Plant protection nepal, arthropods, farming system nepal, sharad sharma, palpa, insect disease...

Farming System Impacts on Pest and other Arthropods

Distribution in Tomato Fields of Palpa District, Nepal

Professor Dr

Abstract

A study was conducted to assess the intensity of pest/disease abundance and distribution of arthropod species

among different farming practices in tomato (

as Lowland Sundargaon (LS) and Madanpokhara Highland (MH) are located in Palpa, a hilly district of Nepal,

and each site composed of three categorized farming system types: mixed, integrated and commercial farming

systems. Number of identified arthropods samples from LS and MH sites were 42 and 44 respectively, and were

fauna of all the categorized farming systems. Diversity range of arthropod species were found more in mixed

(subsistence level) farming system followed by integrated and co

Connectance of food web for LS and MH sites were 0.127 and 0.095 respectively and average links per species

were 4.18 and 5.33 for MH and LS sites respectively. As per the statistical analysis, pesticide application

frequency was found to be highest in commercial farms followed by integrated and mixed system and was

significant (p = <0.05) against specific pest species:

and damping off. Beside few pesticides,

and/or disease, which shows the trend of higher application frequency for total control rather than specific target

orientation. Water stress and conditions were responsible for nutrient d

deficiency) especially in commercial monoculture farming types and small scale farming systems were not

affected to that extent. Effect of elevation and geography was not significant for severity of pest disease

infestation. As per the level of pest/disease abundance, hybrid and semi hybrid type’s cultivars showed higher

susceptibility than local cultivars. Combination of resistant and susceptible cultivars in small scale farms showed

lower pest/disease problems.

Key words: Arthropods. Sampling. Farming systems. Application frequency. Resistance

1. INTRODUCTION

Variation at plant species level within vegetable farming systems leads to increased diversity of interacting

organisms and their community structures. Such structu

due to the role of poor farmers in marginal environments (Altieri 2002), holders of professional farming systems

as an established enterprise (Nepal & Thapa 2009), and structural complexity of plan

As compared to cereals and other agricultural commodities, vegetable cultivation has been cognized beneficial in

terms of multifariousness of products within small land area, relatively short period of time, micronutrient

supplement and income generation of small to large scale farming communities. In most of the Asiatic countries

including Nepal, peri – urban vegetable production system with high input agricultural practices has long been

settled specially due to perishable nat

(Midmore & Jansen 2003). Nepalese agricultural environment is highly encouraging for scattered production of

most of the vegetables including tomato

and relevant in terms of anthromorphic efforts due to presence of higher degree of farming communities, where

proper land use system in sloppy/hilly areas can raise the existing level of production. (Midmore & Poudel 19

Shrestha et al. 2006). Out of commercially grown vegetables, tomato is considered as an important crop grown

in sp|ring and summer rainy seasons in normal conditions. Out of five development regions, western

development region, where the study district

zones that spread over plane to valleys and steep sloppy lands.

Natural control system in an ecosystem is to some extent disturbed by mankind activities like intensification of

agricultural practices including cultural to chemical means of crop management (Wardle et al. 1999),

deforestation (logging), soil tillage and replacement of various old cultivars by newer high yielding varieties

resulting in altered primary production level affecting

arthropods (Brussaard 1998). Increased botanical diversity due to mix or intercropping and organic farming

practices generally enhances abundance of ground predators, such as hunter beetles (famil

Staphylinidae) and lycosid spiders (Hongjiao et. al. 2010, Medeiros et al. 2009). Diversification of the agro

ecosystem may reduce insect pest infestation using the strategy of companion planting (cultivation of different

species having mutual benefits and less competition) and host plant resistance to insects can be increased by

adopting integrated pest managements practices (Medeiros et. al. 2009, Altieri 1999, Eigenbrode & Trumble

1 Department of Phytomedicine (Head of the department), University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany2 Agri Business and Trade Promotion Multipurpose Cooperative (ABTRACO), Nepal, (Graduate

European Journal of Agricultural Sciences

ISSN (paper) 2668-3245 ISSN (online)

111



Professor Dr. Claus P. W. Zebitz1 and Sharad Sharma

2


among different farming practices in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) fields. Two study s



ified arthropods samples from LS and MH sites were 42 and 44 respectively, and were


(subsistence level) farming system followed by integrated and commercial (monoculture) farming systems.




significant (p = <0.05) against specific pest species: Helicoverpa armigera, whiteflies and diseases: blight, rot

and damping off. Beside few pesticides, most of them were not significant (P = >0.05) against specific pest


orientation. Water stress and conditions were responsible for nutrient deficiency problem (e.g. calcium



As per the level of pest/disease abundance, hybrid and semi hybrid type’s cultivars showed higher


Arthropods. Sampling. Farming systems. Application frequency. Resistance


organisms and their community structures. Such structures are varied with the nature of production processes, as


as an established enterprise (Nepal & Thapa 2009), and structural complexity of plants (Randlkofer et al. 2010).



ement and income generation of small to large scale farming communities. In most of the Asiatic countries

urban vegetable production system with high input agricultural practices has long been

settled specially due to perishable nature of vegetables and availability of markets as well as services/supports


most of the vegetables including tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) throughout the agroecological zones


proper land use system in sloppy/hilly areas can raise the existing level of production. (Midmore & Poudel 19

Out of commercially grown vegetables, tomato is considered as an important crop grown


development region, where the study district is located in, covers many industrial to agricultural production

zones that spread over plane to valleys and steep sloppy lands.


practices including cultural to chemical means of crop management (Wardle et al. 1999),


resulting in altered primary production level affecting guild and functional groups of soil as well as aboveground


practices generally enhances abundance of ground predators, such as hunter beetles (famil



ual benefits and less competition) and host plant resistance to insects can be increased by


he department), University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany

Agri Business and Trade Promotion Multipurpose Cooperative (ABTRACO), Nepal, (Graduate – Uni. Hohenheim).

European Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Vol.10 2013

ISSN (online) 2668-3547

www.BellPress.org




Mill) fields. Two study sites, categorized



ified arthropods samples from LS and MH sites were 42 and 44 respectively, and were


mmercial (monoculture) farming systems.




, whiteflies and diseases: blight, rot

most of them were not significant (P = >0.05) against specific pest


eficiency problem (e.g. calcium



As per the level of pest/disease abundance, hybrid and semi hybrid type’s cultivars showed higher



res are varied with the nature of production processes, as


ts (Randlkofer et al. 2010).



ement and income generation of small to large scale farming communities. In most of the Asiatic countries

urban vegetable production system with high input agricultural practices has long been

ure of vegetables and availability of markets as well as services/supports


throughout the agroecological zones


proper land use system in sloppy/hilly areas can raise the existing level of production. (Midmore & Poudel 1996,

Out of commercially grown vegetables, tomato is considered as an important crop grown


is located in, covers many industrial to agricultural production


practices including cultural to chemical means of crop management (Wardle et al. 1999),


guild and functional groups of soil as well as aboveground


practices generally enhances abundance of ground predators, such as hunter beetles (families: Carabidae,



ual benefits and less competition) and host plant resistance to insects can be increased by


Uni. Hohenheim).

1994). In contrast to ecological farming systems, mechaniz

replacement of natural activities like species interaction, natural dispersion of seed materials and genetic

diversity of the species, primarily due to manipulation of farming practices and technological adopti

1999). Higher level of mono-cropping system for tomato and or other vegetable crops has increased the

consumption of chemical fertilizers and pesticides by 15% within last 3 years of duration. (MOAC 2010).

Comparative analysis of intensity of c

integrated farming system can illustrate the species diversity differentiation as well as impact on pest and

predatory arthropod species. The study has gone through both sample identifica

order to inter into such aspects. Insect and disease suppression with biological activities remain in favour of

nature and human health perspectives, however pest damage losses are out of coverage in terms of economic

aspect without use of synthetic chemical pesticides (Letourneau & Goldstein 2001). Higher mortality rate of

herbivore insects by predation and better abundance of arthropods are exhibited in polyculture systems and even

more, where cultural and preventive prac

Intensification of agricultural that appeared with increased use of production inputs has resulted in higher

productivity as well as pest/disease problem when compared to the situation prior 30 to 40 years (

Use of organochlorines has been decreased in recent years, however synthetic pyrethroids and organophosphates

are heavily in use (Shrestha et. al. 2010 Atreya 2008). Pests getting resistant against insecticides like DDT,

lindane, and other organochlorines, and reduced population of beneficials (less attraction of pollinators, mortality

of predatory beetles, wasps and soil insects)

dizziness, irritation and respiratory discomfort a

production system i.e. high input monoculture system (Atreya 2008, Palikhe 2002). In addition, variation in

insect susceptibility to the applied insecticides has long been noted and continues to be

vegetable varieties including tomatoes (Eigenbrode & Trumble, 1994). On the other hand, false identification of

certain nutritional and abiotic stresses is responsible for inappropriate rate of chemicals application and

distressed arthropod community as well as natural imbalance in terms of soil and environmental aspects.

Calcium and others minerals as well as water stress cause several problems in vegetable farming which can be

falsely diagnosed by rural farmers as pest attack and/or dis

essential mineral nutrients for plants, which is a major constituent of middle lamellae and its deficiency might

show delayed senescence, rate of respiration and transpiration in tomato fruits (Bhattarai &

Blossom end rot (where secondary fungi can invade via rotted tissues), chlorosis and burning effects are the

result of calcium and other minerals deficiencies, likewise, wilt like symptom with insufficient phosphorus and

necrotic symptoms with potassium deficiency are likely to be mimic with pest, disease infestations (Uchida 2000,

Pujos & Morard 1997, Hansen 2009). Nutrient deficiency is directly linked with the level of pest disease

infestation due to altered plant defence mechanisms and thu

plant protection approaches.

Vegetable farming that got a comparable economic wellbeing among common agricultural practices, has

achieved higher popularity throughout the production zones spread over five de

Rural subsistence level production system has widely adopted small to commercial level vegetable cultivation

practices in recent years. The productivity and the production level of vegetables show an increasing trend and

the rate of area increment in recent years is nearly five percent per annum (Pokhrel, 2010). Nepal’s entry into

World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2004 has widen the opportunities of international trade where there needs

maintaining quality of the products under S

Trade Agreement (SAFTA), which in the long run, can be able to maintain sustainability of national

production/protection systems of vegetables including tomato (Shrestha 2005, MOAC 2010). Agric

Perspective Plan (APP), a twenty years strategic plan under Government of Nepal, which was set up in 1995 and

last until 2015, has prioritized the aspects regarding integrated farming systems, promoting resistance cultivars,

enhancing natural plant protection and minimizing the use of synthetic chemicals in agriculture along with

maximizing the cultivation of high value crops and vegetables. At present condition, use of chemical fertilizers

and pesticides in Nepal is not balanced due to lack of prop

economic benefit rather than ecological safety and human health perspectives. For future prospect of promoting

ecological farming with reduced exposure to harmful toxic effects of chemical residues, there

maintained biodiversity of organisms (e.g. plant, animal, insect and arthropods). In such a way, abundance level

of pest and diseases are quite affected by the intensity of cropping and used high yielding cultivars of tomato and

other vegetables, however there still lack sufficient records and literatures showing field level studies in Nepal.

Existence of several cultivable lands within plain and hilly regions (excluding very high mountains and

Himalayas) and lower income level of the c

increased level of economic development with intensification of high value agricultural commodities.

Adjustment in planting time, changing of growing season and special care for natural

important ways to build a plant healthier that may have comparative tolerant power to pest and diseases. Tomato



112

1994). In contrast to ecological farming systems, mechanized modern farming systems are major source of


diversity of the species, primarily due to manipulation of farming practices and technological adopti

cropping system for tomato and or other vegetable crops has increased the


Comparative analysis of intensity of chemicals use in commercial farms versus mixed (subsistence level) or


predatory arthropod species. The study has gone through both sample identification and data analysis methods in



ct without use of synthetic chemical pesticides (Letourneau & Goldstein 2001). Higher mortality rate of


more, where cultural and preventive practices exist (Altieri 1995, Zehnder et. al. 2007)


productivity as well as pest/disease problem when compared to the situation prior 30 to 40 years (



nochlorines, and reduced population of beneficials (less attraction of pollinators, mortality

of predatory beetles, wasps and soil insects) with toxic field effects and health hazard effects like headache,

dizziness, irritation and respiratory discomfort are serious side effects of intensification of agricultural


insect susceptibility to the applied insecticides has long been noted and continues to be



pod community as well as natural imbalance in terms of soil and environmental aspects.


falsely diagnosed by rural farmers as pest attack and/or disease infestation. Calcium is one of the important


show delayed senescence, rate of respiration and transpiration in tomato fruits (Bhattarai &



h potassium deficiency are likely to be mimic with pest, disease infestations (Uchida 2000,


infestation due to altered plant defence mechanisms and thus becomes a major issue of concern for effectual


achieved higher popularity throughout the production zones spread over five development regions of Nepal.



e of area increment in recent years is nearly five percent per annum (Pokhrel, 2010). Nepal’s entry into


maintaining quality of the products under SPS (Sanitary and Phytosanitary) agreement and South Asian Free


production/protection systems of vegetables including tomato (Shrestha 2005, MOAC 2010). Agric



protection and minimizing the use of synthetic chemicals in agriculture along with


and pesticides in Nepal is not balanced due to lack of proper knowledge and farmers’ concentration only toward


ecological farming with reduced exposure to harmful toxic effects of chemical residues, there



egetables, however there still lack sufficient records and literatures showing field level studies in Nepal.


Himalayas) and lower income level of the country and individual, Nepal needs to grab the higher possibility of


Adjustment in planting time, changing of growing season and special care for natural stresses are further most




www.BellPress.org

ed modern farming systems are major source of


diversity of the species, primarily due to manipulation of farming practices and technological adoption (Altieri

cropping system for tomato and or other vegetable crops has increased the


hemicals use in commercial farms versus mixed (subsistence level) or


tion and data analysis methods in



ct without use of synthetic chemical pesticides (Letourneau & Goldstein 2001). Higher mortality rate of



productivity as well as pest/disease problem when compared to the situation prior 30 to 40 years (MOAC 2008).



nochlorines, and reduced population of beneficials (less attraction of pollinators, mortality

with toxic field effects and health hazard effects like headache,

re serious side effects of intensification of agricultural


insect susceptibility to the applied insecticides has long been noted and continues to be found in existing



pod community as well as natural imbalance in terms of soil and environmental aspects.


ease infestation. Calcium is one of the important


show delayed senescence, rate of respiration and transpiration in tomato fruits (Bhattarai & Gautam 2006).



h potassium deficiency are likely to be mimic with pest, disease infestations (Uchida 2000,


s becomes a major issue of concern for effectual


velopment regions of Nepal.



e of area increment in recent years is nearly five percent per annum (Pokhrel, 2010). Nepal’s entry into


PS (Sanitary and Phytosanitary) agreement and South Asian Free


production/protection systems of vegetables including tomato (Shrestha 2005, MOAC 2010). Agricultural



protection and minimizing the use of synthetic chemicals in agriculture along with


er knowledge and farmers’ concentration only toward


ecological farming with reduced exposure to harmful toxic effects of chemical residues, there needs to have well



egetables, however there still lack sufficient records and literatures showing field level studies in Nepal.


ountry and individual, Nepal needs to grab the higher possibility of


stresses are further most


production inside plastic greenhouses during rainy season has become very popular and profitable where there is

market access (Pandey et al. 2006). For these, there need broadly based on

biological environments in relation with inputs used and cropping system types analysing direct effects on plants,

yield, pest/diseases and the natural c

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Study sites

Palpa district lies in the western development region of Nepal. It is a hilly district having most of the hills within

middle range (500-1200 amsl) of height with several small valleys and foothill

having an area of 1.373 km², is situated at 83°53’ longitude and 27°83’ latitude. Study sites are located nearby

Tansen area (Head station of the District). In warmer months (besides December, January and February),

minimum temperature of the area hardly goes below 10

C. The area has high humid type of climate especially during rainy season and drops during March, April and

May. Madanpokhara production zone (MH),

production in this region is commercial and monocropping type. However this condition also exists in some

areas of Sundargaon, the differences during analysis are carried out according to cropping type ranging from

mixed (small farming) system to integrated (medium scale) farming and mono cropping (intensive farming)

system. Sundargaon production zone (LS)

comparative lower elevation areas and few saddles. The si

holds several subsistence level farming and cultivation of local cultivars in comparison to MS zone. The area

characterises for prevalence of relatively lesser intensification of tomato and other vegetabl

with comparatively fragile production environment in terms of socioeconomic and technological aspects than

that of MH zone.

To keep the farming systems as comparable as possible, categorization of farming systems was done by general

items. A categorization by details would have led to high number of farming systems which would not allow any

meaningful statistical analysis. Defined farming zones are according to the study dimension and limitations that

were designed to facilitate study obj

production system. Both the study sites are composed of these categorized farming systems; though vary in

proportion of distribution. Further, the study was targeted for major obser

grown crop species during the study periods and categorizations were merely based on general trends.

Mixed farming system: Mixed farming system in general comprises of being a typical rural farming system

where, crop livestock and human activities are components of a complete system. Based on such aspects,

farming systems with more subsistence type having more or less combination of several species of crops within

defined area are considered as mixed farming in this stu

well as vegetables can take place in this system however does not go through the commercial activities in

medium to large scale. Both MH and LS areas consist of such production system.

Integrated production system: Integrated production system for this study, was categorized as a semi

commercial farming system where subsistence level of production in integrated with commercial one. Slow

adoption of technologies, alteration of cultivars, intermediate

salient features in the areas. Farmers change their cropping pattern by replacing low yielding cereals with high

yielding varieties, extending vegetable growing areas instead of cereals.

Monoculture commercial system:

production system, where tomato is grown year round with special management for example: use of plastic

tunnels for temperature adjustment, alteration of varieties accord

amounts of chemicals and fertilizers for mass production. Such farmers produce more vegetable crops than

cereals and follow more or less monoculture system. Leader farmers and trained personals are being invo

cultivation. Madanpokhara site has higher influence with such production trend rather than in Sundargaon site.

2.2 Sampling of arthropods

In order to collect the species of arthropods in the study field sites, different sampling methods were used

Sampling time was arranged in repeated manner whereas locations were randomized within field areas. Samples

were separated as per the field site characteristics where both LH and MH zones consisted varied production

systems. Arthropods were collected wi

Hand collection, and (c) Traps and hand made aspirators. Insect sweep nets are useful to trap insect species that

are difficult to trap with hand or by other means. Flies, butter

collected with this procedure. For immediate killing of trapped insects, an insecticide with 0.02% deltamethrin,

0.13% allethrin and 0.15% dichloromethane was used. Hand collection method followed more

method of insect sampling. Hand collection method was quite easy and effective for the day time sampling and

few nocturnal insects like mole cricket (

leaf and fruits. Light traps were effective for nocturnal insect species which are



113


access (Pandey et al. 2006). For these, there need broadly based on – farm experimentations regarding


pest/diseases and the natural control agents.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS


1200 amsl) of height with several small valleys and foothill production zones. The district

km², is situated at 83°53’ longitude and 27°83’ latitude. Study sites are located nearby


emperature of the area hardly goes below 10o C and maximum temperature remains around 25 to 32


Madanpokhara production zone (MH), denoted by Madanpokhara Highland zone. Major trend of




Sundargaon production zone (LS) was coded as Lowland Sundargaon as due to presence of

comparative lower elevation areas and few saddles. The site, besides few intensive commercial farming areas,


characterises for prevalence of relatively lesser intensification of tomato and other vegetabl



s. A categorization by details would have led to high number of farming systems which would not allow any


were designed to facilitate study objectives and analytical outputs rather than explaining overall agricultural


proportion of distribution. Further, the study was targeted for major observations on tomato along with mutually


Mixed farming system in general comprises of being a typical rural farming system

ivestock and human activities are components of a complete system. Based on such aspects,


defined area are considered as mixed farming in this study. Small village level selling of livestock products as


medium to large scale. Both MH and LS areas consist of such production system.

Integrated production system for this study, was categorized as a semi


adoption of technologies, alteration of cultivars, intermediate use of chemicals against pest and diseases are


yielding varieties, extending vegetable growing areas instead of cereals.

l system: Categorization of commercial faming system in this study included intensive


tunnels for temperature adjustment, alteration of varieties according to planting time. Farmers are using higher


cereals and follow more or less monoculture system. Leader farmers and trained personals are being invo


In order to collect the species of arthropods in the study field sites, different sampling methods were used



systems. Arthropods were collected within the entire tomato field using the equipments: (a) Insect sweep net, (b)


are difficult to trap with hand or by other means. Flies, butterfly/moths and other flying insects


0.13% allethrin and 0.15% dichloromethane was used. Hand collection method followed more


few nocturnal insects like mole cricket (Gryllotalpa orientalis Burmeister), white grubs and larvae feeding on

Light traps were effective for nocturnal insect species which are hard to catch during day time.



www.BellPress.org


farm experimentations regarding



production zones. The district

km², is situated at 83°53’ longitude and 27°83’ latitude. Study sites are located nearby


C and maximum temperature remains around 25 to 32o


adanpokhara Highland zone. Major trend of




was coded as Lowland Sundargaon as due to presence of

te, besides few intensive commercial farming areas,


characterises for prevalence of relatively lesser intensification of tomato and other vegetable production along



s. A categorization by details would have led to high number of farming systems which would not allow any


ectives and analytical outputs rather than explaining overall agricultural


vations on tomato along with mutually


Mixed farming system in general comprises of being a typical rural farming system

ivestock and human activities are components of a complete system. Based on such aspects,


dy. Small village level selling of livestock products as


Integrated production system for this study, was categorized as a semi


use of chemicals against pest and diseases are


Categorization of commercial faming system in this study included intensive


ing to planting time. Farmers are using higher


cereals and follow more or less monoculture system. Leader farmers and trained personals are being involved in


In order to collect the species of arthropods in the study field sites, different sampling methods were used.



thin the entire tomato field using the equipments: (a) Insect sweep net, (b)


and other flying insects. were efficiently


0.13% allethrin and 0.15% dichloromethane was used. Hand collection method followed more or less a cultural


Burmeister), white grubs and larvae feeding on

hard to catch during day time.

Similarly, water container and sticky traps were efficient for collection and direct counting of the tiny arthropod

species. Traps used by farmers were taken u

prepared locally was also used for tiny insects like whiteflies, aphids etc. It was made locally using a plastic tube,

cork and flexible pipes.

Samplings were carried out during the period

Differentiation in time of sampling within two regions was due to varying level of abundance of insect and non

insect arthropods in the area as well as time of pesticide application by farmers. Lowe

times represents the close days of pesticides application and fewer numbers of available arthropods in the field

area.

Table 1: Sampling time and repetition in the study areas

Area Week

MH 1

LS 1

MH 2

LS 2

MH 3

LS 3

MH 4

LS 4

Insects and non-insect arthropods, after collection from field, were preserved in micro tubes with flip caps of

different sizes. For larger sized arthropods, sampling plastic tubes (varied in sizes) were used. Insect number and

location code were given to each sample and were preserved in absolute Ethanol. Preserved samples were safely

handled for further identification to the laboratory of departm

Samples were taxonomically identified up to species level during the period of August to November 2011. Basis

of identification was special traits and morphological features in reference with several literatur

involved professionals.

Identification of pest population in relation to their predators and other beneficial is quite vital to get into a

community structure and guild composition. All the identified species, besides taxonomical classifica

further categorized to several parameters like feeding habit (herbivore to omnivore), host preference and specific

role in community structure. The connectance within identified arthropods was calculated according to the

formula: Connectance (C) = L/S2. Where, L = number of trophic links and S = Number of trophic elements in

the food web.

2.3 Field survey and statistical analysis

Besides collection, preservation and identification of insects, Field level surveys were also carried out in the

study areas, where samplings were made. Farmers’ questionnaires were made in order to know the common

trend of production, tomato cultivars grown, insecticide/ pesticide use pattern and others related farm level

information on major problems, support and servic

randomly from both the study areas for obtaining primary data. Survey procedure covered more or less all the

farming system types from two study sites covering lower foot hills to high altitudes (ranging

m).

Data from questionnaire were analysed for different effects on depended variables like pesticide use frequency,

abundance level of pest species, major problems, disease incidence level and resistance against farming type,

location and tomato varieties. Application frequency against farming system types was analyzed in order to

check the intensity of varied input use against the specific pest/disease. Problem faced by farmers were

compared among different scales of farming practices wi

interrelations between pest/disease occurrence and major problems faced by farmers, and even within the

problems themselves. Six tomato cultivars were taken for analysis and orthogonal contrast tests we

find out varietal performance against specific pest/disease. In the same way, varietal resistant trait was also

compared with specific and overall pest species and disease types. Different on farm and off farm records from

questionnaire were arranged in nominal as well as ordinal datasets in order to assess different tests and effects.

One way and two way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used for statistical test with JMP 7.0.2 (2007)

software. Different non-parametric and parametric testes were

Linear Model (GLM) and Wilcoxon/Kruskal

different effects.



114


species. Traps used by farmers were taken under observation time to time and collected periodically. Aspirator


Samplings were carried out during the period of 4th

week of April to 3rd

week of June 2011 (Table 1).


insect arthropods in the area as well as time of pesticide application by farmers. Lowe


Sampling time and repetition in the study areas

Number of samplings

April May

0 2

0 1

0 1

0 2

0 1

0 1

1 2

1 2

insect arthropods, after collection from field, were preserved in micro tubes with flip caps of

arthropods, sampling plastic tubes (varied in sizes) were used. Insect number and


handled for further identification to the laboratory of department of phytomedicine, university of Hohenheim.


of identification was special traits and morphological features in reference with several literatur


community structure and guild composition. All the identified species, besides taxonomical classifica



Where, L = number of trophic links and S = Number of trophic elements in

2.3 Field survey and statistical analysis


areas, where samplings were made. Farmers’ questionnaires were made in order to know the common


information on major problems, support and services, productivity etc. 41 households were interviewed


farming system types from two study sites covering lower foot hills to high altitudes (ranging



d tomato varieties. Application frequency against farming system types was analyzed in order to


compared among different scales of farming practices within categorized farming systems in order to identify


problems themselves. Six tomato cultivars were taken for analysis and orthogonal contrast tests we



anged in nominal as well as ordinal datasets in order to assess different tests and effects.


parametric and parametric testes were carried out with 5% level of significance. General

Linear Model (GLM) and Wilcoxon/Kruskal-Wallis-Tests were used to check level of significance for the



www.BellPress.org


nder observation time to time and collected periodically. Aspirator


week of June 2011 (Table 1).


insect arthropods in the area as well as time of pesticide application by farmers. Lower number of sampling


June

2

3

3

1

1

1

0

0

insect arthropods, after collection from field, were preserved in micro tubes with flip caps of

arthropods, sampling plastic tubes (varied in sizes) were used. Insect number and


ent of phytomedicine, university of Hohenheim.


of identification was special traits and morphological features in reference with several literatures, guides and


community structure and guild composition. All the identified species, besides taxonomical classification, were



Where, L = number of trophic links and S = Number of trophic elements in


areas, where samplings were made. Farmers’ questionnaires were made in order to know the common


es, productivity etc. 41 households were interviewed


farming system types from two study sites covering lower foot hills to high altitudes (ranging from 400 to 1000



d tomato varieties. Application frequency against farming system types was analyzed in order to


thin categorized farming systems in order to identify


problems themselves. Six tomato cultivars were taken for analysis and orthogonal contrast tests were made to



anged in nominal as well as ordinal datasets in order to assess different tests and effects.


carried out with 5% level of significance. General

Tests were used to check level of significance for the

3. RESULTS

3.1 Direct observation method

Sampling procedures carried out as descri

than 40 species per site. Since, tiny insects were hard to collect in their real state without morphological

disturbances; fine sorting was made from the huge mass of mixed samples. Dir

and crop species grown, has found following level of abundance density in both the study sites.

Table 2: Distribution of major species over the study sites and farming systems

of occurrence, 2 = medium level, 1 = lower level and 0 = not observed)

Particulars

White flies

Helicoverpa armigera

Grasshoppers

Aphids

Leaf feeding beetles

Spiders/ predatory insects

Blight

Wilt

Tomato sole

Tomato mixed with vegetables

Local cultivars

3.2 Connectance and trophic structure

Both the study sites contained a complex connectance patterns due to presence of several

Species also show reciprocal feeding relations where species A can feed on species B, B on C and C on A. Out

of 42 sample species from Sundargaon (LS) study site, 224 trophic links are found within arthropod

communities, hence the connectance will be 0.127 and in Madanpokhara (MH) site, out of total 44 species, 184

are the trophic links, therefore connectance is 0. 095. Similarly average links per species are 4.18 and 5.33 for

MH and LS study sites respectively.

Arthropods community structures of the study areas showed a mixture of pest, predators and other beneficials

(pollinators, decomposers and others having independent effect). Insects like may fly

Cockroaches and some flying insects have independent effect on trophic

structures. Among the collected species, diverse levels of arthropod orders containing less harmful tomato pests

were found in Sundargaon production site (LS), where the proportion of mixed farming systems was more. MH

site comprised several species of arthropods including tomato specific pest species, where monoculture

commercial farming system was in higher proportion. Families within an order of insects and non insect

arthropods were quite varied within the locations/s

were more frequently distributed over MH region together with herbivore insect families like Noctuidae,

Aphididae, Formicidae and Forficulidae of orders Lepidoptera, Homoptera, Hymenoptera and De

respectively, showing more trophic relation of insect and plants. In contrast, Sundargaon study site contained

families of different orders like Mantodia, Diptera, Thysanura and Araneae which showed trophic relation

among the arthropod species as well as scavenger and saprotrophic nutrition, beside existing plant

relationship. More species interaction in LS site was due to presence of more carnivore species which can feed

on most of the sampled species (either herbivore or omnivores). In the

legged fly, syrphid flies and robber flies can indicate a continuous trend of predation over the diversified species

of herbivore insects. Areas where there is severity of mixed farming systems have shown higher speci

interaction.



115

Sampling procedures carried out as described in study methodology, have been able to collect and identify more


disturbances; fine sorting was made from the huge mass of mixed samples. Direct observation of the arthropods


Distribution of major species over the study sites and farming systems. (Specifications: 3 = higher level

nce, 2 = medium level, 1 = lower level and 0 = not observed)

MH LS Mixed

farming

3 2 0

2 3 1

1 3 2

3 2 1

2 2 2

2 3 3

3 2 1

2 2 2

3 2 0

2 2 3

2 2 3

3.2 Connectance and trophic structure

Both the study sites contained a complex connectance patterns due to presence of several



tance will be 0.127 and in Madanpokhara (MH) site, out of total 44 species, 184


MH and LS study sites respectively.

ctures of the study areas showed a mixture of pest, predators and other beneficials

(pollinators, decomposers and others having independent effect). Insects like may fly

Cockroaches and some flying insects have independent effect on trophic level relationship in the community



ite comprised several species of arthropods including tomato specific pest species, where monoculture


arthropods were quite varied within the locations/study sites. Within, order Coleoptera, chrysomelidae families


Aphididae, Formicidae and Forficulidae of orders Lepidoptera, Homoptera, Hymenoptera and De



well as scavenger and saprotrophic nutrition, beside existing plant


on most of the sampled species (either herbivore or omnivores). In the same way, presence of flies like long


of herbivore insects. Areas where there is severity of mixed farming systems have shown higher speci



www.BellPress.org

bed in study methodology, have been able to collect and identify more


ect observation of the arthropods


. (Specifications: 3 = higher level

Mixed

farming

Commercial

farming

3

3

2

3

2

1

3

2

3

2

0

Both the study sites contained a complex connectance patterns due to presence of several omnivore species.



tance will be 0.127 and in Madanpokhara (MH) site, out of total 44 species, 184


ctures of the study areas showed a mixture of pest, predators and other beneficials

(pollinators, decomposers and others having independent effect). Insects like may fly Hexagenia spp,

level relationship in the community



ite comprised several species of arthropods including tomato specific pest species, where monoculture


tudy sites. Within, order Coleoptera, chrysomelidae families


Aphididae, Formicidae and Forficulidae of orders Lepidoptera, Homoptera, Hymenoptera and Dermaptera



well as scavenger and saprotrophic nutrition, beside existing plant-insect


same way, presence of flies like long


of herbivore insects. Areas where there is severity of mixed farming systems have shown higher species level

Figure 1: Trophic community of pest and predator and other arthropods

decomposers and independent of predator prey relations):

3.3 Statistical analysis of field data

Analysis of pesticide use frequency

to assess the impact and efficiency of application against target organisms. Following results were observed with

different tests.

Figure 2: application frequency by cropping syst

Application frequency of insecticides/pesticides were statistically significant different among cropping systems

according to analysis of variance (F = 53.03, df = 2, 38; p < 0.001, followed by a Tukey

0.05 level). In this way, mono cropping (commercial) farming system uses higher amount of chemical pesticides

whereas integrated system uses medium level and mixed farming system has used minimal (Fig. 2).

Similarly, test on application frequency by pest number 1 (ranking of pest

population, which range 1 to 3, where 1 is higher problematic) was significant. ANOVA (F = 3.26, df = 4, 36; p

= 0.0223). Whitefly infestation caused higher application frequency (A) and grasshopper lesser (B) while other

pests are found to be near to both levels (AB). There is no significant effect of disease

pesticide application (one-way ANOVA: F = 2.52, df = 4, 35; p = 0.587). Since application frequency is taken

both for insecticides and all the pes

significant label shows that there is effect. Viral, damping off and blight diseases show higher application

frequency than rot and wilt.

Major problem faced by farmers in the study si

number 1(Problem #1) was ranked as higher level of severity in different farming systems. According to survey

data, water and disease problem were found more in medium to small scale farmin

and insect problems were severe in large scale farming systems. Large scale farming systems normally are well

managed with irrigation system and application rate is higher for disease control thus field information showed

0

5

10

15

20

25

Herbivores Ominivores

Nu

mb

er

of

sp

ecie

s



116

Trophic community of pest and predator and other arthropods (others include scavengers,

decomposers and independent of predator prey relations):

against farming system types, specific pests and diseases was done in order


: application frequency by cropping systems


according to analysis of variance (F = 53.03, df = 2, 38; p < 0.001, followed by a Tukey-Kramer HSD test at p =

mono cropping (commercial) farming system uses higher amount of chemical pesticides


Similarly, test on application frequency by pest number 1 (ranking of pest as a major problems among the



ts are found to be near to both levels (AB). There is no significant effect of disease-dependent frequency of

way ANOVA: F = 2.52, df = 4, 35; p = 0.587). Since application frequency is taken

both for insecticides and all the pesticides, the effect may not be crystal clear however nearby statistical


Major problem faced by farmers in the study sites were ranked as 1, 2 and 3 according to severity level. Problem


data, water and disease problem were found more in medium to small scale farming types whereas Ca



Ominivores Carnivores Pollinators Others

Trophic behaviour



www.BellPress.org

(others include scavengers,

against farming system types, specific pests and diseases was done in order



Kramer HSD test at p =

mono cropping (commercial) farming system uses higher amount of chemical pesticides


as a major problems among the



dependent frequency of

way ANOVA: F = 2.52, df = 4, 35; p = 0.587). Since application frequency is taken

ticides, the effect may not be crystal clear however nearby statistical


tes were ranked as 1, 2 and 3 according to severity level. Problem


g types whereas Ca-deficiency



Others

MH (44)

LS (42)

such phenomenon. Large scale systems lack internal nutrient cycles which may promote degradation of

micronutrients. Problem of water were mostly found in east facing sloppy lands where farmers at least could

supply with pipe water in the stress condition. The

more dry conditions than rainy season planting. Fruit set problem was observed to be more with local cultivars

though they were resistant against pest and diseases than other hybrids. Water stress al

availability of micronutrients (eg. calcium deficiency) in soil and plant health (strength) against pest/diseases.

Disease problems were equally distributed over all the farming system types. Higher curative action in

commercial farming systems against pest and diseases might have affected pest species moving towards nearby

integrated or mixed farms carrying diseases (as vectors).

Taking under consideration for the trend of random field application

among growers, selective application of insecticides against problematic insects was tested. According to the

General Linear Model (GLM) test, cypermethrin and mixed insecticides were found significant while testing

against the problematic fields with H. armigera.

Table 3: H. armigera by insecticides applied.

Insecticides Estimator

Chlorpyrifos 0,0787146

Endosulfan 0,1939116

Cypermethrin 0,6245072

Phorate 0,2308209

Mixed 0,4123978

Neem 0,0269763

Major tomato diseases in the area were seems to be caused by fungus and bacteria and to some extent viruses. To

check efficiency and target specific application level in the area, major diseases were tested against fungicides

with GLM procedure. Mancozeb and copper sulphate are significant against rot disease. Copper sulphate is

generally applied against fungal diseases, thus is

damping off is highly significant as farmers may apply it as specific fungicide against damping off.

Table 4: Diseases by fungicides:

Disease Fungicide

Rot mancozeb

Rot copper suphate

Damping off carbendazim

Whiteflies population level, while analyzed with Wilcoxon/Kruskal

Madanpokhara study site (MH) than in Sundargaon site with almost two times severity. Presence of high yielding

cultivars (hybrid susceptible) and monocropping of tomato crops in MH area may have shown such results.

factorial test, chi-square approximation test ha

was also found significant different with normal approximation test (Z test).

elevation on level of resistance were tested, where resistance were statist

testing with Nominal-logistic model (Chi



117

phenomenon. Large scale systems lack internal nutrient cycles which may promote degradation of


supply with pipe water in the stress condition. The study period was during spring season planting and faces


though they were resistant against pest and diseases than other hybrids. Water stress al



ystems against pest and diseases might have affected pest species moving towards nearby

integrated or mixed farms carrying diseases (as vectors).

Figure 3: Problem #1 by farming types

Taking under consideration for the trend of random field application of pesticides due to improper knowledge



H. armigera.

by insecticides applied.

Estimator Std.-Error t-Value

0,0787146 0,299444 0,26

0,1939116 0,175805 1,10

0,6245072 0,246404 2,53

0,2308209 0,196172 1,18

0,4123978 0,18124 2,28

0,0269763 0,151909 0,18


ncy and target specific application level in the area, major diseases were tested against fungicides


generally applied against fungal diseases, thus is nearly significant against rot disease. Carbendazim against


Estimator Std.-Error t-Value

0,7102125 0,215644 3,29

copper suphate 0,5050001 0,256847 1,97

carbendazim 0,4074585 0,162583 2,51

Whiteflies population level, while analyzed with Wilcoxon/Kruskal-Wallis and T test, was found severe in

ara study site (MH) than in Sundargaon site with almost two times severity. Presence of high yielding

cultivars (hybrid susceptible) and monocropping of tomato crops in MH area may have shown such results.

approximation test have shown significant result (Chi2 = 4.58, df = 1; P = 0.0323) and

was also found significant different with normal approximation test (Z test). Beside these, effect of location and

elevation on level of resistance were tested, where resistance were statistically not significant with location while

logistic model (Chi2 = 4.2338, df = 5; p = 0.516). Similar effect was found for the resistance



www.BellPress.org

phenomenon. Large scale systems lack internal nutrient cycles which may promote degradation of


study period was during spring season planting and faces


though they were resistant against pest and diseases than other hybrids. Water stress also influences the



ystems against pest and diseases might have affected pest species moving towards nearby

of pesticides due to improper knowledge



P

0,7943

0,2780

0,0162

0,2478

0,0295

0,8601


ncy and target specific application level in the area, major diseases were tested against fungicides


nearly significant against rot disease. Carbendazim against


P

0,0023

0,0575

0,0172

Wallis and T test, was found severe in

ara study site (MH) than in Sundargaon site with almost two times severity. Presence of high yielding

cultivars (hybrid susceptible) and monocropping of tomato crops in MH area may have shown such results. A

= 4.58, df = 1; P = 0.0323) and

Beside these, effect of location and

ically not significant with location while

= 4.2338, df = 5; p = 0.516). Similar effect was found for the resistance

level against the elevation according to the same model (Chi

infestation were found more in MH location which may be due to presence of several monoculture commercial

farming system for tomato rather than effect of geography and elevation.

In the survey areas, major varieties grown were statistically t

diseases. Resistance traits of cultivars were categorized in a range of 1 to 3 (1 = susceptible, 2 = semi susceptible

and 3 = resistant or not significant damage with pest and diseases). Major tomato cult

Manisha, Srijana, Thims + 1, Sirish, Local cherry and Lapsigede (medium sized fruits). In order to analyse the

differences among cultivars in terms of occurrences of whiteflies infestation, adaptation generalized linear model

was used. Differences were found significant during overall analysis (Chi2 = 23.61, df = 11, p = 0.0145). While

contrasting local cherry with Manisha, Srijana and combinations (Manisha + Lapsigede) and (Srijana + Lapsigede)

differences were highly significant (Chi2 = 11.09, df = 1, p = 0.00087). Likewise, Combinations of hybrids with

local cherry were contrasted with combination of hybrids where local cherry grown together with Srijana,

Manisha and Sirish were contrasted with combination of (Manisha +Srija

+ Lapsigede), and the differences were significant (p = 0.001). Whitelfly infestation differences among

combinations of hybrid cultivars were not significant different as they all were susceptible to whiteflies.

Combinations of hybrids with local cherry was found severe in subsistence level farming where, farmers grow for

family use and/or for village level selling only when they get adequate yield. Combination of susceptible cultivars

with different crop species and/or resistant cultivars like local cherry has shown lower level of whiteflies

abundance whereas growing commercial hybrid varieties (sole or combination of hybrids) were found severely

infested.

Blight resistance characters against occurrence of disease wa

the one way analysis of variance test.

significant while tested with one way analysis of variance (F = 7.25, df = 2, 38; p = 0.0

(mainly hybrid varieties A) were severely attacked and semi susceptible (combination effects AB) with medium

level while resistant (local cultivars B) were almost not infested. While analysing all insect infestation condition

as per the resistance level of varieties with one way analysis of variance and Wilcoxon/Kruskal

special tomato pests were significant while others were not found significant which are due to mixed cropping

systems. Butterflies, grasshoppers and

tomato and others were non pest species which were found in tomato field due to mixed diversified crops within

small fields. Commercial production fields were mainly affected with spe

aphids etc. Statistical analysis has proven that the resistance ranks were significant against specific pests rather

than occasional pest species (Table 5).

tomato and other vegetables. Abundance of these species might have been due to presence of other vegetables

(crucifers).

Table 5: All insects abundance by insect resistance traits of cultivars

Insects Degree of

freedom

H. armigera 2

Whiteflies 2

Grasshopper 2

Leaf beetles 2

Pieris spp. 2

Aphids 2

Specific tomato pest Myzus persicae

Srijana) in commercial systems. Hence, specific tomato pests/diseases are found to be highly affected by

resistance level of variety, micro climate and location, whereas application frequency and management practices

were more for high yielding hybrid cultivars where resistance development of insects and disease causing

organisms might have been developed.

4. DISCUSSIONS

The study, primarily based on the field level survey and direct sampling within the tomato field along with

involvement of few additional crop species under specified limitations, has used observational, appraised and

analytical methods. Selection of study district and field was set as due to the preliminary context analysis that

hilly areas in Nepal has future potential of vegetable cultivation increment due to microclimatic variability as well

as percentage of land availability over the country.

involved in building up agricultural enterprises utilizing marginal areas having challenges and opportunities for

development activities, where sloping agriculture land technology (SALT) and other

proposed (Shrestha et al. 2006). The approach of splitting the farming systems into three categories has supported

more précised analysis and extraction of intra location (sites) information. Agricultural areas with minimal or



118

level against the elevation according to the same model (Chi2 = 4.2338, df = 5; p = 0.516). Onl


farming system for tomato rather than effect of geography and elevation.

In the survey areas, major varieties grown were statistically tested for their resistance level against insect and


and 3 = resistant or not significant damage with pest and diseases). Major tomato cultivars taken for analysis were:





cant (Chi2 = 11.09, df = 1, p = 0.00087). Likewise, Combinations of hybrids with


Manisha and Sirish were contrasted with combination of (Manisha +Srijana), (Manisha + Lapsigede) and (Srijana



inations of hybrids with local cherry was found severe in subsistence level farming where, farmers grow for


or resistant cultivars like local cherry has shown lower level of whiteflies


Blight resistance characters against occurrence of disease was significant (F = 3.67, df = 2, 37; p = 0.035) as per

the one way analysis of variance test. H. armigera resistance traits of variety and level of infestation were

significant while tested with one way analysis of variance (F = 7.25, df = 2, 38; p = 0.0022). Susceptible cultivars



per the resistance level of varieties with one way analysis of variance and Wilcoxon/Kruskal


systems. Butterflies, grasshoppers and leaf feeding beetles collected in the study areas were seasonal pest on


small fields. Commercial production fields were mainly affected with specific pests like


than occasional pest species (Table 5). Pieris species are more specific pest for Brassicaceae fa


All insects abundance by insect resistance traits of cultivars

Sum of squares Mean squares F value

11,600000 5,80000 7,2500

6,199024 3,09951 4,4886

7,148618 3,57431 3,3979

0,955447 0,47772 0,3072

4,822764 2,41138 1,7991

3,791220 1,89561 2,2398

Myzus persicae Sulzer was observed in Lapsigede and hybrid tomatoes (Manisha and


ance level of variety, micro climate and location, whereas application frequency and management practices


organisms might have been developed.



of study district and field was set as due to the preliminary context analysis that


as percentage of land availability over the country. There are several national and international organisations


development activities, where sloping agriculture land technology (SALT) and other several approaches are being


more précised analysis and extraction of intra location (sites) information. Agricultural areas with minimal or



www.BellPress.org

= 4.2338, df = 5; p = 0.516). Only whiteflies


ested for their resistance level against insect and


ivars taken for analysis were:





cant (Chi2 = 11.09, df = 1, p = 0.00087). Likewise, Combinations of hybrids with


na), (Manisha + Lapsigede) and (Srijana



inations of hybrids with local cherry was found severe in subsistence level farming where, farmers grow for


or resistant cultivars like local cherry has shown lower level of whiteflies


s significant (F = 3.67, df = 2, 37; p = 0.035) as per

resistance traits of variety and level of infestation were

022). Susceptible cultivars



per the resistance level of varieties with one way analysis of variance and Wilcoxon/Kruskal-Wallis-tests,


leaf feeding beetles collected in the study areas were seasonal pest on


cific pests like H. armigera, whiteflies,


are more specific pest for Brassicaceae family rather than


F value Pr. > F

7,2500 0,0022

4,4886 0,0178

3,3979 0,0439

0,3072 0,7373

1,7991 0,1793

2,2398 0,1203

was observed in Lapsigede and hybrid tomatoes (Manisha and


ance level of variety, micro climate and location, whereas application frequency and management practices




of study district and field was set as due to the preliminary context analysis that


There are several national and international organisations


several approaches are being


more précised analysis and extraction of intra location (sites) information. Agricultural areas with minimal or even

no use of external chemical pesticides more or less follow organic by default practices rather than medium to high

input use agriculture. Traditional multiple cropping systems in place of advanced intensive single cropping

systems are relevant in terms of efficient utilization of land, labour and local resources, and such traditional farms

still provide 15-20% of the worlds’ food supply (Altieri, 1999). Cultural practices and preventive pest

management techniques support pest suppression and natural c

intensification can balance soil and environmental degradation (Zehnder et al. 2007). Beside theses, concept of

production trend and innovations can be keyed out with continuous research and development activities

study area by partitioning it into several classes according to the goal of the study. The study can have positive

approaches to gear up development programs for hill agriculture exploring existing practices and further potential

production sites, utilizing available local resources and adopting sustainable protection measures.

Instruments used for insect and non arthropods collection varied in order to facilitate the procedure. Flying insects

in the tomato field were easier to trap with insect swe

sweep nets is a most effective way of collecting a huge mass of small bugs, beetles, spiders and other insect

species in grass and dense vegetated agricultural areas (Millar et al. 2000). Manual

of sampling by which the number of species counted per unit time can be predicted in different fields (RIC, 1998).

The method also became effective for collection of non insect arthropods like daddy long legged harvestman

(Opilliones), rough woodlouse (Isopoda) etc. Since arthropods have ability to exploit a variety of habitats as per

their diversified behaviours, even fewer numbers of traps are efficient to capture different groups (RIC 1998).

Time and frequency of the samplings were designed in a manner that abundance level can be varied during the

sampling period according to the manipulation in crop growth stage of tomato, type and growth stage of adjacent

crop species and application of pesticides. Palikhe (2002) stated th

environment and ecological organisms especially non target beneficials as they have more chance to receive toxic

levels due to higher mobility in search of preys. Repeated samplings in both the areas were found e

capturing diversified species of different orders within the period of field study and thus were quite practical for

interpreting connectance and species interaction. Extraction of features from images at varied suitable poses either

manually or with equipments is an effective method of insect identification (Wen et al. 2009). Hence the study

recommend to develop technical advancement in field level samplings and identification using GIS mapping,

computer based equipments and laboratory facilit

Agricultural changes are more or less a role of natural as well as technological factors and farmers are the nearer

observer of field level activities. According to Glendenning et al. (2010), marg

do not access information more frequently, may lack diverse range of information to support their farm enterprises

and also presenting the issues and constraints to the related sectors. Field survey information gathered in

supported the agro ecological diversity assessment and prediction of general trend for a longer period rather than

confined information within the field visit period. Such combination of study methods can provide more detailed

information opening additional issues for future assessments.

In agroecosystems, modifications of environments are mainly concerned with the external man made efforts on

production process together with the natural adverse factors. Loss of arthropods in intensive agricultu

happens not only with direct effect of chemical but also with the loss of habitat and food (e.g. weed suppression

with herbicides, crop species loss with single cropping and less population of organisms disturbing trophic

relations) along with intensification of agriculture (Wardle et al. 1999, Medeiros et al. 2009). Regulation of

natural resource management for food security empowering rural communities (where marginal growers live)

reflects the role of agroecosystem in sustainable development (

the production systems and their diverse outcomes via observation, sampling and analysis made study meaningful

and advocates for more confined and comparative studies in wide

manipulation and diversification of plant species in time and space are major ways of pest management in organic

tomato fields (Medeiros et al. 2009). According to Letourneau & Goldstein (2001), comparison of pest damage

levels between organic versus conventional tomato fields did not differ significantly, but community structure was

found varied. A complex of different species not only shows the general community structure and species

interaction, but there exist several hidden facts with

species have significant role like chemical complexity of plants affecting herbivores and carnivores (Randlkofer et

al. 2010), soil terrestrial food web (Brussaard 1998), and susceptibility of plant

against control measures (Theiling & Croft 1988). Sundargaon (LS) site’s samples consisted soil arthropods

(scavengers, decomposers etc) and wide

communities suffice the overall ecosystem regulation, however there are vital role of non

(like birds, reptiles and others), which in few cases are found to be more efficient than arthropod predators

(Philpott et al. 2004). A worthy diversity

observed in both the study sites due to dense planted surrounding areas, grass lands and forests. Such factors are

to be considered for the detailed studies in the future.



119



ms of efficient utilization of land, labour and local resources, and such traditional farms

20% of the worlds’ food supply (Altieri, 1999). Cultural practices and preventive pest

management techniques support pest suppression and natural control within defined ecosystems and less


production trend and innovations can be keyed out with continuous research and development activities



utilizing available local resources and adopting sustainable protection measures.


in the tomato field were easier to trap with insect sweep nets rather than hand collection methods. Collection with


species in grass and dense vegetated agricultural areas (Millar et al. 2000). Manual collection is an efficient way



illiones), rough woodlouse (Isopoda) etc. Since arthropods have ability to exploit a variety of habitats as per


ngs were designed in a manner that abundance level can be varied during the


crop species and application of pesticides. Palikhe (2002) stated that persistent pesticides create problem for


levels due to higher mobility in search of preys. Repeated samplings in both the areas were found e



or with equipments is an effective method of insect identification (Wen et al. 2009). Hence the study


computer based equipments and laboratory facilities that can have higher efficiency for further researches.


observer of field level activities. According to Glendenning et al. (2010), marginal and smallholder farmers, who


and also presenting the issues and constraints to the related sectors. Field survey information gathered in



g additional issues for future assessments.


production process together with the natural adverse factors. Loss of arthropods in intensive agricultu



ntensification of agriculture (Wardle et al. 1999, Medeiros et al. 2009). Regulation of


reflects the role of agroecosystem in sustainable development (Altieri 2002). Effort of this study for differentiating


and advocates for more confined and comparative studies in wide-ranging production zones



ganic versus conventional tomato fields did not differ significantly, but community structure was

A complex of different species not only shows the general community structure and species

interaction, but there exist several hidden facts within the system where role of other non


al. 2010), soil terrestrial food web (Brussaard 1998), and susceptibility of plants against herbivores and arthropods


(scavengers, decomposers etc) and wide-ranging species of predators. Not only interactions among arthropod

ities suffice the overall ecosystem regulation, however there are vital role of non


(Philpott et al. 2004). A worthy diversity of non-arthropods (predating on arthropods or independent) were


to be considered for the detailed studies in the future.



www.BellPress.org



ms of efficient utilization of land, labour and local resources, and such traditional farms

20% of the worlds’ food supply (Altieri, 1999). Cultural practices and preventive pest

ontrol within defined ecosystems and less


production trend and innovations can be keyed out with continuous research and development activities within a



utilizing available local resources and adopting sustainable protection measures.


ep nets rather than hand collection methods. Collection with


collection is an efficient way



illiones), rough woodlouse (Isopoda) etc. Since arthropods have ability to exploit a variety of habitats as per


ngs were designed in a manner that abundance level can be varied during the


at persistent pesticides create problem for


levels due to higher mobility in search of preys. Repeated samplings in both the areas were found effective for



or with equipments is an effective method of insect identification (Wen et al. 2009). Hence the study


ies that can have higher efficiency for further researches.


inal and smallholder farmers, who


and also presenting the issues and constraints to the related sectors. Field survey information gathered in the study




production process together with the natural adverse factors. Loss of arthropods in intensive agricultural fields



ntensification of agriculture (Wardle et al. 1999, Medeiros et al. 2009). Regulation of


Altieri 2002). Effort of this study for differentiating


ranging production zones of Nepal. Habitat



ganic versus conventional tomato fields did not differ significantly, but community structure was

A complex of different species not only shows the general community structure and species

in the system where role of other non-arthropods and crop


s against herbivores and arthropods


ranging species of predators. Not only interactions among arthropod

ities suffice the overall ecosystem regulation, however there are vital role of non-arthropod predators


arthropods (predating on arthropods or independent) were


Connectance level found for both study sites were at intermediate level and difference between two communities

were not that much identical. According to Fowler (2009), stable communities vary with the number of species

and increased level of complexity and connectance can h

stability, which are more flexible in smaller communities. The study sites were distributed over a large area but

the major samplings were from specific tomato fields. Only mixed farms were more or less su

micro climatic species diversity due to integration of several crop species in particular field. Wardle et al. (1999),

in their study stated that higher arthropods were obtained with higher weed biomass, however Coleopteran

diversity was more in mulching and stubble biomass and not significantly correlated with weed biomass.

Generally, subsistence level farming types in the study hold higher stubble biomass, manures and dense

plantations of diversified species within small areas. Higher

LS study site reflects encouraging result and in contrast, MH site (where commercial farms were more in number)

contained more coleopterans. Hongjiao et al. (2010) found higher predatory arthropods (33.71%

neutral (indifferent) species and herbivores in cabbage field that intercropped with garlic and lettuce. Plant

species diversity affects vegetation complexity (structural and chemical) which have direct effect on herbivores

and carnivore arthropods (Randlkofer et al. 2010). Few serious pests in tomato have always been an issue of

discussion since they can cause severe damage in favourable conditions and also can transmit diseases (eg.

aphids and whiteflies). Such species management becomes pro

of pre harvest loss causes several economic misbalances.

Majority of the vegetable production trend in Nepal represents subsistence level farming specially in the hilly

remote areas (USAID, 2011). Cultivat

views like supplements of micronutrients, fresh selling, and processed products marketing. Statistical records

showed higher yield level of tomato and vegetables in the study district

regions Table 6.

Table 6: Vegetable and tomato production pattern in Nepal and the study district (2009/10).

Production region Commodity

Palpa vegetables

Western hills vegetables

Nepal vegetables

Palpa tomato

Western hills tomato

Nepal tomato

Data sources: CBS 2010, USAID 2011

Taking under consideration for inadequate supply of per capita vegetable supply in Nepal (Ali & Tsou 1997),

there needs policies and approaches to disseminate knowledge, maintain scale and quality of production (Pokhrel

2010) and plant protection techniques (preventive

undertake the comparative advantage of vegetables production through out the potential production zones

focussing on peri-urban to rural production system undertaking explicit policy changes, includ

investments (Johnson et al. 2008), where, there necessitate participatory identification of integrated agricultural

technologies in sloppy lands of nepal (Shrestha et al. 2006). Together with production efforts, concentrated over

different regions of the country, there needs simultaneous attempts for the protection approaches as pre and post

harvest losses for agricultural commodities still exist around 20

In comparison to other countries, per hectare consumption of p

2009), however with increment of commercialization of agriculture and area expansion of vegetable crops, the

rate is gradually increasing. Among all the farmers of Nepal, 48% of them were found using pesticides (

2010). Within pesticide use periphery, there are several misuses, residual effects on food materials, higher doses

of application causing natural misbalances and monetary losses with lower production efficiency (Palikhe 2002,

Ranabhat & GC 2005). Fungicides having high resistant risks like metalaxyl, carbendazim, streptomycin etc

(FRAC 2008) are being used since long time where mixing of such groups can develop more resistance against

diseases causing loss of beneficial organisms eg. Copper fungicides m

(Michaud & Grant 2003).

Information obtained through field level survey of 41 households randomized over two study sites were mainly

confined to the tomato fields of different cultivars. Available information w

evaluation of pest damage assessment, impacts of pesticides use structure and effectiveness on control among all

the farming system types. Field level surveys, in general should comply research objectives according to th

agricultural production/protection system in terms of manpower, resource and technologies. Advantage of Rapid

Rural Appraisal (RRA) over Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is that querier/researcher can get more



120

ound for both study sites were at intermediate level and difference between two communities


and increased level of complexity and connectance can have direct effects on reduction and enhancement of


the major samplings were from specific tomato fields. Only mixed farms were more or less su



s more in mulching and stubble biomass and not significantly correlated with weed biomass.


plantations of diversified species within small areas. Higher abundance of Dipterans and predatory arthropods in


contained more coleopterans. Hongjiao et al. (2010) found higher predatory arthropods (33.71%



ropods (Randlkofer et al. 2010). Few serious pests in tomato have always been an issue of


aphids and whiteflies). Such species management becomes problematic in large scale farming system where risk

of pre harvest loss causes several economic misbalances.


remote areas (USAID, 2011). Cultivation of tomato can benefit growers and suppliers from different points of


showed higher yield level of tomato and vegetables in the study district than that of the country and western hilly

Vegetable and tomato production pattern in Nepal and the study district (2009/10).

Commodity Area (ha)

Production

(metric tons,

mt)

vegetables 1995 25935

vegetables 21,654 207,025

vegetables 232,295 2,820,527

tomato 120 2,250

tomato 1,109 18,733

tomato 19,724 317,657

Data sources: CBS 2010, USAID 2011

consideration for inadequate supply of per capita vegetable supply in Nepal (Ali & Tsou 1997),


2010) and plant protection techniques (preventive and curative). Development of agricultural sector should


urban to rural production system undertaking explicit policy changes, includ



nt regions of the country, there needs simultaneous attempts for the protection approaches as pre and post

harvest losses for agricultural commodities still exist around 20 - 35% (MOAC 2010).

In comparison to other countries, per hectare consumption of pesticides in Nepal is relatively less (MOAC


rate is gradually increasing. Among all the farmers of Nepal, 48% of them were found using pesticides (



cides having high resistant risks like metalaxyl, carbendazim, streptomycin etc


diseases causing loss of beneficial organisms eg. Copper fungicides may disrupt fertility status of lady beetles


confined to the tomato fields of different cultivars. Available information were efficient source of comparative


the farming system types. Field level surveys, in general should comply research objectives according to th





www.BellPress.org

ound for both study sites were at intermediate level and difference between two communities


ave direct effects on reduction and enhancement of


the major samplings were from specific tomato fields. Only mixed farms were more or less sufficient to express



s more in mulching and stubble biomass and not significantly correlated with weed biomass.


abundance of Dipterans and predatory arthropods in


contained more coleopterans. Hongjiao et al. (2010) found higher predatory arthropods (33.71%) followed by



ropods (Randlkofer et al. 2010). Few serious pests in tomato have always been an issue of


blematic in large scale farming system where risk


ion of tomato can benefit growers and suppliers from different points of


than that of the country and western hilly

Vegetable and tomato production pattern in Nepal and the study district (2009/10).

Yield (mt/ha)

13

9.56

12.142

18.75

16.89

16.1051

consideration for inadequate supply of per capita vegetable supply in Nepal (Ali & Tsou 1997),


and curative). Development of agricultural sector should


urban to rural production system undertaking explicit policy changes, including private sector



nt regions of the country, there needs simultaneous attempts for the protection approaches as pre and post

esticides in Nepal is relatively less (MOAC


rate is gradually increasing. Among all the farmers of Nepal, 48% of them were found using pesticides (CBS



cides having high resistant risks like metalaxyl, carbendazim, streptomycin etc


ay disrupt fertility status of lady beetles


ere efficient source of comparative


the farming system types. Field level surveys, in general should comply research objectives according to the



précised information, but adoption of ser

with PRA (Ling 2011). Another most important aspect to be considered will be the community structure of

respondents where there is a complex of combination of differences in knowled

facilities, technologies and biophysical environments (Bhandari 2003, Braunschweig et al. 2001). The study was

focussed on collection of information regarding arthropod community structure, pest infestation and problems

faced in contrast of farmers’ practices of input use (type, amount and frequencies) and purposes. For these,

household surveys made available first hand information as well as observational outputs and discussions on

problem faced, production environments and mi

Pesticide application frequency that has been found highest in commercial tomato farming systems was found

very less in subsistence level production system. Multiple agricultural technologi

production may depend on farmers’ self sufficiency, extension input and level of farmers’ expertise (Floyd 2003).

Similarly, pest#1 (ranked as most problematic) was significance against pesticide application frequency, where

Helicoverpa armigera and whiteflies infestation were getting more application frequencies than other butterflies

and grasshoppers. Such analytical outcomes showed the severity of tomato specific pest species in commercial

fields where higher control measures are applied. Tomato crop is one of the high input crops which also consume

higher degree of insecticides followed by fungicides and herbicides (Letourneau & Goldstein 2001). Out of

major problem faced by farmers, calcium deficiency was severe in commer

to continuous loss of micronutrients and level of water supply. Blossom end rot occurs frequently when plants

face long drought condition during the early stages of fruit development, and also can occur after heavy rain

(Hansen, 2009). Leaf disorders due to calcium deficiency also provoke illusion of disease infestation due to

browning, young leaf twisting, necrosis and fruit rots (Uchida 2000). Commercial areas with low moisture in

fields were suffering form Ca. deficiency problem however, similar problems were observed in the wet land

areas with high moisture and poor sun shine conditions.

Application of insecticides against specific pest species are not found significant

and mixed insecticides against Helicoverpa armigera

according to World Health Organisation ranking (WHO, 2005), past evident has shown that H

armigera from cotton growing areas of South Sulawesi, Indonesia in 198

cypermethrin (McCaffery 1991). Since resistance risk may happen upon continuous heavy use of pesticides,

there needs alteration of chemical control agents as well as adoption of integrated pest management (IPM)

approach which uses chemicals as a final option. Participatory work in IPM can establish networks and

connections among stakeholders involved in production, protection and support for safer plant protection

activities (Raini et al. 2005). On the other hand, mixed pe

effect is greater than the sum of their individual effects causing significant harm to humans and wildlife

(Holzman 2000) along with integrated risk of pest resistance.

Significance level of applied fungicides against diseases shows that mancozeb, carbendazim and metalaxyl are

applied more against rot, damping off and blight respectively. WHO hazardous level for mancozeb and

carbendazim is lesser than that of metalaxyl. Hoevever, resistant risk and persis

important factors to be undertaken for the areas with incredible use trend of pesticides. Such aspects are quite

essential for Nepalese food security system where more emphasis is needed for standardization of pesticide

registration and supply system, pesticide residue limits on food materials maintaining waiting periods (Lama,

2008), regular monitoring and awareness programs and restricted use of highly toxic pesticides. MH study site

was found with more severity of whit

large scale tomato fields were responsible for this factor. Areas where application frequencies were higher were

more prone to whiteflies infestation probably due to disturbance of

insecticides against whiteflies. In such condition, use of most efficient pesticide against specific species can

reduce higher frequency and doses of multiple pesticides. Theiling & Croft (1988) in their study on

side effects on arthropod natural enemies found out that susceptibility to pesticides were observed most with

predatory arthropods followed by parasitoids, where most common arthropod orders as per the hierarchy of

susceptibility were: Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, Araneae and others. Here in the study, with

observational records it was found that there were very less to none hymenopterans in commercial farms of MH

site however in subsistence level farms within this site they were

heavy use of pesticides and/or their movements towards safe places might be effective reason behind this.

Resistance level of local cultivars were found significant different with hybrids (single or in combinat

resistance properties of cultivars were also significant for harmfull pest species and diseases of tomato like

Helicoverpa armigera, whiteflies and blight disease. Accoding to Lamichhane et al. (2010), Manisha, Srijana

and Lasigede showed higher susceptibility against bacterial speck disease while local cultivars and Thims type

showed very less susceptibility. In this study such susceptible cultivars have shown poor resistance against major

pest and diseases. Thims +1 was found susceptible only a

found out several facts regarding pest/disease infestation, problem faced in different farming systems, commonly



121

précised information, but adoption of services, technologies and other facilities by clients will be more effective


respondents where there is a complex of combination of differences in knowledge, practices, problem faced,



in contrast of farmers’ practices of input use (type, amount and frequencies) and purposes. For these,


problem faced, production environments and mitigation strategies were effective with participatory approaches.


very less in subsistence level production system. Multiple agricultural technologies for quality and quantity of



and whiteflies infestation were getting more application frequencies than other butterflies


res are applied. Tomato crop is one of the high input crops which also consume


major problem faced by farmers, calcium deficiency was severe in commercial tomato fields, which may be due


face long drought condition during the early stages of fruit development, and also can occur after heavy rain



iciency problem however, similar problems were observed in the wet land

areas with high moisture and poor sun shine conditions.

of insecticides against specific pest species are not found significant only except for cypermethrin

Helicoverpa armigera. Cypermethrin, though being moderately hazardous

according to World Health Organisation ranking (WHO, 2005), past evident has shown that H

from cotton growing areas of South Sulawesi, Indonesia in 1987 and early 1988 were resistant to



hich uses chemicals as a final option. Participatory work in IPM can establish networks and


activities (Raini et al. 2005). On the other hand, mixed pesticides have synergistic action that their combined


(Holzman 2000) along with integrated risk of pest resistance.

icides against diseases shows that mancozeb, carbendazim and metalaxyl are


carbendazim is lesser than that of metalaxyl. Hoevever, resistant risk and persistent nature in ecosystem are other





was found with more severity of whiteflies than LS site. Cultivation of high yielding cultivars and presence of


more prone to whiteflies infestation probably due to disturbance of natural control systems and less effect of


reduce higher frequency and doses of multiple pesticides. Theiling & Croft (1988) in their study on



ra, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, Araneae and others. Here in the study, with


site however in subsistence level farms within this site they were severely spread. Loss of Hymenopterans due to


Resistance level of local cultivars were found significant different with hybrids (single or in combinat


, whiteflies and blight disease. Accoding to Lamichhane et al. (2010), Manisha, Srijana

susceptibility against bacterial speck disease while local cultivars and Thims type


pest and diseases. Thims +1 was found susceptible only against whiteflies. The study outcomes have worthily




www.BellPress.org

vices, technologies and other facilities by clients will be more effective


ge, practices, problem faced,



in contrast of farmers’ practices of input use (type, amount and frequencies) and purposes. For these,


tigation strategies were effective with participatory approaches.


es for quality and quantity of



and whiteflies infestation were getting more application frequencies than other butterflies


res are applied. Tomato crop is one of the high input crops which also consume


cial tomato fields, which may be due


face long drought condition during the early stages of fruit development, and also can occur after heavy rainfall



iciency problem however, similar problems were observed in the wet land

only except for cypermethrin

. Cypermethrin, though being moderately hazardous

according to World Health Organisation ranking (WHO, 2005), past evident has shown that Helicoverpa

7 and early 1988 were resistant to



hich uses chemicals as a final option. Participatory work in IPM can establish networks and


sticides have synergistic action that their combined


icides against diseases shows that mancozeb, carbendazim and metalaxyl are


tent nature in ecosystem are other





eflies than LS site. Cultivation of high yielding cultivars and presence of


natural control systems and less effect of


reduce higher frequency and doses of multiple pesticides. Theiling & Croft (1988) in their study on pesticide



ra, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, Araneae and others. Here in the study, with


severely spread. Loss of Hymenopterans due to


Resistance level of local cultivars were found significant different with hybrids (single or in combination). Such


, whiteflies and blight disease. Accoding to Lamichhane et al. (2010), Manisha, Srijana

susceptibility against bacterial speck disease while local cultivars and Thims type


gainst whiteflies. The study outcomes have worthily


grown tomato cultivars’ performance and their combination effects against each other in ter

occurrence and effects on other beneficial arthropods. Such aspects can act as preconditions for further studies

based on issues and mitigation of production/protection process in the long run.

5. REFERENCES

Ali, M., and S. C. S. Tsou. 1997. Combating micronutrient deficiencies through vegetables a neglected food

frontier in Asia. Food Policy 22, 17

Altieri, M. A. 1999. The ecological role of biodiversity in agroecosystems. J. Agriculture, Ecosystems and

Environment 74, 19-31.

Altieri, M. A. 2002. Agroecology : the science of natural resource management for poor farmers in marginal

environments. J. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 93, 1

Altieri, M. A., 1995. Biodiversity and biocontrol: Lessons from insect pest management

pathology, Volume 11, 1995.

Atreya, K. 2008. Health costs from short

511-519.

Bhandari, B. B. 2003. (Module 4).

Strategies (IGES), Kanagawa, 240

Bhattarai, D. R., and D. M. Gautam. 2006. Effect of harvesting method and calcium on post harvest physiology

of tomato. J. Nepal Agric. Res. J., 7, 37

Braunschweig, T., W. Janssen, and P. Rieder.

J. Research Policy, 30, 725

Brussaard, L. 1998. Soil fauna, guilds, functional groups and ecosystem processes. J. Applied Soil Ecology, 9,

125 – 135.

Eigenbrode, S. D., and Trumble, J. T. 1994. Host plant resistance to insects in integrated pest management in

vegetable crops. J. Abrric. Enlomol. 11(3): 201

Floyd, C., A. H. Harding, K. C. Paudel, D. P. Rasali, K. Subedi, and P. P. Subedi. 2003. Household adop

the associated impact of multiple agricultural technologies in the western hills of Nepal. J. Agricultural

Systems 76, 715-738.

Fowler, M. S. 2009. Increasing community size and connectance can increase stability in competitive

communities. J. Journal of Theoretical Biology

Glendenning, C. J. 2010. Review of agricultural extension in India: Are farm

International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), discussion paper 01048.

Hansen, M. A. 2009. Blossom end rot of tomato. Virginia Cooperative Extension, publication 450

Holzman, D. C. 2000. Chemical Cocktails:

A114-A114.

Hongjiao, C., Y. Minsheng, and L. Cui. 2010. Effects of intercropping systems on community composition and

diversity of predatory arthropods in vegetable fields. J. Acta Ecologi

JMP 7.0.2 (2007) SAS Institute Inc., SAS Campus Drive, Cary, NC, USA 27513

Johnson, G. I., K. Weinberger, and M. H. Wu. The Vegetable Industry in Tropical Asia. AVRDC

Vegetable Center. AVRDC publication: 08

Lama, J. P. 2008. Standard setting on pesticide residues to ensure food safety. J. Agriculture and Environment,

vol: 9, 46-53.

Lamichhane, J. R., G. M. Balestra, and L. Varvaro. 2010. Response of commonly cultivated tomato cultivars in

Nepal to bacterial speck. J. Phytopathol. Mediterr., 49, 406−413.

Letourneau, D. K., and B. Goldstein. 2001. Pest damage and arthropod community structure in organic vs.

conventional tomato production in California. J. Applied Ecology vol. 38, issue 3, 557

Ling, R. S. J. 2011. The PRA tools for qualitative rural tourism research. J. Systems Engineering Procedia 2011,

1, 392-398.

McCaffery, A. R., A. J. Walker, and C. P. Topper. 1991. Insecticide resistance in the bollworm, Helicoverpa

armigera from Indonesia. J. Pestic. Sci., 32:

Medeiros, M. A., E. R. Sujii, & H. C. Morais. 2009. Effect of plant diversification on abundance of South

American tomato pinworm and predators in two cropping systems. J. Horticultura Brasileira, 27, 300

306.

Michaud, J. P., and A. K. Grant. 2003. Sub

reproduction in three coccinellid species. J. Insect Science, 3:16.

Midmore, D. J., and D. D. Poudel. 1996. Asian vegetable production systems for the future.

Systems, 50, 51-64.

Midmore, D. J., and H. G. P. Jansen. 2003. Supplying vegetables to Asian cities: is there a case for peri

production? J. Food Policy, 28, 13



122

grown tomato cultivars’ performance and their combination effects against each other in ter


based on issues and mitigation of production/protection process in the long run.

1997. Combating micronutrient deficiencies through vegetables a neglected food

frontier in Asia. Food Policy 22, 17-38.


ri, M. A. 2002. Agroecology : the science of natural resource management for poor farmers in marginal

environments. J. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 93, 1-24.

Altieri, M. A., 1995. Biodiversity and biocontrol: Lessons from insect pest management

pathology, Volume 11, 1995.

Atreya, K. 2008. Health costs from short-term exposure to pesticides in Nepal. J. Social Science & Medicine, 67,

Bhandari, B. B. 2003. (Module 4). Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). Institute for Global Environmental

Strategies (IGES), Kanagawa, 240-0115, Japan.


J. Nepal Agric. Res. J., 7, 37-41.

and P. Rieder. 2001. Identifying criteria for public agricultural research decisions.

J. Research Policy, 30, 725 - 734.


. D., and Trumble, J. T. 1994. Host plant resistance to insects in integrated pest management in

vegetable crops. J. Abrric. Enlomol. 11(3): 201 – 224.

Floyd, C., A. H. Harding, K. C. Paudel, D. P. Rasali, K. Subedi, and P. P. Subedi. 2003. Household adop



Journal of Theoretical Biology, 21, 179 – 188.

Glendenning, C. J. 2010. Review of agricultural extension in India: Are farmers’ information needs being met ?

International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), discussion paper 01048.

Hansen, M. A. 2009. Blossom end rot of tomato. Virginia Cooperative Extension, publication 450

Holzman, D. C. 2000. Chemical Cocktails: are mixed pesticides more potent? J. Environ Health Perspect, 108:


diversity of predatory arthropods in vegetable fields. J. Acta Ecologica Sinica 30, 190

JMP 7.0.2 (2007) SAS Institute Inc., SAS Campus Drive, Cary, NC, USA 27513

Johnson, G. I., K. Weinberger, and M. H. Wu. The Vegetable Industry in Tropical Asia. AVRDC

Vegetable Center. AVRDC publication: 08-712, ISBN 92-9058-169-7.



l to bacterial speck. J. Phytopathol. Mediterr., 49, 406−413.


conventional tomato production in California. J. Applied Ecology vol. 38, issue 3, 557



esia. J. Pestic. Sci., 32: 85–90.


American tomato pinworm and predators in two cropping systems. J. Horticultura Brasileira, 27, 300

P., and A. K. Grant. 2003. Sub-lethal effects of a copper sulphate fungicide on development and

reproduction in three coccinellid species. J. Insect Science, 3:16.

Midmore, D. J., and D. D. Poudel. 1996. Asian vegetable production systems for the future.

Midmore, D. J., and H. G. P. Jansen. 2003. Supplying vegetables to Asian cities: is there a case for peri

production? J. Food Policy, 28, 13-27.



www.BellPress.org

grown tomato cultivars’ performance and their combination effects against each other in terms of pest/disease


1997. Combating micronutrient deficiencies through vegetables a neglected food


ri, M. A. 2002. Agroecology : the science of natural resource management for poor farmers in marginal

Altieri, M. A., 1995. Biodiversity and biocontrol: Lessons from insect pest management. J. Advances in plant

term exposure to pesticides in Nepal. J. Social Science & Medicine, 67,

for Global Environmental


2001. Identifying criteria for public agricultural research decisions.


. D., and Trumble, J. T. 1994. Host plant resistance to insects in integrated pest management in

Floyd, C., A. H. Harding, K. C. Paudel, D. P. Rasali, K. Subedi, and P. P. Subedi. 2003. Household adoption and



ers’ information needs being met ?

Hansen, M. A. 2009. Blossom end rot of tomato. Virginia Cooperative Extension, publication 450-703.

are mixed pesticides more potent? J. Environ Health Perspect, 108:


ca Sinica 30, 190–195.

Johnson, G. I., K. Weinberger, and M. H. Wu. The Vegetable Industry in Tropical Asia. AVRDC - The World




conventional tomato production in California. J. Applied Ecology vol. 38, issue 3, 557-570.




American tomato pinworm and predators in two cropping systems. J. Horticultura Brasileira, 27, 300-

lethal effects of a copper sulphate fungicide on development and

Midmore, D. J., and D. D. Poudel. 1996. Asian vegetable production systems for the future. J. Agricultural

Midmore, D. J., and H. G. P. Jansen. 2003. Supplying vegetables to Asian cities: is there a case for peri-urban

Millar, I. M., V. M. Uys, and R. P. Urban (editors). 2000. Collectin

manual for Entomology and Arachnology). ARC

49144-7.

Nepal, R., and G. B. Thapa.2009. Determinants of agricultural commercialization and mechanization in the

hinterland of a city in Nepal. J. Applied Geography, 29, 377

Palikhe, B. R. 2002. Challenges and options of pesticide use: In the context of Nepal.

Umweltforschung 38, 130-141.

Pandey Y. R., A. B. Pun, and K. P. Upadhyay.

under plastic house condition. J. Nepal Agric. Res. J., 7, 11

Philpott, S. M., R. Greenberg, P. Bichier, and I. Perfecto. 2004. Impacts of major predators on tropical agroforest

arthropods: comparisons within and across taxa. Oecologia 140, 140

Pokhrel, D M. 2010. Comparison of farm production and marketing cost and benefit among selected vegetable

pockets in Nepal. J. Agriculture and Environment 2010, 10

Pujos, A., and P. Morard. 1997. Effects of potassium deficiency on tomato growth and mineral nutrition at the

early production stage. J. Plant and Soil 189: 189

Raini, R., V. Hoffmann & C. P. W. Zebitz. 2005. Integrated pest management (IPM) and informati

study tomato stakeholders’ practices in Kenya.

(http://www.tropentag.de/2005/proceedings/node154.html

Ranabhat, B. and GC, Y. D. 2005. Effect of

cabbage farming. International scientific conference on organic agriculture, Adelaide, Australia,

September 21-23.

Randlkofer, B., E. Obermaier, M. Hilker, and T. Meiners. 2010. Vegetation complexity

species diversity and plant structures on plant chemical complexity and arthropods. J. Basic and

Applied Ecology 11, 383-395.

Shrestha, N. 2005. Nepal’s entry in WTO; A challenge to fulfil the obligations in phytosanitary measures. In

Proceedings, Integrated Pest Management and Plant Protection Strategy Development in Nepal. Plant

Protection Society Nepal, 9

Shrestha, P. K., K. P. Aryal, B. R. Regmi

upland farmers improve their farming systems? Experiences in participatory technology development.

Sustainable sloping lands and watershed management conference, D

Prabang, Lao PDR.

Shrestha, P., P. Koirala, and A. S. Tamrakar. 2010. Knowledge, practice and use of pesticides among

commercial vegetable growers of Dhading district, Nepal. J. The Journal of Agriculture and

Environment 11, 95-100.

Theiling, K.M., and B.A. Croft. 1988. Pesticide side

J. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 21, 191

Uchida, R. 2000. Essential nutrients for plant growth: nutrient functions and defi

Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 31

Wardle, D. A., K. S. Nicholson, K. I. Bonner, and G.W. Yeates. 1999. Effects of agricultural intensification on

soil - associated arthropod populat

variability over a seven-year period. J. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 31, 1691

Wen, C., D. E. Guyer, and W. Li. 2009. Local feature

J. Biosystems engineering 104, 299

Zehnder, G., G. M. Gurr, S. Kühne, M. R. Wade, S. D. Wratten, and E.Wyss. 2007. Arthropod pest management

in organic crops. J. Annu. Rev. Entomol, 52, 57

(CBS) Central Bureau of Statistics. 2009, 2010. Statis

Commission (NPC), Nepal.

(FRAC) Fungicide Resistance Action Committee. 2008. FRAC code list: Fungicides sorted by mode of action

(including FRAC code numbering), updated version of 2007.

(MOAC) Ministry of agriculture and Cooperative. 2008, 2009, 2010. Yearly progress report on plant protection

program (Nepali). Plant Protection Directorate, Nepal.

(RIC) Resource Inventory Committee. 1998. Inventory methods for terrestrial arthropods. 1998. Standards for

components of British Columbia's biodiversity, no. 40, ISBN 0

(USAID) United States Agency for International Development. 2011. Value chain / market analysis of the off

season vegetable sub-sector in Nepal. Contract No. AID

(WHO) World Health Organization. 2005. The WHO recommended classification of pesticides by hazard and

guidelines to classification, ISBN 92 4 154663 8



123

Millar, I. M., V. M. Uys, and R. P. Urban (editors). 2000. Collecting and preserving insects and arachnids (A

manual for Entomology and Arachnology). ARC – Plant Protection Research Institute, ISBN 1


rland of a city in Nepal. J. Applied Geography, 29, 377-389.

Palikhe, B. R. 2002. Challenges and options of pesticide use: In the context of Nepal. Landschaftsökologie und

141.

Pandey Y. R., A. B. Pun, and K. P. Upadhyay. 2006. Participatory varietal evaluation of rainy season tomato

under plastic house condition. J. Nepal Agric. Res. J., 7, 11-15.


isons within and across taxa. Oecologia 140, 140-149.


pockets in Nepal. J. Agriculture and Environment 2010, 10-25.

ffects of potassium deficiency on tomato growth and mineral nutrition at the

early production stage. J. Plant and Soil 189: 189–196, Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Raini, R., V. Hoffmann & C. P. W. Zebitz. 2005. Integrated pest management (IPM) and informati


http://www.tropentag.de/2005/proceedings/node154.html)

Ranabhat, B. and GC, Y. D. 2005. Effect of Melia azedarach on aphid (Brevcorinae brassicae


Randlkofer, B., E. Obermaier, M. Hilker, and T. Meiners. 2010. Vegetation complexity—


395.


ted Pest Management and Plant Protection Strategy Development in Nepal. Plant

Protection Society Nepal, 9-10 May, 2005, Kathmandu, Hisi Publications, Lalitpur, Nepal.

K. P. Aryal, B. R. Regmi, and B. B. Tamang. 2006. How can research and development help


Sustainable sloping lands and watershed management conference, December 12



Theiling, K.M., and B.A. Croft. 1988. Pesticide side-effects on arthropod natural enemies: a database Summary.

J. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 21, 191-218.

Uchida, R. 2000. Essential nutrients for plant growth: nutrient functions and deficiency symptoms . College of

Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 31-55.


associated arthropod population dynamics, community structure, diversity and temporal

year period. J. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 31, 1691-1706.

Wen, C., D. E. Guyer, and W. Li. 2009. Local feature-based identification and classification for orchard insects

Biosystems engineering 104, 299 – 307.


in organic crops. J. Annu. Rev. Entomol, 52, 57-80.

(CBS) Central Bureau of Statistics. 2009, 2010. Statistical records on agriculture. National Planning

Commission (NPC), Nepal.


(including FRAC code numbering), updated version of 2007.

riculture and Cooperative. 2008, 2009, 2010. Yearly progress report on plant protection

program (Nepali). Plant Protection Directorate, Nepal.


nents of British Columbia's biodiversity, no. 40, ISBN 0-7726-3563-3.

(USAID) United States Agency for International Development. 2011. Value chain / market analysis of the off

sector in Nepal. Contract No. AID-367-TO-11-00001.

orld Health Organization. 2005. The WHO recommended classification of pesticides by hazard and

guidelines to classification, ISBN 92 4 154663 8



www.BellPress.org

g and preserving insects and arachnids (A

Plant Protection Research Institute, ISBN 1 -868-


Landschaftsökologie und

rticipatory varietal evaluation of rainy season tomato



ffects of potassium deficiency on tomato growth and mineral nutrition at the

196, Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Raini, R., V. Hoffmann & C. P. W. Zebitz. 2005. Integrated pest management (IPM) and information flow: Case


revcorinae brassicae) of organic


—The influence of plant



ted Pest Management and Plant Protection Strategy Development in Nepal. Plant

10 May, 2005, Kathmandu, Hisi Publications, Lalitpur, Nepal.

can research and development help


ecember 12 - 15, 2006, Luang



effects on arthropod natural enemies: a database Summary.

ciency symptoms . College of

55.


ion dynamics, community structure, diversity and temporal

1706.

based identification and classification for orchard insects.


tical records on agriculture. National Planning


riculture and Cooperative. 2008, 2009, 2010. Yearly progress report on plant protection


(USAID) United States Agency for International Development. 2011. Value chain / market analysis of the off-

orld Health Organization. 2005. The WHO recommended classification of pesticides by hazard and

Plant protection nepal, arthropods, farming system nepal, sharad sharma, palpa, insect disease...

Documents

Transcript of Plant protection nepal, arthropods, farming system nepal, sharad sharma, palpa, insect disease...