Potentials for organic agriculture to sustain livelihoods in Tanzania

doi103763ijas20070266

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY 6(1) 2008 PAGES 22ndash36copy 2008 Earthscan ISSN 1473-5903 (print) 1747-762X (online) wwwearthscanjournalscom

Introduction

How can organic agriculture contribute to the liveshylihoods of smallholder farmers in Africa Organic agriculture is receiving increasing attention across the African continent in parallel with the recogshynition of its contribution to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of improved health and food security environmental conservation and economic development (Edwards 2005) This paper describes different organic production sysshytems in Tanzania their contributions to sustainable

livelihoods and potentials for expanding this sector through local and national initiatives

Organic agriculture (OA) is a holistic farm management system which aims to optimize the health and productivity of interdependent comshymunities of soil life plants animals and people (FAOWHO 2001) Rather than relying on expensive and nonshyrenewable external inputs OA promotes a combination of agronomic practices such as crop rotations intercropping and the use of locally available manure together with biologishycal control methods (EPOPA 2004) In this way biological and ecological processes such as nutrishyent cycling nitrogen fixation soil regeneration

Potentials for organic agriculture to sustain livelihoods in Tanzania

Petra BakewellshyStone1 Geir Lieblein1 and Charles Francis2

1Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences Norwegian University of Life SciencesUMB PO Box 5003 1432 Arings Norway and 2Department of Agronomy amp Horticulture University of Nebraska Lincoln NE 68583-0915 USA

Certified market-driven organic agriculture in Africa needs to build upon and strengthen internal natural and social resources in order to bring greater benefit to smallholders The organic sector in Tanzania is predominantly export-oriented supported by development funding and aimed at improving incomes This study is designed to assess and provide a foundation for enhancing organic agriculturersquos contri-bution to sustainable livelihoods and food security amongst Tanzanian smallholder farmers Holistic and multi-perspective analysis revealed that organic agriculture is making efficient use of resources in the current institutional context and building upon existing livelihood strategies Certified organic agriculture can address issues of sustainable food production and improved farmer livelihoods However findings suggest that the international trade focus behind recent efforts by the private sector donors and the government to commercialize smallholder organic agriculture carries significant risks Local- and national-level strategies need to incorporate multiple objectives not only production of high quality products for the market but also farmer empowerment household nutrition and sustainable management of natural resources

Keywordsensp agroecology organic agriculture smallholder farmers sustainable livelihoods Tanzania food security

Corresponding author Email dadapatrahotmailcom

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ORGANIC AGRICULTURE IN TANzANIA 23

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY 6(1) 2008 PAGES 22ndash36

allelopathy competition predation and parasitshyism are consciously integrated into managed food production processes

Organic agriculture can be differentiated from traditional modern and other types of sustainable agriculture by its specific standards and regulashytions Certified OA may be further distinguished from nonshycertified organic or agroecological proshyduction which often meet organic production standards but are not subject to organic inspection certification and labelling

A number of recent reports illustrate the capacity of OA to enhance productivity and improve access to food and income using lowshycost locally available and appropriate technologies and without causing environmental damage (Edwards 2005 Hine amp Pretty 2007 Parrott amp Elzakker 2003 Pretty et al 2003 Rundgren 2002 Scialabba amp Hattam 2002) Organic agriculture tackles food security by addressing many different causal factors simultaneously (yield crop diversity nutritional content) and in particular by building up natural resources strengthening communities and improving human capacity (Parrott amp Marsden 2002 Pretty et al 2003)

Recognizing the potential link between OA and poverty reduction has led to a push by major donors and national governments to commercialshyize smallholders and support their access to organic markets In addition to an interest in sustainable natural resource management and healthy eating smallholders are being driven to farm organically by the soaring prices of artificial fertilizers (Silenge 1996 Thurston 1997) Green Revolution packshyages of highshyyield crop varieties supported by high inputs of agrochemicals and irrigation are also inherently poorly suited to many semishyarid lands and areas lacking infrastructure which is the case for most of rural Africa

Although OA shows great potential to improve domestic food production empirical data is limshyited on the relationship between OA and livelishyhood goals such as family income and nutrition in subshySaharan Africa We need to better understand the pathways by which OA may contribute to the welfare of farming families and the extent to which it improves the security of livelihoods and access to food by vulnerable groups in the Global South1 Furthermore the most comprehensive

overview toshydate of the development and status of the organic movement in Africa highlights the fact that in countries such as Tanzania Kenya and Zimbabwe lsquosubstantial organic export industries (often based on large foreign owned or managed holdings) coshyexist alongside significant levels of poverty and malnutritionrsquo (Parrott amp van Elzakker 2003 19)

Donor agencies and other development partners that advocate OA in order to bring welfare benefits to rural people are challenged to critically appraise the contribution that OA is having to food security (FAO 1996) This is extremely relevant in subshySaharan Africa where there is a critical balance between food production and nutrition needs and in countries such as Tanzania where over a third of children are thought to be malnourished (PELUM 2004) Although national food selfshysufficiency is high priority malnutrition is often more significant than inadequate total food supplies underlining the importance of crop diversity and locally available food

The overall aim of this study is to assess the current situation and provide a foundation for enhancing OArsquos contribution to sustainable livelishyhoods and food security amongst Complex Diverse and Riskshyprone (CDR) smallholder farmers in the United Republic of Tanzania (hereafter referred to as Tanzania) The study was limited to sedentary cropping systems ranging from purely arable to mixed farming either practising certified organic production or in the process of conversion A livelishyhood comprises the capabilities assets and actishyvities required for a means of living and is deemed to be sustainable when it can endure shocks and stresses maintaining or enhancing its assets into the future without undermining the natural resource base (Scoones 1998)

The central research question lsquoIn what ways can OA be developed for the benefit of the smallholder in Tanzaniarsquo is addressed by answering three instrumental questions

(1) What is the status of OA and its impact on smallholder livelihoods in Tanzania

(2) How does OA lead to greater livelihood benefits

(3) Which strategies can be adopted to strengthen these pathways to livelihood benefits

24 P BAkEwELL-STONE ET AL


Researchenspstrategyenspandenspmethods

Table 1 shows the logical framework of the research design linking the main questions to the types of data collected and methods used The studyrsquos censhytral research questions were addressed through two wholeshyproject case studies and multishystakeholder involvement the main methods adopted to analyse the dynamics of OA at the local and national levels respectively

A threeshyphase research process that moved from case studies key informant interviews and field visits at the local level (phases Ia and Ib) to a nationalshylevel stakeholder forum (phase II) and then to verification and presentation of findings back at the local level (phase III) was designed to bridge the microshymacro structure and functioning of organic systems (see Figure 1)

Action research

Action research as applied in this project may be distinguished from most social research by its emphasis on practical outcomes When clear livelishyhood goals such as improved access to food and income can be identified and a strategy such as transition to ecological systems is being applied the benefit of action research is a focus on achieving goals within the given context Based on a meeting

between the researcherrsquos intention to undertake research and the userrsquos willingness to change action research is well suited to the study of social change (Liu 1994)

Soft systems methodology

The complex nature of agricultural problems encompassing a range of political sociocultural economic and ecological factors necessitates a multidisciplinary systems approach (Whyte 1991) By acknowledging the interrelatedness of different system components systemic approaches to problemshysolving took into account properties that could emerge from the complex whole Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) was useful for developing a diagnostic framework for analysis and design and management of interventions (Engel amp Salomon 1997) Central elements were teamwork focused data collection and qualitative analysis

Case study research

Case study research was used to investigate the causes and criteria for lsquosuccessrsquo in OA at the local level by studying events within their realshylife context (Yin 2003 45) A purposive sampling strategy was adopted which selected projects on the basis of lsquobest practicersquo Organic initiatives qualified on the basis

Tableensp1ensp Logical framework for research on organic systems in Tanzania

Phase Main questions Data collected Methods

I (a) what is the status of the Tanzanian organic sector what is the impact of organic agriculture (OA) on smallholder livelihoods

lsquoRich picturersquo of OA including flows of organic goods and a stakeholder map

key informant interviews Focus groups Field visits

(b) what is the impact of OA on smallholder livelihoods which pathways lead to greater livelihood benefits which strategies can be adopted to strengthen benefits at the local level

Components of the Sustainable Livelihood framework Draft strategies

Case study research

II which strategies can be adopted to strengthen OA and these pathways at the national level

Visions Draft strategies

Stakeholder forum

III How valid are the findings Revisions to strategies Policy recommendations

key informant interviews Document exchange



of having development goals activeshyfarmer involveshyment explicitly addressing agricultural sustainabilshyity adopting novel technologies and practices and being communityshybased with proven impacts

Sustainable Livelihoods analysis

The Sustainable Livelihoods (SL) framework was considered an appropriate analytical device for understanding the livelihood impacts of OA due to its explicit focus on people identification of livelihoodshyrelated assets (human natural financial physical and social) opportunities and constraints and linking microshylevel understanding of livelihood into policy and institutional change processes (Farrington et al 1999)

Participatory Learning and Action

In order to benefit from stakeholdersrsquo useful inforshymation and ideas the notion of participation was incorporated into every stage Participatory

Learning and Action (PLampA) tools2 were employed as a means of investigating local knowledge in organic systems A fundamental goal in these exercises was to lsquohand over the penrsquo and invite community members to draw map model and diagram transforming the role of the researcher into that of a facilitator who builds rapport listens questions and learns

Visionary thinking

Participatory techniques were also used in the planshyning and realization of the interactive stakeholder forum on the future of the Tanzanian organic sector The World Cafeacute method which consists of a set of guidelines for fostering active engagement and constructive possibilities was used as a way of focusing group discussions and lsquocreating a living network of collaborative dialogue around questions that matterrsquo (World Cafeacute 2002) A guided visioning exercise was used in order to create a workable and purposeful shared alternative to an existing system in the form of a shared vision for the future of the organic sector (Parker 1990 Senge 1990)

Verification

In order to verify the validity of the findings and develop lsquointershysubjective consensusrsquo (Miles amp Huberman 2004) statements were given to expeshyrienced practitioners to solicit feedback Participants in the case study research were asked to review and critique both interim and final products Qualitative data analysis techniques such as coding and tabulashytion were used in order to generate descriptions and themes from the data collected

HistoryenspandenspcurrentenspstatusenspofensporganicenspagricultureenspinenspTanzania

Certified OA emerged in Tanzania in the early 1990s In 2003 the first local certification body the Tanzanian certification association (TanCert) was established with support from the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA)shyfunded Export Promotion of Organic Products from Africa (EPOPA) programme and a number of civil society organizations TanCert formulated and now applies two standards for the national market and the export

Figureensp1ensp Visualization of research strategy



market using a pool of 34 local inspectors In 2005 a national network the Tanzania Organic Agriculture Movement (TOAM) was formed with the mission to develop a sustainable organic sector through proshymotion coordination research and education

The rapidly growing organic sector in Tanzania is being propelled by attempts to engage smallholdshyers (mostly farming 1ndash5 ha) in export commodity production often facilitated by local development agencies that see a close fit between OA and develshyopment objectives (Parrott amp Elzakker 2003) Certified OA in Tanzania is therefore predomishynantly exportshyoriented supported by development funding and aimed at improving incomes

In addition to the prospects of improved incomes organic producers in Tanzania are motivated by high costs of hybrid seeds requiring chemical inputs ease of access to organic inputs similarity to traditional practices improved product taste and nutritional content maintenance of soil moisshyture heightened resistance to drought and diseases improved handling qualities and links between chemicals and health problems

There are now at least 23 certified organic projshyects in Tanzania including 16 export firms and seven projects for the local market The focus is on traditional commodity crops such as coffee tea cocoa cashew nuts and cotton and nonshytraditional crops such as vanilla sesame herbs and spices which are often processed Horticulturalists are also adopting organic practices in order to produce tropical fruit and vegetables both fresh and dried for the domestic and international markets

Estimates of the certified land area range from 37000ha to over 64000ha A 2001 survey recorded an organic area of 55867ha comprising 014 of the agricultural area and approximately 27000 farms (Willer amp Yussefi 2004) In the past few years approximately 60 of certified organic commodities produced in Tanzania have been exported (Chilongola 2005) At least 10467 tonnes were thought to have been exported in 2005 (Taylor 2006) although exact amounts are unclear because customs authorities do not classify them separately (Tairo 1999)

The majority of certified organic projects follow the outshygrower model in which smallholders are contracted by exporting companies who generally pay for certification sometimes in collaboration with donor programmes In addition there are some

individuals farming organically on a large scale and two coffee cooperatives engaged in commercial OA The main export destinations for organic crops from Tanzania are in the European Union although some go to the United States and the Middle East

While certified organic farms produce almost exclusively for the export market Tanzania also has a small but growing domestic market In addishytion to a few dedicated outlets several of the larger supermarket chains stock organic products The large majority of organic customers are foreigners although there is also a market amongst the wealthy urban Tanzanian elite and middle classes particushylarly for health reasons

Organic agriculture is clearly in line with the governmentrsquos development strategies and internashytional frameworks to which Tanzania is a signashytory such as Agenda 21 the World Food Summit and the MDGs The National Strategy on Growth and the Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP) includes a target for increasing agricultural growth by 10 by 2010 by sustainable means The government has made public its support of OA as a market strategy (Sicilima 2003) and Tanzaniarsquos Board of External Trade (BET) has been working jointly with Genevashybased International Trade Centre (ITC) to promote organic food production and marketing (Tairo 1999)

LivelihoodenspbenefitsenspthroughensporganicenspagricultureenspinenspTanzania

According to key informants both certified and nonshycertified OA are bringing about numerous livelihood benefits across Tanzania by building the natural human social and financial assets of farmers although there are some exceptions to this trend

Soil fertility water conservation and agrobiodiversity

A number of farmers interviewed were using improved soil fertility water conservation and agrobiodiversity to build natural capital in organic systems such as the lsquoSunhemp systemrsquo to enhance soil fertility by intercropping green manuring and mulching the nitrogenshyfixing Crotalaria species Reijntjes et al (1992) and Thurston (1997) docushyment other advantages of this system including



erosion prevention fodder value and weed insect and nematode control

In the Mkuyuni division of Morogoro region there has been an impressive adoption of strip conshytouring in nonshycertified organic pineapple producshytion resulting in slope stabilization and reduced soil erosion Figure 2 summarizes a range of differshyent organic practices that are being used in Tanzania for ecological benefit These are being employed because they are perceived to improve soil fertility conserve water and control pests although there has been limited systematic research into their actual impacts

Farmersrsquo knowledge

The knowledge and skill set of organic farmers is being increased through training provided by the field staff of exporting companies and supporting organizations This is often a dramatic improveshyment on existing extension services For example the bioRe organic cotton project in Shinyanga employs one extensionist who visits every family at least once a month in contrast to a ratio of one government extensionist for every 500ndash600 farmshyers As an integral part of the Internal Control System (ICS) a quality assurance mechanism which facilitates smallholder group certification recordshykeeping helps farmers to monitor productivity in terms of yields and farm income for example

knowing the exact number of clove trees on their farms encourages Zanzibar farmers to replace trees that are removed

Organic agriculture is supporting smallholder farm development and local selfshyreliance by valuing the contribution of local knowledge to the producshytion system and making optimum use of locally available resources Organic mango production in Morogoro makes use of a local practice of planting Euphorbia spp around the base of the trees in order to limit damage by termites and also the African marigold (Tagetes erecta) for its pest repellent properties In the coastal region it has become local knowledge that transferring red weaver ants to cashew trees biologically controls the Helpelitus beetle

Social capital

Social capital improvements in organic systems include more and stronger social organizations at the local level leading to improved connections with external institutions and increased ability of farmers to negotiate their needs as equal partners in the food supply chain The formation of organic producer groups and ICSs increases farmersrsquo access to training inputs markets and credit

Gender

From a gender perspective organic conversion is influencing social structures and decisionshymaking processes Since low external input practices suit the requirements of women farmers and resources availshyable to them successful organic systems enhance gender equity The adoption of organic vegetable cultivation by womenrsquos groups in Mkuranga district is accompanied by reduced dependency on men for cash Since the groups explicitly focus on improving household nutrition the benefits from OA accrue directly to the farming family as a whole

Financial security

Many smallholders who convert to OA experience increased financial security as a result of reduced production costs optimized productivity yield stabilization higher farmshygate prices and increased market security By producing according to intershynational regulations and obtaining certification farmers are reported to be obtaining a premium of

Figureensp 2ensp Examples of organic techniques used in Tanzania for ecological benefit Compiled from key informant interviews and field visits



15ndash40 for their products (EPOPA 2004) someshytimes up to 300 Farmers in Mkuyuni are signishyficantly increasing their incomes through the sale of nonshycertified organically produced plantain and pineapples One farmer reported earnings from the sale of plantain up to 600000 Tanzanian shillings (approximately US$600) per month which he had used to build three improved houses purchase a town plot and educate his children

TowardsenspaenspTanzanianenspvisionenspofensporganicenspagriculture

Mapping the key stakeholders and their roles in the organic sector (Figure 3) helped to reflect the divershysity of interests in the sector and facilitated the selecshytion of key informants and forum participants

Organic agriculture is essentially viewed by stakeshyholders in Tanzania as a sustainable form of agriculshyture that provides healthy products improves soil fertility and reduces costs During the forum convened as part of this study key actors identified food envishyronment and income as cornerstones of their future vision 2015 of the organic sector (Box 1)

Organic agriculture is indigenous insofar as it can be conceived as a modified form of traditional farmshying Since traditional agriculture generally has low

or no artificial inputs and frequently incorporates mulching intercropping and other organic practices organic conversion may involve only slight modifishycations to farm management such as fire avoidance Furthermore there are many ways in which OA complements and builds upon cultural beliefs and practices for example the ritualized offerings to propitiate the spirits of the dead (kutambika) and protect areas for the ancestors involve the mainteshynance of onshyfarm conservation areas However the meaning of OA to different stakeholders is largely influenced by the way it develops in different areas and hence the orientation of the project Where organic systems have been developed in a participatory manner OA is perceived as a lowshycost environmentallyshyfriendly means of improving agrishycultural productivity for food security and trade

On the other hand when the concept of OA has been introduced by external agents it is often not fully incorporated into the identities beliefs and value systems of rural communities It may even be associated with exploitative relations with compashynies and understood only as a rigid and oppressive set of (mainly prohibitive) rules One outshygrower in a certified organic cashew nut project described the farmer as lsquothe hoe of organic farmingrsquo and when probed to explain this comment described a situashytion where farmers are used like implements to assist companies they are not listened to or cared for and thrown aside when the work is done Unlike in Europe where many farmers have adopted OA for philosophical and ideological reasons (Conford 2001) certified OA has emerged in Africa in response to market demand from the Global North with health food safety environmental benefits and animal welfare being lesser concerns There appears to be a greater risk of OA being perceived negashytively where the sole or main incentive for farmers to convert is access to markets credit and inputs

Boxensp 1ensp Tanzaniarsquos Organic Vision 2015 Created by participants of Organic Stakeholder Form Morogoro 1ndash2 March 2006

lsquoTo have a vibrant organic sector supported by a wide range of stakeholders that is the driving force behind agriculture in the country takes advantage of local and export markets and contributes to enhanced livelihoods through quality and safe food environmental conservation economic growth and sustainable developmentrsquo

Figureensp3ensp Map of stakeholders in the Tanzanian organic sector



ChallengesensptoensptheenspdevelopmentenspofensporganicenspagricultureenspinenspTanzania

Organic farming as with any other agricultural system carries attendant risks relating to producshytion labour gender marketshyorientation and the policy and institutional framework To summarize the main challenges facing the development of the Tanzanian organic sector stakeholders identified key questions to be resolved that would radically improve the state of OA (Table 2)

Production

All farmers face production constraints relating to climate land tenure distance from markets infrashystructure access to credit education and other inputs Organic farmers must also contend with specific challenges relating to productivity pest and

disease control labour requirements and gender relations Organic practices may initially reduce yields in areas where inputshyintensive agriculture has been practiced (EPOPA 2004) particularly of crops such as coffee and vegetables that have been cultishyvated using chemically intensive methods (Nyange 2006) Often this is offset because organic practices lower output proportionately less than they lower costs making the farmer better off (McRobie in Blake 1987) Whilst organic systems do not always increase yield per unit area agroecologists argue that this is of less importance than optimizing yield stability environmental quality and net income over the long term for the riskshyaverse resourceshypoor farmer (Francis in Altieri amp Hecht 1990)

Outbreaks of pests such as armyworms (Spodoptera exempta) Quelea quelea and vermin may present a substantial risk to organic farmers without sufficient knowledge labour or access to biopesticides

Tableensp2ensp Main challenges to organic sector development in Tanzania Identified by participants of Organic Stakeholder Forum Morogoro 1ndash2 March 2006

Theme Questionschallenges

Market development bull How to access both local and international markets for organic products

Standards and certification bull How to assist farmers to cover the costs of certification

Research and education bull How to create awareness among small-scale farmers on the concept of organic agriculture and access to the market

bull In what ways might we develop research and training infrastructuresbull How to raise public awareness on organic agriculturebull How to ensure that information and knowledge on organic agriculture is

available to the publicbull How to address lack of awareness on the values and benefits of organic

agriculture amongst policy-makers producers and consumersbull How to change agricultural extension services so that they are supportive

of organic agriculturebull How to practically change the consumption attitudes of people on organic

product use

Production bull How to acquire organic inputs for small-scale medium-scale and large-scale organic farming

bull How to encourage large-scale farmers to engage in organic agriculture

Policy and legislation bull In what ways should we lobby the government for operative organic agriculture policy

bull How to change government policy in favour of organic agriculturebull How to reconcile government policy on food security with the concept of

organic agriculture

Institutional development bull In what ways might we sustain coherence among stakeholders in the organic sector

bull How to develop the organic sector from the bottom-up



Labour and gender

By substituting physical and financial inputs with human skills knowledge and labour OA puts a premium on access to sufficient quality human capital Labourshyintensive organic systems often need heavy investment in farm workers managers and field officers Where cropping intensity increases or new lands are taken into cultivation organic pracshytices may increase household workload and the burden often falls on women Furthermore certishyfied organic farms are usually registered in the name of the male head of household and since he is usushyally the one to take charge of the major cash crops income derived from the sale of organic produce does not necessarily benefit the whole family

Market orientation

Satisfying market demands in terms of quantity quality and consistency of supply is one of the major challenges facing organic farmers Pressure to meet bulk market demands can cause organic farmers to try to achieve economies of scale by reducing the diversity of crop types andor entershyprises When targeting specialized markets organic producers must comply with stringent market requirements (such as Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) and Eurep Good Agricultural Practices (EurepshyGAP)) that entail strict sanitation and hygiene procedures The proliferashytion of regulatory structures has increased concerns about import discrimination when compliance is required with marketshybased standards unsuited to local agroecological conditions Thiers (2005 15) warns that the lsquostrict demands of the organic food industry may eclipse the ecological principles of organic farming particularly where the need for lsquoquality controlrsquo can be used as a justification for authoritarianismrsquo

In addition to costs of certification the complexshyity of procedures including transaction certificashytions constrain access to increasingly controlled import markets (Harris et al 1998) The selectiveshyness of the organic market means that not all proshyduce that has been grown and handled according to organic standards can be sold as organic For examshyple the market for organic cashews is restricted to lsquowhite wholesrsquo which constitute only four of the 27 grades used by the exporting company

The price premium incentive on organic goods introduces a range of issues that have yet to be fully understood and addressed by organic stakeholders Valueshychain analysis is needed to determine the destination of price premiums amidst fears of ineqshyuitable trading structures When the primary motive for converting is profit there is a risk of farmers reverting to conventional production if the differential decreases

Where organic farmers have been attracted by higher prices and invested their land labour and other resources to production of a certain organic commodity a sudden and unexpected downturn in the market may be especially devastating This has been the case for organic cashew growers of Mkuranga district who were able to quadruple their earnings in a couple of years only to see a 47 fall in the farmshygate price paid for cashews the following year Whilst this does not point to a failing of the organic cashew project per se since the farmers were mainly growing cashews beforehand and fluctuashytions in world market prices affect all export commodities it does illustrate the inherent risks in the certified marketshydriven model of OA

In exportshydriven OA there is a danger of farmers becoming totally dependent on one exporting comshypany for access to the market If the market or trade relations collapse farmers face severe difficulties finding alternative markets Ownership of the certifishycate by companies specializing in certain organic commodities make it hard for farmers to market other crops as organic Several operators pointed out that price premiums increase the risk of convenshytional farmers sideshyselling through their organic neighbours in order to take advantage of higher farmshygate prices Not only does this threaten the quality of the product but also the credibility of the entire certification system Price premiums also put organic products out of reach for local consumers

Government donor and private sector interest in OA which is largely driven by the market ratioshynale needs to be balanced with increased awareshyness of the possible contradictions between the ecological and market rationality inherent in organic certification and marketing systems Since purely commercially dictated production may fail to give due attention to ecosystem functions and services necessary for overall system sustainability lsquoorganic agriculture must be viewed beyond the trade frame ndash as an agricultural system that



enhances and manages the complexity of the ecosystemrsquo (Parrott amp Kalibwani in Parrott amp Elzakker 2003 57)

Policy framework

National policy is amenable to OA but as yet does little to actively promote the sector and organic pracshytices have not been streamlined in existing extension services Whilst the 1997 Agricultural Policy (curshyrently under review) has clauses about OA which centre on ecological and health issues the country has not fully integrated OA into the main agricultural policies which still have a pervasive bias towards an industrial paradigm of agricultural development Most pricing policies infrastructure and other supports (eg subsidizing the transport of fertilizer) provide incentives for inputshyintensive farming methods rather than for more ecologically sustainable agriculture Such schemes are lsquocollectively financed in a way in which organic farms de facto subsidize their convenshytional colleaguesrsquo (Taylor 2006 4)

Institutional relations

Collaboration is impeded when the differing goals and expectations of donors exporters and farmers lead to misunderstandings and mutual suspicion Furthermore the nature of contractual relations between producers and buyers may be a hindrance when there is a lack of commitment to the terms of the contract Despite being part of IFOAM basic stanshydards social justice and trust are often neglected dimenshysions of organic production systems partly because of the challenge of definition and enforceability

External assistance is still required in the Tanzanian organic sector for example to build capacity for technical organizational and legal skills needed for establishing reliable certification and accreditation programmes Heavy donor supshyport raises questions of long term financial sustainshyability and fears that such support will further entrench a lsquoculture of receivingrsquo

FutureenspdevelopmentenspofensporganicenspagricultureenspinenspTanzania

Every phase of the research process culminated in action planning in collaboration with key actors the outcome of which was the participatory

formulation of strategies for individual and joint actions to strengthen the organic sector and reduce the risks outlined above These strategies related to production and processing market developshyment research and education policy and legislashytion standards and certification and institutional development (see Table 3)

Labour returns

Development and dissemination of appropriate technologies and organic inputs would help to increase returns on labour investment and there are often alternatives to tedious and timeshyconsuming practices such as inshyfield composting

Market orientation

In order to reduce the risks involved in heavily marketshyoriented production bioRe organic cotton project sets an upper limit on the proportion of farmshyersrsquo land that can be used to cultivate the primary cash crop in this case 30 of each farmersrsquo acreage for cotton In addition the contract stipulates that farmers should practice a threeshyyear crop rotation helping to improve soil fertility and control pests In this way social and environmental concerns can be built into the structure of the ICS and contractual relations between buyers and producers

Similarly in order to minimize the hazards that accompany price premiums it may be more effecshytive to emphasize reduction of production costs and the establishment of longshyterm partnerships with buying companies Market security is often more valuable to smallshyscale producers than preshymium prices for organic produce (Ratter 2006)

Local and regional market development

Although the majority of certified organic land in Tanzania is under the production of export crops there is growing consensus that Tanzania needs to expand the domestic market of organic produce both for regional economies and the health of consumers (Sicilima 2003) Localizing and diversishyfying markets for organic produce would give farmers greater control and reduce the social economic and environmental risks inherent in global market dynamics

Anecdotal evidence suggests that many Tanzashynians already have a preference for consuming



Tableensp3ensp Strategies for strengthening organic agriculture in Tanzania Formulated by participants of Organic Stakeholder Forum Morogoro 1ndash2 March 2006

Theme Goal Actions Activities

Production and processing

Increase OA production in Tanzania

(1) Increase availability and use of OA inputs

(a) Provide inventories of organic input sources types distribution and consumption

(b) Raise awareness on use and availability of inputs

(c) Develop and disseminate appropriate inputs such as seeds biopesticides and organic feed

(d) Sensitization on growing feed using animal draft technology and manure management to promote crop-livestock integration

(2) Improve training and extension services

(a) Training of trainers such as extension staff and farmer professionals

(b) Information-sharing and exchange

(3) Strategic choice of organic commodity

Take advantage of expanding markets in non-traditional and horticultural products particularly those that are low volume high value and non-perishable (eg coffee aromatic herbs spices medicinal and beauty products) and climate-specific crops such as tropical organic fruits

(4) Processing primary products

(a) Add value through solar drying (fruits mushrooms vegetables) distillation (essential oils) spinning (cotton) and processing fruits into juice or concentrate

(b) Improve commercial handling skills in storing labelling and presentation

Market development

Increase trade and sustain OA production

(1) Access markets for organic products

(a) Conduct training on internet market research (b) Facilitate participation in organic trade fairs (c) Develop domestic marketing centres (d) Create market linkages between buyers traders

and producers(e) Develop newsletters on the organic market (f) Campaign to raise public awareness on health

and quality aspects(g) Appoint lsquoorganic trade point officerrsquo to improve

access to market information

(2) Promote regional cooperation

(a) Bulk-up trade volumes by synchronizing container loads

(b) Share experiences training resources standards and logo development across East Africa

Research and education

Raise awareness on OA

(1) Educate farmers consumers amp policy makers on OA

(a) Consultations exhibitions agricultural shows establish resource centres publications

(b) Interactive conferences on selected OA themes twice yearly

(c) Integrate OA into primary secondary diploma and degree curricula

(2) Generate and disseminate technologies

Extension manuals Short- and long-term trainings Radio and TV programmes Exchange visits field days

(Continued)



organic foods Alternatives to industrial agriculture are being sought as a way to reduce family exposure to synthetic substances perceived to be harmful The high demand for local chickens and eggs causes people to pay five times the price of the industrially reared alternatives amidst fears about the negative effects of growth hormones on human health Mothers seeking safe food for their children are concerned about toxic pesticides such as DichloroshyDiphenylshyTrichloroethane (DDT) and copper sulshyphates that are used in some fruit and vegetable production as well as storage of food grains They are often very knowledgeable about sources of organically produced foods for example tradishytionally stored maize Traditional maize varieties are also reputedly tastier than highershyyielding varishyeties that require artificial fertilizers and are 15 more expensive in the large Dar es Salaam and Dodoma markets

The establishment of domestic marketing centres could help to capture this discerning share of consumers and also the many Tanzanians with purchasing power living in the larger conurbations Some farmers are already capitalizing on the marshyket for organic products amongst the anzanian elite for example a rising demand for Hibiscus tea for its high vitamin C content and alleged alleviation of high blood pressure This trend would be strengthshyened by a rigorous campaign to raise awareness about nutrition diet health and the organic altershynative A wellshyinformed public is key to creating demandshydriven growth of the organic sector

There is also significant potential in strengthenshying regional trade between Africa and Asia within African and between East African countries Current trade in Tanzanian organic products includes organic honey to Kenya and spices tea and coffee to Uganda and Zambia

Tableensp3ensp Continued


Policy and legislation

Create an enabling policy environment for OA

Lobby the government to give explicit support to OA in national policies

(a) Collect document and disseminate successful organic initiatives through media and other advocacy materials

(b) Make individual contact with government officials in relevant ministries and other decision-makers

(c) Initiate a national OA day (d) Incorporate organics into agricultural shows (e) Establish national and district OA committees

who formulate Organic Action Plans (f) Remove obstacles and disincentives to OA such

as subsidies for agrochemicals(g) Tie direct farmer support to specific services

such as water conservation(h) Give official policy recognition to the links

between agriculture and climate change (i) Enable the registration of botanical pesticides

Standards and certification

Improve access to certification

Reduce certification costs and complications

(a) Obtain accreditation of TanCert to international bodies

(b) Formulate group certification especially for small-scale farmers such as Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGSs)

Institutional development

Sustain coherence among organic stakeholders

Enhance networking and collaboration among stakeholders

(a) Develop a catalogue of stakeholders (b) Hold regular stakeholder forums (c) Mobilize resources (d) Promote farmer organization (e) Establish district and village

committees for OA



Social capital

A common feature of many of the wellshyestablished organic farmers interviewed was a strong support network and membership of specific ethnic or relishygious communities was found to aid organic farmshying operations For example amongst Tanzanians of Asian origin extended family ties provide assisshytance in accessing foreign markets rare seed types and specialist knowledge Since OA is knowledge and management intensive it is especially imporshytant to build the cooperative capacity of individuals and groups and invest in social capital at the local level (Hine amp Pretty 2006)

Institutional and policy development

Findings support the assertion that in order to foster successful certified and nonshycertified OA lsquoinstitutional aspects need to be addressed in a more structured wayrsquo (de Jager et al 2004 221) District andor villageshylevel organic committees could promote joint actions by the government private sector and civil society and conduct lsquoagroshyecological auditsrsquo that would help stakeholders to provide food on a sustained basis relying on indigshyenous resources for fertility and pest management (Dover amp Talbot 1987)

The same applies to the national level Creating a coherent policy framework to promote OA would be assisted by a clear Organic Action Plan that is formulated by a lead agency and permanent national committee including both organic stakeshyholders and the government Dedicated individuals could form an intershyministerial committee on OA that meets regularly and has terms of reference that include monitoring and collecting data and writing a policy with defined goals objectives and strateshygies specifically on OA (Rundgren 2006)

Research and training

There was overwhelming consensus amongst stakeshyholders that raising awareness about OA amongst farmers consumers and policyshymakers and develshyoping infrastructures for research and training were the most pressing issues Since information and management ability are arguably the most valuable internal and renewable resources in organic farming systems the biggest transition costs should be expected in farmersrsquo learning a

greater diversity of practices and acquiring the necshyessary information and management skills Reform in extension services and agricultural education should encompass not only scientific content but also methodologies since OA is not only a set of techniques but also lsquoa process of social learningrsquo (Roumlling amp Wagemakers 1997) When learning processes are participatory and enhance farmersrsquo capacity to learn about their farm and its resources lsquothe foundation for redesign and continuous innoshyvation is laidrsquo (Pretty amp Hine 2001)

Implicationsenspforenspresearchenspintoenspagriculturalenspsustainability

It is widely recognized that a holistic agroecologishycal perspective is useful for gaining insight into the complex systemic interactions among natural social and economic processes (Altieri 1987) When combined with soft systems actionshyoriented methshyodologies this approach to research and developshyment stimulates forms of collective agency that make and take more sustainable decisions about ecosysshytems In this study the principles and practices of systemic action research have been integrated into case studies at the farmshy and enterpriseshylevel a stakeholder forum at the national level and semishystructured interviews

Findings from the case study research and interviews helped to create a lsquorich picturersquo of the Tanzanian organic food and farming system and identify key issues which informed thematic discusshysions at the stakeholder forum In addition encourshyaging stakeholders to envision the future that they wish to create has facilitated the development of individual and joint strategies On the basis of this study we suggest that combining soft systems methodology visionary thinking and action research with participatory techniques and the sustainable livelihood framework enables social actors to work together to tackle complex agricultural issues Advantages of this approach include

Bridging the micro and the macro with multiple scales of analysis

Bringing about unity from the diversity of differshyent perspectives on agricultural sustainability

Creating a platform for stakeholders to interact and collectively design ecosystems aligned to their values



Mobilizing partnerships around a common purpose

Enabling transition to ecological farming systems Reconciling shortshyterm and longshyterm needs of

the key actors

Conclusions

Although in its infancy certified OA is having a positive impact on natural systems and human welfare in Tanzania by building the natural social human and financial assets of farmers There is evidence that under the right circumstances certishyfied OA can meet local food requirements while providing protection and sustainable use of natural resources However not all projects have embraced OA as a way to manage resources rather than just a lsquotarget croprsquo The organic sector is currently being led by exportshyoriented OA and does not always promote agroecological approaches that enhance diversity of production of food crops and lead to greater livelihood benefits Furthermore topshydown approaches foster misunderstandings about the basic principles and purpose of OA

In order to bring a significant share of farmers out of poverty the certified marketshyled model needs to be more aligned to IFOAMrsquos revised principles of OA which include health ecology fairness and care by explicitly incorporating social and envishyronmental concerns and thereby strengthening pathways to livelihood benefits The required approach to OA is one that integrates the main aspects of sustainability ndash social economic and environmental ndash as well as the oftshyneglected fourth pillar of sustainability management (Rundgren 2006) This implies combining approaches that relate to development (selfshysufficiency and commushynity development) incomeshygeneration (access to markets) and nature conservation (natural resource management) (IFOAM 2004)

Crucially the design of interventions needs to be concerned with optimizing agroecosystems as a whole rather than maximizing the yield of a particushylar commodity and this necessitates a holistic and agroecological perspective This has farshyreaching implications for the orientation of policies research and extension structure of certification systems and configuration of institutional relations Creatively combining complementary methodologies such as

participatory action research systems thinking and future studies provides a basis for a critical undershystanding of complex agricultural realities and has potential to support the transition to more environshymentally sound and socially sensitive agricultural production systems

Notes

1 In this paper lsquoGlobal Southrsquo is used in lieu of lsquoThird World lsquoDevelopingrsquo and lsquoLess developedrsquo countries in order to distinguish them from the soshycalled lsquoAdvancedrsquo lsquoDevelopedrsquo countries of the lsquoFirst Worldrsquo referred to here as the lsquoGlobal Northrsquo

2 Participatory Learning and Action tools used during the case study research and focus groups included participatory mapping seasonal calendars matrix ranking institutional Venn diagramming oral histories transect walks time lines daily activity diagrams and SWOT analysis

References

Altieri MA (1987) Agroecology The Scientific Basis of Alternative Agriculture London Intermediate Technology Development Group

Altieri MA and Hecht SB (eds) (1990) Agroecology and Small Farm Development Florida CRC Press

Blake F (1987) The Handbook of Organic Husbandry UK Crowood Press

Chilongola G (2005) Unakijua kilimo hai Soma hapa Alasiri 17th February 2005 On WWW at httpwwwippmediacomippalasiri2005021732774html Accessed 12805

Conford P (2001) The Origins of the Organic Movement Edinburgh Floris Books

de Jager A Onduru D and Walaga C (2004) Facilitated learning in soil fertility management Assessing potentials of lowshyexternal input technoloshygies in east African farming systems Agricultural Systems 79 205ndash223

Dover M and Talbot LM (1987) To Feed the Earth Agro-Ecology for Sustainable Development Washington DC World Resources Institute

Edwards S (2005) Organic Agriculture for Food Security in Africa Bonn International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements

Engel PGH and Salomon ML (1997) Facilitating Innovation for Development A RAAKS Resource Box The Netherlands Royal Tropical Institute

EPOPA (2004) Development through organic trade On WWW at wwwgrolinkseepopaPublicationsEPOPAshyArticleshymayshy04shywebpdf Accessed 6305

FAO (1996) World Food Summit of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization Rome FAO



FAOWHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (2001) Guidelines for the Production Processing Labeling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods CACGL 32shy1999shyRev1shy2001 Rome FAOWHO

Farrington J Carney D Ashley C and Turton C (1999) Sustainable livelihoods in practice Early applishycations of concepts in rural areas Natural Resource Perspectives 42 Overseas Development Institute On WWW at httpwwwodiorguknrp42html Accessed 29604

Harris PJC Lloyd HD HofneyshyCollins AH Barrett AR and Browne AW (1998) Organic Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa Farmer Demand and Potential for Development UK HDRA Publications

Hine R and Pretty J (2006) Capacity Building Study 3 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in East Africa For United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

IFOAM (2004) Organic Agriculture and Food Security Germany IFOAM

Liu M (1994) Action research and development dynamshyics In M Sebillote (ed) Systems-Oriented Research in Agriculture and Rural Development International Symposium Montpellier France 21ndash25 November 1994 Montpellier CIRADSAR

Miles MB and Huberman AM (1994) Qualitative Date Analysis an Expanded Sourcebook (2nd edn) California Sage

Nyange D (2006) pers comm 16 JanuaryParker M (1990) Creating Shared Vision Oslo

Norwegian Center for Leadership DevelopmentParrott N and Marsden T (2002) The Real Green

Revolution ndash Organic and Agroecological Farming in the South London Greenpeace

Parrott N and van Elzakker B (2003) Organic and Like-Minded Movements in Africa Development and Status Bonn IFOAM

PELUM Tanzania (2004) Food First Voicing Farmersrsquo Rights Research report on food security issues in Tanzania as a basis for advocacy work with and for smallshyscale farmers

Pretty JN and Hine RE (2001) Reducing Food Poverty with Sustainable Agriculture A Summary of New Evidence UK University of Essex

Pretty JN Morison JLL and Hine RE (2003) Reducing food poverty by increasing agricultural susshytainability in developing countries Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 95 217ndash234

Ratter S (2006) pers comm 12 MarchReijntjes C Haverkort B and WatersshyBayer A (1992)

Farming for the Future An Introduction to Low-External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture The Netherlands ILEIA

Roumlling NG and Wagemakers MAE (eds) (1997) Facilitating Sustainable Agriculture Cambridge Cambridge University Press

Rundgren G (2002) Organic Agriculture and Food Security International Federation of Organic

Agriculture Movements Dossier 1 Germany TholeyshyTheley

Rundgren G (2006) Best Practices for Organic Policy What Developing Country Governments Can Do to Promote the Organic Sector Prepared under the Capacity Building Task Force (CBTF) Project Promoting Production and Trading Opportunities for Organic Agricultural Products in East Africa New York and Geneva United Nations On WWW at httpwwwunepshyunctadorgcbtfopenDaressalaam2htm

Rundgren G (2006) pers comm May 1Scialabba NH and Hattam C (eds) (2002) Organic

agriculture environment and food security Environment and Natural Resources Series 4 Rome FAO On WWW at httpwwwfaoorgDOCREP005Y4137E00htm Accessed 20205

Scoones I (1998) Sustainable Rural Livelihoods A Framework for analysis IDS Working Paper 72 Brighton Institute of Development Studies

Senge PM (1990) The Fifth Discipline The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization New York Doubleday

Sicilima NP (2003) A speech delivered by the director of crop development Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security Dr N P Sicilima at the second national stakeholdersrsquo meeting for organic agriculture in Tanzania DarshyesshySalaam

Silenge FH (1996) Tanzania Smallshyscale organic farming In Proceedings of the 11th IFOAM Scientific Confershyence Copenhagen On WWW at httpecowebdkenglishifoamconf96abs237htm Accessed 21205

Tairo A (1999) Tanzania backs organic exports The East African Business section 4ndash11 March 1999

Taylor A (ed) (2006) Overview of the current state of organic agriculture in Kenya Uganda and the Republic of Tanzania and the opportunities for regional harmonisation Prepared under the Capacity Building Task Force (CBTF) Project Promoting Production and Trading Opportunities for Organic Agricultural Products in East Africa New York and Geneva United Nations On WWW at httpwwwunepshyunctadorgcbtfopenDaressalaam2htm

Thiers P (2005) Using global organic markets to pay for ecologically based agricultural development in China Agriculture and Human Values 22 3ndash15

Thurston HD (1997) SlashMulch Systems Sustainable Methods for Tropical Agriculture London Intermediate Technology Publications

Whyte WF (ed) (1991) Participatory Action Research USA Sage Publications

Willer H and Yussefi M (2004) The World of Organic Agriculture Statistics and Emerging Trends Germany IFOAM

World Cafeacute (2002) Cafeacute to Go A quick reference guide for putting conversations to work Whole Systems Associates On WWW at httpwwwtheworldcafecom Accessed 91205

Yin RK (2003) Case Study Research Design and Methods (3rd edn) Applied Social Research Methods Series 5 USA Sage Publications

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner Further reproduction prohibited without permission



allelopathy competition predation and parasitshyism are consciously integrated into managed food production processes

Organic agriculture can be differentiated from traditional modern and other types of sustainable agriculture by its specific standards and regulashytions Certified OA may be further distinguished from nonshycertified organic or agroecological proshyduction which often meet organic production standards but are not subject to organic inspection certification and labelling

A number of recent reports illustrate the capacity of OA to enhance productivity and improve access to food and income using lowshycost locally available and appropriate technologies and without causing environmental damage (Edwards 2005 Hine amp Pretty 2007 Parrott amp Elzakker 2003 Pretty et al 2003 Rundgren 2002 Scialabba amp Hattam 2002) Organic agriculture tackles food security by addressing many different causal factors simultaneously (yield crop diversity nutritional content) and in particular by building up natural resources strengthening communities and improving human capacity (Parrott amp Marsden 2002 Pretty et al 2003)

Recognizing the potential link between OA and poverty reduction has led to a push by major donors and national governments to commercialshyize smallholders and support their access to organic markets In addition to an interest in sustainable natural resource management and healthy eating smallholders are being driven to farm organically by the soaring prices of artificial fertilizers (Silenge 1996 Thurston 1997) Green Revolution packshyages of highshyyield crop varieties supported by high inputs of agrochemicals and irrigation are also inherently poorly suited to many semishyarid lands and areas lacking infrastructure which is the case for most of rural Africa

Although OA shows great potential to improve domestic food production empirical data is limshyited on the relationship between OA and livelishyhood goals such as family income and nutrition in subshySaharan Africa We need to better understand the pathways by which OA may contribute to the welfare of farming families and the extent to which it improves the security of livelihoods and access to food by vulnerable groups in the Global South1 Furthermore the most comprehensive

overview toshydate of the development and status of the organic movement in Africa highlights the fact that in countries such as Tanzania Kenya and Zimbabwe lsquosubstantial organic export industries (often based on large foreign owned or managed holdings) coshyexist alongside significant levels of poverty and malnutritionrsquo (Parrott amp van Elzakker 2003 19)

Donor agencies and other development partners that advocate OA in order to bring welfare benefits to rural people are challenged to critically appraise the contribution that OA is having to food security (FAO 1996) This is extremely relevant in subshySaharan Africa where there is a critical balance between food production and nutrition needs and in countries such as Tanzania where over a third of children are thought to be malnourished (PELUM 2004) Although national food selfshysufficiency is high priority malnutrition is often more significant than inadequate total food supplies underlining the importance of crop diversity and locally available food

The overall aim of this study is to assess the current situation and provide a foundation for enhancing OArsquos contribution to sustainable livelishyhoods and food security amongst Complex Diverse and Riskshyprone (CDR) smallholder farmers in the United Republic of Tanzania (hereafter referred to as Tanzania) The study was limited to sedentary cropping systems ranging from purely arable to mixed farming either practising certified organic production or in the process of conversion A livelishyhood comprises the capabilities assets and actishyvities required for a means of living and is deemed to be sustainable when it can endure shocks and stresses maintaining or enhancing its assets into the future without undermining the natural resource base (Scoones 1998)

The central research question lsquoIn what ways can OA be developed for the benefit of the smallholder in Tanzaniarsquo is addressed by answering three instrumental questions

(1) What is the status of OA and its impact on smallholder livelihoods in Tanzania

(2) How does OA lead to greater livelihood benefits

(3) Which strategies can be adopted to strengthen these pathways to livelihood benefits






Action research





Case study research









Case study research



Stakeholder forum











Visionary thinking


Verification




























Social capital


Gender


Financial security



















Production













product use





organic agriculture





Labour and gender


Market orientation










Policy framework








Labour returns


Market orientation

























Market development


















(Continued)



























committees for OA



Social capital


















the key actors

Conclusions





Notes



References






















































Action research





Case study research









Case study research



Stakeholder forum











Visionary thinking


Verification




























Social capital


Gender


Financial security



















Production













product use





organic agriculture





Labour and gender


Market orientation










Policy framework








Labour returns


Market orientation

























Market development


















(Continued)



























committees for OA



Social capital


















the key actors

Conclusions





Notes



References

























































Visionary thinking


Verification




























Social capital


Gender


Financial security



















Production













product use





organic agriculture





Labour and gender


Market orientation










Policy framework








Labour returns


Market orientation

























Market development


















(Continued)



























committees for OA



Social capital


















the key actors

Conclusions





Notes



References








































































Social capital


Gender


Financial security



















Production













product use





organic agriculture





Labour and gender


Market orientation










Policy framework








Labour returns


Market orientation

























Market development


















(Continued)



























committees for OA



Social capital


















the key actors

Conclusions





Notes



References

































































Production













product use





organic agriculture





Labour and gender


Market orientation










Policy framework








Labour returns


Market orientation

























Market development


















(Continued)



























committees for OA



Social capital


















the key actors

Conclusions





Notes



References



















































Labour and gender


Market orientation










Policy framework








Labour returns


Market orientation

























Market development


















(Continued)



























committees for OA



Social capital


















the key actors

Conclusions





Notes



References




















































Policy framework








Labour returns


Market orientation

























Market development


















(Continued)



























committees for OA



Social capital


















the key actors

Conclusions





Notes



References




































































Market development


















(Continued)



























committees for OA



Social capital


















the key actors

Conclusions





Notes



References











































































committees for OA



Social capital


















the key actors

Conclusions





Notes



References



















































Social capital


















the key actors

Conclusions





Notes



References





















































the key actors

Conclusions





Notes



References

















































Potentials for organic agriculture to sustain livelihoods in Tanzania

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Transcript of Potentials for organic agriculture to sustain livelihoods in Tanzania