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Comprehensive Doctoral Review Examination

Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Business Administration

By

Lynn D. Gardiner-Cuyler

Organizational Leadership

School of Business and Technology Management

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Northcentral University

December 21, 2014

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Practical Applications

Practical applications demonstrate an equitable purpose such

as the introduction of a new tool for training or development of

new implementations. Multilateral theoretical training,

(Issurin, 2013) is important for it encompasses a large body of

research findings and experiences that characterizes the process

by which improving performance is certain. Training and

development elements are advantageous for any organization

operating a safety entity for children. In addition to

measuring, screening, and diagnosing causal conditions that stem

from a problem, practical applications can also dramatize

encouraging remedies and or intermediation strategies. A

researcher’s ability to review the work of others and evaluate

the quality of their methods, results, and conclusions are

elemental. In some cases the ability to evaluate is quite easily

accomplished, and in other cases the complexity of the process is

at a high level. By developing one’s ability to evaluate the

work of others, a better sense of how to improve one’s own

research efforts can be perfected expeditiously. In the

progression of perfecting one’s evaluation skills through

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researching relevant articles pertaining to subject matter,

consider a matured check list of rigorous questions to use in the

search of empirical data.

Relationship between Theory and Application

A theory is a methodical organization of information that

provides evidence that solve problems through a series of valid

statements. Problems can be formulated through methods of

measured outcomes or the application of a theory. Additionally,

theories are used to structure the work of a researcher’s study

and should address significant practical problems to explain a

phenomenon. Theories provide a knowledge base (Sammut, 2014) to

the application which transforms learning into an active

practice. This will enable others to effectively and efficiently

work in their area of expertise. In contrast, practitioners use

theories in response to observations and the formulation of a

problem in actual practical settings.   The usage by

practitioners are distinguished from the examination of a theory

in that instrumentalism and realism are the focus. In theory,

social sciences’ instrumentalism is directly motivated by the

discovery of theoretical orientations with the use of devices to

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offer solutions for implementations. Whereas realism

concentrates on the legitimacy of a preexisting theoretical

orientation with conclusions that compare the outcome of the

study.

Relationship between Theory and Practice

In the analysis of problems that individuals, families,

groups, communities, and societies face is important in that they

identify problems previously overlooked and suggest where

practice attention or innovation is necessary. Read, (2014),

postulate that, “Theory and practice are co-constitutive of

possibility in development and, thus, how they are deeply

political” (p. 296). Social work scientists and practitioners

have diverse attitudes about how much of the profession’s work

should be focused on direct care for individuals and families.

The development of new service deliveries and developmental

models effecting changes in social policy, social provision, or

in the structures of society itself is the question that theory

has to answer. The explanation of how to address the problem

relative to the social constructs of society is the result of a

working relationship of putting theory into practice.

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Theory’s Guidance to Practice

Open-minded interventions compel unceasing enhancements to

theory. These progressions are opportunities for evolving and

thoughtful theoretical improvements in biases and planning which

influence the response to interventions. In order for

theoretical advances to be translated into ongoing developmental

advances, theory must be unambiguously relative to other theories

that are drawn upon. Although theory ought to be reflective to

the sensitivity of the subject matter, it must also illustrate

discriminating evidence of improvement in the effectiveness of

interventions. The complexity of technology in social

interventions has created multifaceted scientific challenges.

These challenges should collaborate with experts encompassing a

diverse knowledge base. The challenges of working across

disciplinary and scientific boundaries are considerable (Michie,

West and Spring, 2013), but a systematized body of knowledge and

learning tools has begun to emerge. Moving enhancements

accelerative, operational approaches have found difficulty in

translating theory into practice. Even with operative patterns,

the dissection of theoretical research and applied application

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within a society has major challenges. This will necessitate

argumentum conjectures and the synchronization of accomplishments

through research groupings.

Issues Translating Theory into Practice

Psychology theories concentrate on the enlightenment of

human comportment by providing a basis for examination of conduct

and activities.  Social science theories infer that human actions

focus on the scrutinization of an unchanging phenomena. 

Intentions establish perspectives which can affect applied

theoretical consequences. The implication of gender, ethnicity

or ones status could affect the level of immersion of a

practitioner which can hypothetically affect the conclusion of

the theory.  Questions ascending from deciphering theory into

practice may originate from the interrelation and interaction

between the two concepts. The translation of theory to practice,

in established scholarly work, has developed apprehensive

planning changes without significantly identifying and critiquing

ideologies. Overcoming the challenges of the gap between theory

and practice offers erudite clarifications concerning theoretical

and practical aspects. Knowledge based evidence, from research,

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can improve the administrative decision making process. Current

estimates (Curran, Grimshaw, Hayden and Campbell, 2011) suggest

that it takes 1 to 2 decades for original research to be

incorporated into routine practice. The rapidity of exploration

and innovation, in the area of knowledge-to-practice gap, is a

concern for both researchers as well as practitioners.

Current Views of Other Theorist

Theories on the topic of bullying, in our current time,

brings an urgency to understanding this social phenomenon and

cultivate a resolution. Notwithstanding the amplified scientific

studies related to bullying, this problem cannot be solved by the

educational system solitarily. In addition to parents, school

leaders, stakeholders, and non-governmental organizations,

assorted studies were conducted on this phenomenon in support of

these particular entities. Psychological services necessitate

input from educational staff and other professional members that

will contribute to raising consciousness of forthcoming germane

studies. Imminent research should focus on practical methods

which can be pragmatic in dealing with violent behavior of school

age children. There has been many positive steps (Yerlikaya,

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2014) that has created intervention programs that has put theory

into practice with great success.

Attempts in research to suggest an end to the violent

behavior, that appears to be growing moving from the classroom to

the buses to innermost realms of individual homes, are unceasing.

In lieu of the shift in the setting of these infractions, the

continued discussion of the current views on this theory will

begin with leadership’s responsibility. Leadership plays an

intricate part and must be a strong force within the context of

education, staff confidence, staff connectedness, in addition to

student safety.

School Leadership

Innovative principal groundwork has a palpable and

noteworthy impact on teacher outcomes. The significance of

quality leadership formulation is a transformative tactic for

policymakers to consider for effectiveness. Effective leadership

implementations are influential in the quality of leadership

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preparedness in that relationships between prototypical

provisions, leadership exercise, and teacher effects support

primed influences. Furthermore, empirical evidence encouragingly

reinforced the maturity of staff positive effects. Positive

benefits for teachers (Orphanos and Orr, 2014) by improving

collaboration, participation in decision making, and job

satisfaction show investments in leadership preparation

influences for leadership practices to yield more positive

teacher work conditions essential for improving student learning.

Hypothesis outcomes discovered additional innovative service

agendas as well as participation yielded positive preparation

experiences. Providing direction for leadership preparation

programs, stress leadership preparation plays a major role in

district reform and school improvement work. Statistical data

analysis correlating preparation programs, school leader’s

preparedness, and school enhancement demonstrated an influence of

active student learning experiences. Benefits of high-quality

leader-learner experiences inclusive of a comprehensive focus on

school teacher outcomes, accentuated the current evidence in

relation to positive student outcomes.

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The Concept of Bullies

School bullying has been identified as a collective vicious

nature based on social relationship in school settings.

Stressing the centrality of contextual factors (i.e.: peer group

dynamics, school processes) related to bullies and their victims,

research has enhanced the efforts in addressing this social

phenomenon. In contrast, the gap in knowledge has overlooked the

social forces at work in schools that may contribute to or

decrease the behavior due to the focus attending to the bully’s

personal socio-psychological characteristics and their

interactions with their victim. Investigating the impact of

improving school climate, a contextual factor could decrease,

maintain, or exacerbate bullying based on how school personnel

responds to the behavior. Programs enhancing positive school

climates, will offer teachers and students connectedness and

eradicate communication barriers to strengthen teacher awareness

of bullying. Scrutinizing student discernment patterns in

addition to teacher feedback to school violence could reveal

differences in perceptions of those who perpetrate and those

victimized. Students have a good sense of school events

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(Berkowitz, 2014), therefore, may feel threatened and conclude

that the school has a major violence problem, regardless of

personal victimization experience. Intervention through anti-

bullying education conveys cognizance to inexperienced educators.

Significant influences involved in preparing educators on how to

identify this behavior offers further understanding and decreases

educator obliviousness of incidents.

School Policy

One prominent preoccupation for administrators,

policymakers, and stakeholders is responding to incidents

involving violent behavior. District educational leaders have

established policies to frame prevention first then intervention

safely. Two major theories of bullying policies within school

organizations are zero tolerance and early intervention inclusive

of constructive anti-bullying policy practices. The evolution of

zero tolerance into early intervention disciplines composes

guiding principles which are applied in schools. Policy

practices offer prevention and intervention strategies when

guided effectively.

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“An effective way of supporting schools can

be to develop accreditation schemes which

provide a frame-work by which to recognize

effective policy and practice with specific

sections covering areas such as policy

content, leadership, whole school

participation and effective strategies can

help schools focus on all aspects of policy

development and implementation” (Smith,

Kupferberg, Mora-Merchan, Samara, Bosley, and

Osborn, 2012, p. 69).

Due to a paradigm shift in how bullying between peers are

addressed, the orientation of schools who adopt divergent

approaches in addressing bullying between peers is a necessary

initiation that addresses the problem in addition to insights

from leaders on how to combat this social phenomenon.

Student Disruptive Behavior

Providing a definitive identification of how the negative

impact that disruptive students have on another’s classroom

experience, assist educators in the active management of classroom

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activities. Establishing classroom behavior guidelines (Hoffman

and Lee, 2014), instructors should set aside time (i.e., the first

day of class) to explain these policies to the students. Educators

that identify students with interactive difficulties that

negatively affect the classroom experience, must fall back on the

preliminary standpoints in the communication of classroom policies.

Conveying tolerable classroom behavior should be administered

within the curriculum and introduced during the orientation period

(appropriately within the first week of school). Information in

relation to behavior should be communicated not only to students

but to parents and other stakeholders. When information is not

communicated or inadvertently overlooked pertaining to teacher

expectations, students begin to make policy for themselves, in

which, the loss of classroom control is at risk.

Current Theory Interest in My Topic

The current theories of interest for my topic involves

school violence and positive student learner outcomes. There are

many theories that have been developed and tested in reference to

this phenomenon. The continuance of further research

necessitates a look into the root of this social phenomenon in

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order to understand it and provide empirical evidence of a

possible solution. Intervention programs established for

assessment and implementation is saturated with literature that

gives substance to the area of concern. Using a theory with

hypotheses discerning solutions affecting the interrelationships

of economic conditions and inequality, is an emergent concern

that could be a contributing factor towards violence displayed by

youth. Our present day concern would be how to intervene and

eradicate this violent behavior that is disruptive to other

students, domestic as well as international.

School violence and safety research uses gender as a

variable in understanding its correlation to bullying. Evidence

from safety research (Yusuf, Omigbodun, Adedokun, and Akinyemi,

2011), has revealed that males are exposed to violent acts more

than females. In contrast, the study did not retrieve any

significant differences between male and female students in terms

of bullying or being a victim of a bully. In lieu of these

assertions, other studies have been developed to raise social

gender awareness, illuminating assumptions that aggressive

behavior is not specific to biological gender but related to

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social gender. Messages of violence throughout the media (print

and television), video games, and social environments, I believe,

contribute to displayed acts of violence from both genders.

Further research is required to discriminate the subliminal

messages of violence arriving from media as well as other social

environments. Moreover, further research can infer if violent

messages are a verifiable contributing factor and is interrelated

with the development of bullying attitudes amongst youth.

On an international level, it is just as important to

understand, compare and contrast, the violent behavior of

students. In other parts of the globe, research has exposed the

presence of bullying victimizations across different types of

high schools. In particular, general, vocational, industrial and

religious high school students can be compared, contrast,

correlated by relationships as well as interrelated context.

International research on bullying postulate that high school

students experience bullying at a significantly higher rate than

general and religious high school students. The expectations of

academic achievement may explain the anxiety correlating student

futures and low academics in industrial high schools, while

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spiritual messages, disapproving acts of violence in religious

high schools are at a higher expectation thus being more

effective.

Educational authorities in conjunction with law enforcement

has suggested that schools use a threat assessment approach to

prevent school violence. Unfortunately, there is a gap in

knowledge on the characteristics and outcomes of a threat

assessment model’s effect on children. The relatively small

amount of research done (Nekvasil and Cornell, 2012) has only

sampled students who have reported threats and or experienced

threats towards them. Additional research hypothesized that

students do not report threats due to logistic regression. This

regression identifies threat characteristics associated with

threat reporting and the outcome of those reports. The outcome

from the study provided information prevalent to the nature of

student threats which would be useful. This allows threat

assessment approaches to school violence to create school

violence prevention initiatives with a better understanding of

the need. In relation to my study, this theory can give a

broader understanding of why bullying incidents may go unreported

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by students, thus, be identified as one of the necessary

variables.

Bullying Intervention Theory

Bullying remains a major concern in schools in that

behaviors such as physical aggression, taunting, teasing, name-

calling, threatening, social exclusion, and harassment have

negative effects both socially and academically on students

engaging in the behaviors and or those who have become targets.

Many intervention theories have been applied in relation to my

topic. The severity of the phenomenon has no definitive solution

only data on intervention methods, measures, and prevention

programs. Logical solutions can addresses this type of behavior

in that the use of intervention will be part of the educating

process for educators and stakeholders on how to work with

violent student behavior. Bullying behavior is not limited to a

few students, but occurs across subgroups in most schools.

Leaders attempt to counteract bullying in their perspective

schools by developing comprehensive approaches that focus on

school climate. Multiple theories hypothesizing behaviorism,

social learning theory, prevention science, and systems change,

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(Bosworth and Judkins, 2014) is a new design for a positive

school climate by defining and consistently reinforcing positive

behavioral norms. Educating and training others on the aspects

of positive behavior, addresses environmental conditions, or the

lack thereof, that exacerbate problem behavior. Positive

approaches can change behaviors without negative interactions

associated with punitive discipline. Establishing the theory of

school climates endorses defensive influences and alleviate

threat factors. Schools implementing positive approaches have

admitted that bullying behavior, student victimization, and

behavioral concerns are no longer prevalent due to increased

feelings of safety.

In conjunction with educating educators on intervening in

violent behavior, we must educate students with positive

behavioral interventions. Assisting students in appreciating the

framework of self-respect and the respect of others, will

positively support a behavioral intervention program. The

application of such a program will directly effect a student’s

attitudes towards others. Initiating a behavioral intervention

program will demonstrate that students need not seek out

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individuals to control with non-respectful behavior but will be

able to respect themselves, thus, return the respect to others.

Crucial conversations can arise out of this type of intervention,

especially with students in situations that run high with

anxieties. Understanding when to stop and keep one safe, in the

face of disrespectfulness from a student, will keep

disrespectfulness from exacerbating into violence. Data

assessing the fidelity of intervention implementation (Nese,

Horner, Dickey, Stiller, and Tomlanovich, 2014) indicate that the

program was used with high fidelity and a reduction of verbal or

physical aggression.

Continuing with intervention theories, we will now shift the

attention of bully’s in High School toward a different level of

student education. Bulling behavior has surfaced with students

in childcare facilities and preschool programs and has now become

an issue worth addressing. It is inferred that this behavior can

surface in a student’s life when they experience the behavior,

directly or indirectly, from their peers at an early age. In

preschool, children begin to make new acquaintances as well as

discover a new world in addition to the world at home. Moreover,

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children also begin to develop, adjust, and or modify their

social relationship skills. Information obtained at this age is

cognitively retained as truth, and in their naivety, believed

that this is the behavior necessary within this new world. If

negative behavior is experienced time and again, no matter how

minor, children will begin to imitate the same type of behavior,

unless there is positive intervention. Through consistent and

clear interventions (Levine and Tamburrino, 2014), students can

build positive peer relationships that promote a safe and healthy

school climate and culture. Educators that use their training to

examine the effects of conflict resolution strategies will offer

intervention activities that address bullying behaviors among

young children. Furthermore, proposed strategies and solutions

would negate the behavior and avert future concerns.

On the political side of intervention theory, is the

increased public awareness that has created legislation intended

to contest school violence. Currently, there are no specific

laws addressing this social phenomenon but certain sections of

federal initiatives address, with suggestive solutions, several

anti-bullying laws and interventions. In phrasing the laws,

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there arose many elucidations of how to combat and reduce

bullying through policy. Political leaders believed that these

laws are an essential preliminary step in reducing the effects of

the violent behavior. Current state laws (Lund, Blake, Ewing,

and Banks, 2012), vary in their explanations of bullying and

mandated or suggested responses. Increasing demands from society

for individual state legislation requiring schools to take action

to reduce school-age bullying, it is imperative that schools

adopt evidenced-based bullying prevention and intervention

theories that have demonstrated effectiveness in reducing

bullying. School-based mental health professionals (i.e.: school

counselors, psychologists) may be the first responders defense in

combating bullying and therefore are key to understanding the

type of bullying prevention and intervention strategies and

programs that are currently available or currently exist to be

implemented in schools.

The issue encompassing school bullies is not just a domestic

phenomenon but has a deep international correlation. The body of

knowledge has discovered that intervention theories are the

solution to a serious social phenomenon but there is a necessity

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for additional investigation. This problem has demonstrated

(Hong, Lee, Lee, Lee, and Garbarino, 2014) to have potentially

severe and long lasting consequences for youth, parents,

teachers, and school officials. Some suggest that the nature of

bullying outcomes commensurate with the number of bullying

prevention and intervention programs and measures. On an

international level, studies provide synthesized evaluations of

existing research on prevention, are set within a social

ecological context. These evaluations are the result of

empirical gaps in literature on prevention and intervention for

there is no validation on suggested outcomes or directions for

future research.

Appropriateness of a Theory

Analysis showing how entities relate indicate that there are

possible relationships between them when they are represented in

theory and design. Sustainability of relationships depends on

the context of theory appropriateness. Testing the

appropriateness of a theory's application is a major scientific

activity. An appropriate theory should answer and explain, with

excruciating details, all questions pertaining to who, what, and

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why and their correlation or interrelationship scientifically.

The appropriateness should also offer an explanation to why a

particular situation, case study, or phenomenon should be of

concern or of importance for a current study to continue as well

as the initiation of future studies. Furthermore, the

appropriateness regulates empirical evidence eliminating

incoherent observations. Theory and research depend upon each

other to reciprocally relate. Moreover, theories should provide

a framework for analysis along with efficient methods of

development. Lastly, a clear explanation of a deeper theoretical

meaning in order for specific predictions to emerge give way to

competition with existing theories.

Conclusion

Using practical applications to develop ones research,

fundamentals as clustering, cluster sampling, and cluster data

analysis should be inclusive. Clustering is becoming a vital

procedure in data analysis (Kulczycki, Charytanowicz, Kowalski,

and Lukasik, 2012) that is within classical data analysis.

Moreover, for theory to focus on correlating with practice,

theoretical cognitive and or behavioral orientations should

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exist.  Practitioners may work with only one theoretical

orientation, but using other areas of professional practices such

as psychotherapy, social work, or education can assist in

measuring the adaptability of a theory into practice.

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