The Procter & Gamble Company: Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, ThreatsBy Ryan Guenette - November 1, 2012 | Tickers: CHD, CL, PG | 0 Comments

Ryan is a member of The Motley Fool Blog Network -- entries represent the personal opinions of our bloggers and are not formally edited.

A SWOT analysis is a look at a company’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, and is a tremendous way to gain a detailed and thorough perspective on a company and its future. Fresh off of the first quarter earnings report, which was a beat and sent the stock to 4-year highs, I would like to focus on the personal and household products giant Procter & Gamble (NYSE: PG).

Strengths:

The company is valued at $191.47 billion on the market, sells products in more than 180 countries, and is not going away any time soon

The company’s broad portfolio of brands includes Crest, Olay, Old Spice, Downy, Puffs, and Pampers, with 25 brands being billion dollar brands

Many of P&G’s products are considered non-cyclical, such as diapers or toothpaste, and have to be purchased no matter the economic environment

The company currently pays out quarterly dividends of $0.56,which annualized yields 3.24%, and the company has a long and proven track record of consistently paying out and raising dividends since 1987

Sales growth is very stable and predictable, and is projected to be in the mid to high single digit range for the upcoming years

Consumers have consistently proven over and over again that they are willing to pay a little more for a brand name

Weaknesses:

The company’s business does not benefit substantially from pickups in the economy, due to the necessity label that is given to the majority of P&G’s products

The company’s products are already available in nearly everycountry in the world, so there is not much room left to growfor the company, so P&G must rely on growing populations

The stock carries a price to earnings ratio of 22.66, makingthe stock appear extremely pricy as the company only possesses single digit growth

While this is can be a strength for a long-term investors, the stock’s volatility is minimal with a Beta ratio of only 0.44

The company faces incredible amounts of competition in all the sectors it operates in 

Opportunities:

An acquisition of a brand from another company is always possible and may fuel future growth

The exponential growth of the middle class in emerging markets such as China and India should act as a growth catalyst as more and more people there purchase more and more products

Because P&G sells items such as toothpaste and diapers it benefits if there is more people to purchase their items, and as world population is only set to grow into the future,P&G should have more customers into the future

Capturing market share from competitors through advertising campaigns is always a possibility

Threats:

Competition is always an ever-prevalent threat to the success of any company

Competitors

Major publically-traded competitors include Colgate-Palmolive (NYSE: CL) and Church & Dwight (NYSE: CHD). Colgate-Palmolive, like P&G is highly diversified, and competes with P&G in the toothpaste market, however also competes with P&G in the personal care market and pet food market. Church & Dwight is a much smaller company than the other two, but is a major player inthe personal care and household goods markets. 

Fierce competition to offer the best-product at the lowest price has proven detrimental to margins in all industries

P&G can be described as a wide-moat company, as it has builta strong defense around its business, and for any company toeven come close to equaling P&G’s distinguished and famous brands with the incredible distribution system the company has built, it would take a lot of time and money, and therefore there are not a lot of threats that actually couldharm P&G’s business

Chapter 7: Market Segmentation, Targeting,and Positioning

What's Ahead

Market Segmentation

Levels of Market Segmentation

Segmenting Consumer Markets

Segmenting Business Markets

Segmenting International Markets

Requirements for Effective Segmentation

Market Targeting

Evaluating Market Segments

Selecting Market Segments

Socially Responsible Target Marketing

Positioning for Competitive Advantage

Choosing a Positioning Strategy

Communicating and Delivering the Chosen Position

Chapter Wrap-Up

Review of Concept Connections

Key Terms

Issues for Discussion

Marketing Applications

Company Case

Comprehensive Case

 

What's Ahead

Procter & Gamble (P&G) sells eight brands of laundry detergent inthe United States (Tide, Cheer, Bold, Gain, Era, Oxydol, Dreft, and Ivory Snow). It also sells six brands each of hand soap (Ivory, Safeguard, Camay, Oil of Olay, Zest, Coast) and shampoo (Pantene, Head & Shoulders, Ivory, Pert Plus, Vidal Sassoon, and Prell); four brands each of liquid dishwashing detergent (Dawn, Ivory, Joy, and Cascade), toothpaste (Crest, Gleam, Complete, andDenquel), and tissues and towels (Charmin, Bounty, Puffs, Royale); three brands each of floor cleaner (Spic & Span, Top Job, and Mr. Clean), deodorant (Secret, Sure, and Old Spice), andskin care potions (Oil of Olay, Noxema, and Clearasil); and two brands each of fabric softener (Downy and Bounce), disposable diapers (Pampers and Luvs), and cosmetics (Cover Girl and Max Factor). Moreover, P&G has many additional brands in each category for different international markets. For example, it sells 16 different laundry product brands in Latin America and 19in Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. (See Procter & Gamble's Web site at pg.com for a full glimpse of the company's impressivelineup of familiar brands.)

These P&G brands compete with one another on the same supermarketshelves. But why would P&G introduce several brands in one category instead of concentrating its resources on a single leading brand? The answer lies in the fact that different people want different mixes of benefits from the products they buy. Take

laundry detergents as an example. People use laundry detergents to get their clothes clean. But they also want other things from their detergents—such as economy, bleaching power, fabric softening, fresh smell, strength or mildness, and lots of suds oronly a few. We all want some of every one of these benefits from our detergent, but we may have different priorities for each benefit. To some people, cleaning and bleaching power are most important; to others, fabric softening matters most; still otherswant a mild, fresh-scented detergent. Thus, there are groups—or segments—of laundry detergent buyers, and each segment seeks a special combination of benefits.

Procter & Gamble has identified at least eight important laundry detergent segments, along with numerous subsegments, and has developed a different brand designed to meet the special needs ofeach. The eight P&G brands are positioned for different segments as follows:

Tide "helps keep clothes looking like new." It's the all-purpose family detergent that is "tough on greasy stains." Tide with Bleach is "so powerful, it whitens down to the fiber."

Cheer with Triple Color Guard is the "color expert." It guards against fading, color transfer, and fuzzy buildup. Cheer Free is "dermatologist tested . . . contains no irritating perfume or dye."

Bold is the detergent with built-in fabric softener. It's "for clean, soft, fresh-smelling clothes." Bold liquid adds "the fresh fabric softener scent."

Gain, originally P&G's "enzyme" detergent, was repositioned as thedetergent that gives you clean, fresh-smelling clothes. It "cleans and freshens like sunshine. It's not just plain clean, it's Gain clean."

Era has "built-in stain removers." It's "the power tool for stains."

Oxydol contains "stain-seeking bleach." It "combines the cleaning power of detergents with the whitening power of nonchlorine bleach, so your whites sparkle and your clothes look bright." So "don't reach for the bleach—grab a box of Ox!"

Dreft also "helps remove tough baby stains . . . for a clean you can trust." It's "pediatrician recommended and the first choice of mothers." It "doesn't remove the flame resistance of children's sleepwear."

Ivory Snow is "ninety-nine and forty-four one hundredths percent pure." It "gently cleans fine washables and baby clothes . . . leaving them feeling soft." It provides "safe and gentle care in the gentle cycle."

Within each segment, Procter & Gamble has identified even narrowerniches. For example, you can buy regular Tide (in powder or liquid form) or any of several formulations:

Tide with Bleach helps to "keep your whites white and your colors bright," "kills 99.9 percent of bacteria."

Tide Clean Rinse "goes beyond stain removal to prevent dingy buildup on clothes."

Tide Mountain Spring lets you "bring the fresh clean scent of the great outdoors inside—the scent of crisp mountain air and fresh wildflowers."

Tide High Efficiency is "formulated for high efficiency top-loading machines"—it prevents oversudsing.

Tide Free "provides all the stain removal benefits without any dyesor perfumes."

By segmenting the market and having several detergent brands, Procter & Gamble has an attractive offering for consumers in all important preference groups. As a result, P&G is really cleaning up in the $4.3 billion U.S. laundry detergent market. Tide, by itself, captures a whopping 38 percent market share. All P&G brands combined take a 57 percent share of the market—two and one-half times that of nearest rival Unilever and much more than any single brand could obtain by itself.

Companies today recognize that they cannot appeal to all buyers in the marketplace, or at least not to all buyers in the same way. Buyers are too numerous, too widely scattered, and too varied in their needs and buying practices. Moreover, the companies themselves vary widely in their abilities to serve different segments of the market. Rather than trying to compete in an entire market, sometimes against superior competitors, eachcompany must identify the parts of the market that it can serve best and most profitably.

Thus, most companies are being more choosy about the customers with whom they wish to connect. Most have moved away from mass marketing and toward market segmentation and targeting—identifying market segments, selecting one or more of them, and developing products and marketing programs tailored to each. Instead of scattering their marketing efforts (the "shotgun" approach), firms are focusing on the buyers who have greater interest in thevalues they create best (the "rifle" approach).

Figure 7.1 shows the three major steps in target marketing. The first is market segmentation—dividing a market into smaller groups of buyers with distinct needs, characteristics, or behaviors who might require separate products or marketing mixes.The company identifies different ways to segment the market and develops profiles of the resulting market segments. The second step is market targeting—evaluating each market segment's attractiveness and selecting one or more of the market segments to enter. The third step is market positioning—setting the

competitive positioning for the product and creating a detailed marketing mix. We discuss each of these steps in turn.

Figure 7.1 Steps in market segmentation, targeting, and positioning

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Market Segmentation

Markets consist of buyers, and buyers differ in one or more ways.They may differ in their wants, resources, locations, buying attitudes, and buying practices. Through market segmentation, companies divide large, heterogeneous markets into smaller segments that can be reached more efficiently and effectively with products and services that match their unique needs. In thissection, we discuss five important segmentation topics: levels ofmarket segmentation, segmenting consumer markets, segmenting business markets, segmenting international markets, and requirements for effective segmentation.

Levels of Market Segmentation

Because buyers have unique needs and wants, each buyer is potentially a separate market. Ideally, then, a seller might design a separate marketing program for each buyer. However, although some companies attempt to serve buyers individually, many others face larger numbers of smaller buyers and do not findcomplete segmentation worthwhile. Instead, they look for broader classes of buyers who differ in their product needs or buying responses. Thus, market segmentation can be carried out at

several different levels. Figure 7.2 shows that companies can practice no segmentation (mass marketing), complete segmentation (micromarketing), or something in between (segment marketing or niche marketing).

Figure 7.2 Levels of marketing segmentation

Mass Marketing

Companies have not always practiced target marketing. In fact, for most of the 1900s, major consumer products companies held fast to mass marketing—mass producing, mass distributing, and mass promoting about the same product in about the same way to all consumers. Henry Ford epitomized this marketing strategy when he offered the Model T Ford to all buyers; they could have the car "in any color as long as it is black." Similarly, Coca-Cola at one time produced only one drink for the whole market, hoping it would appeal to everyone.

The traditional argument for mass marketing is that it creates the largest potential market, which leads to the lowest costs, which in turn can translate into either lower prices or higher margins. However, many factors now make mass marketing more difficult. For example, the world's mass markets have slowly splintered into a profusion of smaller segments—the baby boomers here, the GenXers there; here the Hispanic segment, there the African American segment; here working women, there single parents; here the Sun Belt, there the Rust Belt. Today, marketersfind it very hard to create a single product or program that appeals to all of these diverse groups.

The proliferation of distribution channels and advertising media has also made it difficult to practice "one-size-fits-all" marketing. Today's consumers can shop at megamalls, superstores, or specialty shops; through mail catalogs or virtual stores on

the Internet. They are bombarded with messages delivered via media ranging from old standards such as television, radio, magazines, newspapers, and telephone to newcomers like the Internet, fax, and e-mail. No wonder some have claimed that mass marketing is dying. Not surprisingly, many companies are retreating from mass marketing and turning to segmented marketing.

Segment Marketing

A company that practices segment marketing isolates broad segments that make up a market and adapts its offers to more closely match the needs of one or more segments. Thus, Marriott markets to a variety of segments—business travelers, families, and others—with packages adapted to their varying needs. GM has designed specific models for different income and age groups. In fact, it sells models for segments with varied combinations of ageand income. For instance, GM designed its Buick Park Avenue for older, higher-income consumers.

Segment marketing offers several benefits over mass marketing. The company can market more efficiently, targeting its products or services, channels, and communications programs toward only consumers that it can serve best and most profitably. The companycan also market more effectively by fine-tuning its products, prices, and programs to the needs of carefully defined segments. The company may face fewer competitors if fewer competitors are focusing on this market segment.

Segment marketing: Marriott markets to a variety of segments with packages adapted to their varying needs. Here it offers the business traveler a "king-sized desk, an ergonomic chair,and outlets and dataports at eye level." For the family traveler, it offers "Together time from Marriott: Kids eat and stay free."

Niche Marketing

Market segments are normally large, identifiable groups within a market—for example, luxury car buyers, performance car buyers, utility car buyers, and economy car buyers. Niche marketing focuses on subgroups within these segments. A niche is a more narrowly defined group, usually identified by dividing a segment into subsegments or by defining a group with a distinctive set oftraits who may seek a special combination of benefits. For example, the utility vehicles segment might include light-duty pickup trucks and sport utility vehicles (SUVs). The sport utility vehicles subsegment might be further divided into standard SUV (as served by Ford and Chevrolet) and luxury SUV (asserved by Lincoln and Lexus) niches.

Whereas segments are fairly large and normally attract several competitors, niches are smaller and normally attract only one or a few competitors. Niche marketers presumably understand their niches' needs so well that their customers willingly pay a price premium. For example, the luxurious Bentley gets a high price forits cars because its loyal buyers feel that no other automobile comes close to offering the product–service–membership benefits that Bentley does.

Niching offers smaller companies an opportunity to compete by focusing their limited resources on serving niches that may be unimportant to or overlooked by larger competitors. However, large companies also serve niche markets. For example, American Express offers not only its traditional green cards but also goldcards, corporate cards, and even platinum cards aimed at a niche consisting of the top-spending 1 percent of its 28 million cardholders. Nike makes athletic gear for basketball, running, and soccer but also for smaller niches such as biking and street hockey.

In many markets today, niches are the norm. As an advertising agency executive observed, "There will be no market for products that everybody likes a little, only for products that somebody likes a lot." Other experts assert that companies will have to "niche or be niched."

Micromarketing

Segment and niche marketers tailor their offers and marketing programs to meet the needs of various market segments. At the same time, however, they do not customize their offers to each individual customer. Thus, segment marketing and niche marketing fall between the extremes of mass marketing and micromarketing. Micromarketing is the practice of tailoring products and marketing programs to suit the tastes of specific individuals andlocations. Micromarketing includes local marketing and individual marketing.

Local Marketing

Local marketing involves tailoring brands and promotions to the needs and wants of local customer groups—cities, neighborhoods, and even specific stores. Thus, retailers such as Sears and Wal-Mart routinely customize each store's merchandise and promotions to match its specific clientele. Citibank provides different mixes of banking services in its branches depending on neighborhood demographics. Kraft helps supermarket chains identify the specific cheese assortments and shelf positioning that will optimize cheese sales in low-income, middle-income, andhigh-income stores and in different ethnic communities.

Local marketing has some drawbacks. It can drive up manufacturingand marketing costs by reducing economies of scale. It can also create logistics problems as companies try to meet the varied requirements of different regional and local markets. Further, a brand's overall image might be diluted if the product and messagevary too much in different localities. Still, as companies face increasingly fragmented markets, and as new supporting technologies develop, the advantages of local marketing often outweigh the drawbacks. Local marketing helps a company to marketmore effectively in the face of pronounced regional and local differences in community demographics and lifestyles. It also meets the needs of the company's first-line customers—retailers—who prefer more fine-tuned product assortments for their neighborhoods.

Individual Marketing

In the extreme, micromarketing becomes individual marketing—tailoring products and marketing programs to the needs and preferences of individual customers. Individual marketing has also been labeled one-to-one marketing, customized marketing, and markets-of-one marketing.

The widespread use of mass marketing has obscured the fact that for centuries consumers were served as individuals: The tailor custom-made the suit, the cobbler designed shoes for the individual, the cabinetmaker made furniture to order. Today,

however, new technologies are permitting many companies to returnto customized marketing. More powerful computers, detailed databases, robotic production and flexible manufacturing, and immediate and interactive communication media such as e-mail, fax, and the Internet—all have combined to foster "mass customization." Mass customization is the process through which firms interact one-to-one with masses of customers to design products and services tailor-made to individual needs.

Thus, Dell Computer can deliver computers to individual customersloaded with customer-specified hardware and software. Peapod, theonline grocery shopping and delivery service, lets customers create the virtual supermarket that best fits their individual needs. Ritz-Carlton Hotels creates custom-designed experiences for its delighted guests:

Check into any Ritz-Carlton hotel around the world, and you'll be amazed at how well the hotel's employees anticipate your slightest need. Without ever asking, they seem to know that you want a nonsmoking room with a king-size bed, a nonallergenic pillow, and breakfast with decaffeinated coffee in your room. How does Ritz-Carlton work this magic? The hotel employs a system that combines information technology and flexible operations to customize the hotel experience. At the heart of the system is a huge customer database, which contains information about guests gathered through the observations of hotel employees. Each day, hotel staffers—from those at the front desk to those in maintenance and housekeeping—discreetly record the unique habits, likes, and dislikes of each guest on small "guest preference pads." These observations are then transferred to a corporatewide "guest history database." Every morning, a "guest historian" at each hotel reviews the files of all new arrivals who have previously stayed at a Ritz-Carlton and prepares a list of suggested extra touches that might delight each guest. Guests have responded strongly to such markets-of-one service. Since inaugurating the guest-history system in 1992, Ritz-Carlton has boosted guest retention by 23 percent. An amazing 95 percent of departing guests report that their stay has been a truly memorable experience.

Business-to-business marketers are also finding new ways to customize their offerings. For example, Becton-Dickinson, a majormedical supplier, offers to customize almost anything for its hospital customers. It offers custom-designed labeling, individual packaging, customized quality control, customized computer software, and customized billing. Motorola salespeople use a handheld computer to custom-design pagers following individual business customer wishes. The design data are transmitted to the Motorola factory and production starts within 17 minutes. The customized pagers are ready for shipment within two hours. John Deere manufactures seeding equipment that can be configured in more than 2 million versions to individual customerspecifications. The seeders are produced one at a time, in any sequence, on a single production line.

The move toward individual marketing mirrors the trend in consumer self-marketing. Increasingly, individual customers are taking more responsibility for determining which products and brands to buy. Consider two business buyers with two different purchasing styles. The first sees several salespeople, each trying to persuade him to buy his or her product. The second seesno salespeople but rather logs onto the Internet; searches for information on available products; interacts electronically with various suppliers, users, and product analysts; and then makes upher own mind about the best offer. The second purchasing agent has taken more responsibility for the buying process, and the marketer has had less influence over her buying decision.

As the trend toward more interactive dialogue and less advertising monologue continues, self-marketing will grow in importance. As more buyers look up consumer reports, join Internet product discussion forums, and place orders via phone oronline, marketers will have to influence the buying process in new ways. They will need to involve customers more in all phases of the product development and buying processes, increasing opportunities for buyers to practice self-marketing. We will examine the trends toward one-to-one marketing and self-marketingfurther in chapter 17.

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Segmenting Consumer Markets

There is no single way to segment a market. A marketer has to trydifferent segmentation variables, alone and in combination, to find the best way to view the market structure. Table 7.1 outlines the major variables that might be used in segmenting consumer markets. Here we look at the major geographic, demographic, psychographic, and behavioral variables.

Table 7.1 Major Segmentation Variables for Consumer Markets

Geographic

World region or country

North America, Western Europe, Middle East, Pacific Rim, China, India, Canada, Mexico

Country region

Pacific, Mountain, West North Central, West South Central, East North Central, East South Central, South Atlantic, Middle Atlantic, New England

City or metro size

Under 5,000; 5,000–20,000; 20,000–50,000; 50,000–100,000; 100,000–250,000; 250,000–500,000; 500,000–1,000,000; 1,000,000–4,000,000; 4,000,000 or over

Density Urban, suburban, rural

Climate Northern, southern

Demographic

Age Under 6, 6–11, 12–19, 20–34, 35–49, 50–64, 651

Gender Male, female

Family size 1–2, 3–4, 51

Family lifecycle

Young, single; young, married, no children; young, married with children; older, married with children; older, married, no children under 18; older, single; other

Income Under $10,000; $10,000–$20,000; $20,000–$30,000; $30,000–$50,000; $50,000–$100,000; $100,000 and over

Occupation Professional and technical; managers, officials, and proprietors; clerical, sales; craftspeople; supervisors; operatives; farmers;retired; students; homemakers; unemployed

Education Grade school or less; some high school; high school graduate; some college; college graduate

Religion Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, other

Race Asian, Hispanic, Black, White

Generation Baby boomer, Generation X, echo boomer

Nationality North American, South American, British, French, German, Italian, Japanese

Psychographic

Social class

Lower lowers, upper lowers, working class, middle class, upper middles, lower uppers,

upper uppers

Lifestyle Achievers, strivers, strugglers

Personality Compulsive, gregarious, authoritarian, ambitious

Behavioral

Occasions Regular occasion, special occasion

Benefits Quality, service, economy, convenience, speed

User status Nonuser, ex-user, potential user, first-time user, regular user

Usage rate Light user, medium user, heavy user

Loyalty status

None, medium, strong, absolute

Readiness stage

Unaware, aware, informed, interested, desirous,intending to buy

Attitude toward product

Enthusiastic, positive, indifferent, negative, hostile

Geographic Segmentation

Geographic segmentation calls for dividing the market into different geographical units such as nations, regions, states, counties, cities, or neighborhoods. A company may decide to operate in one or a few geographical areas, or to operate in all

areas but pay attention to geographical differences in needs and wants.

Many companies today are localizing their products, advertising, promotion, and sales efforts to fit the needs of individual regions, cities, and even neighborhoods. For example, Campbell sells Cajun gumbo soup in Louisiana and Mississippi and makes itsnacho cheese soup spicier in Texas and California. P&G sells Ariel laundry detergent primarily in Los Angeles, San Diego, San Francisco, Miami, and south Texas—areas with larger concentrations of Hispanic consumers. In the South, where customers tend to arrive later in the day and stay longer, Starbucks offers more desserts and larger, more comfortable coffee shops.

Other companies are seeking to cultivate as-yet untapped territory. For example, many large companies are fleeing the fiercely competitive major cities and suburbs to set up shop in small-town America. Hampton Inns has opened a chain of smaller-format motels in towns too small for its standard-size units. Forexample, Townsend, Tennessee, with a population of only 329, is small even by small-town standards. But looks can be deceiving. Situated on a heavily traveled and picturesque route between Knoxville and the Smoky Mountains, the village serves both business and vacation travelers. Hampton Inns opened a unit in Townsend and plans to open 100 more in small towns. It costs lessto operate in these towns, and the company builds smaller units to match lower volume. The Townsend Hampton Inn, for example, has54 rooms instead of the usual 135. Retailers from Home Depot to Saks Fifth Avenue are following suit. For example, Home Depot is testing four pint-size Villager's Hardware stores in New Jersey. Saks is implementing a new "Main Street" strategy, opening smaller stores in affluent suburbs and small towns that cannot support full-line Saks stores. Its new store in Greenwich, Connecticut, is less than one-third the size of regular stores found in malls and big cities.

Geographic segmentation: Home Depot is opening pint-size Villager's Hardware shops in smaller towns.

Demographic Segmentation

Demographic segmentation divides the market into groups based on variables such as age, gender, family size, family life cycle, income, occupation, education, religion, race, and nationality. Demographic factors are the most popular bases for segmenting customer groups. One reason is that consumer needs, wants, and usage rates often vary closely with demographic variables. Another is that demographic variables are easier to measure than most other types of variables. Even when market segments are first defined using other bases, such as benefits sought or behavior, their demographic characteristics must be known in order to assess the size of the target market and to reach it efficiently.

Age and Life-Cycle Stage

Consumer needs and wants change with age. Some companies use age and life-cycle segmentation, offering different products or usingdifferent marketing approaches for different age and life-cycle groups. For example, McDonald's targets children, teens, adults, and seniors with different ads and media. Its ads to teens feature dance-beat music, adventure, and fast-paced cutting from

scene to scene; ads to seniors are softer and more sentimental. Procter & Gamble boldly targets its Oil of Olay ProVital Series subbrand at women over 50 years of age. It's "specially designed to meet the increased moisturization needs of more mature skin."

Sega, the computer games giant, which has typically focused on the teen market, is now targeting older customers. According to aSega licensing executive, Sega's core market of 10- to 18-year-olds "sit in their bedrooms playing games for hours." Then, however, "they turn 18 and discover girls . . . and the computer gets locked away." To retain these young customers as they move into new life-cycle stages, Sega is launching a range of productsfor adults under its Sega Sports brand, including clothing, shoes, watches, and sports equipment such as Sega Sports–;brandedfootballs and basketballs.

Marketers must be careful to guard against stereotypes when usingage and life-cycle segmentation. For example, although some 70-year-olds require wheelchairs, others play tennis. Similarly, whereas some 40-year-old couples are sending their children off to college, others are just beginning new families. Thus, age is often a poor predictor of a person's life cycle, health, work or family status, needs, and buying power. Companies marketing to mature consumers usually employ positive images and appeals. For example, ads for Oil of Olay ProVital feature attractive older spokeswomen and uplifting messages. "Many women 50 and older havetold us that as they age, they feel more confident, wiser, and freer than ever before," observes Olay's marketing director. "These women are redefining beauty."

Gender

Gender segmentation has long been used in clothing, cosmetics, toiletries, and magazines. For example, Procter & Gamble was among the first with Secret, a brand specially formulated for a woman's chemistry, packaged and advertised to reinforce the female image. Recently, other marketers have noticed opportunities for gender segmentation. For example, Merrill Lynchoffers a Financial Handbook for Women Investors who want to "shape up their finances." Owens-Corning consciously aimed a major

advertising campaign for home insulation at women after its studyon women's role in home improvement showed that two-thirds were involved in materials installation, with 13 percent doing it themselves. Half the women surveyed compared themselves to Bob Vila, whereas less than half compared themselves to Martha Stewart.

The automobile industry also uses gender segmentation extensively. Women buy half of all new cars sold in the United States and influence 80 percent of all new car purchasing decisions. "Selling to women should be no different than selling to men," notes one analyst. "But there are subtleties that make adifference." Women have different frames, less upper-body strength, and greater safety concerns. To address these issues, automakers are designing cars with hoods and trunks that are easier to open, seat belts that fit women better, and an increased emphasis on safety features. Male car designers at Cadillac now go about their work with paper clips on their fingers to simulate what it feels like to operate buttons, knobs,and other interior features with longer fingernails. The CadillacCatera features an air-conditioned glove box to preserve such items as lipstick and film. Under the hood, yellow markings highlight where fluid fills go.

A growing number of Web sites also target women. For example, theGirls On Network appeals to 18- to 34-year-old women with hip, twenty somethings-style film, television, and book reviews and features. After only two years, this site has 100,000 members andaverages 5 million page views per month. The leading women's online community, iVillage, offers "real solutions for real women" and entreats visitors to "Join our community of smart, compassionate, real women." Various iVillage channels cover topics ranging from babies, food, fitness, pets, and relationships to careers, finance, and travel. The site now claims a membership of more than 1 million women across a broad demographic spectrum.

Income

Income segmentation has long been used by the marketers of products and services such as automobiles, boats, clothing, cosmetics, financial services, and travel. Many companies target affluent consumers with luxury goods and convenience services. Stores such as Neiman Marcus pitch everything from expensive jewelry and fine fashions to glazed Australian apricots priced at$20 a pound. Prada's hot-selling black vinyl backpack sells for $450, and a front-row seat at a New York Knicks game at Madison Square Garden goes for $1,000.

However, not all companies that use income segmentation target the affluent. Despite their lower spending power, the 25 percent of the nation's households that earn less that $25,000 per year offer an attractive market. For example, Greyhound Lines, with its inexpensive nationwide bus network, targets lower-income consumers. Almost half of its revenues come from people with annual incomes under $15,000. Many retailers also target this group, including chains such as Family Dollar, Dollar General, and Dollar Tree stores. When Family Dollar real estate experts scout locations for new stores, they look for lower-middle-class neighborhoods where people wear less expensive shoes and drive old cars that drip a lot of oil. The typical Family Dollar customer's household earns about $25,000 a year, and the average customer spends only about $8 per trip to the store. Yet the store's low-income strategy has made it one of the most profitable discount chains in the country.

Psychographic Segmentation

Psychographic segmentation divides buyers into different groups based on social class, lifestyle, or personality characteristics.People in the same demographic group can have very different psychographic makeups.

In chapter 5, we discussed how the products people buy reflect their lifestyles. As a result, marketers often segment their markets by consumer lifestyles. For example, Duck Head apparel targets a casual student lifestyle claiming, "You can't get them old until

you get them new." One forward-looking grocery store found that segmenting its self-service meat products by lifestyle had a big payoff:

Walk by the refrigerated self-service meat cases of most grocery stores and you'll usually find the offering grouped by type of meat. Pork is here, lamb is there, and chicken is over there. However, a Nashville, Tennessee, Kroger supermarket decided to experiment and offer groupings of different meats by lifestyle. For instance, the store had a section called "Meals in Minutes," one called "Cookin' Lite," another, filled with prepared products like hot dogs and ready-made hamburger patties, called "Kids Love This Stuff," and one called "I Like to Cook." By focusing on lifestyle needs and not on protein categories, Kroger's test store encouraged habitual beef and pork buyers to consider lamb and veal as well. As a result, the 16-foot service case has seen a substantial improvement in both sales and profits.

Marketers also have used personality variables to segment markets. For example, the marketing campaign for Honda's Helix and Elite motor scooters appears to target hip and trendy 22-year-olds. Butit is actually aimed at a much broader personality group. One ad, for example, shows a delighted child bouncing up and down on his bed while the announcer says, "You've been trying to get there all your life." The ad reminds viewers of the euphoric feelings they got when they broke away from authority and did things theirparents told them not to do. It suggests that they can feel that way again by riding a Honda scooter. Thus, Honda is appealing to the rebellious, independent kid in all of us. As Honda notes on its Web page, "Fresh air, freedom, and flair—on a Honda scooter, every day is independence day!" In fact, more than half of Honda's scooter sales are to young professionals and older buyers—15 percent are purchased by the over-50 group.

Lifestyle segmentation: Duck Head targets a casual student lifestyle, claiming, "You can't get them old until you get them new."

Behavioral Segmentation

Behavioral segmentation divides buyers into groups based on theirknowledge, attitudes, uses, or responses to a product. Many marketers believe that behavior variables are the best starting point for building market segments.

Occasions

Buyers can be grouped according to occasions when they get the idea to buy, actually make their purchase, or use the purchased item. Occasion segmentation can help firms build up product usage. For example, orange juice is most often consumed at breakfast, but orange growers have promoted drinking orange juiceas a cool and refreshing drink at other times of the day. In contrast, Coca-Cola's "Coke in the Morning" advertising campaign attempts to increase Coke consumption by promoting the beverage as an early morning pick-me-up. Some holidays, such as Mother's Day and Father's Day, were originally promoted partly to increasethe sale of candy, flowers, cards, and other gifts. Many food marketers prepare special offers and ads for holiday occasions. For example, Beatrice Foods runs special Thanksgiving and Christmas ads for Reddi-wip during November and December, months that account for 30 percent of all whipped cream sales.

Kodak, Konica, Fuji, and other camera makers use occasion segmentation in designing and marketing their single-use cameras.By mixing lenses, film speeds, and accessories, they have developed special disposable cameras for about any picture-takingoccasion, from underwater photography to taking baby pictures.

Standing on the edge of the Grand Canyon? Try Konica's Panoramic, which features a 17mm lens that takes in nearly 100 degrees horizontally. Going rafting, skiing, or snorkeling? You need Kodak's Max Sport, a rugged camera that can be used underwater to 14 feet. It has big knobs and buttons that let you use it with gloves. Want some pictures of the baby? Kodak offers a model equipped with a short focal-length lens and fast film requiring less light for parents who would like to take snapshots of their darlings without the disturbing flash. Need to check out your golf swing? Just point and shoot the QuickSnap Golf disposable camera, which snaps off eight frames per click showing how your body and club do during the swing. In one Japanese catalog aimed at young women, Kodak sells a package of five pastel-colored cameras, including a version with a fish-eye lens to create a rosy, romantic glow.

Occasion segmentation: Beatrice Foods runs special Thanksgiving and Christmas ads for Reddi-wip during November

and December, months that account for 30 percent of all whipped cream sales.

Benefits Sought

A powerful form of segmentation is to group buyers according to the different benefits that they seek from the product. Benefit segmentation requires finding the major benefits people look for in the product class, the kinds of people who look for each benefit, and the major brands that deliver each benefit. For example, one study of the benefits derived from travel uncovered three major market segments: those who travel to get away and be with family, those who travel for adventure or educational purposes, and people who enjoy the "gambling" and "fun" aspects of travel.

One of the best examples of benefit segmentation was conducted inthe toothpaste market (see Table 7.2). Research found four benefit segments: economic, medicinal, cosmetic, and taste. Each benefit group had special demographic, behavioral, and psychographic characteristics. For example, the people seeking toprevent decay tended to have large families, were heavy toothpaste users, and were conservative. Each segment also favored certain brands. Most current brands appeal to one of these segments. For example, Crest toothpaste stresses protectionand appeals to the family segment, whereas Aim looks and tastes good and appeals to children.

Table 7.2 Benefit Segmentation of the Toothpaste Market

Benefit Segments

Demographics Behavior Psychographics Brands

Favored

Economic (low price)

Men Heavy users

High autonomy, value oriented

Brands onsale

Medicinal (decay prevention)

Large families

Heavy users

Hypochondriacal, conservative

Crest

Cosmetic (bright teeth)

Teens, young adults

Smokers High sociability, active

Aqua-Fresh, Ultra Brite

Taste (good tasting)

Children Spearmint lovers

High self-involvement hedonistic

Colgate, Aim

Source: Adapted from Russell J. Haley, "Benefit Segmentation: ADecision-Oriented Research Tool," Journal of Marketing, July 1968,pp. 30–;35. Also see Haley, "Benefit Segmentation: Backwards and Forwards," Journal of Advertising Research, February–;March 1984, pp. 19–;25; and Haley, "Benefit Segmentation—20 Years Later,"Journal of Consumer Marketing Vol. 1, 1984, pp. 5–;14.

User Status

Markets can be segmented into groups of nonusers, ex-users, potential users, first-time users, and regular users of a product. For example, one study found that blood donors are low in self-esteem, low risk takers, and more highly concerned about their health; nondonors tend to be the opposite on all three dimensions. This suggests that social agencies should use different marketing approaches for keeping current donors and attracting new ones. A company's market position also influences its focus. Market share leaders focus on attracting potential users, whereas smaller firms focus on attracting current users away from the market leader.

Usage Rate

Markets can also be segmented into light, medium, and heavy product users. Heavy users are often a small percentage of the market but account for a high percentage of total consumption. Marketers usually prefer to attract one heavy user to their product or service rather than several light users. For example, a recent study of U.S.-branded ice cream buyers showed that heavyusers make up only 18 percent of all buyers but consume 55 percent of all the ice cream sold. On average, these heavy users pack away 13 gallons of ice cream per year versus only 2.4 gallons for light users. Similarly, a travel industry study showed that frequent users of travel agents for vacation travel are more involved, more innovative, more knowledgeable, and more likely to be opinion leaders than less frequent users. Heavy users take more trips and gather more information about vacation travel from newspapers, magazines, books, and travel shows. Clearly, a travel agency would benefit by directing its marketingefforts toward heavy users, perhaps using telemarketing and special promotions.

Loyalty Status

A market can also be segmented by consumer loyalty. Consumers canbe loyal to brands (Tide), stores (Wal-Mart), and companies (Ford). Buyers can be divided into groups according to their degree of loyalty. Some consumers are completely loyal—they buy one brand all the time. Others are somewhat loyal—they are loyal to two or three brands of a given product or favor one brand while sometimes buying others. Still other buyers show no loyaltyto any brand. They either want something different each time theybuy or they buy whatever's on sale.

A company can learn a lot by analyzing loyalty patterns in its market. It should start by studying its own loyal customers. Suppose Colgate finds that its loyal toothpaste buyers are more middle class, have larger families, and are more health conscious. These characteristics pinpoint the target market for Colgate. By studying its less loyal buyers, the company can detect which brands are most competitive with its own. If many

Colgate buyers also buy Crest, Colgate can attempt to improve itspositioning against Crest, possibly by using direct-comparison advertising. By looking at customers who are shifting away from its brand, the company can learn about its marketing weaknesses. As for nonloyals, the company may attract them by putting its brand on sale.

Using Multiple Segmentation Bases

Marketers rarely limit their segmentation analysis to only one ora few variables. Rather, they are increasingly using multiple segmentation bases in an effort to identify smaller, better-defined target groups. Thus, a bank may not only identify a groupof wealthy retired adults but also, within that group, distinguish several segments depending on their current income, assets, savings and risk preferences, and lifestyles.

Companies often begin by segmenting their markets using a single base, then expand using other bases. Consider PageNet, the pagingservices provider, which found itself competing against communications giants such as Southwestern Bell and Pacific Telesis in the pager market:

PageNet couldn't boast unique technology. Moreover, it was already competing on price, charging about 20 percent less than competitors. Instead, PageNet used smart segmentation to boost its competitive advantage. At first, it used geographic segmentation, targeting markets in Ohio and its home state of Texas where local competitors were vulnerable to PageNet's aggressive pricing. Once these markets were secure, the company targeted new geographical segments that promised the best growth potential. But PageNet's segmenting strategy didn't end with geography. The company next profiled major paging service user groups and targeted the most promising ones, such as salespeople, messengers, and service people. Flush with success, PageNet next used lifestyle segmentation to target additional consumergroups, such as parents who leave their babies with sitters, commuterswho are out of reach while traveling to and from work, and elderly people living alone whose families want to keep an eye on them. The results of this multiple segmentation strategy: PageNet's subscriber

base has expanded at a rate of 50 percent annually over the past 10 years. Now, with 10 million subscribers and sales approaching $1 billion, PageNet is the nation's largest wireless messaging and information services company.

One of the most promising developments in multivariable segmentation is "geodemographic" segmentation. Several business information services have arisen to help marketing planners link U.S. Census data with lifestyle patterns to better segment their markets down to zip codes, neighborhoods, and even city blocks.

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Segmenting Business Markets

Consumer and business marketers use many of the same variables tosegment their markets. Business buyers can be segmented geographically, demographically (industry, company size), or by benefits sought, user status, usage rate, and loyalty status. Yet, as Table 7.3 shows, business marketers also use some additional variables, such as customer operating characteristics, purchasing approaches, situational factors, and personal characteristics. The table lists major questions that business marketers should ask indetermining which customers they want to serve.

Table 7.3 Major Segmentation Variables for Business Markets

Demographics

Industry: Which industries that buy this product should we focus on?

Company size: What size companies should we focus on?

Location: What geographical areas should we focus on?

Operating Variables

Technology: What customer technologies should we focus on?

User–nonuser status: Should we focus on heavy, medium, or light users or nonusers?

Customer capabilities: Should we focus on customers needing many services or few services?

Purchasing Approaches

Purchasing function organization: Should we focus on companies with highly centralized or decentralized purchasing?

Power structure: Should we focus on companies that are engineering dominated, financially dominated, or marketing dominated?

Nature of existing relationships: Should we focus on companies with which we already have strong relationships or simply go after the most desirable companies?

General purchase policies: Should we focus on companies that preferleasing? Service contracts? Systems purchases? Sealed bidding?

Purchasing criteria: Should we focus on companies that are seekingquality? Service? Price?

Situational Factors

Urgency: Should we focus on companies that need quick delivery or service?

Specific application: Should we focus on certain applications of our product rather than all applications?

Size of order: Should we focus on large or small orders?

Personal Characteristics

Buyer–seller similarity: Should we focus on companies whose people and values are similar to ours?

Attitudes toward risk: Should we focus on risk-taking or risk-avoiding customers?

Loyalty: Should we focus on companies that show high loyalty to their suppliers?

Source: Adapted from Thomas V. Bonoma and Benson P. Shapiro, Segmenting the Industrial Market (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1983). Also see John Berrigan and Carl Finkbeiner, SegmentationMarketing: New Methods for Capturing Business (New York: HarperBusiness, 1992).

By going after segments instead of the whole market, companies have a much better chance to deliver value to consumers and to receive maximum rewards for close attention to consumer needs. Thus, Hewlett-Packard's Computer Systems Division targets specific industries that promise the best growth prospects, such as telecommunications and financial services. Its "red team" sales force specializes in developing and serving major customersin these targeted industries. Within the chosen industry, a company can further segment by customer size or geographic location. Forexample, Hewlett-Packard's "blue team" telemarkets to smaller accounts and to those that don't fit neatly into the strategically targeted industries on which HP focuses.

A company might also set up separate systems for dealing with larger or multiple-location customers. For example, Steelcase, a major producer of office furniture, first segments customers into

10 industries, including banking, insurance, and electronics. Next, company salespeople work with independent Steelcase dealersto handle smaller, local, or regional Steelcase customers in eachsegment. But many national, multiple-location customers, such as Exxon or IBM, have special needs that may reach beyond the scope of individual dealers. So Steelcase uses national accounts managers to help its dealer networks handle its national accounts.

Within a given target industry and customer size, the company cansegment by purchase approaches and criteria. As in consumer segmentation, many marketers believe that buying behavior and benefitsprovide the best basis for segmenting business markets.

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Segmenting International Markets

Few companies have either the resources or the will to operate inall, or even most, of the countries that dot the globe. Although some large companies, such as Coca-Cola or Sony, sell products inas many as 200 countries, most international firms focus on a smaller set. Operating in many countries presents new challenges.Different countries, even those that are close together, can varydramatically in their economic, cultural, and political makeup. Thus, just as they do within their domestic markets, international firms need to group their world markets into segments with distinct buying needs and behaviors.

Companies can segment international markets using one or a combination of several variables. They can segment by geographic location, grouping countries by regions such as Western Europe, thePacific Rim, the Middle East, or Africa. Geographic segmentation assumes that nations close to one another will have many common traits and behaviors. Although this is often the case, there are many exceptions. For example, although the United States and Canada have much in common, both differ culturally and economically from neighboring Mexico. Even within a region, consumers can differ widely. For example, many U.S. marketers think that all Central and South American countries are the same,

including their 400 million inhabitants. However, the Dominican Republic is no more like Brazil than Italy is like Sweden. Many Latin Americans don't speak Spanish, including 140 million Portuguese-speaking Brazilians and the millions in other countries who speak a variety of Indian dialects.

World markets can also be segmented on the basis of economic factors. For example, countries might be grouped by population income levels or by their overall level of economic development. Some countries, such as the United States, Britain, France, Germany, Japan, Canada, Italy, and Russia, have established, highly industrialized economies. Other countries have newly industrialized or developing economies (Singapore, Taiwan, Korea,Brazil, Mexico). Still others are less developed (China, India). A company's economic structure shapes its population's product and service needs and, therefore, the marketing opportunities it offers.

Countries can be segmented by political and legal factors such as the type and stability of government, receptivity to foreign firms, monetary regulations, and the amount of bureaucracy. Such factorscan play a crucial role in a company's choice of which countries to enter and how. Cultural factors can also be used, grouping marketsaccording to common languages, religions, values and attitudes, customs, and behavioral patterns.

Segmenting international markets on the basis of geographic, economic, political, cultural, and other factors assumes that segments should consist of clusters of countries. However, many companies use a different approach called intermarket segmentation. Using this approach, they form segments of consumers who have similar needs and buying behavior even though they are located in different countries. For example, Mercedes-Benz targets the world's well-to-do, regardless of their country.MTV targets the world's teenagers. One study of more than 6,500 teenagers from 26 countries showed that teens around the world live surprisingly parallel lives. As one expert notes, "From Rio to Rochester, teens can be found enmeshed in much the same regimen: . . . drinking Coke, . . . dining on Big Macs, and surfin' the Net on their computers." The world's teens have a lot

in common: They study, shop, and sleep. They are exposed to many of the same major issues: love, crime, homelessness, ecology, andworking parents. In many ways, they have more in common with eachother than with their parents. MTV bridges the gap between cultures, appealing to what teens around the world have in common.

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Requirements for Effective Segmentation

Clearly, there are many ways to segment a market, but not all segmentations are effective. For example, buyers of table salt could be divided into blond and brunette customers. But hair color obviously does not affect the purchase of salt. Furthermore, if all salt buyers bought the same amount of salt each month, believed that all salt is the same, and wanted to paythe same price, the company would not benefit from segmenting this market.

To be useful, market segments must be:

Measurable: The size, purchasing power, and profiles of the segments can be measured. Certain segmentation variables are difficult to measure. For example, there are 32.5 million left-handed people in the United States—almost equaling the entire population of Canada. Yet few products are targeted toward this left-handed segment. The major problem may be that the segment ishard to identify and measure. There are no data on the demographics of lefties, and the U.S. Census Bureau does not keeptrack of left-handedness in its surveys. Private data companies keep reams of statistics on other demographic segments but not onleft-handers.

Accessible: The market segments can be effectively reached and served. Suppose a fragrance company finds that heavy users of itsbrand are single men and women who stay out late and socialize a lot. Unless this group lives or shops at certain places and is exposed to certain media, its members will be difficult to reach.

Substantial: The market segments are large or profitable enough to serve. A segment should be the largest possible homogenous group

worth pursuing with a tailored marketing program. It would not pay, for example, for an automobile manufacturer to develop cars for persons whose height is under four feet.

Differentiable: The segments are conceptually distinguishable and respond differently to different marketing mix elements and programs. If married and unmarried women respond similarly to a sale on perfume, they do not constitute separate segments.

Actionable: Effective programs can be designed for attracting and serving the segments. For example, although one small airline identified seven market segments, its staff was too small to develop separate marketing programs for each segment.

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Market Targeting

Market segmentation reveals the firm's market segment opportunities. The firm now has to evaluate the various segments and decide how many and which ones to target. We now look at how companies evaluate and select target segments.

Evaluating Market Segments

In evaluating different market segments, a firm must look at three factors: segment size and growth, segment structural attractiveness, and company objectives and resources. The companymust first collect and analyze data on current segment sales, growth rates, and expected profitability for various segments. Itwill be interested in segments that have the right size and growth characteristics. (Appendix 1 discusses approaches for measuring and forecasting market demand.) But "right size and growth" is a relative matter. The largest, fastest-growing segments are not always the most attractive ones for every company. Smaller companies may lack the skills and resources needed to serve the larger segments or may find these segments too competitive. Such companies may select segments that are

smaller and less attractive, in an absolute sense, but that are potentially more profitable for them.

The company also needs to examine major structural factors that affect long-run segment attractiveness. For example, a segment isless attractive if it already contains many strong and aggressivecompetitors. The existence of many actual or potential substitute products may limit prices and the profits that can be earned in a segment. The relative power of buyers also affects segment attractiveness. Buyers with strong bargaining power relative to sellers will try to force prices down, demand more services, and set competitors against one another—all at the expense of seller profitability. Finally, a segment may be less attractive if it contains powerful suppliers who can control prices or reduce the quality or quantity of ordered goods and services.

Even if a segment has the right size and growth and is structurally attractive, the company must consider its own objectives and resources in relation to that segment. Some attractive segments could be dismissed quickly because they do not mesh with the company's long-run objectives. Even if a segment fits the company's objectives, the company must consider whether it possesses the skills and resources it needs to succeedin that segment. If the company lacks the strengths needed to compete successfully in a segment and cannot readily obtain them,it should not enter the segment. Even if the company possesses the required strengths, it needs to employ skills and resources superior to those of the competition in order to really win in a market segment. The company should enter only segments in which it can offer superior value and gain advantages over competitors.

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Selecting Market Segments

After evaluating different segments, the company must now decide which and how many segments to serve. This is the problem of target market selection. A target market consists of a set of buyers who share common needs or characteristics that the company decides to serve. Figure 7.3 shows that the firm can adopt one of

three market-coverage strategies: undifferentiated marketing, differentiatedmarketing, and concentrated marketing.

Figure 7.3 Three alternative market-coverage strategies

Undifferentiated Marketing

Using an undifferentiated marketing (or mass-marketing) strategy,a firm might decide to ignore market segment differences and go after the whole market with one offer. This mass-marketing strategy focuses on what is common in the needs of consumers rather than on what is different. The company designs a product and a marketing program that will appeal to the largest number of buyers. It relies on mass distribution and mass advertising, and it aims to give the product a superior image in people's minds. As noted earlier in the chapter, most modern marketers have strong doubts about this strategy. Difficulties arise in developing a product or brand that will satisfy all consumers. Moreover, mass marketers often have trouble competing with more focused firms that do a better job of satisfying the need of specific segments and niches.

Differentiated Marketing

Using a differentiated marketing strategy, a firm decides to target several market segments or niches and designs separate offers for each. General Motors tries to produce a car for every "purse, purpose, and personality." Nike offers athletic shoes fora dozen or more different sports, from running, fencing, and aerobics to bicycling and baseball. Estée Lauder offers dozens ofdifferent products aimed at carefully defined niches:

The four best-selling prestige perfumes in the United States belong toEstée Lauder. So do seven of the top ten prestige makeup products and eight of the ten best-selling prestige skin care products. Estée Lauder is an expert in creating differentiated brands that serve the tastes of different market segments. There's the original Estée Lauderbrand, which appeals to older, junior league types. Then there's Clinique, perfect for the middle-aged mom with a GMC Suburban and no time to waste. Then there's the hip M.A.C. line, which boasts as its spokesmodel RuPaul, a 6-foot, 7-inch drag queen. For the New Age type,there's upscale Aveda, with its aromatherapy line and earthy Origins, which the company expects will become a $1 billion brand. The company even offers downscale brands, such as Jane by Sassaby, for teens at Wal-Mart and Rite Aid.

By offering product and marketing variations, these companies hope for higher sales and a stronger position within each market segment. Developing a stronger position within several segments creates more total sales than undifferentiated marketing across all segments. Procter & Gamble gets more total market share with eight brands of laundry detergent than it could with only one. But differentiated marketing also increases the costs of doing business. A firm usually finds it more expensive to develop and produce, say, 10 units of 10 different products than 100 units ofone product. Developing separate marketing plans for the separatesegments requires extra marketing research, forecasting, sales analysis, promotion planning, and channel management. Trying to reach different market segments with different advertising increases promotion costs. Thus, the company must weigh increased

sales against increased costs when deciding on a differentiated marketing strategy.

Concentrated Marketing

A third market-coverage strategy, concentrated marketing, is especially appealing when company resources are limited. Instead of going after a small share of a large market, the firm goes after a large share of one or a few segments or niches. For example, Oshkosh Truck is the world's largest producer of airportrescue trucks and front-loading concrete mixers. Tetra sells 80 percent of the world's tropical fish food, and Steiner Optical captures 80 percent of the world's military binoculars market.

Today, the low cost of setting up shop on the Internet makes it even more profitable to serve seemingly minuscule niches. Small businesses, in particular, are realizing riches from serving small niches on the Web. Here are two "Webpreneurs" who achieved astonishing results:

Ostrichesonline.com. Whereas Internet giants like music retailer CDnowand bookseller Amazon.com have yet to even realize a profit, Steve Warrington is earning a six-figure income online selling ostriches and every product derived from them. Launched for next to nothing on the Web, Warrington's business generated $4 millionin sales last year. The site tells visitors everything they ever wanted to know about ostriches and much, much more—it supplies ostrich facts, ostrich pictures, an ostrich farm index, and a huge ostrich database and reference index. Visitors to the site can buy ostrich meat, feathers, leather jackets, videos, eggshells, and skin care products derived from ostrich body oil.

Mesomorphosis.com. At the age of 26, Millard Baker, a clinical psychology graduate student at the University of South Florida, launched a Web-based business selling body building supplements and oils. Although other Web sites peddled similar products, few offered articles and content, so Millard Baker added these elements to his site. Mesomorphosis.com has now grown into a full-fledged Internet publication as well as an online store. It provides subscribers with "scientifically-based articles about body building so that [they] can make informed decisions about

training, nutrition, and supplementation." How successful is thisWeb nicher? Baker now pulls in more than $25,000 a month.

Concentrated marketing provides an excellent way for small new businesses to get a foothold against larger, more resourceful competitors. For example, Southwest Airlines began by concentrating on serving intrastate, no-frills commuters. PageNetgot off to a successful start by concentrating on limited geographic areas. Wal-Mart got its start by bringing everyday lowprices to small town and rural areas.

Through concentrated marketing, firms achieve strong market positions in the segments or niches they serve because of their greater knowledge of the segments' needs and the special reputations they acquire. They also enjoy many operating economies because of specialization in production, distribution, and promotion. If the segment is well chosen, firms can earn a high rate of return on their investments.

At the same time, concentrated marketing involves higher-than-normal risks. The particular market segment can turn sour. Or larger competitors may decide to enter the same segment. For example, California Cooler's success in the wine cooler segment attracted many large competitors, causing the original owners to sell to a larger company that had more marketing resources. For these reasons, many companies prefer to diversify in several market segments.

Concentrated marketing: Oshkosh Truck has found its niche as the world's largest producer of airport rescue trucks and

front-loading concrete mixers.

Choosing a Market-Coverage Strategy

Many factors need to be considered when choosing a market-coverage strategy. Which strategy is best depends on company resources. When the firm's resources are limited, concentrated marketing makes the most sense. The best strategy also depends onthe degree of product variability. Undifferentiated marketing is more suited for uniform products such as grapefruit or steel. Productsthat can vary in design, such as cameras and automobiles, are more suited to differentiation or concentration. The product's life-cycle stage also must be considered.

When a firm introduces a new product, it is practical to launch only one version, and undifferentiated marketing or concentrated marketing makes the most sense. In the mature stage of the product life cycle, however, differentiated marketing begins to make more sense. Another factor is market variability. If most buyers have the same tastes, buy the same amounts, and react the same way to marketing efforts, undifferentiated marketing is appropriate. Finally, competitors' marketing strategies are important. When competitors use differentiated or concentrated marketing, undifferentiated marketing can be suicidal. Conversely, when competitors use undifferentiated marketing, a firm can gain an advantage by using differentiated or concentrated marketing.

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Socially Responsible Target Marketing

Smart targeting helps companies to be more efficient and effective by focusing on the segments that they can satisfy best and most profitably. Targeting also benefits consumers—companies reach specific groups of consumers with offers carefully tailoredto satisfy their needs. However, target marketing sometimes generates controversy and concern. Issues usually involve the targeting of vulnerable or disadvantaged consumers with controversial or potentially harmful products.

For example, over the years, the cereal industry has been heavilycriticized for its marketing efforts directed toward children. Critics worry that premium offers and high-powered advertising appeals presented through the mouths of lovable animated characters will overwhelm children's defenses. The marketers of toys and other children's products have been similarly battered, often with good justification. Some critics have even called for a complete ban on advertising to children. To encourage responsible advertising to children, the Children's Advertising Review Unit, the advertising industry's self-regulatory agency, has published extensive children's advertising guidelines that recognize the special needs of child audiences.

Cigarette, beer, and fast-food marketers have also generated muchcontroversy in recent years by their attempts to target inner-city minority consumers. For example, McDonald's and other chainshave drawn criticism for pitching their high-fat, salt-laden fareto low-income, inner-city residents who are much more likely thansuburbanites to be heavy consumers. R.J. Reynolds took heavy flakin the early 1990s when it announced plans to market Uptown, a menthol cigarette targeted toward low-income blacks. It quickly dropped the brand in the face of a loud public outcry and heavy pressure from black leaders. G. Heileman Brewing made a similar mistake with PowerMaster, a potent malt liquor. Because malt liquor had become the drink of choice among many in the inner city, Heileman focused its marketing efforts for PowerMaster on inner-city blacks. However, this group suffers disproportionatelyfrom liver diseases brought on by alcohol, and the inner city is already plagued by alcohol-related problems such as crime and violence. Thus, Heileman's targeting decision drew substantial criticism.

The meteoric growth of the Internet and other carefully targeted direct media has raised fresh concerns about potential targeting abuses. The Internet allows increasing refinement of audiences and, in turn, more precise targeting. This might help makers of questionable products or deceptive advertisers to more readily victimize the most vulnerable audiences. As one expert observes,

"In theory, an audience member could have tailor-made deceptive messages sent directly to his or her computer screen."

Not all attempts to target children, minorities, or other specialsegments draw such criticism. In fact, most provide benefits to targeted consumers. For example, Colgate-Palmolive's Colgate Junior toothpaste has special features designed to get children to brush longer and more often—it's less foamy, has a milder taste, contains sparkles, and exits the tube in a star-shaped column.

Golden Ribbon Playthings has developed a highly acclaimed and very successful black character doll named "Huggy Bean" targeted toward minority consumers. Huggy comes with books and toys that connect her with her African heritage. Many cosmetics companies have responded to the special needs of minority segments by adding products specifically designed for African American, Hispanic, or Asian women. Black-owned ICE theaters noticed that although moviegoing by blacks has surged, there are few inner-city theaters. The chain has opened a theater in Chicago's South Side as well as two other Chicago theaters, and it plans to open in four more cities this year. ICE partners with the black communities in which it operates theaters, using local radio stations to promote films and featuring favorite food items at concession stands.

Thus, in market targeting, the issue is not really who is targeted but rather how and for what. Controversies arise when marketers attempt to profit at the expense of targeted segments—when they unfairly target vulnerable segments or target them withquestionable products or tactics. Socially responsible marketing calls for segmentation and targeting that serve not just the interests of the company but also the interests of those targeted.

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Positioning for Competitive Advantage

Once a company has decided which segments of the market it will enter, it must decide what positions it wants to occupy in those segments. A product's position is the way the product is defined byconsumers on important attributes—the place the product occupies in consumers' minds relative to competing products. Positioning involves implanting the brand's unique benefits and differentiation in customers' minds. Thus, Tide is positioned as a powerful, all-purpose family detergent; Ivory Snow is positioned as the gentle detergent for fine washables and baby clothes. In the automobile market, Toyota Tercel and Subaru are positioned on economy, Mercedes and Cadillac on luxury, and Porsche and BMW on performance. Volvo positions powerfully on safety.

Consumers are overloaded with information about products and services. They cannot reevaluate products every time they make a buying decision. To simplify the buying process, consumers organize products into categories—they "position" products, services, and companies in their minds. A product's position is the complex set of perceptions, impressions, and feelings that consumers have for the product compared with competing products. Consumers position products with or without the help of marketers. But marketers do not want to leave their products' positions to chance. They must plan positions that will give their products the greatest advantage in selected target markets,and they must design marketing mixes to create these planned positions.

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Choosing a Positioning Strategy

Some firms find it easy to choose their positioning strategy. Forexample, a firm well known for quality in certain segments will go for this position in a new segment if there are enough buyers seeking quality. But in many cases, two or more firms will go after the same position. Then, each will have to find other ways to set itself apart. Each firm must differentiate its offer by building a unique bundle of benefits that appeals to a substantial group within the segment.

The positioning task consists of three steps: identifying a set of possible competitive advantages upon which to build a position, choosing the right competitive advantages, and selecting an overall positioning strategy. The company must then effectively communicate and deliver the chosen position to the market.

Identifying Possible Competitive Advantages

The key to winning and keeping customers is to understand their needs and buying processes better than competitors do and to deliver more value. To the extent that a company can position itself as providing superior value to selected target markets it gains competitive advantage. But solid positions cannot be built on empty promises. If a company positions its product as offering the best quality and service, it must then deliver the promised quality and service. Thus, positioning begins with actually differentiating the company's marketing offer so that it will give consumers more value than competitors' offers do.

To find points of differentiation, marketers must think through the customer's entire experience with the company's product or service. An alert company can find ways to differentiate itself at every point where it comes in contact with customers. In what specific ways can a company differentiate its offer from those ofcompetitors? A company or market offer can be differentiated along the lines of product, services, channels, people, or image.

Competitive advantages: Volvo positions powerfully on safety:All most people want from a car seat is "a nice, comfy place to put your gluteus maximus." However, when a Volvo is struckfrom behind, a sophisticated system "guides the front seats through an intricate choreography that supports the neck and spine, while helping to reduce dangerous collision impact forces."

Product differentiation takes place along a continuum. At one extreme we find physical products that allow little variation: chicken, steel, aspirin. Yet even here some meaningful differentiation is possible. For example, Perdue claims that its branded chickens are better—fresher and more tender—and gets a 10 percent price premium based on this differentiation. At the other extreme are products that can be highly differentiated, such as automobiles, commercial machinery, and furniture. Such products can be differentiated on features, performance, or style and design. Thus, Volvo provides new and better safety features; Whirlpool designs its dishwasher to run more quietly; Bose speakers are positioned on striking design characteristics. Similarly, companies can differentiate their products on such attributes as consistency, durability, reliability, or repairability.

Beyond differentiating its physical product, a firm can also differentiate the services that accompany the product. Some companies gain services differentiation through speedy, convenient, or careful delivery. For example, BancOne has opened full-service branches in supermarkets to provide location convenience along with Saturday, Sunday, and weekday-evening hours. Installation can also differentiate one company from another, as can repair services. Many an automobile buyer will gladly pay a little more and travel a little farther to buy a car from a dealer that provides top-notch repair service. Some companies differentiate their offers by providing customer training service or consulting services—data, information systems, and advising services that buyers need. For example, McKesson Corporation, a major drug wholesaler,consults with its 12,000 independent pharmacists to help them setup accounting, inventory, and computerized ordering systems. By

helping its customers compete better, McKesson gains greater customer loyalty and sales.

Firms that practice channel differentiation gain competitive advantage through the way they design their channel's coverage, expertise, and performance. Caterpillar's success in the construction-equipment industry is based on superior channels. Its dealers worldwide are renowned for their top-notch service. Dell Computerand Avon distinguish themselves by their high-quality direct channels. Iams pet food achieves success by going against tradition, distributing its products only through veterinarians and pet stores.

Companies can gain a strong competitive advantage through people differentiation—hiring and training better people than their competitors do. Thus, Disney people are known to be friendly and upbeat. Singapore Airlines enjoys an excellent reputation largelybecause of the grace of its flight attendants. IBM offers people who make sure that the solution customers want is the solution they get: "People Who Think. People Who Do. People Who Get It." People differentiation requires that a company select its customer-contact people carefully and train them well. For example, Disney trains its theme park people thoroughly to ensurethat they are competent, courteous, and friendly. From the hotel check-in agents, to the monorail drivers, to the ride attendants,to the people who sweep Main Street USA, each employee understands the importance of understanding customers, communicating with them clearly and cheerfully, and responding quickly to their requests and problems. Each is carefully trainedto "make a dream come true."

Even when competing offers look the same, buyers may perceive a difference based on company or brand image differentiation. A company or brand image should convey the product's distinctive benefits and positioning. Developing a strong and distinctive image calls for creativity and hard work. A company cannot plant an image in the public's mind overnight using only a few advertisements. If Ritz-Carlton means quality, this image must be supported by everything the company says and does. Symbols—such as McDonald's golden arches, the Prudential rock, or the Pillsbury doughboy—can

provide strong company or brand recognition and image differentiation. The company might build a brand around a famous person, as Nike did with its Air Jordan basketball shoes. Some companies even become associated with colors, such as IBM (blue),Campbell (red and white), or Kodak (red and yellow). The chosen symbols, characters, and other image elements must be communicated through advertising that conveys the company's or brand's personality.

Choosing the Right Competitive Advantages

Suppose a company is fortunate enough to discover several potential competitive advantages. It now must choose the ones on which it will build its positioning strategy. It must decide how many differences to promote and which ones.

How Many Differences to Promote?

Many marketers think that companies should aggressively promote only one benefit to the target market. Ad man Rosser Reeves, for example, said a company should develop a unique selling proposition (USP)for each brand and stick to it. Each brand should pick an attribute and tout itself as "number one" on that attribute. Buyers tend to remember number one better, especially in an overcommunicated society. Thus, Crest toothpaste consistently promotes its anticavity protection and Volvo promotes safety. A company that hammers away at one of these positions and consistently delivers on it probably will become best known and remembered for it.

Other marketers think that companies should position themselves on more than one differentiating factor. This may be necessary iftwo or more firms are claiming to be the best on the same attribute. Today, in a time when the mass market is fragmenting into many small segments, companies are trying to broaden their positioning strategies to appeal to more segments. For example, Unilever introduced the first three-in-one bar soap—Lever 2000—offering cleansing, deodorizing, and moisturizing benefits. Clearly, many buyers want all three benefits, and the challenge was to convince them that one brand can deliver all three.

Judging from Lever 2000's outstanding success, Unilever easily met the challenge. However, as companies increase the number of claims for their brands, they risk disbelief and a loss of clear positioning.

Unilever positioned its best-selling Lever 2000 soap on threebenefits in one: cleansing, deodorizing, and moisturizing benefits. It's good "for all your 2000 parts."

In general, a company needs to avoid three major positioning errors. The first is underpositioning—failing to ever really position the company at all. Some companies discover that buyers have only a vague idea of the company or that they do not really know anything special about it. The second error is overpositioning—giving buyers too narrow a picture of the company. Thus, a consumer might think that the Steuben glass company makes only fine art glass costing $1,000 and up, when in fact it makes affordable fine glass starting at around $50. Finally, companies must avoid confused positioning—leaving buyers with a confused image of a company. For example, over the past decade, Burger King has fielded six separate advertising campaigns, with themes ranging from "Herb the nerd doesn't eat here" to "Sometimes you've got tobreak the rules" and "BK Tee Vee." This barrage of positioning

statements has left consumers confused and Burger King with poor sales and profits.

Which Differences to Promote?

Not all brand differences are meaningful or worthwhile; not everydifference makes a good differentiator. Each difference has the potential to create company costs as well as customer benefits. Therefore, the company must carefully select the ways in which itwill distinguish itself from competitors. A difference is worth establishing to the extent that it satisfies the following criteria:

Important: The difference delivers a highly valued benefit to target buyers.

Distinctive: Competitors do not offer the difference, or the company can offer it in a more distinctive way.

Superior: The difference is superior to other ways that customers might obtain the same benefit.

Communicable: The difference is communicable and visible to buyers.

Preemptive: Competitors cannot easily copy the difference.

Affordable: Buyers can afford to pay for the difference.

Profitable: The company can introduce the difference profitably.

Many companies have introduced differentiations that failed one or more of these tests. The Westin Stamford hotel in Singapore advertises that it is the world's tallest hotel, a distinction that is not important to many tourists—in fact, it turns many off. Polaroid's Polarvision, which produced instantly developed home movies, bombed too. Although Polarvision was distinctive andeven preemptive, it was inferior to another way of capturing motion, namely, camcorders. When Pepsi introduced clear Crystal Pepsi some years ago, customers were unimpressed. Although the new drink was distinctive, consumers didn't see "clarity" as an important benefit in a soft drink. Thus, choosing competitive

advantages upon which to position a product or service can be difficult, yet such choices may be crucial to success.

Selecting an Overall Positioning Strategy

Consumers typically choose products and services that give them the greatest value. Thus, marketers want to position their brandson the key benefits that they offer relative to competing brands.The full positioning of a brand is called the brand's value proposition—the full mix of benefits upon which the brand is positioned. It is the answer to the customer's question "Why should I buy your brand?" Volvo's value proposition hinges on safety but also includes reliability, roominess, and styling, allfor a price that is higher than average but seems fair for this mix of benefits.

Figure 7.4 shows possible value propositions upon which a companymight position its products. In the figure, the five green cells represent winning value propositions—positioning that gives the company competitive advantage. The orange cells, however, represent losing value propositions, and the center cell represents at best a marginal proposition. In the following sections, we discuss the five winning value propositions companies can use to position their products: more for more, morefor the same, the same for less, less for much less, and more forless.

Figure 7.4 Possible value propositions

More for More

"More for more" positioning involves providing the most upscale product or service and charging a higher price to cover the higher costs. Ritz-Carlton Hotels, Mont Blanc writing instruments, Mercedes-Benz automobiles—each claims superior quality, craftsmanship, durability, performance, or style and charges a price to match. Not only is the marketing offer high inquality, it also offers prestige to the buyer. It symbolizes status and a lofty lifestyle. Often, the price difference exceedsthe actual increment in quality.

Sellers offering "only the best" can be found in every product and service category, from hotels, restaurants, food, and fashionto cars and kitchen appliances. Consumers are sometimes surprised, even delighted, when a new competitor enters a category with an unusually high-priced brand. Starbucks coffee entered as a very expensive brand in a largely commodity category; Häagen-Dazs came in as a premium ice cream brand at a price never before charged. In general, companies should be on the lookout for opportunities to introduce a "much more for much more" brand in any underdeveloped product or service category. For example, William-Sonoma's hottest-selling item this year is the $369 Dualit Toaster, a hand-assembled appliance that keeps toast warm for 10 minutes.

Yet "more for more" brands can be vulnerable. They often invite imitators who claim the same quality but at a lower price. Luxurygoods that sell well during good times may be at risk during economic downturns when buyers become more cautious in their spending.

More for the Same

Companies can attack a competitor's more for more positioning by introducing a brand offering comparable quality but at a lower price. For example, Toyota introduced its Lexus line with a "morefor the same" value proposition. Its headline read: "Perhaps the first time in history that trading a $72,000 car for a $36,000 car could be considered trading up." It communicated the high

quality of its new Lexus through rave reviews in car magazines, through a widely distributed videotape showing side-by-side comparisons of Lexus and Mercedes-Benz automobiles, and through surveys showing that Lexus dealers were providing customers with better sales and service experiences than were Mercedes dealerships. Many Mercedes-Benz owners switched to Lexus, and theLexus repurchase rate has been 60 percent, twice the industry average.

The Same for Less

Offering "the same for less" can be a powerful value proposition—everyone likes a good deal. For example, Amazon.com sells the same book titles as its brick-and-mortar competitors but at lowerprices, and Dell Computer offers equivalent quality at a better "price for performance." Discounts stores such as Wal-Mart and "category killers" such as Best Buy, Circuit City, and Sportmart also use this positioning. They don't claim to offer different orbetter products. Instead, they offer many of the same brands as department stores and specialty stores but at deep discounts based on superior purchasing power and lower-cost operations.

Other companies develop imitative but lower-priced brands in an effort to lure customers away from the market leader. For example, Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) and Cyrix make less expensive versions of Intel's market-leading microprocessor chips. Many personal computer companies make "IBM clones" and claim to offer the same performance at lower prices.

Less for Much Less

A market almost always exists for products that offer less and therefore cost less. Few people need, want, or can afford "the very best" in everything they buy. In many cases, consumers will gladly settle for less than optimal performance or give up some of the bells and whistles in exchange for a lower price. For example, many travelers seeking lodgings prefer not to pay for what they consider unnecessary extras, such as a pool, cable television, attached restaurant, or mints on the pillow. Motel

chains such as Motel 6 suspend some of these amenities and chargeless accordingly.

"Less for much less" positioning involves meeting consumers' lower performance or quality requirements at a much lower price. For example, Family Dollar and Dollar General stores offer more affordable goods at very low prices. Sam's Club warehouse stores offer less merchandise selection and consistency, and much lower levels of service; as a result, they charge rock-bottom prices. Southwest Airlines, the nation's most profitable air carrier, also practices less for much less positioning. It charges incredibly low prices by not serving food, not assigning seats, and not using travel agents.

More for Less

Of course, the winning value proposition would be to offer "more for less." Many companies claim to do this. For example, Dell Computer claims to have better products and lower prices for a given level of performance. Procter & Gamble claims that its laundry detergents provide the best cleaning and everyday low prices. In the short run, some companies can actually achieve such lofty positions. For example, when it first opened for business, Home Depot had arguably the best product selection and service and at the lowest prices compared to local hardware stores and other home improvement chains.

Yet in the long run, companies will find it very difficult to sustain such best-of-both positioning. Offering more usually costs more, making it difficult to deliver on the "for less" promise. Companies that try to deliver both may lose out to more focused competitors. For example, facing determined competition from Lowes stores, Home Depot must now decide whether it wants tocompete primarily on superior service or on lower prices.

All said, each brand must adopt a positioning strategy designed to serve the needs and wants of its target markets. "More for more" will draw one target market, "less for much less" will drawanother, and so on. Thus, in any market, there is usually room

for many different companies, each successfully occupying different positions.

The important thing is that each company must develop its own winning positioning strategy, one that makes it special to its target consumers. Offering only "the same for the same" provides no competitive advantage, leaving the firm in the middle of the pack. Companies offering one of the three losing value propositions—"the same for more," "less for more," and "less for the same"—will inevitably fail. Here, customers soon realize thatthey've been underserved, tell others, and abandon the brand.

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Communicating and Delivering the Chosen Position

Once it has chosen a position, the company must take strong stepsto deliver and communicate the desired position to target consumers. All the company's marketing mix efforts must support the positioning strategy. Positioning the company calls for concrete action, not just talk. If the company decides to build aposition on better quality and service, it must first deliver that position. Designing the marketing mix—product, price, place, and promotion—essentially involves working out the tactical details of the positioning strategy. Thus, a firm that seizes on a "for more" position knows that it must produce high-quality products, charge a high price, distribute through high-quality dealers, andadvertise in high-quality media. It must hire and train more service people, find retailers who have a good reputation for service, and develop sales and advertising messages that broadcast its superior service. This is the only way to build a consistent and believable "more for more" position.

Companies often find it easier to come up with a good positioningstrategy than to implement it. Establishing a position or changing one usually takes a long time. In contrast, positions that have taken years to build can quickly be lost. Once a company has built the desired position, it must take care to maintain the position through consistent performance and communication. It must closely monitor and adapt the position

over time to match changes in consumer needs and competitors' strategies. However, the company should avoid abrupt changes thatmight confuse consumers. Instead, a product's position should evolve gradually as it adapts to the ever-changing marketing environment.

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Chapter Wrap-Up

Now that you've reached the end of the chapter, you may wish to explore the concepts you've been reading about in greater detail,or test yourself to see how well you've comprehended the material. In the box below you'll find a number of links. Click on any one of these links to find additional chapter resources.

Review of Concept Connections

Marketers know that they cannot appeal to all buyers in their markets, or at least not to all buyers in the same way. Buyers are too numerous, too widely scattered, and too varied in their needs and buying practices. Therefore, most companies today are moving away from mass marketing. Instead, they practice target marketing—identifying market segments, selecting one or more of them, and developing products and marketing mixes tailored to each. In this way, sellers can develop the right product for eachtarget market and adjust their prices, distribution channels, andadvertising to reach the target market efficiently.

1. Define the three steps of target marketing: market segmentation, market targeting, and market positioning. Market segmentation is the act of dividing a market into distinct groups of buyers with different needs, characteristics, or behavior who might require separate products or marketing mixes. Once the groups have been identified, market targeting evaluates each market segment's attractiveness and suggests one or more segments to enter. Market positioning consists of setting the competitive positioning for the product and creating a detailed marketing plan.

2. List and discuss the major levels of market segmentation and bases for segmenting consumer and business markets. Market segmentation can be carried out at several different levels, including no segmentation (mass marketing), complete segmentation (micromarketing), or something in between (segment marketing or niche marketing). Mass marketing involves mass producing, mass distributing, and mass promoting about the same product in about the same way to all consumers. Using segmented marketing, the company tries to isolate broad segments that make upa market and adapts its offers to more closely match the needs ofone or more segments. Niche marketing focuses on more narrowly defined subgroups within these segments, groups with distinctive sets of traits that may seek a special combination of benefits. Micromarketing is the practice of tailoring products and marketing programs to suit the tastes of specific individuals and locations. Micromarketing includes local marketing and individual marketing.

There is no single way to segment a market. Therefore, the marketer tries different variables to see which give the best segmentation opportunities. For consumer marketing, the major segmentation variables are geographic, demographic, psychographic, and behavioral. In geographic segmentation, the market is divided into different geographical units such as nations, states, regions, counties, cities, or neighborhoods. In demographic segmentation, the market is divided into groups based on demographic variables, including age, gender, family size, familylife cycle, income, occupation, education, religion, race, and nationality. In psychographic segmentation, the market is divided into different groups based on social class, lifestyle, or personalitycharacteristics. In behavioral segmentation, the market is divided intogroups based on consumers' knowledge, attitudes, uses, or responses to a product.

Business marketers use many of the same variables to segment their markets. But business markets also can be segmented by business consumer demographics (industry, company size), operating characteristics, purchasing approaches, situational factors, and personal characteristics. The effectiveness of segmentation analysis depends onfinding segments that are measurable, accessible, substantial, differentiable, and actionable.

3. Explain how companies identify attractive market segments and choose a market-coverage strategy. To target the best market segments, the company first evaluates each segment's size and growth characteristics, structural attractiveness, and compatibility with company objectives and resources. It then chooses one of three market-coverage strategies. The seller can ignore segment differences (undifferentiated marketing), develop different market offers for several segments (differentiated marketing), or go after one or a few market segments (concentrated marketing). Much depends on company resources, product variability, product life-cycle stage, and competitive marketing strategies.

4. Discuss how companies can position their products for maximum competitive advantage in the marketplace. Once a company has decided which segments to enter, it must decide on its market positioning strategy—on which positions to occupy in its chosen segments. The positioning task consists of three steps: identifying a set of possible competitive advantagesupon which to build a position, choosing the right competitive advantages, and selecting an overall positioning strategy. The brand's full positioning is called its value proposition—the full mixof benefits upon which the brand is positioned. In general, companies can choose from one of five winning value propositions upon which to position their products: more for more, more for the same, the same for less, less for much less, or more for less. They must then effectively communicate and deliver the chosen position to the market.

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Key Termsmarket segmentation

Dividing a market into distinct groups of buyers on the basis of needs, characteristics, or behavior who might require separate products or marketing mixes.

market targetingThe process of evaluating each market segment's attractiveness and selecting one or more segments to enter.

market positioningArranging for a product to occupy a clear, distinctive, and desirable place relative to competing products in the minds of target consumers.

segment marketingIsolating broad segments that make up a market and adapting the marketing to match the needs of one or more segments.

niche marketingFocusing on subsegments or niches with distinctive traits that may seek a special combination of benefits.

micromarketingThe practice of tailoring products and marketing programs to suitthe tastes of specific individuals and locations—includes local marketing and individual marketing.

local marketingTailoring brands and promotions to the needs and wants of local customer groups—cities, neighborhoods, and even specific stores.

individual marketingTailoring products and marketing programs to the needs and preferences of individual customers—also labeled one-to-one marketing, customized marketing, and markets-of-one marketing.

geographic segmentationDividing a market into different geographical units such as nations, states, regions, counties, cities, or neighborhoods.

demographic segmentationDividing the market into groups based on demographic variables such as age, gender, family size, family life cycle, income, occupation, education, religion, race, and nationality.

age and life-cycle segmentationDividing a market into different age and life-cycle groups.

gender segmentation

Dividing a market into different groups based on sex.

income segmentationDividing a market into different income groups.

psychographic segmentationDividing a market into different groups based on social class, lifestyle, or personality characteristics.

behavioral segmentationDividing a market into groups based on consumer knowledge, attitude, use, or response to a product.

occasion segmentationDividing the market into groups according to occasions when buyers get the idea to buy, actually make their purchase, or use the purchased item.

benefit segmentationDividing the market into groups according to the different benefits that consumers seek from the product.

intermarket segmentationForming segments of consumers who have similar needs and buying behavior even though they are located in different countries.

target marketA set of buyers sharing common needs or characteristics that the company decides to serve.

undifferentiated marketingA market-coverage strategy in which a firm decides to ignore market segment differences and go after the whole market with oneoffer.

differentiated marketingA market-coverage strategy in which a firm decides to target several market segments and designs separate offers for each.

concentrated marketing

A market-coverage strategy in which a firm goes after a large share of one or a few submarkets.

product positionThe way the product is defined by consumers on important attributes—the place the product occupies in consumers' minds relative to competing products.

competitive advantageAn advantage over competitors gained by offering consumers greater value, either through lower prices or by providing more benefits that justify higher prices.

value propositionThe full positioning of a brand—the full mix of benefits upon which it is positioned.

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Issues for Discussion

1. Describe how the Ford Motor Company over the years has moved frommass marketing to segment marketing. Do you think the company will be able to move toward niche marketing or micromarketing? Ifso, how? How is the company using the Internet to change its market segmentation approach.

2. Several years ago Samuel Adams Brewery led a charge of microbreweries in an attack on the brands of established brewers.How might such microbreweries use micromarketing? Evaluate the merits of such a strategy. (For more information, see the Sam Adams Web site.)

3. How can a company devise a marketing strategy that will have a mass appeal yet recognize individual differences? One solution isto construct a strategy based on gender segmentation. Construct abrief gender-based strategy for a company attempting to market

the following items: (a) a new blade razor, (b) a denim overshirt, (c) a Mazda Miata sports car, (d) life insurance, and (e) Oakley sunglasses.

4. Using Table 7.2 as a model, along with information found in the chapter-opening vignette, construct a benefit segmentation table for laundry detergent. Identify the major benefit segments, theircharacteristics, and their favored brands. Explain how you constructed your table and the potential benefits of your approach.

5. There are many ways to segment a market. However, not all segmentations are effective. Apply the five attributes listed in the text for effective segmentation to assess the usefulness of each of the following segments: (a) Internet users, (b) pager owners, (c) registered voters, and (d) adult students who return to college to get an undergraduate degree.

6. In 1994 Netscape appeared to be just another Silicon Valley start-up headed down the road to ruin. This was before the World Wide Web exploded to become the center of a generation's universe. As a result of this explosive Internet growth, Netscape's position in the marketplace has changed dramatically during the past several years. Choose one of the three market-coverage strategies described in the chapter and design a marketing strategy for Netscape for the next five years. Considerthe market-coverage strategy of archrival Microsoft and other important competitors. Explain why your market-coverage strategy is best for the company. (See Netscape for additional information.)

7. Social responsibility will be an important factor affecting the targeting marketing strategies of most firms in the new millennium. Provide an example of an organization that you

believe takes a socially responsible approach to targeting markets. Explain your reasoning.

8. Apply the three steps for choosing and implementing a positioningstrategy to assess in depth the positioning of one of the following products: (a) Dodge trucks, (b) Clausen pickles, (c) Amazon.com, and (d) American Express blue card. Explain your reasoning.

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Marketing Applications

1. "Tweens"—youths aged 8 to 14—face pressures to grow up quickly. Research shows that the tweens are among the most targeted youth groups by today's marketers. They surround themselves with computers, electronic gadgets, music, clothing, magazines, and other gear that expresses their lifestyle. How do marketers reachthis important group? Firms such as Nike, Gap, Sony, Pepsi, and Cover Girl have managed to strike the right notes. Primary influences on the tweens and their $12 billion in annual spendinginclude friends, television and movies, and entertainment and sports idols. Such spending has commanded the attention of both traditional and Internet marketers. To learn more about marketingto tweens, visit the following Web sites: Gap, Tommy Hilfiger, Delia's, the Limited Too, and Nintendo.

a. Using these and other data sources, profile the tweens market segment.

b. How do companies appear to be marketing toward this segment?

c. What strategies seem most popular with the Web sites mentioned above?

d. Choose a company that currently markets to older youths and young adults. Explain how this company might go about attracting tweens to its products.

e. What types of social responsibility issues might be encountered by a company targeting this group?

2. Is it time to trade in your highlighter for something more reliable? How many times during class or while studying do you underline a word, topic, or key phrase? Too many, right? Siemens is betting that it has found a better way to process and store information. The Siemens Pocket Reader is a new portable digital highlighter. This small handheld scanner is easy to operate—you simply drag the battery-powered "pen" across the text you want toscan. The device stores up to 40,000 characters (about 20 pages) that you can then transfer to your PC for later processing and study. At $99.95 this new-age "highlighter" might well be worth the price.

a. What market segments might be interested in this new product?

b. What form of segmentation should Siemens employ?

c. What market-coverage strategy makes the most sense?

d. How should Siemens position the product?

e. Outline the appeals that might be used in an advertising campaign for the product. What headline would be appropriatefor an advertisement in your university or college newspaper?

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Company Case

RJR's Eclipse: Rising from Premier's Ashes

Pursuing a Better Cigarette

In 1988, R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company (RJR) capped a 10-year, $300 million investment program by introducing the Premier cigarette in several test markets. Reynolds and other tobacco companies had long dreamed of a better cigarette, one that would satisfy smokers without threatening their health or irritating others around them. RJR wanted to target Premier toward sophisticated, upscale, urban, educated, older (over-25) smokers.These smokers were hooked on smoking, but were looking for an alternative or trying to quit.

Premier was a very complex product to make and to use. It consisted of a small aluminum capsule that contained beads of glycerin impregnated with tobacco flavorings. The capsule was surrounded with tobacco. At the front end of the cigarette was a carbon tip that the smoker had to both light and heat properly during the lighting process. Air drawn through the cigarette was heated as it passed through the carbon. It then passed through the aluminum capsule where the heated air caused the glycerin beads to vaporize and carry the tobacco flavor through the cigarette's cooling filter to the smoker. Because only the carbontip burned in the process, the cigarette did not burn down like atraditional cigarette. Also, because no tobacco was burning, the cigarette did not emit any "side-stream" smoke. Because of the cigarette's newness, packages carried instruction booklets that described the cigarette and explained how to light it properly.

Due to Premier's complexity and development cost, RJR priced it about 25 to 30 cents more per pack (about 25 percent) than other

name-brand cigarettes. The company introduced the brand in Phoenix and Tucson, Arizona, and St. Louis, Missouri, in order totest its marketing strategy. It distributed the cigarettes through the normal cigarette distribution channels.

To promote Premier, RJR launched an expensive campaign. Contrary to most cigarette ads, Premier's ads contained lots of copy and "just the facts." They used the tag line, "The Cleaner Smoke," and encouraged smokers to try Premier for a week. To encourage trial, sales promotions offered two or more packs for the price of one.

However, despite all the time and money RJR put into developing and introducing Premier, smokers didn't buy it. They didn't like the taste or the difficulty they had in lighting and smoking the cigarettes. Rather than sticking with Premier for a week in orderto get accustomed to Premier's taste, smokers decided quickly against the brand. After only five months, following consumer complaints that it smelled like burning lettuce and smoldering tennis shoes, RJR extinguished Premier.

If At First You Don't Succeed . . .

Despite Premier's costly failure, RJR continued to pursue its dream. During the next five years, it spent an estimated $200 million additional dollars on research and development to producea better smokeless cigarette. During those five years, smokers increasingly felt like outcasts, as secondhand smoke became a bigger issue and more places banned smoking. In late 1994, the company announced its plan to introduce a new version in 1995 called Eclipse.

According to RJR, Eclipse targeted adult smokers over 35 with a slight skew toward women. The target smokers were "people who enjoy smoking but who'd rather not smell like a smoker" and people who did not want to expose friends and relatives to secondhand smoke. Reynolds did not, however, see Eclipse as a niche product. It claimed that the cigarette could eventually capture a 2 percent share of the nation's 46 million smokers.

RJR's top brand, Camel, had just a 5 percent share, and Virginia Slims, a strong Philip Morris brand, had a 2.4 percent share.

Reynolds tested the new cigarette for more than a year, involving12,000 smokers in 20 states in its research. It claimed that Eclipse scored well with smokers and their nonsmoking friends andfamily members, with more than 80 percent of both groups saying that the new product was a breakthrough. Although many smokers who tested the product did not believe it tasted as good as regular cigarettes, they indicated that it was a reasonable trade-off because there was less secondhand smoke—about 90 percent less than standard cigarettes.

Like Premier, the Eclipse has a charcoal tip wrapped in fiberglass insulation. When the consumer lights the charcoal, it heats to about 900 degrees Celsius, similar to a normal cigarette's burning temperature. However, the insulation containsthe burning, so only hot air escapes as the smoker draws on the cigarette. The hot air passes through processed tobacco containing more than 50 percent glycerin that vaporizes at temperatures below those that burn tobacco. Unlike Premier, thereis no aluminum capsule.

The heated glycerin makes a smokelike vapor that carries the tobacco flavor and nicotine. This is similar to water passing through coffee grounds in a coffee maker, picking up the coffee flavor but leaving the grounds behind. The vapor then passes through a standard filter into the smoker's mouth. Like Premier, the cigarette does not burn down. The tobacco taste simply goes away once the hot air has done its work. The smoker inhales and exhales smoke, but upon exhaling, the smoke quickly disappears, much as a person's smoky breath disappears on a cold morning. Thecompany claimed that someone walking into a room where people were smoking Eclipses would notice only a faint aroma.

Like Premier, Eclipse does not burn tobacco; therefore it produces little side-stream smoke. Standard cigarette smoke is about 75 percent tars and related particles and about 25 percent water, glycerol, and nicotine. Eclipse's smoke is about 85 percent water, glycerol, and nicotine and about 15 percent tar.

Observers pointed out, however, that other ultra-light cigaretteson the market had equally low tar and nicotine levels.

In mid-1996, RJR announced that Eclipse would enter the final testing phase in Chattanooga, Tennessee, a medium-size city where, it argued, the smokers were under societal pressure because of secondhand smoke. The company mailed smokers there a 15-minute video in which a female smoker complained that secondhand smoke was affecting her marriage to a nonsmoker, staining her walls and curtains, and permeating her clothes. The woman then told viewers about Eclipse's advantages.

Reynolds offered a free carton of Eclipse to smokers who agreed to participate in the test and to attend discovery groups of 50–100 people where RJR representatives explained and demonstrated the product. One spokesperson noted that getting consumers to trythe product was very important. Because Eclipse was not a traditional product, it required a nontraditional approach.

Due to higher manufacturing costs, RJR priced Eclipse about 10 cents per pack above the price of premium brands. It spent about $110,000 on measured media in Chattanooga. Early ads showed a steaming teakettle with the copy, "Imagine a cigarette that smells like this." Later, the ad copy contained lines such as, "The smoke disappears. Your girlfriend doesn't."

In mid-1997, Reynolds added a second test market in Lincoln, Nebraska. One newspaper ad there showed a lone smoker at a table of friends with the taglines: "Smoke that disappears. Taste that doesn't." and "Less secondhand smoke. More firsthand pleasure." Billboards encouraged consumers to "Enjoy smoking without smelling like smoke," "Smoke on your couch, not on your porch," and "Smell like your cologne. Not your cigarettes."

Unlike the Chattanooga market, RJR limited distribution to about half of the tobacco sellers in Lincoln because it found that the product required explanation. In Chattanooga, it learned that unaided trial led to disappointed smokers. It also dropped the videos, realizing that smokers did not want to watch videos, and

added more written instructions to the packs. RJR also priced Eclipse comparably to other premium brands.

Disappointing Results

In late 1998, RJR announced it was rethinking Eclipse's marketingstrategy, admitting that the cigarette was not meeting expectations and posed a vexing marketing challenge. Although some smokers liked Eclipse's flavor and the fact that it did not leave a tobacco smell in their homes and cars. Others panned the taste and complained about how difficult it was to light the cigarette. One tobacco dealer observed, "They were a novelty for a while. And a lot of people tried them. But now the new has wornoff."

One RJR spokesperson noted, "It's a different cigarette. Smokers see its attributes but they compare it to their current cigarettes. They need to think of it as a different smoking experience. I think we've set wrong expectations." The spokesperson added, however, that the company was still committedto Eclipse. "We, by no means, have given up. We've put too much of an investment in it."

As of late 1999, Reynolds had not announced a decision as to Eclipse's future. However, it had test marketed the cigarette internationally. RJR tested the brand in Germany with the name Hi-Q. It licensed the technology in Japan and Sweden to other tobacco companies that were committed to marketing reduced-smoke cigarettes. In Japan, the cigarettes were called Airs. In Sweden they were called Inside.

It appears that Japan Tobacco (the Japanese licensee) has more confidence in the product than many people in the United States. In mid-1999, Japan Tobacco (JT) acquired RJR's international operations, including its German production facility and the Hi-Qbrand. JT's Web site shows an illustration of the cigarette. Culturally, Japan stresses being polite and considerate of other people. One observer noted that perhaps the new Japanese cigarette is really a "considerette."

Questions

1. Analyze RJR's marketing strategy for Premier. What segmentation, targeting, and positioning problems do you see?

2. Analyze RJR's marketing strategy for Eclipse. What segmentation, targeting, and positioning problems do you see?

3. Compare the company's marketing strategies for the two cigarettes. How did it change the strategy for Eclipse?

4. Should RJR introduce Eclipse? What marketing recommendations would you make to the company if it decides to introduce the cigarette?

5. Do you believe Eclipse might be more successful in foreign markets? Why or why not?

Sources: Melanie Wells, "Low-Smoke Cigarette Lacks Sales Spark," USA Today, October 13, 1998, p. 5B; Melanie Wells, "RJR Takes Smokeless Test," USA Today, October 27, 1997, p. 1B; Judann Pollack, "RJR Expands Test of Low-Smoke Eclipse," Advertising Age, August 25, 1997, p. 1; Associated Press, "Smokeless Cigarettes Not Catching On with Consumers," Marketing News TM, August 4, 1997,p. 21; John Schwartz, "New Cigarette Clears the Smoke, but the Heat Is Still On," Washington Post, May 27, 1996, p. A03; Michelle Williams, "RJR Markets Smokeless Cigarette in Chattanooga," Associated Press, April 30, 1996; Richard Tomkins, "Tobacco's Holy Grail—A Look at the Lure of the Smokeless Cigarette, "Financial Times (London), December 2, 1994, p. 12; Stuart Elliott, "R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Renews Its Hope That Where There's Low Smoke, There's Marketing Fire," New York Times, November 29, 1994; Philip J. Hilts, "Little Smoke, Little Tar, but Full Dose of

Nicotine," New York Times, November 27, 1994, p. 1; and Chris Burritt, "Don't Hold Your Breath . . . Low-Smoke Cigarette Still Doesn't Taste Right, Reynolds Says," Atlanta Journal and Constitution, November 28, 1994.

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Comprehensive Case

Enterprise Rent-A-Car: Selling the Dream

In the Fast Lane

On a bright January 1998 morning, Dean Pittman, Enterprise Rent-A-Car's area rental manager for Durham/Chapel Hill, North Carolina, got out of his Dodge Intrepid at Enterprise's new office in Durham. He admired the line of clean cars and the new office with its green and white Enterprise sign. To Dean, it seemed that dreams really did come true.

A little over six years ago, Dean had graduated with a degree in industrial relations from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. When he'd first scheduled a job interview with Enterprise, Dean had been skeptical. Although he didn't know muchabout the company, he wasn't certain that he'd like renting cars for a living or working a retail job that included washing cars. But he'd seen the potential to advance quickly, to develop strongmanagement skills, and to learn about running a business.

Once hired, Dean had been promoted quickly to management assistant, then to branch manager at Enterprise's new office in Rocky Mount, North Carolina. A year ago, Enterprise had made him an area manager, giving him responsibility for the Durham/Chapel Hill area—supervising three branch offices with 22 employees, 495cars, and annual revenues of more than $3 million. Dean felt as though he was running his own business. Enterprise gave its managers considerable autonomy and paid them based on a percentage of their branches' profits. Dean's starting salary hadbeen in line with those of his classmates, but within three yearshis pay had doubled, and now it had tripled. There couldn't be

many other companies, Dean thought, in which a person his age could have so much responsibility, so much fun, and such high earnings.

Company Background

Dean's good fortune mirrored that of Enterprise itself. The company's founder Jack Taylor started Enterprise in 1962 with a single location and 17 cars in St. Louis, Missouri. Since then, Enterprise had grown dramatically to become the nation's largest rental car company. In fact, Enterprise had grown at a compound annual rate of 25 percent for the past 11 years. By 1997, the company had more than 3,000 locations, 325,000 cars, $3.1 billionin sales, $5 billion in assets, and 30,000 employees.

A Winning Strategy

Analysts attribute Enterprise's success to several factors. First, cars have become a more important part in people's lives. They just can't do without their cars, even for a day or two. And, as more and more families have both adults working or are single-parent families, there is often no one else in the family who can pick up people when they have car problems. Tied in to this, the courts ruled in the 1970s that insurance companies had to offer coverage so that insured motorists could rent a replacement car if they lost the use of their car. As a result, those insurance companies began to offer rental replacement coverage in their policies.

Beyond these environmental factors, the company's success resulted from its single-minded focus on one segment of the rental car market. Instead of following Hertz, Avis, and other rental car companies by setting up branches at airports to serve national travelers, Enterprise built an extensive network of neighborhood locations serving the "home-city" market—people who needed rental cars as replacements when their cars were wrecked, stolen, or in the shop being repaired. Because these customers were often stranded at a body shop or repair garage and had no easy way to get to a rental office, Enterprise offered to pick them up.

However, Enterprise's first customer in the replacement market isoften the referral source—the insurance agent or auto body shop employee who recommends Enterprise to the stranded customer. Few of Enterprise's customers get up in the morning thinking they'll need to rent a car—but then they're involved in a wreck. So, employees visit the referral sources frequently, often taking them donuts or pizza as a way of thanking them for their business. They call on referral sources who may not be doing business with Enterprise, and they keep insurance agents apprisedof a car's repair status.

Auto Rental News, an industry trade publication, estimates that the replacement market is growing at 10 to 15 percent per year (see Exhibit 1). The entire rental car market, including airport rentals and the travel segment, is about $14.6 billion.

Exhibit 1The Replacement Car Rental Market Competitors, Revenue Estimates, and Other Market Data

I. Competitor 1996 U.S. Revenue % Replacement

Cars in Service (U.S.)

1. Enterprise Rent-A-Car

$2.61 billion  8% 315,000

2. Ford and Chrysler Systems

$490 million 92 82,250

3. Snappy Car Rental

$100 million 100 15,500

4. U-Save Auto Rental

$115 million 60 13,500

5. Rent-A-Wreck $ 85 35 10,942

million

6. Premier Car Rental

$ 66 million 100 9,500

7. Advantage Rent-A-Car

$ 76 million 33 9,000

8. Spirit Rent-A-Car

$ 50 million 100 7,500

9. Super Star Rent-A-Car

$ 43 million 100 5,250

10. Many independentcompanies

$750 million 53

11. Airport-based companies:Hertz, Avis, Budget, Dollar,National, Thrifty, Alamo

$360 million 100

II. Industry Average Pricing

Estimated industry average price per day for replacement rentals, not including additional insurancecoverages or other rentals, such as cellular phones: Industry average daily rental is $23. Industry average rental period for replacement rentals is 12 days.

Additional insurance coverages produce about 5% of revenue, with other rental options producing about 2% of revenue. Per-day rental rates are often established through rational contracts with insurance companies or

automobile manufacturers' or dealers' warranty reimbursement programs.

There are approximately 150 major U.S. airport rental markets. Airport-based rental rates vary widely depending on competition. Airport rental companies alsonegotiate corporate rates with individual companies.

III. Overall Rent-A-Car Market

Overall 1996 U.S. market estimated at $14.62 billion broken down as follows:Business rentals—40%, Leisure/Discretionary rentals—33%, Replacement rentals—27%

IV. Advertising

Advertising Age estimated that U.S. car rental companies spent $384.4 million in measured advertising in 1994, about 2.8% of revenue. It estimated that Enterprise spent $22 million in 1994, up from $13 million in 1993. Enterprise's 1994 spending compared with $47 million spent by Hertz, $31 million by Alamo, and $24 million by Avis. (Sept. 27, 1995)

Source: Auto Rental News

Enterprise's rental rates in the replacement market tended to be lower than rates for comparable rentals at airport-based companies—some analysts estimated up to 30 percent lower. The company tended to locate its offices in city areas where the rentwas much lower than at the airport. It also kept its cars a little longer than the typical airport-rental company. These two factors, and a focus on efficient operations, helped it keep rates lower.

A second segment of the home-city market that Enterprise has begun to serve is the "discretionary" or "leisure/vacation" segment. Friends or relatives may visit and need a car, or the family may decide to take a vacation and feel that the family caris really not as dependable or comfortable as they would like. More and more people are renting for trips just to keep the extramiles off the family car.

Finally, Enterprise is also experiencing growth in the local corporate market. Many small businesses and some large ones have found that it's cheaper and easier for them to rent their fleets from Enterprise than to try to maintain their own fleets. Colleges and universities have realized that it's cheaper to renta 15-passenger van when the soccer team travels than to keep a van full time for only occasional use.

Enterprise's success in the home-city market has attracted competition. Although Enterprise had the largest share of that market, a handful of major regional competitors, such as Spirit and Snappy, when combined, captured a large market share. The airport rental companies, such as Hertz, Avis, and Alamo, got only a small portion of the home-city business. Hertz is just starting a small operation that focuses on the home-city replacement market. Local "mom-and-pop" firms that often have just one office and a few cars serve the remainder of the market.

Enterprise grew very quietly, depending on its referral sources and word-of-mouth promotion. It wasn't until 1989 that the company did its first national advertising. At that time, marketing research demonstrated that if you showed people a list of company names and asked them to identify the rental car companies, only about 20 percent knew Enterprise. The company started advertising nationally but kept its ads low key. By 1997,it had more than quadrupled its annual advertising and promotion spending, using the theme "Pick Enterprise. We'll pick you up." However, although the company's research shows that Enterprise's overall awareness is up substantially, only about one-third of those surveyed are aware of the company's pick-up service, and only about one-third are aware that it has branches nearby.

The Importance of Culture

Although the company's strategy worked well, that strategy was driven by Jack Taylor's philosophy. Taylor believed that the employees' and the company's first job was to serve the customer.From the beginning Taylor urged his employees to do whatever theyhad to do in order to make the customer happy. Sometimes it meantwaiving charges. Other times, it meant stopping everything and running out to pick up a stranded customer. Employees knew that they needed to do whatever it took to make customers happy.

Further, Taylor believed that after customers came employees. He believed that to satisfy customers, a company had to have satisfied, challenged employees who worked as a team. All of Enterprise's branch employees, from assistant manager on up, earna substantial portion of their pay based on branch profitability.In addition, the company has a profit-sharing plan for all employees. Enterprise hired primarily college graduates and promoted from within. Ninety-nine percent of its managers startedas management trainees at the branch level, so they understand the customer-oriented culture. As important, they understand their local markets and the needs of customers in those markets. Thus, Enterprise is really a collection of small, independent businesses, with the corporation providing capital and logisticalsupport.

Finally, Taylor believed that if the company took care of its customers and employees, profits would follow. Sure enough, Enterprise has consistently been profitable in an industry where many firms have not been.

What's Next?

The question is, how can Enterprise continue to grow and prosper in the face of growing competition? The company believes it can double its revenues by the year 2001, but to do so it must wrestle with a number of growth-related issues.

First, it must continue to attract and retain college graduates. The company needed to hire over 5,000 management trainees in 1997

alone, and that number will increase. Yet many college grads, like Dean Pittman, may know little or nothing about Enterprise and may have negative feelings about working for a rental car company. How can Enterprise do a better job of recruiting collegegraduates?

Second, Enterprise must examine its marketing strategy. Which markets should it target? How should it position itself in those markets? Are there new services it could offer that would make sense given its current strategy? How can it do a better job of increasing Enterprise's awareness among targeted customers? How should it respond as new competitors, including the airport-basedfirms such as Hertz, attack the home-city market?

Perhaps the most important question is how can Enterprise continue to grow without losing its focus and without losing the corporate culture that has been so important in helping it and its employees, like Dean Pittman, realize their dreams?

Questions

1. How are the buyer decision processes different for someone renting a replacement car because of a wreck, for someone rentinga car for leisure/vacation purposes, for a business renting a car, and for a college graduate looking for a job?

2. What are the bases for segmenting the rental car market?

3. What marketing recommendations would you make to Enterprise to help it improve its recruiting?

4. What marketing recommendations would you make to Enterprise to improve its marketing strategy?

5. Will Enterprise's strategy work in international markets?

Source:Enterprise Rent-A-Car supported development of this case. Auto Rental News also provided information. This case is adapted from a longer case with the same title authored by Lew Brown, Gary Armstrong, and Philip Kotler, available from Enterprise.

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We server 4.6 billion people around the world We invest 400 million dollar for understanding consumers annually our brands are sold over 180 countries

We have operation in 75 countries our employees represent about 150 nationalities

essons from Procter & Gamble – Their Brand Positioning Strategy Worksheet We have been sharing some learning from Procter & Gamble based on my 23 years building brands and businesses with them. The most recent articles have focused on brands, branding and product positioning. This article provides an outline of how P&G creates their positioning strategies for their brands. You may also know this as the Copy Strategy or the Advertising Strategy or the Branding Strategy, in addition to the Positioning Strategy. This is important since in many cases the support of the brand goes beyond just the advertising.

A Brand Positioning Strategy identifies the basis upon which we expectour brand to be purchased in preference to competition. The content emerges directly from the product or service and the basic consumer need that it is intended to fill. It should state clearly the basic benefit which the brand promises and which constitutes the principal basis for purchase. It should also include a statement of the product characteristics that make this benefit possible and the tone or character that is desired to be built for the brand.

This will provide direction for the basic message of the brand which should remain consistent across all communication vehicles, although the execution of the message may change. It is inherently competitive since it is the basis for preference vs. competition.

Developing the Strategy through use of the Creative Work PlanStart at the top and work down through the rest of the elements.

1 Key FactA single piece of known information relating to the brand which is agreed to be the leading factor influencing or describing the brand performance. It may be information about the brand itself, the competition, the customer, innovation etc. but it must be a single fact.

2 Problem the advertising must solve

This is a consumer problem. It describes the awareness, perception or behavior of the prospective user which has resulted in the Key Fact and which we wish to change.

3 Advertising ObjectiveUsually, simply the counterpart to the problem, although there are a great many distinct options. Eg "Persuade consumers to try my brand" Or "use more of my brand." Or "use my brand in a different way." Persuade them that my brand is a viable alternative to brand x".

4 Strategya) Prospect DefinitionBoth demographics and psychographics.b) Principal Competition. Not just a list of competitors but a description of the segment from which we wish to obtain businessc) PromiseThe single most persuasive agreement one can advance for the brand framed with the customer and the competition in mind.d) Reason WhyThe strongest piece of support for the promise. Occasionally there maybe more than one piece of support but never a liste) Tone/CharacterThe tone that messages should convey to provide personality to the message and bring it alive. This is not executional.

As you can see, the format is very simple. However, like everything atProcter & Gamble, the use of the simple tool is handled by experts in the field. That is what makes the tool so effective.

If you would like to have the benefits of this simple tool support your brand or your business and need the expertise to use it most effectively, contact us. We would be happy to assist you

Price fixing

In April 2011, P&G was fined 211.2m euros by the European Commission for establishing a price-fixing cartel in Europe alongwith Unilever, who was fined 104m euros, and Henkel (not fined). Though the fine was set higher at first, it was discounted by 10%after P&G and Unilever admitted running the cartel. As the provider of the tip-off leading to investigations, Henkel was notfine

Procter & Gamble produced and sponsored the first radio soap operas in the 1930s (Procter & Gamble's being known for detergents—soaps—was the genesis of the term "soap opera")[citation

needed]. When the medium switched to television in the 1950s and 1960s, most of the new serials were sponsored and produced by thecompany. The serial The Young and the Restless is currently broadcast on CBS and is still partially sponsored by Procter & Gamble. WhenAs the World Turns left the air on September 17, 2010, The Young and theRestless, became the only soap left that is partially sponsored by Procter & Gamble.

These past serials were produced by Procter & Gamble:

Another World As the World Turns The Brighter Day The Catlins The Edge of Night The First Hundred Years From These Roots

Guiding Light Lovers and Friends / For Richer, for

Poorer Our Private World Search for Tomorrow Somerset Texas Young Doctor Malone

Procter & Gamble also was the first company to produce and sponsor a prime-time show, a 1965 spinoff of the daytime soap opera As the World Turns called Our Private World. In 1979, PGP producedShirley, a prime-time NBC series starring Shirley Jones which lasted thirteen episodes. They also produced TBS' first original comedy series, Down to Earth, which ran from 1984 to 1987 (110 episodes were produced). They also distributed the syndicated comedy series Throb. Procter & Gamble Productions originally co-

produced Dawson's Creek with Sony Pictures Television but withdrew before the series premiere due to early press reviews. It also produced the 1991 TV movie A Triumph of the Heart: The Ricky Bell Story, which was co-produced by The Landsburg Company. It also produces the People's Choice Awards.

In addition to self-produced items, Procter & Gamble also supports many Spanish-language novellas through advertising on networks such as Univision, Telemundo, Telefutura, and Azteca America. Procter & Gamble was one of the first mainstream advertisers on Spanish-language TV during the mid-1980s.[citation needed]

In 2000, the company's self care BeingGirl website was launched.[17]

In 2008, P&G expanded into music sponsorship when it joined Island Def Jam to create Tag Records, named after a body spray that P&G acquired from Gillette. In April 2010, after the cancellation of As the World Turns, PGP announced they were officially phasing out of the soap industry, and expanding into more family appropriate programming.[18][19]

Procter & Gamble also gave a $100,000 contract to the winners of Cycle 1 through 3 of Canada's Next Top Model, wherein Andrea Muizelaar, Rebecca Hardy and Meaghan Waller won the prize

Procter & GambleFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

The Procter & Gamble Company

Type Public

Traded as

NYSE: PGDow Jones Industrial Average componentS&P 500 component

Industry Consumer goods

Founded 1837

Founder(s) William ProcterJames Gamble

Headquarters Cincinnati, Ohio, USA

Area served Worldwide

Key people Bob McDonald(Chairman, President and CEO)

Products

Foods, beverages, cleaning agents and personal care productsSee P&G brands

Revenue US$ 82.55 billion (2011)[1]

Operating income US$ 15.81 billion (2011)[1]

Net income US$ 11.79 billion (2011)[1]

Total assets

US$ 138.35 billion (2011)[1]

Total equity US$ 68.00 billion (2011)[1]

Employees 129,000 (2011)[1]

Website www.pg.com

The Procter & Gamble Company (NYSE: PG), also known as P&G, is anAmerican multinational consumer goods company headquartered in downtown Cincinnati, Ohio, USA. Its products include foods, beverages, cleaning agents and personal care products.[2]

In 2011, P&G recorded $82.6 billion dollars in sales. Fortune magazine ranked P&G at fifth place of the "World's Most Admired Companies" list, which was up from sixth place in 2010.[3] Procter& Gamble is the only Fortune 500 company to issue C Share common stock

OperationsAs of July 1, 2011, the company structure is categorized into two"Global Business Units" with each one further divided into "Business Segments" according to the company's 2011 Annual Report. Dimitri Panayotopoulos is Vice Chairman of Global Business Units[10]

Beauty segment Grooming segment Health Care segment Snacks & Pet Care segment Fabric Care & Home Care segment Baby Care & Family Home Care segment

Management and staff

The board of directors of Procter & Gamble currently has eleven members: Robert A. McDonald, Angela Braly, Meg Whitman, JohnathanA. Rodgers, Ernesto Zedillo, Scott Cake, Patricia A. Woertz, Susan D. Desmond-Hellmann, Maggie Wilderotter, W. James McNerney,Jr. and Kenneth Chenault.[11] In March 2011 Rajat Gupta resigned from the board after a SEC accusation of Galleon Group insider trading.[12]

In October 2008, P&G was named one of "Canada's Top 100 Employers" by Mediacorp Canada Inc., and was featured in Maclean'snewsmagazine. Later that month, P&G was also named one of Greater

Toronto's Top Employers, which was announced by the Toronto Star newspaper.[13]

In May 2011 Fortune editor-at-large Patricia Sellers praised P&G'sboard diversity, as five of the company's eleven current directors are female and have all been on Fortune's annual Most Powerful Women list.[14]

Procter & Gamble is a member of the U.S. Global Leadership Coalition, a Washington, D.C.-based coalition of over 400 major companies and NGOs that advocates for a larger International Affairs Budget, which funds American diplomatic and development efforts abroad.