techniques (see

Brothwell 1981; Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; Ubelaker 1989). Poor preservation of some

remains from Cahal Pech and Pacbitun has resulted in a classification of “indeterminate”, or

uncertain (?), category for sex. Most individuals have been assigned an age, or age category.

At Cahal Pech, at least 75 burials or human deposits, encompassing at least 88 individuals,

and the fingers of 20+ adults, were encountered during excavations between 1988 and 1997,

spanning the Middle Preclassic to Late Classic periods. The majority of burials date to the

Classic period, but with increased focus on Preclassic period settlement at the site, the

assemblage of early human remains has grown steadily (see Awe 1992; Healy and Awe 1995,

1996). The individuals (n=23) who compose the Preclassic sample at Cahal Pech (17 burials,

and two caches with human remains) represent approximately 26% of the total skeletal

assemblage from the site (Table 1).

At Pacbitun, 21 burials representing at least 27 individuals have been identified from

excavations between 1984-1997, spanning the Middle Preclassic to Terminal Classic periods. As

at Cahal Pech, the majority of these individuals date to the Classic period. Only two burials,

each containing one individual, date to the Preclassic, representing 7% of the total skeletal

assemblage at Pacbitun (Table 1).

Regarding the sample, the 25 Preclassic individuals from the two sites, including caches with

human remains, consist of: nine subadults, four adults of indeterminate sex, two adult females,

three adult males, two possible adult females, four possible adult males, and one possible adult of

indeterminate sex.

The Preclassic remains can be divided into the following temporal groups (noting local phase

names for Cahal Pech and Pacbitun, respectively):

Middle Preclassic (Kanluk phase, Mai phase) 3 individuals

Middle-Late Preclassic transition (late Kanluk-early Xakal phase, 5 individuals

late Mai-early Puc phase)

Late Preclassic (early Xakal phase, Puc phase) 9 individuals

Terminal Preclassic (late Xakal phase, Ku phase) 8 individuals

TABLE 1: Preclassic Period Human Remains At Cahal Pech And Pacbitun

BURIAL

AGE

SEX

GRAVE TYPE

ORIENTATION

TIME PD.

CAS PEK

BU 91-1

25-35

Indet.

cist

N-S, ext., prone, Head-S

Term.

BU 91-2 Adult F? cist N-S, ext., prone, Head-S Term.

BU 91-4 Adult Indet. cist N-S, ext., prone, Head-S Term.

BU 91-6

BU 93-1

BU 93-2

Adult

Adult

Adult?

M?

M?

Indet.

cist

cist

cist


N-S, ext., Head-S

N-S, ext., Head-S

Term.

Term.

Term.

BU 94-1 3-4 Indet. simple N-S, ext., prone, Head-S M - L

BU 94-2 35-45 M cist N-S, ext., prone, w/knees flexed

upward, Head-S

L

PACBITUN

BU 1-5

BU-C1

Adult

Adult

M

Indet.

simple crypt

partial crypt

N-S, ext., prone?, Head-S

600 East of North, ext., prone,

w/knees flexed upward, Head-W

L

M

TOLOK

BU-7

4-5

Indet.

simple crypt


L

BU-8 17-26 F simple crypt N-S, ext., prone, Head-S L

BU-9a 2-4 Indet. cist N-S, ext., prone, Head-S L

BU-9b 4-5 Indet. cist Indet. (fragmentary) L

BU-9c 12-18 mos Indet. cist Indet. (fragmentary) L

BU-9d 0-6 mos. Indet. cist Indet. (fragmentary) L

BU-10

Cache 2

17-23

3-4

F

Mixed teeth

cist

tooth deposit


Cache of 14 teeth assoc. w/ Burial 7

M-L

L

Cache 3

4-5 Indet. N/A N/A (Head only-face down in bowl) Term.

ZOTZ

BU 91-1

BU 91-2

Adult

Adult

M?

F?

cist

simple

N-S, extended, Head-S

N-S, extended, Head-S

M-L

M-L

ZUBIN

BU A1-B/9

Adult

M?

simple crypt

NW-SE, ext., prone, Head-S

Term.

BU A1-B/10 4-5 Indet. simple crypt N-S, ext., prone, Head-S Term.

BU C9-B/1a Adult M simple Indet. due to looters' disturbance M

BU C9-B/1b Adult Indet. simple N-S, probably ext., supine,

Head-N, facing W

M

Grave Type:

simple = unlined pit (see Smith 1972)

cist = stone-lined grave feature slightly larger than interred individual, with capstones optional (see Welsh 1988)

simple crypt = stone-lined and capped grave; more substantial in height than cist grave

partial crypt = stone-lined, but only partially capped grave

Time Period:

M = Middle Preclassic period

M-L = Middle to Late Preclassic (Transitional) period

L = Late Preclassic period

Term. = Terminal Preclassic (or Protoclassic) period

No discrete burials have been retrieved from the terminal Early Preclassic (Cunil phase), the

earliest occupation in the Valley, but several burnt long bone fragments have been found at Cahal

Pech from this time. These could reflect ritual cannibalism or, alternatively, early cremation

practices (Awe 1992: 335).

The Cahal Pech and Pacbitun Preclassic burial sample is very small compared to that of the

site of Cuello, but is comparable to that of Altar de Sacrificios (13 adults, 8 subadults) and Seibal

(6 adults). Reflecting the diversity of excavation strategies at Cahal Pech and Pacbitun,

interments have derived from contexts as variable as (elite) tombs and “elaborate crypts” to (non-

elite) simple pits, cists, and “partial” or “simple” crypts. However, only simple pit, cist and

partial or simple crypt graves have been found dating to the Preclassic period at the two sites

examined here.

Seventeen of the 75 Cahal Pech burials, in addition to one solitary head cache and one tooth

cache, date to the Preclassic period. All originate from the peripheral settlements of Cahal Pech,

namely Cas Pek, Tolok, Zotz and Zubin (see Table 1). Including the subadult tooth cache, these

interments represent the remains of at least 23 individuals, with some graves having multiple

individuals (see Healy et al. 1998).

Of the 17 Preclassic period interments/human deposits at Cahal Pech, six burials were

uncovered in 1991 from the Zotz Group (Zotz 91-1 and 91-2) and Cas Pek (Cas Pek 91-1, 91-2,

91-4 and 91-6) (Aimers 1992; Awe 1992; Awe et al. 1992a,b; Vinuales 1992). Three of these

interments date to the transition between the late Middle Preclassic and early Late Preclassic,

while the other three are Late Preclassic. Due to problematic post-excavation/storage

identification, Cas Pek Burials 91-2 and 91-6 are not discussed here.

In 1993, two Late Preclassic burials were excavated at Tolok (Burials 7 and 8), as well as a

Late Preclassic tooth cache (Cache 2) found associated with Burial 7 (Powis 1994; Song et al.

1994). Likewise, two Terminal Preclassic interments (Burials A1-B/9 and A1-B/10) were

discovered at Zubin, a minor center located 2 km south of the site core of Cahal Pech (Iannone

1994), and two Terminal Preclassic (Protoclassic) burials at Cas Pek (Cas Pek 93-1, 93-2)

(Sunahara and Awe 1994).

Excavations in 1994 uncovered a Terminal Preclassic head cache (Tolok Cache 3), a Middle-

Late Preclassic burial (Tolok Burial 10), and a Late Preclassic primary interment also at Tolok

(Burial 9) (Powis and Hohmann 1995). At Cas Pek, two interments were discovered in the large

platform structure, Nohoch Na, one dating to the late Middle/early Late Preclassic transition

period (Cas Pek 94-1), the other to the Late Preclassic (Cas Pek 94-2) (Lee and Awe 1995).

Elsewhere, two more Middle Preclassic period individuals were recovered from a single

interment at Zubin (Burial C9-B/1).

During the 1995 field season, no burials dating to the Formative period were found at Cahal

Pech, but archaeological investigations at Pacbitun led to the discovery of a Middle Preclassic

partial crypt grave beneath Plaza C (Arendt et al. 1996). This single adult interment represents

the second Formative period burial discovered at Pacbitun, where excavations in 1987 uncovered

a Late Preclassic crypt burial deep within Structure 1 (Healy 1990: 255).

This report will present detailed skeletal information for eight Preclassic period burials and

two Preclassic caches excavated at Cahal Pech and its vicinity (e.g., Cas Pek and Tolok), and the

two Preclassic period burials from Pacbitun. Shorter commentaries are provided on five

additional Preclassic burials from other Cahal Pech settlement groups (Zotz and Zubin). Taken

together, these burials and caches contain the remains of at least 21 individuals.1 The remaining

Preclassic burials noted above (but not discussed in detail here) have been previously described,

and will not be dealt with further. These Preclassic remains are included in reports by Awe

(1992), Awe, Aimers and Blanchard (1992), Schwake (1996), Sunahara and Awe (1994) and

Vinuales (1992).

Preclassic Period Skeletal Remains at Cahal Pech

Cas Pek: Burial 91-1

This Terminal Preclassic (A.D. 0-250) cist burial contained the fragmentary remains of a

single adult individual of indeterminate sex. Human remains include most of the cranium, which

is very fragmentary, and two teeth, a right M2 and an unidentifiable single root tooth. Dental

attrition is slight in these teeth, as are deposits of calculus.

From the fragmentary cranial bones, it appears that most sutures are open or partially fused.

The partially fused portion of the sagittal suture just anterior of the lambda point indicates an

adult at least mid-twenties in age. Thus, an age range of 25-35 years can be attributed to this

individual. Upon reconstruction, some left parietal fragments appear to bulge slightly (laterally),

but the state of the bones prevents a clear assessment of the presence of cranial modification.

With respect to health, no pathology is noted on any of the cranial remains. However, in the

single root tooth, which could possibly be a mandibular premolar, extensive carious activity

resulted in almost complete destruction of the crown through to the root. The maxillary molar

also has a small interfissure pit on the occlusal surface that may be a carious lesion.

Finally, a portion of the buccal surface of the possible premolar has a linear enamel

hypoplasia of narrow width and medium depth at the midcrown level, which suggests a brief

period of ill health (most likely undernutrition and/or infectious disease) sometime between the

ages of 4 and 5 years.


Due to modern-day construction activities, this cist burial became evident in cross-sections of

a bulldozed Preclassic period platform (see Vinuales 1992). Dated to the Terminal Preclassic,

the extended, prone, individual was characterized in the field as having mediocre to good

preservation. Although fragmentary, most of the skeleton is present.

The remains of an adult individual of indeterminate sex are represented. Identified skeletal

remains include several diaphyseal fragments of long bones (arms, legs), several vertebral and rib

fragments, scapular portions, carpal remains, and many miscellaneous bone fragments.

Unfortunately, full osteological analysis took place two years after the excavation and storage of

this individual, and dental remains could not be re-located for examination.

Significant observations include the extreme porosity and pitting of vertebral fragments,

some of which have extensive bony outgrowths on the exterior surfaces of the body. One

fragment, a probable thoracic or (small) lumbar vertebra is notable for a discernible fracture

down the height of the body, with evidence of healing. Repair of the fracture resulted in a slight

protrusion of bone on either the superior or inferior surface of the vertebral body.

The nature of these remains, which are characteristic of osteoporosis, may be taken to infer

an adult individual of older age, i.e. over 40 years, but the lack of other skeletal age indicators

prevents a firm statement of this fact. Finally, several unidentifiable flat bone fragments,

possibly from the leg bones, also appear diseased, in this case, with periostitic lesions.


This primary interment was an unlined pit containing a fully flexed subadult individual

placed in an extended prone position (Figure 1). The individual’s cranium was placed face down

within a complete ceramic vessel and dates to the transition between the late Middle Preclassic

and early Late Preclassic.

A notable feature of this individual is the state of skeletal preservation. Relative to other

remains at Cahal Pech, and considering the young skeletal age, this child's bones are very well

preserved, though fragmented. For instance, the amount of delicate cranial fragments suggests

that most of the cranium is preserved, though fragmented. Amazingly, two ear bones (incus and

malleus) were even recovered from the skull area. Post-cranial remains are similarly well

preserved, but owing to the young skeletal age, long bones consist of diaphyseal fragments only.

Exemplifying the very good preservation of this individual, all deciduous teeth of this

individual were recovered, as were most of the secondary tooth crowns (see below).

Primary Dentition:

Upper x x x x x x x x x x

Right m2 m1 c i2 i1 i1 i2 c m1 m2 Left

Lower x x x x x x x x x x

Secondary Dentition:

Upper X X X X X X X X

Right M3 M2 M1 P2 P1 C I2 I1 I1 I2 C P1 P2 M1 M2 M3 Left

Lower X X X X X X X X

Post-Cranial Remains:

Scapulae: few pieces, very fragmentary

Ribs: most preserved, though fragmented

Vertebrae: approximately half preserved, though fragmented

Arm and Leg Long Bones: most of diaphyses preserved, but epiphyses absent

Carpals/Tarsals/Metacarpals/Metatarsals/Phalanges: many fragments

Other bones: most of this skeleton is preserved, but the fragmentary state of many bones

precludes clear identification at this time

Age, Sex And Skeletal Health

Following Ubelaker (1989: Fig. 71), the height of secondary tooth crowns and root formation

suggest that this child was between the ages of 3-4 years. Typical of subadults, sex of this child

is indeterminate.

In terms of skeletal health, no indication of pathology is evident on the cranial or post-cranial

remains. Specifically, cranial lesions of cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis were searched

for, but both are noticeably absent. Likewise, inspection of post-cranial remains turned up no

clear evidence of infection, disease or trauma.

The only pathology observed in this child is apparent in the dental remains. Specifically, a

single, shallow hypoplastic line was detected on the secondary upper left I1 crown. The relative

position of this band indicates a short period of ill health or malnutrition at around 2.8 years of

age (following Song 1997: Table 6.2.3).

Additionally, several deciduous teeth exhibit surface pitting. These include the left and right

i2’s, left and right upper c’s, left and right m

1’s, left m

2, left m1 and m2. These pits predominantly

occur on the labial surfaces and along occlusal interfissures. Some pits are also associated with

hypocalcification discolorations (orange, brown and cream-beige), which occur in the central

midcrown regions of several deciduous teeth. While some of the pits are likely true carious

lesions, others are probably the result of preservation factors in the burial environment.

Lastly, attesting to the early death and cessation of development in this child, all secondary

crowns are characterized by hypocalcification staining. Enamel hypocalcification reflects a

disruption in the maturation phase of enamel development and it can appear as either localized or

general regions of orange, brown, opaque white or beige colored enamel.


This Late Preclassic intrusive primary burial was a stone-lined cist grave containing the

remains of one adult individual. Skeletal position was, again, face and stomach down, with head

to the south, but the individual’s legs were flexed in a ninety-degree angle at the knee, so that the

lower legs were directed upward. Once again, the individual was interred with its cranium

placed face down within a ceramic vessel.

Like Burial 94-1 at Cas Pek, skeletal preservation of this individual is good to very good,

although fragmentation occurred during excavation and removal. The following inventory

outlines the extent of skeletal completeness for this individual.

Cranium: mostly complete, but fragmented; frontal portions consist of large supraorbitals;

temporal portions consist of large mastoids; several maxillary fragments preserved;

Sutures: most of sagittal suture is obliterated except near the frontal suture which is

closed but visible; superior portion of lambdoidal suture is closed and obliterated,

but other areas of this suture are only partially fused; portions of ectocranial

coronal suture (halfway between sagittal intersection and most lateral point of

coronal suture) appear partially closed; according to Montagu (1960: 609), fusion

in this region occurs between 24-38 years. Also: one portion of right occipital

along lambdoidal suture appears partially fused, but not obliterated; according to

Montagu (1960: 609), fusion in this region occurs between the ages of 26 - 42/47

years; mandible: mostly complete: square knobby chin, flared gonial angles,

pronounced muscle markings, but some thinning/shortening of body height; right

ramus portion not preserved

The following Secondary Dentition is present for Cas Pek Burial 94-2:

Upper X X X X? X


Lower X X X X X X X X X


Clavicles: very fragmentary; most of left diaphysis preserved, but missing both epiphyses;

robust muscle markings; no pathology evident

Scapulae: both very fragmentary; right scapula has bony lipping along acromion edge (near

articular surface with humerus); right acromion articular surface is porous and rough

Ribs and Vertebrae: most present, though fragmented; thoracic and lumbar vertebrae appear

very porous (cancellous) and edges of bodies have prominent ridges; some

vertebral bodies have medium to heavy lipping, with spicule formation on the edges

Innominates: well preserved but very fragmented; auricular surface very pitted and porous - two

fragments suggest stage 30-34, or more likely, 35-39 years, following Ubelaker

(1989); narrow sciatic notch evident; fragmentary iliac crest but visibly fully fused;

acetabulum: surface smooth, but portions are very porous and there is some

lipping of acetabular rim; ischium: fragmentary, but fully fused to body; sacroiliac

facet: slight porosity with parts of surface rough; two fragments of pubic

symphysis: prominent outer rim (see Ubelaker 1989:75), furrows/ridges evident

but not deep, one fragment with fully formed ventral ridge similar to stage 4

(Ubelaker1989: Fig. 88); symphyseal surface not smooth, but with slight ridges,

and bone porosity; pubic surface is between Ubelaker’s (1989: Fig. 86) stages b

(age 29) and c (age 56 years), although closer to stage c

Sacrum: fragmentary remains

Long Bones: most well preserved though fragmented; Notable Observations: femurs-both

mostly complete, with heads appearing very pitted and porous; cancellous bone

extends down all of neck; right femur: estimated total length of 42.5 cm; left femur:

maximum head diameter of 4.8 cm; right tibia: some lipping along edges of

proximal articular surface; right humerus: estimated total length of 31 cm,

maximum head diameter of 4.76 cm; right ulna: robust, most preserved, estimated

total length of approximately 26 cm; right radius: total length of 24.8 cm

Hands/feet: most remains preserved; slight to medium bony extensions/lipping on inferior

surfaces of some metatarsals, especially along lateral side of first left metatarsal

(medium-heavy lipping); bony extensions (slight, medium and heavy) evident on

tips of distal foot phalanges (heaviest along edges of first distal phalange) and

proximal first foot phalange; slight to medium lipping of head and base of both

first distal hand phalanges

Patellae: both recovered, in very good condition; generally robust, although left patella

seems slightly smaller; right patella has medium lipping on edges of medial and

lateral articular facets, and surface of medial facet appears bumpy and porous (to

a lesser extent also visible on medial facet of left patella); both patellae have

regions of rough bony plaque on the anterior surface


Upon discovery in the field, the robustness of this skeleton was immediately apparent in the

cranial remains. Further examination of the pelvis and long bones indicate that the individual is

most likely male.

Attesting to the completeness of this individual, an age range can be gauged from numerous

features, such as the cranial remains (suture closure); dentition (i.e., attrition); extent of

cancellous bone in the femoral head and neck; vertebral wear; auricular surface appearance; two

fragments of pubic symphyses; and overall bone porosity. From this evidence, an age range of

35/40-50 years is suggested for the individual from Burial 94-2.

In situ measurement of this individual was 117 cm from the superior cranial region to the

knee region, and approximately 34 cm from the knee to the tarsals region, which was flexed

upward. The lower leg measurement is probably shorter than the actual living height since the

distal regions of the lower legs are poorly preserved, and the feet bones were disturbed in the

grave. Upon reconstruction, the total length of the right femur indicates an estimated height

range of 157.6 cm to 164.5 cm.

Skeletal evidence of pathology is noted in the cranial remains. Lesions of porotic

hyperostosis are evident as porosity on the posterior parietal regions, along the sagittal axis, and

leading to the occipital, which is also pitted. Concomitant thickening of the diploe layer in these

parietal regions is also observed.

Upon reconstruction of the cranial vault, artificial modification was apparent in the flattening

of the occipital bone and bulging of both parietals, with an accompanying slight cleavage of the

sagittal axis.

Other than osteoarthritic lipping and bone porosity (see above), no skeletal pathology appears

on any post-cranial (long) bones, but one should note the very fragmentary nature of the tibiae,

fibulae and left arm elements.

In terms of dental health, the state of this individual’s teeth accurately reflects his relatively

long life. Other than mandibular bone resorption, where teeth had been lost ante-mortem, and

alveolar degeneration and porosity surrounding other tooth sockets, present teeth are afflicted

with extensive dental attrition, slight to medium calculus, and extensive carious destruction in

some teeth.

From the mandibular fragments, alveolar resorption and bone overgrowth is evident in

sockets of the left and right I1, left M1 and right M2. The amount of bone growth in these sockets

suggests that these teeth were lost several years antemortem. Likewise, some alveolar resorption

seems to have occurred in right maxillary fragments, but bone growth in these tooth sockets is

not as extensive as mandibular fragments. Thus, it appears that, minimally, the maxillary right

canine, P3 and P

4 were lost some time prior to death.

Generally, alveolar regions of the maxilla extending toward the nasal cavity appear resorbed

and very porous, indicative of periodontitis. This condition might also be the cause of alveolar

resorption and porosity surrounding the right mandibular M1. Periodontal infection in this region

may have resulted from irritation of the gums by calculus deposits. The cervical deposit of

calculus along this mandibular M1 is judged to be medium in severity, while other teeth also

exhibit slight to medium deposits (see Brothwell 1981: Fig. 6.14).

Carious destruction of tooth surfaces is evident in the left mandibular M2, right mandibular

M3, and the left maxillary P3. In the left M2, a large carious pit is present on the mesial crown

surface, along the cemento-enamel junction, measuring 3.5 mm across at the widest. The right

mandibular M3 is affected by extensive carious destruction, with almost complete destruction of

the tooth crown and half of the roots. Only approximately 1/4 of the crown enamel remains. The

upper left P3

has a large pit on its mesial crown and root surface measuring approximately 5 mm

across. This lesion extends from the cemento-enamel junction region to the occlusal surface of

the tooth.

Lastly, with respect to attrition, dental wear in this individual reflects his older adult age. In

this individual, severe attrition is observed on several teeth. In particular, dental wear resulted in

complete erosion of the mandibular right M1 crown, almost to the cemento-enamel junction.

Similarly, the crown of the right maxillary I2

is worn away to the root level.

Tolok: Burial 7

This Late Preclassic grave contained one fully extended subadult individual lying face down,

with skull to the south in a simple crypt. Preservation of this subadult is poor to mediocre, and it

consists of fragmented skull bones and teeth, right clavicle, rib fragments, some vertebral

remains (minus bodies), highly fragmented long bones (minus epiphyses), few cancellous bone

fragments of the pelvis and small portions of the right iliac blade, and two metatarsal fragments.

No mandible, scapulae, sternum, patellae, hand or foot bones were clearly identified at the time

of excavation, but fragmentation and poor preservation of this individual can account for this.

Cranium: most remains are preserved, but very fragmentary; several fragments of the orbital

roof are absent of cribra orbitalia

Primary Dentition:

Upper x


Lower


Upper X X X


Lower X

(N.B. The LI1 and RM2 were originally found in the tooth concentration of Cache 2 nearby (see

below). Due to their distinct preservation appearance [Burial 7 teeth are better preserved]

and similarity to dental development of Burial 7 teeth found in situ amongst the cranium,

those teeth are included here instead of the adjacent Cache 2.)


Clavicles: right one recovered: most of diaphysis preserved, missing epiphyses

Scapulae: very fragmentary

Humeri: right: more than 1/2 of diaphysis only; left: less than half, very fragmentary

Ulnae/Radii: most of the diaphyses present, though fragmentary

Ribs: less than half preserved

Vertebrae: less than half preserved, and fragmentary

Innominates: few fragments, which are very fragmentary

Femorae: left: distal half preserved, no epiphyses; right: half of diaphysis preserved,

including neck region; Also: along lateral edge of neck near lesser trochanter,

bony reaction of periostitis is evident

Tibiae: most of diaphyses preserved, though fragmentary; epiphyses absent

Fibulae: all diaphyses preserved, epiphyses absent

Tarsals/Carpals/Metatarsals/Metacarpals/Phalanges: fragmentary

Bones absent, or not accounted for due to fragmentation: sternum, sacrum, patellae (it is likely

that fragments of these bones are scattered throughout the remains as miscellaneous

bone fragments)


Dental remains associated with this individual indicate a subadult aged 4-5 years. The

maxillary left I1 may have a possible enamel hypoplasia but the enamel surface is too eroded to

determine. Due to the fragmentary nature of the remains, and the difficulty involved with sexing

subadult skeletons, a sex cannot be assigned to this individual. The only evidence of pathology

observed in this individual is slight porosity and reactive bone on the exterior surface of several

long bones (i.e., along neck of right femur near lesser trochanter region), which indicates a

general periostitic infection.

Tolok: Burial 8

Burial 8 was a Late Preclassic simple crypt grave containing one extended adult individual

lying face down along a north-south axis, with the head to the south. In situ skeletal length was

approximately 134 cm from the superior cranial remains to the left tarsal region. Overall skeletal

preservation of this individual is mediocre to good, but due to the onset of substantial rainfall

during excavations, some fragmentation occurred. All long bones are present, missing only their

proximal and distal epiphyses. Other preserved bones include fragmented portions of the skull,

ribs, vertebrae and pelvis.

Two intact vessels were found associated with this individual. One vessel (V1) was located

adjacent to the skull, on its right (west) side, and it contained highly fragmented cranial bones, as

well as an almost complete set of teeth (Figure 2). All teeth were found inside this vessel, but a

few cranial fragments were also found outside the vessel. It would appear that this individual's

viscerocranium (face and mandible) had been intentionally placed inside the vessel at the time

the individual was buried. Due to poor preservation of the cranium and cervical vertebrae, it

could not be determined whether this individual had been decapitated prior to death, or whether

the viscerocranium was removed post–mortem.

Cranium: few fragmented cranial bones present; post-mortem surface erosion evident; some

sutures (unidentifiable) are not yet fused

Permanent Dentition:

Upper X X X X X X X X X X X X X


Lower X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Post–Cranial Remains:

Scapulae: highly fragmented

Humeri: fragmentary, with post-mortem surface erosion evident; all epiphyses missing

Ulnae and Radii: all epiphyses missing

Carpals: some fragments present

Metacarpals and Hand Phalanges: some fragments present

Ribs: few extremely fragmented ribs

Vertebrae: less than half present; atlas preserved; others very fragmentary

Innominates: very fragmentary and poorly preserved; portions of ischium and body of ilium

present; no sciatic notch, iliac crest or pubic symphyses

Sacrum: very fragmentary

Femorae: both femoral heads present; condyles missing; approximate total length of right

femur (minus distal epiphyses) is 38cm; gracile muscle markings

Tibiae: both missing proximal and distal epiphyses; post-mortem surface erosion evident

Fibulae: fragmentary; most of diaphyses present but missing epiphyses; possible total

length of left fibula is approximately 30cm

Tarsals: some fragments present; left navicular and calcaneous identified, both observed

with degenerated surfaces (appearing porous) - probably due to preservation

Metatarsals and Foot Phalanges: some fragments present

Bones absent, or not accounted for due to fragmentation: clavicle, sternum, patellae


Examination of the skeletal remains from Tolok Burial 8 indicates a young adult female of

approximately 17 to 26 years. This is based on complete eruption of the permanent dentition; the

open state of endocranial sutures; and the lack of age–related dental attrition or skeletal

degeneration. No evidence of skeletal pathology, trauma, or infection is observed, but dental

remains have slight to medium calculus deposits, enamel hypoplasia, hypocalcification staining

and carious lesions.

In this individual, most teeth exhibit a single prominent hypoplastic groove of acute severity,

but there is extensive hypoplasia on the right mandibular M3 and broad shallow bands

characterize a maxillary left canine and mandibular left P2. The positions of these defects

indicate that a period of ill health occurred sometime between 3 and 3.5 years of age.

Furthermore, the wide band on the maxillary left canine suggests that this same period was an

extended period of ill health lasting approximately four months (following Song 1997: Table

6.2.3).

Additionally, the right M1 and M2 have areas of beige/cream coloured hypocalcification

staining, which is a dental pathology resulting from insufficient enamel maturation. The right

M2, like the left M2, also has several very small interfissure carious pits on the occlusal surface.

The posterior surfaces of both femurs and fibulae appear to have localized patches of

porosity, possibly indicating mild periostitis, but it is also likely that post-mortem diagenesis may

be the culprit of this “pathology”. No pathological lesions are identifiable on any of the humeri,

ulnae, radii, vertebrae, innominates and tibiae, but one must note their fragmentary state.

Tolok: Burial 9

The remains of four subadult individuals were interred in this single Late Preclassic stone-

lined cist grave. Typical of burials at Tolok, as well as other localities throughout Cahal Pech,

the Primary Individual was fully extended, prone, and arranged along a north-south axis, with the

head to the south (Figure 3). Partial remains of the Second Individual were found concentrated

around the upper torso and shoulder areas, while the remains of a Third Individual were

concentrated in the cranial region, and those of a Fourth Individual were discovered around the

right shoulder of the Primary Individual.

Interestingly, the Primary Individual lacked both legs and feet, and it appeared severed at the

waist (see Figure 3). Measurement of this individual in the field, from the superior cranial region

to the distal pelvic extent, gave a length of approximately 47 cm. The absence of this child's

lower body, which was nonetheless capped with stones where the legs should have been,

suggests that some sort of skeletal interference or “mutilation” occurred. However, it cannot be

confirmed whether the individual’s legs were defleshed prior to burial (when the body was still

“fresh”), or plundered and dismembered afterward, when skeletalization had already occurred.

Overall, preservation of most skeletal elements for the Primary Individual is good to very

good, although fragmentary. Field observations indicate that most of the cranium is represented.

Mainly because of its young age, long bones that are preserved consist of the diaphyses only.

Recovered long bones include both humeri (the right being very fragmented), and both ulnae and

radii. Partial remains of both clavicles are also present. Fortunately, most ribs and cervical

vertebrae are preserved, which makes them (ribs) available for chemical analysis (see White et

al., this volume). The innominates are represented by poorly preserved fragments of the iliac

blades only, as the skeleton was “mutilated” at this junction.

Cranium: other than fragmentary remains of the calvaria (frontal, parietals, occipital),

remains of the cranium also include fragments of alveolar maxillae and some

mandibular fragments, all with associated teeth, as well as numerous loose teeth;

orbital fragments do not exhibit any evidence of cribra orbitalia

In situ appearance of the skull of the Primary Individual indicated that it was slightly

modified (Figure 4). The pseudocircular cranial modification involved vertical occipital

deformation, as well as frontal flattening or sloping. Evidence suggests that the skull

deformation was antemortem, as opposed to disfigurement due to postmortem interment

pressure. Such cranial modification could be formed by binding padded boards or cloth

bandages around the skull during early childhood growth (Stewart 1974).

The following teeth belong to the Primary Individual (as indicated by maxillary and

mandibular fragments):

Primary Dentition:

Upper x x x x x x x x x x


Lower x x x x x x x x x


Upper X X X X X X X X X X X


Lower X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Dental development of these teeth suggests an age range of 2-5 years [3-4 (+ 12 mths)]

(Ubelaker 1989: Fig. 71). However, in examining the fragmented arm bones, estimated total

lengths suggest a younger age, i.e., 2 years (see Ubelaker 1989: Table 14). After considering the

fact that teeth often develop at an advanced rate and, in particular, develop earlier among North

American indigenous groups (Ubelaker 1989), the age range for this child is placed at between 2-

4 years.

The following teeth, which were primarily found in a clump on the east (left) shoulder of the

primary child (with some associated cranial remains), are present for the Second Individual:

Primary Dentition:

Upper x


Lower


Upper X X X


Lower

(A deciduous lower left canine was also found outside of the south wall associated with this

burial, and may belong to this individual.)

For this Second Individual, levels of crown and root development of the permanent dentition

suggest an age range of 4-5 years. Estimated total long bone lengths also concur with an age of

approximately 4 years.

Outside of dental remains, this child is represented by both humeri, one ulna, both femurs,

and a left tibia. The relative sizes of the leg bones indicate that they could not belong to the

younger Primary Individual (already described). The long bones of the Second Individual were

placed along the corresponding sides of the Primary Individual’s upper torso and arm region

(i.e., left arms and legs of the Second Individual were placed alongside the left arm of the

Primary Individual). From the in situ appearance, it can be tentatively suggested that the arms

and legs of the second child were disarticulated from its body prior to deposition on the main

child. At this time, no other identified bones support a complete skeletal state for this Second

Individual.

Next, a Third Individual is represented by the following dentition, which was recovered

scattered among, and south of (“above”), the cranium of the Primary Individual:

Primary Dentition:

Upper x x x x x x


Lower x x x x

The age of this infant is approximately one year, based on dental development, and since

most teeth were only unerupted crowns, it is suggested that this child was originally represented

by at least a cranium. Low preservation potential of infant remains explains the lack of cranial

bones.

In addition, four (non-duplicated) teeth were also recovered scattered amongst the Primary

Individual’s skull and upper torso, which could possibly belong to this Third Individual. (Levels

of crown development and tooth duplication imply that they could not have belonged to the first

two children). In this case, development of the teeth, a deciduous right i1, deciduous left i2, and

the cusps of a secondary right P3 and left upper C, suggest an older age of 18 months to 2 years.

Cautiously, one can propose that either these three teeth represent an additional individual aged 2

years, or they represent faster developing teeth within the dental arch of the 1-year-old child. If

they belong to the same (third) individual, an age range of 1 year to 18 months is appropriate.

Presently, due to the fragmentary state of miscellaneous bones found within the burial, no

post-cranial bones can be confidently attributed to this individual. Consequently, the nature of

this child being either a complete (deteriorated) interment or an intentionally incomplete deposit

(grave offering) cannot be confirmed.

Lastly, the presence of two deciduous mandibular m2’s and a left femur, which were found

atop the right shoulder of the Primary Individual, identify a Fourth Individual. Both molar teeth

and the estimated femoral length are indicative of an infant aged from birth to 6 months (see

Ubelaker 1989: Fig. 71, Table 14). Notably, several fragments of the femur exhibit evidence of

periostitis. Specifically, this general bone infection appears as areas of hypervascular (inflamed)

periosteal bone and surface plaque buildup. Additional long bones may be present for this child,

but their very fragmentary state hinders reconstruction.

Skeletal Health

No skeletal pathologies are noted on any cranial or post-cranial bones from the Primary

Individual or the Second Individual. The only observed pathology is the periostitis on the femur

of the Fourth Individual (see above).

With respect to dental health, all teeth are relatively free of caries and calculus, but several

teeth belonging to the Primary Individual and the Second Individual exhibit evidence of linear

enamel hypoplasia. In the primary child, hypoplastic lesions on permanent incisors and canines

indicate that minor stresses occurred at approximately 2.8 years, 3.5 years and sometime between

4 and 4.2 years of age. Since crowns are incompletely developed, the ages of defect formation

are extrapolated from mean unworn crown heights of Maya from Altun Ha and regression

equations determined for such teeth (see Song 1997: Table 6.2.3; Goodman and Song 1999:

Table 9.5).

For the Second Individual, aged 4-5 years, lesions on the permanent upper left I1 and I

2

indicate that two periods of ill health or dietary stress occurred, namely at 3.7 and 4 years of age.

Tolok: Burial 10

For this single adult interment, dating to the Middle to Late Preclassic transition, skeletal

preservation is good, with most bones present. Specifically, most cranial bones are preserved, as

are all long bones, most of the innominates, sacrum, hands, and feet. Ribs and vertebrae are

fragmentary and very incomplete. In situ measurement of this individual in the field was

approximately 153 cm, from the superior cranial region to the most distal point on the left tibia

(since remains of the feet were disturbed).

Cranium: remains are very fragmentary; most sutures appear unfused or partially fused (i.e.,

some parts of the coronal and sagittal sutures), but the coronal suture of the left

temple region (above sphenoid) is closed and obliterated; no evidence of pathology

The following Secondary Dentition was recovered from Burial 10:

Upper X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X


Lower X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Accompanying the teeth, most of the maxillary alveolar region is well preserved, as is the

intact mandible. From the appearance of alveolar bone in the mandibular right M1 and left M2

regions, it seems that bone resorption, and possibly infection around the right M1, took place

some time antemortem when the teeth were lost. In particular, the reactive bone growth that

partially filled the socket of the right mandibular M1 appears lumpy and porous (Figure 5). This

mass of bone spicules fills 1/2 to 2/3 of the socket depth.

On the other hand, the socket of the absent left M2 appears relatively free of bone resorption,

except for minimal bone spicule formation and some porosity. The comparative socket bone

growth suggests that the right M1 was lost earlier in life than the left M2. Outside of these

alveolar portions, alveolar resorption (and periodontitis?) is also apparent along the rest of the

labial border of the mandible. This is evident as eroded areas of porous bone surrounding the sockets.

Judging from the mandibular remains, early antemortem tooth loss was not unheard of for

ancient Maya. As also demonstrated by other remains at Tolok (Song et al. 1994), tooth loss

often afflicted relatively young individuals, and it can be considered characteristic of the

population. As such, resorbed mandibles suggesting advanced age often conflict with non-dental

indicators of younger age (see Song et al. 1994: 153). In the Maya case, the nature of maize

processing and consequent ingestion of grit can be cited for such antemortem loss.

Examination of dental calculus reveals slight deposits on most teeth (molars, premolars,

canines, some incisors), while the maxillary right I1

and I2

have moderate, or medium, deposits

(see Brothwell 1981: Fig. 6.14).

Significantly, linear enamel hypoplasias are evident on most teeth and they appear as a single

(narrow) groove per tooth. Specifically, the enamel defects are observed on mandibular left I1, I2,

C, M1; mandibular right I1, I2, C; maxillary left I1, I

2, C, M

1; and maxillary right I

1, I

2, M

1. Like

data from other hypoplasia studies (Goodman and Armelagos 1985; Skinner and Goodman 1992;

Song 1997), prominent grooves are apparent on the canines, particularly the mandibular canines.

Using Song's (1997) regression formulae for Altun Ha Maya, a single significant period of stress

is determined to have occurred around the age of 2.3 to 2.7 years (also see Goodman and Song

1999: Table 9.5).

Finally, carious lesions afflict several teeth. In the RM2, they include a large carious pit (0.5

cm long) along the buccal groove (which might also be a form of developmental defect known as

foramen caecum molare (FCM) [see Capasso and Di Tota 1992]), which penetrates into the

centre of the tooth, as well as one small interfissure/occlusal pit. Similarly, the LM1 has a small

FCM-like buccal pit which may be a carie, in addition to a small interfissure/occlusal pit, and the

LM2 has a midline pit along the lingual groove which penetrates dentine and measures 2.5-3mm

wide. Lastly, an interfissure pit is evident on the occlusal surface of the RM3, but this may be

due to preservation factors.


Scapula: left one fragmented

Humeri: left one mostly present (estimated total length of 28-29cm) and has large septal

aperture (foramen): 0.8cm wide; right one lacks both epiphyses

Ulnae/Radii: fragmentary, poorly preserved epiphyses (left ulna: estimated total length 19.5cm)

Carpals/Metacarpals/Hand Phalanges: most preserved

Ribs: most preserved, though fragmented

Vertebrae: most preserved, though fragmented

Innominates: both elements in good shape, but lacking pubic symphyses

Sacrum: mostly present, though fragmented

Femorae: both mostly preserved, though fragmented; right: total length of 38-39cm

suggests a living stature range of 144.44 to 152.07 cm

Patella: 1/4 of right one recovered

Tibiae: both mostly preserved, but lacking distal epiphyses

Fibulae: both mostly preserved, though lacking well-preserved epiphyses

Tarsals/Metatarsals/Foot Phalanges: 12 or more fragments

Bones absent, or not accounted for due to fragmentation: both clavicles, right scapula, left patella


Several skeletal features were examined for this individual. Firstly, the dentition indicates

that the individual was a young adult. This is based on the eruption and crown/root development

of the third molar, which is present for all four quadrants of the dental arch. Importantly, it

should be noted that the third molar is an extremely variable tooth when it comes to eruption age.

According to Ubelaker (1989: Fig. 71), the period of M3 development and eruption is usually

between 15-21 years. Following Ubelaker, this individual’s age is placed closer to 21 years.

Also, with respect to dental indicators, attrition was assessed to determine relative age.

Although attrition is known to be variable between and within populations, it can be examined

comparatively with other skeletal age markers to suggest youth or old age. In this case, the

minimal wear on the mandibular molars, which exhibit attrition of the cuspal tips only, suggest

the third stage of wear for M1, according to Brothwell (1981: Fig. 3.9). This stage of wear

characterizes an age range of 17-25 years. Keeping in mind that the Maya maize diet readily

erodes enamel surfaces, the minimal wear of this individual’s teeth corresponds well with a

young adult age.

Similarly, in examining the iliac crest of the left innominate, the stage of epiphyseal fusion

suggests an age in the 16-23 year range of fusion times (Brothwell 1981: Fig. 3.4). Thus, with

the limited evidence, an age range of approximately 17-23 years is suggested for the individual

from Tolok Burial 10, with 21 years being a reasonable estimate.

With respect to sex, the appearance of the cranial remains and innominates suggest that the

individual in Burial 10 was female. In particular, the gracility of the skull, as well as other (long)

bones, and the obtuse angle of the sciatic notch of the innominates point to a female sex.

Other than the dental hypoplasia and possible periodontitis noted above, no evidence of

pathology is observed in the skeletal remains, except among some vertebrae. In this case, the

inferior and superior surfaces of some lumbar vertebral bodies appear pitted and eroded, with

raised regions of bumpy bone. While these lesions do not resemble “normal” osteoarthritic

lipping of the vertebral bodies, it is likely that they represent an arthritic reaction.

Tolok: Cache 2

In addition to the multiple burials excavated during the 1993 field season, a tooth cache

similar to that excavated at Yakalche in northern Belize (Pendergast et al. 1968) was found

associated with Burial 7 at Tolok. The cache consists of one small jadeite bead and fourteen

teeth of mixed dentition, which were all concentrated in a small isolated scatter approximately 60

cm south of the grave (see Powis 1994: Fig. 8).

Based on comparable dental development and the proximity of this cache to Tolok Burial 7

(noted above), two teeth, a lower M2 and an extra LI1, are attributed to the child from this burial

and are not accounted for here. Minimally, Cache 2 teeth represent the dentition of one child.

Since there is no evidence to indicate distinct individuals, it is assumed that these teeth belong to

the same individual. Compared to the teeth from Burial 7, the teeth from this cache are poorly

preserved and appear highly eroded. The deciduous teeth have moderate wear. No pathologies

can be identified.

The remaining 12 teeth from Cache 2 include:

Primary Dentition:

Upper x x x


Lower x x x


Upper X X X X


Lower X X

Crown and root development of these teeth indicate an age of approximately 3-4 years.

Dental development of these teeth suggests that most of the teeth in Cache 2 cannot belong to the

child from Burial 7, which is about one year older. If there is some tooth overlap, only the

deciduous teeth could possibly belong to Burial 7. Here, the secondary teeth, which lack roots

and dental attrition, indicate that the teeth were removed from the mandible and maxilla after

skeletalization of the body had occurred.

This cache, associated with Burial 7, which has been dated to the Late Preclassic (Powis

1994), represents one of the earliest tooth caches recorded thus far for the entire Maya region.

The tooth cache at Yakalche is dated to the late Post–Classic period (thirteenth to fifteenth

centuries A.D.) and consisted of 379 teeth and a “small, irregular subglobular jadeite bead”

(Pendergast et al. 1968: 638). To the best of the author’s knowledge, the only other reported

Maya tooth cache derives from Lubaantun and dates to the Classic period (Hammond 1975). A

total of 56 teeth were found in a house mound at this site and they were “within an area so small

as to suggest that they were buried in a container of some perishable material” (Hammond,

personal communication to F.P. Saul, in Saul 1975: 389). This may possibly be the case for the

Preclassic Tolok tooth cache as well.

To explain the significance of this tooth cache, one can look to interpretations of the tooth

cache at Yakalche (Pendergast et al. 1968) for possible relevance to the Tolok situation. J.E.S.

Thompson, in a personal communication to Pendergast and colleagues (1968: 642), associated

the tooth offering at Yakalche with evidence of child sacrifice to Itzamna, or God D. This god,

like the other two Old Gods (Gods L and N), is often represented as toothless except for a single

molar at each corner of the mouth.

The Old Gods are thought to have presided over Xibalba in Maya cosmology (see Schele and

Miller 1986), and they were well–observed religious figures in the Maya area. Pendergast and

colleagues (1968) have suggested that children's teeth were removed in order to give them a

greater resemblance to Itzamna, prior to their sacrifice in his name. The teeth may have served as

a secondary offering to the deity, or as an offering to any one of the Old Gods, considering their

similar toothless depictions.

Tolok: Cache 3

Dating to the Terminal Preclassic period (Powis and Hohmann 1995), this cache consists of

the cranial remains of a subadult individual placed within a ceramic vessel (Figure 6). In situ

observations indicate that the skull was placed in the vessel as an intact whole. The evidence

suggests that decapitation of the individual may have taken place while flesh was still present

(although whether it was the cause of death, or it occurred shortly thereafter, cannot be

determined), but it is curious that no remains of a mandible were found. However, the remains

of mandibular dentition do indicate its original inclusion with the skull.

Cranium: after cleaning, it appears that the crown (superior surface) of the skull rested on the

bottom of the vessel. Generally, cranial remains are fragmentary. While the frontal

and parietals are well preserved, occipital and temporal remains are very

fragmented. All observable sutures are fully open. No pathological features are

detected on any cranial remains, but one must note the fragmentary nature of the

bones and their differential preservation

The following teeth were recovered from the vessel, which all belong to the same individual:

Primary Dentition:

Upper x x x x x x x x x


Lower x x x x x x x x


Upper X X X X X X X X X X X X X


Lower X X X X X X X


Based on the secondary tooth crowns and some partial root development, the age of this

individual can be placed at between 4-5 years. Once again, due to the subadult age of this

individual, sex is indeterminate. As noted above, there is no pathology in the cranial remains.

From the dental remains, other than a small carious pit found on the mesial crown surface of

the upper left deciduous m1, the only apparent irregularities are the hypoplastic bands present on

six secondary tooth crowns. Measurements of these bands relative to the occlusal edge (since

their cemento-enamel junctions are not yet developed) indicate that moderate stresses affected

this child at 3 years of age, and again at around 4 years (following Song 1997: Table 6.2.3;

Goodman and Song 1999: Table 9.5).

Zotz: Burial 91-1

This late Middle to early Late Preclassic interment from within the round structure (Str. 2) at

Zotz was a cist burial containing the fragmentary remains of an extended individual aligned

north-south with its head to the south. Although poorly preserved, it is thought that this adult

may be male (Awe 1992). However, the author has not undertaken detailed examination of the

remains for age, sex and health indicators.

Zotz: Burial 91-2

Also found within the round structure (Str. 2) at Zotz, this adult individual was interred in a

simple Middle-Late Preclassic grave in an extended north-south position. Field observations

suggest that this individual may be female (Awe 1992). However, no precise age determination

can be made due to the very poor preservation of the remains. The skeletal and dental remains

have not yet been analyzed for evidence of pathology.

Zubin: Burial A1-B/9

This Terminal Preclassic crypt grave contained the remains of a single adult individual

interred in an extended prone position (NW-SE axis), with the head at the south. Approximately

75% of the individual is preserved (Glassman and Stockton 1995), including six modified teeth

with type E1 jade and hematite inlays (see Romero 1970). Skeletal preservation is generally

good but the bones are very fragmented.

Based on morphological features of the pubic symphyses and the sternal ends of some ribs,

an age range of 27-40 years is determined for this adult (Glassman and Stockton 1995). No

definite sex can be clearly identified from the remains, but it is thought that this individual is a

male adult. The only pathological lesions identified include slight arthritic lipping on vertebral

fragments.

Zubin: Burial A1-B/10

Like Burial A1-B/9, this single Terminal Preclassic interment was a simple crypt grave

containing a fully extended prone individual along a north-south axis, which was axially aligned

with Structure A1. The head was also placed at the south end, like all other Cahal Pech

Formative period burials.

Less than 10% of the skeleton is preserved (Glassman and Stockton 1995). Dental remains

(22 teeth) indicate a young child between 4 and 5 years of age. No pathologies are observed, but

one must note the poor preservation of the remains. Sex is indeterminate.

Zubin: Burial C9-B/1a

Due to looters' disturbance of this Middle Preclassic multiple interment prior to formal

excavation, the orientation of the primary individual could not be determined. In general,

preservation is fair to good. Examination by S. Schwake (personal communication, 1997)

deemed this individual to be an adult of male sex (Iannone 1995: 46).

Specifically, this individual can be aged to a young adult, i.e., early 20's, from the state of the

cranial sutures. In particular, the sagittal suture is clearly open and unfused in the lambda region,

while all of the lambdoidal and squamosal sutures are also unfused. According to Montagu

(1960), these regions start to fuse together in the mid-to-late twenties. The fusion lines still

evident in vertebral bodies also reflect a young adult age.

From the author's personal observations, there seems to be slight cranial deformation in this

individual, in the form of flattened occipital bones and some bulging of the right parietal towards

the occipital. However, the fragmentary state of the remains precludes a firm statement at this time.

Regarding pathology, the most serious evidence is in the cranial remains. Pitting across most

of the posterior and sagittal regions of the right parietal, as well as a thinned outer layer, suggest

possible porotic hyperostosis. In addition, circular lesions characteristic of osteomyelitis are

observed on parietal fragments, with ante-mortem remodeling also evident (S. Schwake, personal

communication, 1997).

The following Secondary Dentition belongs to Individual C9-B/1a:

Upper X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X


Lower X X X X X X

In general, the teeth exhibit medium to very heavy calculus deposits, with moderate dental

attrition. Additionally, moderate to severe enamel hypoplasia (and pitting) is evident on

maxillary central incisors, canines and first molars, and mandibular first molars (Figures 7a,b).

The positions of these lesions indicate an extended period of ill health between 1.2 and 2.3 years

of age. Dental attrition is moderate and there is slight to very heavy deposits of calculus.

Zubin: Burial C9-B/1b

The second individual in this “simple” Middle Preclassic interment was positioned in a north-

south alignment, probably extended, with its head at the north end facing west. Unlike most

burials at Cahal Pech, this individual was buried in a supine position, lying on its back. Skeletal

preservation is good, but very fragmentary, and most of the lower body was destroyed by looter

activity. An adult age range is discerned from the remains, but sex is indeterminate.

Notable skeletal features include gracile long bones (i.e., left radius); preservation of distinct

fusion lines of the iliac crest (innominates), suggesting young adult age; and slight arthritic

lipping of the head of a distal phalanx.

Recovered teeth include a maxillary RP3 and a left (?) I1. The mandibular I1 has slight to

medium calculus deposits, medium to heavy dental attrition and possible hypocalcification

staining of the labial enamel.

Finally, traumatic injury, with subsequent healing, is observed in one unidentified long bone

fragment, and it appears as a thick underlying cortex of bony regrowth over the fracture (S.

Schwake, personal communication, 1997). In addition, one vertebral fragment has marked

curvature, possibly due to a crushing force related to workload stress (S. Schwake, personal

communication, 1997).

Preclassic Period Skeletal Remains at Pacbitun

Pacbitun: Burial 1-5

This individual was recovered from a Late Preclassic simple, slab-lined crypt, on the central

axis, deep within Structure 1 at Pacbitun. The burial was likely extended, aligned north-south,

with head to the south. It was not possible to determine if the body lay prone or supine, nor the

precise orientation of the limbs. Preservation was poor.

Cranium: large number of cranial fragments which, unfortunately, are very small; includes

15 cranial vault fragments, petrous portion of temporal bone, and inion region of

occipital; one fragment of the mandible includes mental protuberance

Permanent Dentition:

Upper X X X X


Lower

N.B. The left upper canine originally had a circular inlay measuring 3 mm in diameter (lost).


Ulnae and Radii: proximal end of right radius preserved

Metacarpals/Hand phalanges: distal and medial hand phalanges identified

Femorae: portions of femoral heads and shafts preserved

Age, Sex and Skeletal Health

Analysis by Helmuth (1988) identified heavy dental calculus deposition, caries, and

indications of osteoarthritis. The size of the femoral head (47mm diameter) and femoral wall

thickness point strongly to a male sex. Considering the dental calculus, arthritis, loss of

mandibular teeth and high caries frequency, this male individual must have been over 40 years

old at death. It is likely, but cannot be proven, that he was around 50, or even 60, years of age.

Finally, one distal hand phalanx bore indications of arthritis, probably caused by a previous

fracture, while the medial hand phalanx showed evidence of a healed fracture (Helmuth 1988).

Pacbitun: Burial C-1

This single Middle Preclassic period burial at Pacbitun consisted of an adult individual buried

in a stone-lined cist or partial crypt grave beneath the floor of Plaza C in the site core (Arendt et

al. 1996). The burial was aligned 600 east of north, with the upper body extended and prone.

The knees were tightly flexed upward against the thighs, which is similar to the burial position of

Cas Pek Burial 94-2 (Figure 8).

Overall, preservation was fair to poor. Post-mortem root disturbance especially wrecked

havoc with the chest and pelvic areas, which, together with the absent cranial remains, prevent an

assessment of sex. Most of the cranium could not be located due to disturbance and damage

from much later (Classic period) placement of a large, uncarved stela adjacent to Pacbitun Burial

C-1 (see Figure 8).

Remains of the mandible appear resorbed, with the body reduced in height. Antemortem

tooth loss of at least four molar teeth is noted. This resulted in almost complete bone resorption

of the left M1 socket; complete bone overgrowth of the left M2; and partial (approximately 1/3)

bony spicule formation in the sockets of both third molars. As a result of the loss of the left M1

and M2, more alveolar resorption and reduced body height is apparent in left mandibular

fragments, when compared to the right.

However, while the mandible appears relatively gracile, the chin is noticeably pronounced,

squarish and knobby at the processes.

The following Secondary Dentition was present for Pacbitun Burial 95-1:

Upper X X


Lower X X X X X X X X X X X

Calculus deposits are slight in amount and dental attrition is slight to moderate.


Scapulae, Ribs and Vertebrae: very fragmentary

Arm and Leg Long Bones: good condition, but most epiphyses not preserved

Left Patella: only proximal half preserved

Hand and Foot Bones: most bones well preserved

Bones not preserved or accounted for due to fragmentation: innominates, sacrum, clavicles,

sternum.


Due to the very poor preservation of pelvic remains, and inaccessibility of the cranium,

positioned near the base of the stela, no reliable skeletal markers are available for age and sex

determination. However, an adult individual aged between 30-40 years can be inferred from

dental remains and their degree of attrition. Admittedly, this latter trait is not as reliable as pelvic

and cranial markers for age estimation, but it is the only criterion available.

For sex determination, a female sex is implied by the relative gracility of all long bones, but

the nature of mandibular features suggest a male sex (of slight body dimensions). At this time,

Pacbitun Burial 95-1 can only be described as an adult individual of indeterminate sex.

Regarding skeletal pathology, arthritis appears to afflict one middle toe phalange, with bony

growths evident on the distal end (head) of the phalange.

From the dental remains, linear enamel hypoplasias are observed on mandibular canines and

premolars. A brief period of minor ill health is determined to have occurred sometime between 4

and 5 years of age. Antemortem tooth loss of at least four molars, and possibly six or more teeth,

is also noted.

Carious lesions are evident on several molars. In maxillary teeth, the right M2 (possible M

3)

has an interfissure carie on the occlusal surface that penetrates the dentine and is 1.74 mm in

diameter. Similarly, the left M2 (possible M

3) has a large occlusal carie through the dentine

measuring 4.15 mm at its widest point. In the mandibular right M1, an eroded region measuring

4.45 mm across is observed on the mesial crown surface near the cemento-enamel junction, and

another small carious pit afflicts the buccal surface along the midline (buccal groove). Finally, in

the mandibular right M2, a large interfissure occlusal carie is evident on the lateral half of the

crown, extending through the dentine into the root, and measuring 3.70 mm wide. A localized

carious pit is also apparent on the buccal groove, which measures 2.92 mm wide and penetrates

the dentine.

Skeletal Indicators of Preclassic Maya Health

While the state of skeletal preservation and fragmentation hinders clear assessments of

skeletal health for many of the Preclassic individuals identified at Cahal Pech and Pacbitun,

remains for some are sufficient to observe the presence of various skeletal pathologies (Table 2).

In particular, porotic hyperostosis, a cranial inflammation due to an anemic state, is observed

in Cas Pek Burial 94-2. This condition, which could either reflect dietary anemia or the anemic

response of infectious disease (Macadam and Kent 1992), is evident as areas of pitted, porous

bone on the outer cranial surface of the parietals, in addition to a widening of the inner diploe

layer. It is perhaps noteworthy that there is not more evidence for spongy or porotic hyperostosis

at either Cahal Pech or Pacbitun. Saul and Saul (1991:156) note a similar scarcity at Cuello

during the Preclassic. This would seem to suggest a better level of health and nutrition among

the Maya in the Preclassic period than during the Classic period, when this condition is much

more common.

Cranial pathology is also evident in remains from Zubin Burial C9-B/1b, whose parietal

bones display circular osteomyelitic lesions and evidence of ante-mortem bone remodeling (S.

Schwake, personal communication, 1997).

With regards to bone infection, mandibular fragments from Tolok Burial 10 and Cas Pek

Burial 94-2 indicate possible periodontitis infection. This condition appears as regions of

alveolar bone resorption and porous bone surrounding the tooth sockets, in association with

antemortem loss of mandibular molars. General bone infection is also observed as periostitis in

the long bones of Cas Pek Burial 91-4 (over 40 years), Tolok Burial 9d (aged 0-6 months), and

Tolok Burial 7 (aged 4-5 years).

While arthritis (or osteoarthritis) is known from many Classic and Postclassic period Maya

skeletal specimens, it has been less well documented for the Preclassic (Saul and Saul 1991:152).

At Cahal Pech and Pacbitun, several adult vertebrae and feet show signs of “normal”

osteoarthritic lesions that most likely simply represent work-related and age-related changes in

these mobile areas (e.g., Zubin Burial A1-B/9, Pacbitun Burial 1-5 and C-1).

On the other hand, evidence of significant vertebral pathology is detected in the remains from

Cas Pek Burial 91-4. In this case, it is likely that the individual suffered from osteoporosis, an

age-related degenerative condition of bone demineralization.

Finally, traumatic injury is observed in remains from Cas Pek Burial 91-4, Zubin Burial C9-

B/1b, and Pacbitun Burial 1-5. In all cases, the individuals survived the damaging incident for

some time after the occurrence, with evidence of bony re-growth over the fractures.

Table 2 Skeletal Pathologies Observed in the Preclassic Sample

BURIAL PATHOLOGY

Cas Pek 91-4 periostitis on several unidentifiable bone fragments

(probably leg bones), fracture of one vertebral body,

osteoporosis of vertebrae

Cas Pek 94-2 porotic hyperostosis, vertebral osteoarthritis (lipping),

possible periodontitis

Tolok Bu-7 periostitis of right femur

Tolok Bu-9d periostitis on left femur - with areas of hypervascular

(inflamed) periosteal bone, and surface plaque buildup

Tolok Bu-10 possible periodontitis infection in mandible

Zubin C9-B/1a cranial osteomyelitis, porotic hyperostosis

Zubin C9-B/1b crushed vertebrae (probably due to workload stress),

healed fracture on one long bone fragment

Zubin A1-B/9 osteoarthritic lipping of vertebrae

Pacbitun Bu 1-5 osteoarthritic lesions on hand phalanx; healed hand fracture

Pacbitun Bu C-1 osteoarthritic lesions on toe phalange

Dental Pathology

Due to the state of preservation of the skeletal material, the most common indicators of stress

are apparent in the dental remains. While teeth may not always accurately reflect disease patterns

in the skeleton, they are considered to be good indicators of general health. In the Maya case,

where bone preservation can be very poor, they are often the only hard tissue remains preserved

well enough for such analysis. At Cahal Pech and Pacbitun, preservation is generally poor to fair

for human remains, with the exception of some well-preserved remains from the Cas Pek and

Tolok settlement groups.

In particular, regarding dental health, the incidence of linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) is

examined since such defects reflect episodes of chronic, often low grade, stress (Wright 1990).

Health and/or nutritional stress that occur during the period of enamel matrix formation can

result in developmental defects of enamel, namely LEH. Hypoplasias can be manifest as shallow

or deep, wide or narrow, horizontal grooves or bands; small pits arranged generally, or

horizontally, across the enamel surface of tooth crowns; or, as regions of entirely missing enamel

over small or large areas of dentine (FDI 1982: 160). However, the predominant defect types are

lines or grooves.

Enamel defects can result from a multitude of factors, such as malnutrition, fever, vitamin

deficiencies, viral infections, prematurity, hereditary conditions, and localized trauma (Cuttress

and Suckling 1982; Pindborg 1982; Goodman and Rose 1990). In archaeological samples, the

primary cause of enamel hypoplasia will have been systemic metabolic factors, such as

malnutrition and infectious disease (gastrointestinal and respiratory infections).

Among ancient and living Maya, dental enamel hypoplasias are a relatively common

affliction, i.e., more than 50% incidence (Danforth 1986; Infante and Gillespie 1974; Saul and

Saul 1991; Song 1997; Sweeney and Guzman 1966; White 1986; Wright 1994). At Cahal Pech,

a similar situation exists with the dental remains (Maar and Varney 1993; Song 1993, 1995,

1996; Song et al. 1994). Moreover, like other studies, the Cahal Pech remains reflect the

vulnerability of teeth, such as upper central incisors and mandibular canines, which display the

highest frequencies of enamel defects (Goodman and Armelagos 1985; Skinner and Goodman

1992).

Advantageously, hypoplastic enamel defects can be measured in relation to the cemento-

enamel junction (CEJ) of the tooth to determine the age at which stress(es) occurred during the

individual's childhood. Many studies, of both Maya and non-Maya (i.e., Corruccini et al. 1985;

Goodman et al. 1984; Saul 1972; Saul and Saul 1989, 1991; Schulz and McHenry 1975; Song

1995, 1996, 1997; White 1986; among others), find a consistent patterning of defects between

the ages of 2-4 years, which is also the case for the Formative Maya of the Belize Valley.

For many prehistoric populations, this age coincides with the time of weaning. Other than

dietary changes, this period is a time of increased health stress, when children are becoming more

exposed to pathogens and health hazards due to increased mobility and natural curiosity, as well

as decreased immunity from reduced breastmilk consumption. Coupled with nutritionally

inadequate weanling diets (maize gruel), children at this time (2-4 years in the Maya case) often

face health and dietary stresses that disrupt normal enamel formation. In particular, weanling

diarrhea and anemia are debilitating conditions that often result from the disease and dietary

stresses that accompany weaning, in addition to factors such as environmental pathogen load and

settlement density (see Scrimshaw 1964).

In the Maya case, the association of enamel defects with weaning is often based on

ethnographic studies that indicate a late weaning age for Maya children (see Tozzer 1941:125).

Specifically, children are weaned on maize gruel, which is notably deficient in amino acids and

insufficient for proper nutrition.

However, this association may not be as simple and direct as previously believed (see

Goodman and Song 1999). Recent investigations of enamel development and microstructure

suggest that the period most often represented by dental defects simply reflects the peak period of

enamel development in teeth (Skinner and Goodman 1992). During this peak period of enamel

growth, there is a higher susceptibility to enamel defects due to the unique nature of enamel

microstructural prisms. Such enamel prisms can be recognized in the middle third of the tooth

crown, where defects are the most common (Goodman and Armelagos 1985; Goodman and Rose

1990). With more enamel growing during the period of 2-4 years than any other time, it could be

expected that defects would more likely arise at this time, partly due to increased sensitivity to

metabolic insults (Goodman and Armelagos 1985).

Undoubtedly, one cannot dismiss the coincidental health and dietary factors that compound

the susceptibility of enamel to defective development during this period of childhood, but current

analyses of enamel defects must consider alternative causes than just the role of maize and

weanling diets in the evolution of poor health among ancient Maya.

The nature of hypoplastic defects from the Preclassic skeletal remains suggests that health

and dietary stresses were rarely severe in this early period. Of the 15 individuals with permanent

dentitions, 9 have teeth with enamel defects (see Table 4). Only Zubin C9-B/1a has teeth with

severe LEH. These defects appear as both moderately deep and wide horizontal bands (see FDI

1982), and deep narrow lines on several teeth, which are also accompanied by hypocalcification

staining. “Aging” of these enamel defects are based on regression formulae determined

previously by the author for Altun Ha dental remains (Song 1997: Table 6.2.3). Utilization of

this standard accounts for higher crown heights of Maya teeth, buried cuspal enamel and better

correlation of developmental timing between different tooth types (see Goodman and Song

1999).

Notably, among nine Cahal Pech subadults, the absence of defects in deciduous teeth, which

develop in utero, reflect minimal stress during the prenatal and neonatal period, and this can be

interpreted to indicate generally good maternal and infant health.

While the findings are not statistically significant, since sample size is small, the tendency for

minor lesions in secondary teeth parallels the situation found, thus far, among the ancient Maya

of the Pasion region of Guatemala (Wright 1994) and at Altun Ha, in northern Belize (Song

1997).

Table 3 Enamel Hypoplasia in the Cahal Pech and Pacbitun Preclassic Samples

BURIAL AGE OF STRESS EPISODE(S)

Cas Pek 91-1 between 4-5 yrs (short-term, single pd.)

Cas Pek 94-1 2.8 yrs (short-term, single pd.)

Pacbitun BU-C1 between 4-5 yrs (short-term, single pd.)

Tolok B8 3 to 3.5 yrs (prolonged, single pd.)

Tolok B9a 2.8, 3.5, between 4 and 4.2 yrs. (three pds.)

Tolok B9b 3.7, 4 yrs (two short periods)

Tolok B10 between 2.3-2.7 yrs (short-term, single pd.)

Tolok Cache 3 3 and 4 yrs (two short periods)

Zubin C9-B/1a approx. 1.2 to 2.3 yrs (long-term, single pd.)

Miscellaneous Dental Features

With respect to other dental conditions, the Preclassic Cahal Pech and Pacbitun teeth reflect

patterns of caries incidence, calculus, attrition and antemortem tooth loss typical of Maya

remains. Caries usually afflicted adults and older adults, with a moderate rate of frequency at the

individual level, but most lesions are minor or moderate in severity.

As a result of the starchy maize diet, calculus deposits are generally moderate to severe in

adult Maya individuals, as is the case for early Cahal Pech and Pacbitun. In particular, the

increased salivary environment of the lower dentition contributes to heavier deposits along the

lingual surfaces of mandibular teeth.

Like other Maya samples, teeth from Cahal Pech and Pacbitun also exhibit marked dental

attrition in adult individuals. Principally due to the gritty nature of maize diets resulting from

stone processing, dental attrition often results in complete destruction of tooth crowns among

adults. Consequently, it is often a misleading indicator of relative age, as individuals who are

otherwise skeletally young (i.e., estimated as 30-40 years) often exhibit extensive attrition and

early tooth loss (see Song et al. 1994). Such antemortem tooth loss and subsequent alveolar

resorption can be attributed to a combination of heavy calculus deposits, carious destruction of

teeth, a gritty diet and poor hygiene. These factors would have also been important causes of

periodontitis in surrounding bone.

Cranial / Dental Modification

In the Maya region, modification of the normal shape of the skull was fairly common. While

some head shaping may have been unintentional, several different types of cranial modification

have been observed (see Romero 1970; Saul 1972; Stewart 1974), predominantly consisting of

occipital and/or frontal flattening, and vertical elongation. At Cahal Pech, only Tolok Burial 9a

and Cas Pek Burial 94-2 appear to have altered skulls dating to the Preclassic period. (Cranial

modification can also be attributed to Cas Pek Burial 91-1 and Zubin Burial C9-B/1a, but their

statuses are inconclusive due to the fragmentary nature of the bones.)

Like the “typical” Maya pattern, these skulls exhibit vertical occipital deformation and slight

frontal sloping, which results in bulging parietal regions. Additionally, in the case of Cas Pek

94-2, cleaving of the sagittal axis adjacent to the parietals results. These cranial modifications

could have been produced by binding padded boards to the skull during early childhood growth

(Stewart 1974), but additional unintentional flattening of the occipital region due to sleeping

posture is also possible.

Elsewhere at Cahal Pech, cranial modification is apparent in individuals from Burial 5 at

Tolok (Song 1993); Burials 2-B/2 and 2-B/3 at Zotz (Maar and Varney 1993); and Str. B-4

Burial 1 in the site core (J. Awe, personal communication, 1995), all previously described.

According to Romero (1970) and Stewart (1974), such cultural practices were common in

ancient Maya society and crosscut age, sex and social status.

More variable in Mesoamerica was the practice of dental modification, which included

simple and intricate patterns of dental filings and inlays (see Romero 1970). At Cahal Pech,

Preclassic period dental modification is only noted, thus far, in Zubin Burial A1-B/9 (a possible

male), which is dated to the Terminal Preclassic, and has six teeth with globular pyrite and

jadeite inlays. At Pacbitun, evidence for an inlay (lost) was present in the dentition of the older

male individual in Burial 1-5 (Late Preclassic). No filings are identified in the examined

dentitions, but its presence in the teeth of a young/middle adult female at Cuello during the

Middle Formative (Romero's (1970) A1 type) suggests that it was practiced as early as 900-800

B.C. in the Maya lowlands (E. Krejci, personal communication 1993, to Hammond et al.

1995:122; also see Saul and Saul 1991: 155).

Table 4 Cranial / Dental Modification

BURIAL TYPE OF MODIFICATION

Cas Pek 94-2 occipital flattening (w/parietal bulging)

Tolok Bu-9a fronto-occipital

Zubin A1-B/9 globular pyrite and jadeite dental inlays

Pacbitun Bu 1-5 unidentified circular inlay (lost)

Stature Estimates

The precise determination of stature or height from skeletal remains is an uncertain process.

At Cahal Pech, only three individuals were sufficiently well preserved to estimate stature (Table

5). From the long bones of these adult individuals, male and female height estimates are found

to be similar to ranges for Maya remains from Altar de Sacrificios, Tikal, Seibal, and Barton

Ramie during the Preclassic period (Danforth 1994; Saul 1972). The lone male from Cas Pek,

for whom we have good measurements, had a height range of 157.64-164.48cm (5 ft 3” - 5 ft 6”)

(mean of 161cm), while two females, both from Tolok, have heights between 134 cm+ and 152

cm (4 ft 6”-5 ft 1”).

Osteological evidence from sites such as Altar de Sacrificios, Cuello and Tikal suggest that

adult stature significantly decreased from the Preclassic to Late Classic periods, which has been

attributed to heightened environmental and dietary stress through time (associated with increased

population density) (Haviland 1967; Saul 1972; Saul and Saul 1991).

While there is insufficient evidence from the few remains of the Belize Valley Maya to draw

conclusions about stature reductions, the Formative period heights cited here do correspond well

with the skeletons of the same time period from other sites.

However, Danforth (1994) questions the belief that stature significantly declined from the

Preclassic period to the Late Classic. Upon scrutinizing the data, she notes that there is: 1) an

inconsistency of skeletal sample size through time, which is often rather limited; 2)

methodological problems associated with stature estimates and sex identification; and 3)

problems with the appropriateness of comparing sites in which stature differences may simply

reflect varying adaptations to different population densities and dietary resources.

All of these limitations are significant factors to consider in the continued acceptance of a

Classic period statural decline, which has been attributed to food shortages and deteriorating

health (see Introduction above). As suggested by Cohen and colleagues (1994) and Danforth

(1994), it is more likely that the reduced stature of modern day Maya, when compared to

Preclassic and Classic period individuals, is a result of significant health changes during the

Historic period, when Spanish rule altered dietary practices and settlement patterns.

Table 5 Preclassic Period Adult Stature Estimates

BURIAL AGE SEX HEIGHT ESTIMATE (in situ, or lab)

Cas Pek 94-2 35-45 male 157.64-164.48 cm (5 feet 3” - 5 feet 6”)

Tolok B-8 17-26 female 134 cm (min.) (4 feet 6”+)

Tolok B-10 17-23 female 144.44-152.07 cm (4 feet 10” - 5 feet 1”)

Mortuary Behavior at Cahal Pech and Pacbitun

Importantly, the skeletal remains provide clues to not only population structure and health,

but also to ritual and interment practices. Preclassic burials from Cahal Pech and Pacbitun have,

so far, all been excavated from architectural contexts, i.e., within structures or platforms. The

majority is derived from two round structures at the Tolok and Zotz settlement groups at Cahal

Pech.

Preclassic period grave types include “simple” pits (Smith 1972), cists (Awe 1992; Welsh

1988), and “simple” or “partial” crypts (Iannone 1994; Powis and Hohmann 1994). The

predominant body position is extended, prone, on a north-south axis, with the head to the south

(see Table 1). Of the 17 primary burials for which the position is discernible, this pattern is

evident for 14 individuals, one of whom also had his knees flexed back and pointing upward

(Cas Pek Burial 94-2).

In comparison, Pacbitun Burial C-1 and Zubin Burial C9-B/1b deviate most from this

mortuary pattern. The Pacbitun individual was interred in an extended, prone position, but the

body was aligned 600 east of north, with the head at the west end, and its knees tightly flexed

upward. This arrangement even deviates from the common pattern of burial during the Classic

period for other Pacbitun graves: of 20 burials for which the position was discernible, 16

individuals were found in the extended position, but they were primarily supine and with the legs

crossed (Healy 1990). Similar to the Cahal Pech burials, however, these extended interments

were north-south in alignment, with the heads to the south.

In further contrast, the Zubin burial had a north-south orientation, but its head was at the

north end, facing west, and the entire extended body was supine in position. Interestingly, this

individual is also distinct from the other Preclassic remains in its dentition, which exhibit the

most severe enamel hypoplasias.

At Cuello, grave orientation similarly follows a consistent north-south placement (Hammond

et al. 1995). The earliest Middle Preclassic interments were flexed, as well as extended, and both

prone and supine in position. Tightly flexed individuals were found in both Middle and Late

Preclassic burials, and they were positioned lying on their backs, with their knees drawn up

(Hammond et al. 1995). This is a practice that has not yet been observed at Cahal Pech or

Pacbitun.

Grave goods vary between interments but, notably, several Preclassic individuals at Cahal

Pech were interred with their crania placed face down within whole vessels. Such instances were

found in Cas Pek Burials 94-1 and 94-2, and Tolok Burials 8 and 10. This custom continued in

later times at Cahal pech. For example, during the Classic period at Zopilote, the second

individual from Tomb 1 (ca. A.D. 600) had its cranium placed face down within a vessel, but its

skull was also covered with another inverted vessel (Cheetham et al. 1993). This placement of

an inverted vessel over the skull was also evident in a Late Classic skull interment from the Zotz

group (Burial 92-2-B/7) (Aimers 1992).

Outside of Cahal Pech, the pot-over-skull association is a predominant feature of Middle and

Late Preclassic period burials from Cuello, where it has been considered a form of skull

protection (Robin 1989). According to Welsh (1988), most Maya citizens, regardless of status,

probably interred individuals with vessels below or above the skull and it continued as a common

burial practice into the Classic period. Other than practical reasons for placing a vessel over a

skull, i.e., protection, such a custom has also been interpreted as representing special veneration

of the dead (Welsh 1988). Alternatively, covering of the skull with a vessel might symbolize the

individual’s descent into the darkened underworld (Xibalba).

Cognizant of this interpretation, one should then note the deposition of Cache 3 in the round

structure (Str. 14) at Tolok. This Terminal Preclassic “skull-in-bowl” offering displays a related

practice, with the caching of a 4-5 year old child's skull within a complete Aguacate Orange

tetrapod bowl. Regarding cultural significance, the purposeful interment of only the skull is

highly suggestive of some sort of ritual associated with sacrifice or veneration. Following Robin

(1989), the young age of the skull argues against its deposition as a form of ancestor worship. In

the larger scheme of events, the deposition of the cache in the round structure (Tolok Str. 14)

might then represent a dedicatory offering to the structure itself (see Welsh 1988: 170). Noting

the presence of other burials, and the nature of some deposits (i.e., Tolok Cache 2, the tooth

offering) associated with this structure, which suggest a public/ritual function for Structure 14

(Powis 1994), the possibility of the cache serving as a votive offering seems likely.

Tolok Burial 9 is noteworthy for the multiple interment of four subadults. Firstly, the

Primary Individual, aged 2-4 years old, should be distinguished because of its interment with the

partial remains of others. Skeletal evidence suggests that the Second Individual (4-5 years) is

represented by most long bones (humeri, ulna, femurs, tibia), but it appears that the arms and legs

were disarticulated prior to deposition. These long bones were placed along the corresponding

sides of the main child's upper torso and arm region. On the other hand, the Third Individual (1-

1.5 years) seems to be only represented by dental remains and, possibly, a cranium. At the very

least, maxillary and mandibular portions of the skull containing the unerupted secondary teeth

constitute this child’s remains. Lastly, the Fourth Individual, a child aged birth to 6 months, is

only identified by two teeth and a femur.

The nature of the three secondary subadult deposits atop the main child’s shoulders, upper

torso and near the cranium suggests that they were “grave goods” for the main child (also see

Powis and Hohmann 1995). Human sacrifice can be suggested to account for the secondary

individuals but, ultimately, the nature of death of all four children is perplexing.

Interestingly, the Primary Individual of Tolok Burial 9 lacks both legs and feet, appearing

severed at the waist. The absence of this individual’s lower body, which was nonetheless capped

with stones where the legs should have been, suggests that some sort of skeletal interference

occurred. With this in mind, it is very interesting that the legs of another child (Second

Individual) would be placed with the interment. Following Welsh (1988), one can only speculate

that the main child’s legs were removed, and similarly offered as grave goods to honor another

individual. Circumstances involving missing skeletal elements might indicate that the legs were

defleshed prior to burial (i.e., Burials 385-1 and 385-2 at Dzibilchaltun) and, thus, may represent

instances of ritual cannibalism or sacrifice (see Welsh 1988: 81).

Regarding the circumstances of the full length (head to feet) grave, which extended beyond

the severed skeleton of the Primary Individual (and thus, seems impractical), it can be argued

that the construction of the full cist grave was meant to allow burial of a “complete” body, that

might have had representations of legs constructed from some sort of perishable material.

Overall, the circumstances of ritual behavior surrounding Tolok Burial 9 conforms well with

other acts of ritual, skeletal “mutilation” and sacrifice evident at the site and particularly with

Structure 14 (see Powis 1996).

Elsewhere at Cahal Pech, similar (but Late Classic) evidence of possible skeletal interference,

or “mutilation”, is apparent at Zotz, where one individual (Burial 2-B/2) had its lower right leg

missing, while another (Burial 2-B/3) had an extra femur deposited with the lower left leg

(Aimers 1992: 5-6).

At Cuello, similar evidence exists from three double burials dating to early Middle Preclassic

and Late Preclassic contexts (see Robin 1989). In these cases, each primary individual was

interred with additional disarticulated leg bones, which were interpreted to be sacrificial remains

placed in honor of the principal individuals (Robin 1989).

Conclusions

Healthwise, the skeletal remains reflect general good health for the Preclassic period Maya at

both Cahal Pech and Pacbitun. The most common pathologies are enamel defects of teeth, but

they are minor in severity and reflect short-term periods of ill health (infectious disease) and/or

dietary stress (weaning). Skeletal pathologies such as periostitis, porotic hyperostosis and

osteoarthritis are also not severe in nature and, even considering the sample size, are not very

common. The most serious skeletal pathologies include: traumatic fractures to individuals in Cas

Pek Burial 91-4, Zubin Burial C9-B/1b, and Pacbitun Burial 1-5, one of which (Cas Pek) is likely

due to osteoporosis; periostitis of long bones of the individual in Cas Pek Burial 91-4, Tolok

Burial 7, and Tolok Burial 9d; porotic hyperostosis of the individual in Cas Pek Burial 94-2, and

possibly in Zubin Burial C9-B/1; and periodontitis and alveolar absorption among the individuals

in Cas Pek Burial 94-2 and Tolok Burial 10.

Comparatively, the Cahal Pech and Pacbitun data accord well with other Formative Maya

human skeletal remains. For instance, osteological analyses of material from Altar de Sacrificios

(Saul 1972) and Cuello (Saul and Saul 1991), sites with the largest Preclassic samples, indicate

that the health status of individuals from the Preclassic period was relatively better than that of

individuals from the Classic period. Although the Belize Valley sample size is smaller,

particularly the remains that have been amenable to detailed analysis, the Formative sample from

Cahal Pech and Pacbitun also indicate a relatively healthy population.

Notably, the general health trend of ancient Maya is accompanied by some archaeological

and bone chemical evidence suggesting increased maize reliance over time, leading to

speculation of dietary factors as the cause of deteriorating health (White et al. 1993).

Nonetheless, in the Belize Valley, evidence for abundant floral, faunal, riverine, and even

exchanged coastal resources, suggests that despite increased reliance on maize, diets probably

remained varied and adequate over time (Powis et al. 1999; see also Stanchly, this volume). This

regional distinction characterizes the variability evident across the Maya region, which leads

White (2000: xxii) to conclude that “…although there exists a pan-Maya ideological grounding

for dietary regimes, there is little to offer at present in terms of universal dietary patterning within

the Maya sphere.”

It is suggested that any changes in health that may have occurred in the Classic period are

probably due more to increased population and settlement density, and environmental alteration

associated with increased agricultural intensification, than directly to an increased reliance on

maize alone. More importantly, the political-economic climate of the Classic period is a greater

determinant of the nature of Maya health during this time, particularly when it is compared to the

less socially stratified Preclassic period.

Considering that the Preclassic period was the era in which Classic period cultural

complexity germinated, the analysis of human remains from this period can enhance the

understanding of early complex Maya society. Specifically, such analyses can shed light on

population health and mortuary behavior prior to major Classic period changes in demography,

settlement patterns, socio-economic organization, and subsistence. The Preclassic skeletal

sample at Cahal Pech and Pacbitun is small, thus far, but this does not lessen its significance in

the larger picture of the prehistory of the Maya.

Footnotes

1. The remaining Preclassic individuals (Cas Pek 91-2, 91-6, 93-1, 93-2; Zotz 91-1, 91-2) have

not been analyzed in detail by the author. Some isolated human bone and dental remains have

also been found in construction fill dated to Preclassic contexts at both sites, but these results are

also not presented here. Except for Zotz Burials 91-1 and 91-2, the Zubin remains, and Pacbitun

Burial 1-5, the author was responsible for primary analyses of all individuals discussed in this

chapter. Detailed descriptions of all skeletal data from Zubin have been previously reported by

Glassman and Stockton (1995) and Schwake (1996), but are also reported here based on

subsequent examinations by the author. The Late Preclassic grave (Burial 1-5) from Pacbitun

was analyzed by Helmuth (1988), with the information presented here with his permission.

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Archaeology at Colha, Belize, ed. by T.R. Hester, H.J. Shafer and J.D. Eaton, 59-63. Studies

in Archeology 16, Texas Archeological Research Laboratory. The University of Texas at

Austin.

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Cas Pek Burial 94-1, with cranium inside Preclassic vessel.

Figure 2: Preclassic vessel containing viscerocranium of Tolok Burial 8.

Figure 3: Tolok Burial 9, with legs of primary individual missing.

Figure 4: In situ photograph of pseudocircular cranial modification in Tolok Burial 9-Indiv 1.

Figure 5: Mandible of Tolok Burial 10, with reactive bone evident in socket of right M1.

Figure 6: Tolok Cache 3 vessel containing subadult cranium.

Figure 7a: Linear enamel hypoplasia of Zubin Burial C9-B/1 anterior teeth, with calculus

evident.

Figure 7b: Linear enamel hypoplasia of Zubin Burial C9-B/1 molar teeth, with calculus evident.

Figure 8: Pacbitun Burial C-1, with base of stela at upper left (west).

Preclassic Maya Population: Human Remains, Osteology, and Health

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