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COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCE

Department of zoology and wildlife science conservation

FINAL YEAR RESEARCH PROJECT

TOPIC:

COMPARISON OF TERMITE ASSEMBLAGES IN TWO HABITAT TYPES AT

UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM MWALIMU NYERERE CAMPUS

STUDENT NAME: WARYOBA EMMANUEL M STUDENT NUMBER: 2010-04-03984 COURSE NAME: Bachelor of Science in wildlife science & conservation DEPARTMENT: Department of zoology and wildlife conservation FACULTY: Science COURSE CODE: BL 390: RESEARCH PROJECT

SUPERVISOR: Dr. B.N. Nyundo

DATE OF SUBMISSION: 17.MAY .2013, submitted as dissertation report in

fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Science in wildlife

science and conservation of university of dare s salaam

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ACKNOWLEGEMENT

I would like to express my acknowledge to the Higher Education student Loan Board (

HESLB) for financial support provided to conduct this work under university of Dar es salaam,

zoology and wildlife conservation department for their permission to allow this study to be

conducted and their moral support and necessary materials required to accomplish this study.

The necessary useful information and positive instruction about my research work would not be

met if not successful provided by Dr. F. Magige (research coordinator). My best regards should

go to Dr. B.A. Nyundo (My supervisor) for his relentless encouragement, moral support, skillful

and useful information for a comprehensive work and produce coherent report.

Many people assisted me in one way or another though their names are not mentioned here. But

mention must be made of Professor KIM Howell, Dr. H. Kiwia for advice and useful discussion

during project proposal presentation. Their contributions are highly appreciated. I wish to thank

Mr. Mwangoka for his materials support.

I am also grateful to Mr. Mfaume from department of Zoology and Wildlife Conservation,

University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) for assisting termite identification. The head of

Department for his authorization in different aspects help this study to be conducted in terms of

laboratory equipments and other staff of the UDSM for their assistance at various levels of my

study. My gratitude is also extended to my friend and colleagues in the Zoology building who

encouraged me during difficult time. Their challenges made me work even harder; I thank them

for that too.

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DEDICATION

Here dedication is made to My Sister for her patience, love and support. This work is also

dedicated to my late parents; Mr. and Mrs. Waryoba who with the God love could not remain

alive until I become the first member of the family to attain a stage of being awarded a Bachelor

degree. Furthermore to my young brother (Godfrey) who devotes much his time for

encouragement

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ABSTRACT

Termite species richness, evenness, and abundance in university of Dar es Salaam are poorly

known at a time when biodiversity is being threatened by human activities. Termites family

richness of two selected habitat at University of dare s salaam were determined between 1st of

January and 12nd

of January 2013 in bush thicket forest and wooded grassland habitats. The

objective of study was to compare the assemblages of termite in two selected habitat at

university of dare s salaam Mwalimu Nyerere campus

Termites were sampled along a transect line 100m and 2m wide in two habitat types. A total of

12 subfamilies were found. From which 1988 individuals were recorded during early wet

season, 690 were from forest and 1298 from wooded grassland. Termites abundance was

significantly higher in the wooded grassland (U = 277.500, P= 0.011). Termites subfamilies

richness was higher in bush thicket forest habitat than wooded grassland but the difference was

not statistically significant (U= 59.5, P = 0.47). Comparison between termite functional groups

(i, ii and iii) show no significant difference (K=0.671, P = 0.715). Taxonomic composition

between two selected habitats was not statistically significant ( 2= 3.000, 0.99<p<0.995) and

diversity between two sites was not significant different (t = 0.74) at level of 5%. This study offers

a baseline data on termite communities at University of Dar es salaam. This results can be used

for further research, monitoring and develop sustainable conservation measures.

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Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEGEMENT .................................................................................................................. i

DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ ii

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iii

Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iv

LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... vi

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ vii

LIST OF APPENDICES .............................................................................................................. viii

Chapter One .................................................................................................................................... 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 General introduction ............................................................................................................. 1

1.1.1 Termite functional group between habitats........................................................................ 1

1.1.2 Termite species richness and diversity between habitat types ........................................... 2

1.1.3 Termite abundance between habitats ................................................................................. 3

1.2 Statement of Research Problem ............................................................................................ 4

1.3 General Objectives of Research ............................................................................................ 4

1.3.1 The Specific objectives ...................................................................................................... 4

1.4. Significance of the Study ..................................................................................................... 5

1.5 Literature Review.................................................................................................................. 5

1.7 Study Area Description ......................................................................................................... 9

1.6 research hypothesis ............................................................................................................. 10

Chapter Two.................................................................................................................................. 12

2.0 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS .............................................................................. 12

2.1 Sampling of Termites .......................................................................................................... 12

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2.2 Population and Study Sample ............................................................................................. 12

2.3 Materials and Equipment .................................................................................................... 13

2.4 Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 13

Chapter Three................................................................................................................................ 14

3.0 RESULTS ........................................................................................................................... 14

3.1 The Termite Abundance in Study Habitats ......................................................................... 14

3.2 Comparison of Termite Abundance between Habitat types ............................................... 15

3.2 The diversity of termite ....................................................................................................... 16

3.3 Diversity and Evenness ....................................................................................................... 16

3.4 Species Accumulation Curves ............................................................................................ 19

Chapter Four ................................................................................................................................. 23

4.0 DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................................... 23

4.1 Introductory Remarks ......................................................................................................... 23

4.1.1Termite Abundance in the selected Habitat ...................................................................... 23

4.1.2 Termites Species Diversity between Habitat types .......................................................... 24

4.1.3 Termites Species Richness ............................................................................................... 25

4.1.4 Termite Functional Group in Different Habitat Types .................................................... 25

4.1.5 Termite Taxonomic Composition .................................................................................... 26

5.0 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................... 27 5.1Finding from this Study ....................................................................................................... 27 5.2 Recommendation ................................................................................................................ 27

6.0 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 29

7.0 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................ 33 Appendix 1: .............................................................................................................................. 33 Appendix 2: .............................................................................................................................. 34 Appendix 3: .............................................................................................................................. 35

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: shows the University of Dare S Salaam Map showing parts of studying site (Bush

thicket Forest). The site is behind auxiliary police office and wooded grassland along

university Road to Ubungo and adjacent to university sports area ........................................... 11 Fig 2 above Shows Abundance of Termite in Two Selected Habitat of Wooded Garland and

Bush Thicket Forest .................................................................................................................. 15 Figure 4: Species accumulation curves for wooded grassland the habitat ................................ 20

Figure 5: Species accumulation curves for the habitat ............................................................. 20

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Termites Abundance (Summary Table) In the Two Habitats Types during the Wet

Season ....................................................................................................................................... 14 Table 2: Statistical Comparison of Significance Difference in Abundance of Termite between

Two Habitats at University of Dar Es Salaam Main Campus .................................................. 16 Table 3 comparison of (H`) and Evenness (J) of two selected habitats .................................... 17 Table 4: termite subfamilies checklist absent/present in their respective habitats at university

of Dar es salaam main campus.................................................................................................. 18 Table 5: termite family richness and abundance in two habitats at university of Dar es salaam

main campus ............................................................................................................................. 19 Table 6: termite functional groups from the two habitats at university of Dar es Salaam main

campus ...................................................................................................................................... 21 Table 7 termite Functional groups and their respective subfamilies categorized at University of

dare s salaam main campus ....................................................................................................... 22

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: comparison of termite functional groups ............................................................. 33

Appendix 2: comparison of termite microhabitats.................................................................... 34 Appendix 3: shows 30 samples collected on each habitat and their respective subfamily

richness between two selected habitats for three days to obtain cumulative curve .................. 35

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Chapter One

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 General introduction

Termite is common name for social insects of about 2800 species in seven(7) families so far

known to occur in tropical forest and grassland savanna area worldwide include Mastotermitidae,

Kalotermitidae, Kodotermitidae, Kermopsidae, Rhinotermitidae, Seritermitidae, and Termitidae.

Taxonomically, termite placed into Phylum Arthropoda, Class Insecta, and Order Isoptera

(Krishna et al 1970)

Within a community there are often sets of species that tend to congregate, due to using

particular resources in similar manners these are known ‘guild’. Community structure is the

species abundance, composition, and interaction of various abiotic (environmental) and biotic

(relations with other species or individuals and abiotic factors that may affect this structure).

Declining of forest cover, loss of biodiversity and increased human population contribute

directly to termite abundance and species richness (Kayan, et al., 1979; Fragoso et al., 1994;

Nash et al., 1996)

1.1.1 Termite functional group between habitats

Functional groups of termite’s assemblages are based on feeding habits and nest group (

Eggleton et al. 1996), the functional groups classified as; Soil-feeding: termites that feed on

humus and mineral soil (their food sources include plant-decaying materials, dead foliage,

woody materials, roots, seeds and the faces of higher animals. Wood-feeding: termites that feed

on dead wood. Soil/wood interface-feeding: termites that feed on extremely decayed wood that

has lost its structure and become soil-like. This is synonymous with the `intermediate feeders'

(Brouwer at el 1993) Litter-feeding: termites that feed predominantly on leaf litter and small

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items of woody trash. Epiphyte-feeding: Hospitalitermes is known to feed on lichens and other

free-living non-vascular plants, which they graze from the surface of tree trunks (Collins et al

1979). Hypogeal or subterranean nesters: termites whose colony centers are below the ground

without any indication of their presence (wood and Johnson, 1986). They use their faeces or

mixture of feaces and mineral soil in nest construction. The colony centers are often poorly

defined and characteristics, especially in the soldier less Apicotermitinae. But in some

Macrotermitinae, Apicotermes, and Aomallotermes, a little internal structure or surface holes are

present together with complex underground nests to enable foraging on above vegetation. This

group also includes many species that are facultative secondary inhabitant of epigeal mounds

such as Microcerotermes, Pericarpritermies and soldier less Apicotermitinae (Eggleton et al.,

1996)

1.1.2 Termite species richness and diversity between habitat types

Differences in food availability (diverse food resources), vegetation structure, (sparse and dense),

and microclimate differs from one habitat to another and consequently affects the species

richness and diversity of termites between habitats. Species diversity in the forest is high

compare to other habitats such as grassland, woodland, and cropland due to availability of

various foods resources in the forest. Retention of canopy cover in the forest was stated as the

factors contribute to high species richness than in grassland, and cropland (Materu, 2012)

More heterogeneous and complex habitat has greater species diversity than homogeneous

habitats perhaps, due to more opportunities for niche differentiation and resource partitioning

hence a significant decrease in competition between similar or different species (Wood, 1978)

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Dense vegetation in the forest provides more diverse food resources which attract many more

diverse termite species in the forest microclimate than less dense vegetation plant cover in other

habitats, such as wooded grassland, grassland and farmland which all characterized by sparse

vegetation. Tree canopy cover reduces solar radiation falling on the forest floor compared to that

of other habitat such as wooded grassland, grassland, grassland, and farmland at which when

radiation falls down the ground it reduce soil moisture holding capacity and consequently, makes

the habitat not favorable for termites assemblages.

1.1.3 Termite abundance between habitats

In tropics, habitat types influences abundance, seasonal distribution and diversity of termites

(Eggleton 2000). Other environmental biotic factor such as vegetation types and ground cover

affects termite abundance and species richness. The distribution of termite at different habitats

probably might be influenced by food availability and plants biomass (Watson and Gay 1991).

Termite abundance from different habitats is known to vary from one habitat to another in

accordance to species type and human activities (Magurran, 2004). Probably altering the forest

habitat to grassland or farmland influences food availability, nesting site and reduce natural

predators (Holloway et al, 1992) and this will contribute to high abundance of termite’s

assemblages in these habitat and lower species richness and diversity. For example, slashing

stems and leaves produce large amount of biomass in the field as termite food.

Termites form component of the ecosystem and hence their species richness abundance should

be understood to all habitats not for the sake of only comparison among habitat but enabling to

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monitor distribution, abundance, species richness, and take appropriate conservation measures.

However, no comprehensive study on the abundance and species richness of termite has been

undertaken in wooded grassland and thicket forest at university of Dar es salaam Mwalimu

Nyerere campus. Therefore this study will try to fill the gap.

1.2 Statement of Research Problem

Lack of baseline information from different habitats hampers the design of remedial measures

and management strategies; loss of biodiversity in the earth is now a major global concern before

we know what is missing, there is progressive change of habitats types now at which natural

forest, woodland and grassland has been changed into farmland, rangeland, settlement, and other

land use forms and consequently affects species richness, and diversity of termites assemblages.

However, no comprehensive studies done in wooded grassland and only few studies has been

done on forest, grassland, and farmland in East Africa and Tanzania as well (Nyeko and

Olubayo, 2007) while no any studies has been done at my study area (university of dar es

salaam). The current studies assess and compare the termite assemblages in terms of species

richness, abundance and diversity in wooded grassland and Thicket forest.

1.3 General Objectives of Research

To assess the influence of habitat types, namely; wooded grassland and thicket forest on termite

assemblages (community)

1.3.1 The Specific objectives

1.0 To compare species richness and diversity between the selected habitat

2.0 To compare termites functional groups between selected habitat

3.0 To compare termites taxonomic groups between two selected habitats

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1.4. Significance of the Study

Following incredible niche termites fulfills; soil formation, nutrient cycling, and foods to human,

birds, reptiles such as gecko, skink, lizard, and echidnas.(Martin, 2000), waste recycling ,Seed

germination emergence residence room for beetles, mice, python and as good and efficient

bioreactors. This research will have significance future usages to entomologist and conservation

biologist. The study will provide base line information and supplements the required information

necessary for conservation action using termites as key taxa and also, this study will have

considerable implication for the management and protection of termite species in forest, and

wooded grassland. These finding will provide important information crucial for the formulation

of management policies and plans as part of the effort to conserve the overall biodiversity values

(Wood, 1978)

The study will also contribute on the information that helps in biotechnology, biochemistry, and

Ecological future researches about termites more ever, research in Tanzania will incorporate the

company generated geochemical data, regolith and landform characteristics and local geology

have provided much information concerning Africa mound-building termites, and the use of

Termitaria in mineral exploration, both artisanal and modern.

1.5 Literature Review

A biodiversity base line study on species Richness, Functional Diversity and Relative

Abundance of Termites under Different Land Use Regimes in Jambi Province, Central Sumatra,

Indonesia by, 2000 showed termites are more abundant in the primary forest and least abundant

in the cassava garden. The collected termites followed into four feeding group. Wood-feeding

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and soil-feeding species are relatively abundant in most transects, while epiphyte-feeders are rare

and interface-feeders (those species that feed on extremely decayed soil-like wood) vary

considerably in abundance among transects

A biodiversity study done in the southern Cameroon on The diversity, abundance, and biomass

of termites under differing levels of disturbance in the Mbalmayo Forest Reserve, mentioned

termites to achieve very high population densities where by termites were one of the numerous

of all arthropods group and this, was supported by (Eggleton et al. 1996)

Detailed knowledge of local species diversity as well as the diversity of functional groups of

termites (different groups of species that have different ecological strategies, e.g. different

feeding habits) is critical (Dawes-Gromadzki, 2005). It is a prerequisite for evaluating and

quantifying the type and extent of their functional roles in ecosystem processes, i.e. the

contributions that different termite species and functional groups make to the regulation of

different ecosystem processes. It is also important for the development of sound management

practices, for example agricultural, grazing and fire management (Jones, 2002) also noted that

accurate assessments of structures of termite assemblages are necessary to explain the ecological

influence of termites on various sites. Further observed that sustainable management of soil

macro fauna in Uganda is constrained by a shortage of information on the activity, behavior and

environmental tolerances of many species of this fauna and by the limited understanding of the

structural and functional stability of soil fauna communities in general

At a given site the composition of a local termite assemblage will govern the overall impacts of

termites on ecosystem processes (Lavelle et al., 1997; Jones & Prasetyo, 2002). This is because

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most termite assemblages are made up of species that represent a diverse range of feeding for

example; wood, soil, grass) and nesting ( mounds, hypogeal and arboreal nests, nests in wood)

strategies ( different ‘functional groups’). Consequently different species and groups of species

are likely to have different ecological effects on ecosystem components (Dawes-Gromadzki,

2005).

Termites assemblages study conducted at an altitude of 1000 m by David T. Jones (2000) at two

primary forest habitats: Termite lower Montane forest and stunted fancies of upper Montane

forest. Soil, wood, litter, termite nests, and arboreal microhabitats up to a height of 2 m above

ground were sampled using a belt transect protocol. Two transects were run in each forest type.

The upper montane forest and the lower montane forest transect showed similar species richness

and relative abundance of wood-feeding termites was found in both forest types. However, the

lower montane forest had greater richness and relative abundance of species that feed on soil and

extremely decayed soil-like wood. This difference is attributed mainly to (i) the well developed,

organic-rich soils of the lower montane forest being more suitable for soil-dwelling and mound-

building termites compared with the upper montane forest which has sandy soils with a thick

covering of peat, and (ii) the low-stature and open canopy of the upper montane forest creates

microclimatic conditions which are adverse for soil-feeding termites compared with the high,

closed canopy in the lower montane forest. As expected, comparisons with similar studies in

lowland forests in Southeast Asia confirmed that the upland forests are relatively depauperate.

(Jones, 2000)

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At a given site the composition of a local termite assemblage will govern the overall impacts of

termites on ecosystem processes (Lavelle et al., 1997). This is because most termite assemblages

are made up of species that represent a diverse range of feeding (e.g. wood, soil, grass) and

nesting (e.g. mounds, hypogeal and arboreal nests, nests in wood) strategies (i.e. different

‘functional groups’). Consequently different species and groups of species are likely to have

different ecological effects on ecosystem components (Dawes-Gromadzki, 2005)

The composition of termite assemblages was analyzed in study done by Alves, between 2007

and 2009 at three sites in the state of Rio Grande does Norte, Brazil. Where by four feeding

groups were sampled: wood-feeders, soil-feeders, wood-soil interface feeders and leaf-feeders.

The wood-feeders were dominant in number of species and number of encounters at all sites. In

general, the sites were not significantly different in relation to the environmental variables

measured. The same pattern was observed for termite assemblages, where no significant

differences in species richness, relative abundance and taxonomic and functional composition

were observed between the three sites. The agreement between composition of assemblages and

environmental variables reinforces the potential of termites as biological indicators of habitat

quality.

Given the ecological importance of termites, there is a need to characterize termite assemblage

structure within and between sites. As a consequence of their highly patchy spatial distribution,

combined with the many and varied field sampling regimes adopted by previous researchers, it

has not been possible to use the existing data to make reliable direct comparisons of termite

diversity and abundance between sites this was according to Eggleton at el, 1995. Also it is

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necessary to develop and test standardized sampling methods that can be applied easily

throughout the tropics. To this end, a standardized transects sampling method designed to

measure termite species richness and functional diversity in tropical forests has been developed.

The protocol has been used in Cameroon (Eggleton et al, 1995), Thailand (Davies, 1997) in his

study titled Termite species richness in fire-prone and fire-protected dry deciduous dipterocarp

forest in DoiSuthep-PuiNational Park

Study carried out in Malaysia observed that termite is more abundant in the forest and grassland

during the wet season than during dry season. Diversity of termite has been stated as the

indicator of disturbance in natural ecosystem (Bandeira, 1979). Low level of species richness and

abundance is an indicator of level of environment disturbance (Avenant, 2000). A change in

termite habitat characteristics such as plants species composition often affects termite species

richness. Destruction of forest and grassland habitats influences termite abundance and species

richness.

1.7 Study Area Description

The present study was conducted at the University of Dar es Salaam main campus which is

situated close to the equator on the coast of Indian Ocean and located at 6 o 48’S to 39

o 17’E

.(Encarta encyclopedia 2007. Dar es Salaam city experiences tropical climatic conditions,

characterized by hot and humid weather throughout the year. Average January High Temperature

is 34 °C/92 °F. Average January Low Temperature is 21 °C/70 °F. Average July High

Temperature is 30 °C/87 °F. Average July Low Temperature is16 °C/60 °F Average Annual

rainfall is approximately 1,105 mm and in a normal year there are two distinct rainy seasons:

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"the long rains", which fall during April and May, and "the short rains", which fall during

October and November (Encarta encyclopedia, 2007)

1.7.1Study site

This research was conducted at University of Dar es salaam main campus area, in which two

sites were used. The bush thickets forest behind Hill Park and wooded grassland at gate maji

adjacent to university play ground.

1.6 research hypothesis

o Termite richness, and diversity between the selected habitats are significantly different

from each other

o Termite functional group between two selected habitat types are significantly different

o Taxonomic composition between two selected habitats are significantly different

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Figure 1: shows the University of Dare S Salaam Map showing parts of studying site (Bush

thicket Forest). The site is behind auxiliary police office and wooded grassland along

university Road to Ubungo and adjacent to university sports area

Key= location of bushthicket and grassland patches (study sites).

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Chapter Two

2.0 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

2.1 Sampling of Termites

Standardized transect method of Jones and Eggleton (2000) was used for sampling termites.

Belts transect (2 x 100 m) laid in each habitat types. Each transect was divided into 10 (2 x 5 m)

sections and in each section two man- half an hour will be spent searching for termites. Within

each section the following microhabitats were searched; surface soil, leaf litter and humus on the

forest floor (at the base of trees, between buttress roots etc.), inside dead logs, tree stumps,

branches, twigs, mounds, carton sheeting and runways on trees up to a height of 2 m above

ground and arboreal nests up to 2 m height. Mainly soldier and worker castes were collected

from the different microhabitats. Termite family diversity was compared using Shannon

Diversity Index, In addition to sampling. Collected termite specimens were stored in 70%

isopropyl alcohol for identification purposes. Encountered termite nests were examined and

recorded both during sampling and random collections. Identification of termite species collected

from the study area was made by using taxonomic key and literature.

2.2 Population and Study Sample

The study sample of the population was mainly base on the one species of insect (termites) in

two habitat types. The data of the topics under study was delimited obtained through collection

in the field or sampled plot (wooded grassland and bush thicket forest). Collection of Data was

on the basis only one season, wet season. Sorting and identification of collected specimens was

conducted at the laboratory of the University of Dar es salaam, Department of zoology and

wildlife conservation

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2.3 Materials and Equipment

Data of my topics under study was be delimited obtained through collection in the field or plot,

to meet the demands of quality data, the different materials will be in use to accomplish the

process of data collection and management ( for the case, preservation in 70% alcohol). The

following materials used; note books, pencil, pen, identification books (key), and 70% alcohol.

Equipments used were; microscope, tape measures, machete, plastic bags transect belt, hummer.

2.4 Data Analysis

Descriptive data analysis was used to summarize the mass of information; total number of

termites collected, percentages, and mean.

Diagrammatic presentation of data in this report used the following:

Tabular and Bar charts and graphs.

The main component of species diversity; richness and equitability computed using the Shannon-

Weiner index (H) was and jaccard (J) index of similarity respectively with aid of Diversity

program (2007). The Significance established at P ≤0.05 (significant) and the treatment of

continuous data followed in all cases a similar procedure: Initially, for all variables, descriptive

statistics (mean, median, mode, range, standard deviation, variance, skewness, kurtosis and box

plots) were produced in to assess for normality. Not normally distributed variables were obtained

and analyzed with Mann-Whitney U; Chi-squared tests of independence was used to detect

possible significant differences of the proportion of species in each feeding group to compare

taxonomic composition of the termite between two selected habitats types while non parametric

test, kruskal Wallis employed to detect the significant differences in three functional group of

termite (group, i, ii, and iii)

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Chapter Three

3.0 RESULTS

3.1 The Termite Abundance in Study Habitats

60 samples were sampled from both habitats (wooded grassland and bush thicket forest). Total

of 1988 Individuals were collected from which 1298 obtained at wooded grassland and 690 from

bush thicket forest. The average maximum number of termite was 343 ranging in 343

individuals with mean of 82.83. The variance of termite abundance is 8576.93 with standard

deviation of 93 and the number of termite skewed by 1.49. Their respective means, standard

deviation, maximum and minimum number are summarized in Table1.

Table 1: Termites Abundance (Summary Table) In the Two Habitats Types during the Wet

Season

wooded grassland Bush Thicket Forest

Minimum 0.0 Minimum 0.0

Maximum 343.0 Maximum 180.0

Range 343.0 Range 180.0

Sum 1298.0 Sum 690.0

Mean 108.17 Mean 57.50

Standard Dev 117.52 Standard Dev 52.18

Variance 13810.15 Variance 2723.13

Skewness(G1) 0.94 Skewness(G1) 1.26

Kurtosis(G2) -0.29 Kurtosis(G2) 1.54

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3.2 Comparison of Termite Abundance between Habitat types

A total of 1988 individuals of termite were collected in both habitats, wooded grassland had

higher number of individuals were 1298 than that of bush thicket forest which were 690 (fig2).

The most abundant subfamily was Termitinae and Nasutermitinae While less abundant

subfamily were; Termospinae and Coptotermitinae Termites abundance between wooded

grassland and bush thicket forest were significantly different (Mann-Whitney U = 277.5, P =

0.011)

Fig 2 above Shows Abundance of Termite in Two Selected Habitat of Wooded Garland and

Bush Thicket Forest

COMPARISON OF TERMITE ABUDANCE BETWEEN HABITATS

FOREST GRASSLAND

HABITATS

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

1200

1300

INDIVIDUALS

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Table 2: Statistical Comparison of Significance Difference in Abundance of Termite

between Two Habitats at University of Dar Es Salaam Main Campus

Habitat U Statistic P Significant

forest vs. grassland 277.5 0.011 *

3.2 The diversity of termite

11subfamily of termite species were found in the bush Thicket Forest habitat and only 9 sub

families were found in wooded grassland habitat. The differences in numbers were not

statistically significant.(). Members of subfamily Termitinae and Nasutitermitinae (21%) were

more abundant in wooded grassland, followed by Amitermitinae (16%) and Heterotermitinae

(14%) while other subfamilies such as Hodotermitinae, Macrotermitinae, Psammotermitinae,

kalotermitidae were less abundant (1-4%) had little number of termites. In the bush Thicket

Forest dominant group of termite were recorded to be; Macrotermitinae (26%), genus

Postelectotermes.

3.3 Diversity and Evenness

Subfamily diversity using Shannon- Wiener index (H`) Observed to be (H) = 2.12 for bush

thicket forest habitat and that of wooded grassland (H) = 1.91. And therefore bush thicket forest

was more diverse than wooded grassland. But both had equal diversity at 5% Level (P = 0.7441)

Using an Equitability J index with 10000 random partitions Observed Diversity, bush thicket

forest- FR, J = 0.85 while that of 2nd sample wooded grassland (WG), J = 0.77. And Delta was

0.0838583. Hence species in forest habitat is more evenly distributed than wooded grassland

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Table 3 comparison of (H`) and Evenness (J) of two selected habitats

Habitats Number of subfamily Diversity(H) Similarity(J)

WOODED GRASSLAND 9 1.91 0.77

BUSH THICKET FOREST 11 2.11 0.85

Overall 11 4.03 1.62

delta 0.20 0.08

Probability(two sided test) 0.7441 0.7405

A total of 12 subfamily of termite were recorded after identification of samples collected in the

field from both habitats. Termospinae, Kaloterimitidae, and Coptotermitinae subfamilies were

only recorded in bush thicket but in few relative numbers. Distinctiveness in termite assemblages

also observed in wooded grassland where by subfamily Psammotemitinae recorded but not in

bush thicket forest. Table 4, summarized subfamilies and their absence or presence in their

respective habitat.

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Table 4: termite subfamilies checklist absent/present in their respective habitats at

university of Dar es salaam main campus

Termite subfamily Wooded grassland

Bush thicket forest

Nasutitermitinae † †

Termitinae † †

Hodotermitinae † †

kalotermitidae sp1 † †

Macrotermitinae † †

Amitermitinae † †

Postelectectotermes † †

Termospinae ₋ ₋

Heterotermitinae † †

Kalotermitidae sp2 ₋ †

Psammotermitinae † ₋

Coptotermitinae ₋ †

Total subfamily 11 9

A total of 11 subfamily of termite were recorded from bush thicket and only 9 from wooded

grassland, but wooded grassland had more number of individuals 1298 than bush thicket forest

698. Members of subfamily Termitinae (26%) and Nasutitermitinae(21%) were more abundant,

followed by Amitermitinae( 16%) and heterotermitinae (14%) while other subfamilies;

Hodotermitinae, Macrotermitinae, Psammotermitinae, kalotermitidae sp1 were less abundant (1-

4%) had few number of termite. In forest, the dominant group of termite were recorded to be;

Macrotermitinae(26%), genus Postelectotermes (16%) of family Rhinotermitidae, termitinae(

15%), less dominant were that of Hodotermitinae( 8%), Amitermitinae( 7%), Nasutermitinae(

7%) and Kalotermitidae and Heterotermitinae( 6%). (Table 5)

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Table 5: termite family richness and abundance in two habitats at university of Dar es

salaam main campus

Habitat types

Termite subfamily Wooded grassland Bush Thicket forest Total

Nasutitermitinae 279 51 330

Termitinae 343 104 447

Hodotermitinae 62 60 122

Kalotermitidae sp1 15 48 63

Macrotermitinae 58 180 238

Amitermitinae 203 52 255

Postelectectotermes 116 113 229

Termospinae 0 12 12

Heterotermitinae 182 44 226

Kalotermitidae sp2 0 16 16

Psammotermitinae 40 0 40

Coptotermitinae 0 10 10

Total abundance 1298 690 1988

Family richness 9 11 12

3.4 Species Accumulation Curves

Termite’s species accumulation curves were drawn after pooling the data from different habitats

and plotting the cumulative number of termite species against the area. The number of species

from each habitat increased with the area sampled until the asymptote level was reached. Termite

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species richness from the wooded grassland and bush thicket forest was recorded from

10quadrats (fig 3 & 5)

Figure 3: Species accumulation curves for wooded grassland the habitat

Figure 4: Species accumulation curves for the habitat

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3.5 Termite Functional Group between Habitat Types

Termite functional group provides useful information on the roles termite in ecosystem. Four

different groups were identified as wood feeders, fungus growing (wood and leaf litter feeders)

and soil feeders with different roles in the decomposition process. Termite in functional group I

feed on Wood and nest in wood material. This group consisted of 334 Individuals from bush

thicket forest and 65 Individuals from wooded grassland

On the other hand termite in functional group (ii) feeds on the wood, leaf litter, and nest on soil

or dry logs and brunches. A total of 696 individuals were recorded, the highest number of

individuals (458) were recorded from wooded grassland and238 from bush thicket forest

The functional group (iii) consisted of soil feeding and nesting termite, these were collected from

soil upper horizon and in damp wood or wood losing its structure. Out of 1988 individuals

collected, 775 Collected from wooded grassland and 118 from bush thicket forest. Table 6

displays termite functional group and their respective abundance. Comparison between termite

functional groups (i, ii and iii) show no significant difference (K=0.671, P = 0.715)

Table 6: termite functional groups from the two habitats at university of Dar es Salaam

main campus

FUNCTIONAL

GROUP

WOODED

GRASLAND

BUSH THICKET

FOREST

TOTAL PERCENTAGES (%)

I 65 334 399 20.07

II 458 238 696 35.01

III 775 118 893 44.92

TOTAL 1298 690 1988 100

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Table 7 termite Functional groups and their respective subfamilies categorized at

University of dare s salaam main campus

Termite Subfamily Woded grassland Bush thicket forest Fh Functional group

Nasutitermitinae † † L/W II

Termitinae † † S/W III

Hodotermitinae † † S III

kalotermitidae sp1 † † L/W II

Macrotermitinae † † W I

Amitermitinae † † W I

Postelectectotermes † † S III

Termospinae ₋ † L/W II

Heterotermitinae † † L/W II

Kalotermitidae sp2 ₋ † W I

Psammotermitinae † ₋ W I

Coptotermitinae ₋ †

Total family 9 11

Note: Fh= functional habit, W= dry wood material, S= soil, L= leaf litter, += present, -

=absent

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Chapter Four

4.0 DISCUSSION

4.1 Introductory Remarks

In this chapter results obtained from selected habitat in my study in university Main campus

including effect of habitat types, disturbances on termite’s species richness, abundance, and

diversity are discussed. The discussion merges certain aspects of termite ecology in the different

habitats and provides an overview of local termite communities.

4.1.1Termite Abundance in the selected Habitat

Termite was more abundant in wooded grassland than in bush thicket forest. Differences in

abundance are considered to have resulted due to ecological impact. The high abundance in

wooded grassland may be explained by availability and reliability of food such condition leading

to rapid individuals and population growth. Some researches reports have reported that land

clearing affects soil fauna population in the subtropical Possoh rain forest in Malaysia. Studies

on termite abundance and distribution at Mokwa in Nigeria have shown that Microtermes species

were more abundant in savannah woodland and agricultural ecosystem than in the forest in West

Africa

By slashing stems and leaves produces large amount of biomass in the field as termite food, this

activities is common to the studied site (wooded grassland) as the university administration

maintain its regular slashing activities, Studies on the effect of cultivation on termites carried out

at Mokwa in Nigeria showed that Macrotermes spp were able to exploit available food resources

after deforestation (Black and Wood, 1989). The presence of tree canopy and vegetation ground

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cover improves soil moisture holding capacity which is favorable to termite but its removal

increases solar radiation reaching the soil surface.

4.1.2 Termites Species Diversity between Habitat types

Species diversity was higher in the forest habitat than in the wooded grassland habitats probably

due to availability of different types of food resources. The forest habitat has high dense of

vegetation providing more diverse food resources than wooded grassland characterized by sparse

vegetation. The canopy cover reduces solar radiation falling on the forest floor compared to the

grassland. Diverse food resources attract many more termites were to the forest micro climate

conditions.

Changes in micro climate to leads to reduction of termite species, similar studies carried out in

West Africa suggested that dense forest cover is one of the key factors favoring termite species

richness (Eggleton et al., 1996). Studies reported Amazon forest showed that the forest habitat

had microclimate that favors termite’s species. Furthermore, similar studies carried Central

Amazon showed that human activities like planting secondary forests and grazing in primary

forest areas reduced termite species richness. Other studies carried out in Mbalmayo forest

showed that species richness and the functional groups differ under different levels of forest

disturbance (Eggleton et al., 1995) and that reducing the canopy due to land use system lead into

reduction of termite assemblage. Furthermore, studies carried out in Amazon and Lowland

Sumatra, Indonesia showed that termite assemblages collapse along with land use these

contrasting findings suggest that different termite taxa may respond differently.

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4.1.3 Termites Species Richness

There were 11 number of termite subfamily in the bush thicket forest, 9 in the grassland (table5

& fig2). Probably the number of termite species sampled was under estimated in contrast to

studies carried out in Malysia ( Tho,1992) The number are lower during the Early rainfall season

possibly because during that season the soil surface is a beat heats up quickly during the day

there by influencing termite foraging activity of subterranean termite due to forest landscape.

Though both selected studying sites experience the same condition of heat, but situation in forest

was little better compared to grassland at which canopy cover and denser vegetation provide

humid condition for which termite prefer unlike wooded grassland where vegetation cover is

sparse and allow light to heat up the soil and many termite not prefer such condition. Regular

mowing activities observed in the wooded grassland could be a leading factor at which reduce its

species richness as many functional habits of termite are reduced by pruning trees and destroy

mound around the area. Cutting down of some trees in bush thicket for fire wood observed in a

site at which this leads to increases number of termite prefer dry wood and leaf litter

microhabitats and hence increases number of termite subfamilies.

4.1.4 Termite Functional Group in Different Habitat Types

Knowledge of functional types in different habitat types is critical in predicting responses of

different species. Several important assumptions should be considered such as diversity of

functional groups before disturbances and their linkages in relation to key stone species (table 6

and 7). results from this work have shown that termite have a wide range of dietary, foraging,

and nesting habits, with many species showing a high degree of food specialization in agreement

with previous studies( Wood 1978; sleaford et al., 1996). The termite species recorded from

UDSM were categorized according to their food preference as follows; wood feeding termite,

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dry wood and leaf litter, and soil. Many number of termite (898) found prefer soil habit and feeds

on soil and makes III categorized group of termite functional group. The followed category was

group II (696) which feeds on dry wood and leaf litter and few termite numbers were in category

I (399) which prefer feeding on wood. Assumed reason for many individuals of termite feeding

on soil to be found could be these; first, large part of sampled area featured by presence of

mounds especially in wooded grassland to which contribute for high abundance of termite in

wooded grassland than bush thicket forest and sampling activities done in morning leads to

accounting with many foraging termite which come to forage above the mound soil surface in

early morning. Secondary, there were few number of dead wood and few tree runways of fresh

plant trees and hence makes few number of termite in group I and group II

4.1.5 Termite Taxonomic Composition

A total of 12 subfamilies of termite were recorded after identification of collected samples of

termite from both habitats. Termospinae, Kaloterimitidae species 2, and Coptotermitinae

subfamilies were only recorded in bush thicket but in few relative numbers. Distinctiveness in

termite assemblages also observed in wooded grassland where by subfamily Psammotemitinae

recorded but not in bush thicket forest. Table 4, summarized subfamilies and their absence or

presence in their respective habitat.

Studies carried out near Darwin; northern Australia have shown that the termite fauna of the

monsoonal forest were under the same sub families Macrotermitinae, Termitinae, and

Nasutermitinae ( Tracy, 2003). They include the most advanced and diverse group of termite,

exhibit a wide variety of social specialization. Termite species in this group have elaborate

external and internal anatomy compared to the lower termite species. (Breznak and Brune, 1994)

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5.0 CONCLUSION

The overall termite species abundance in grassland and forest habitats varies significantly due to

availability and reliability of food. The species richness and evenness were higher in the forest

due to higher productivity. The alternation of natural forest for various human activities has

reduced species richness in grassland habitat. Diversification of termite subfamilies members in

bush thicket forest than wooded grassland could be due to clearance and other related

disturbances in wooded grassland that reduces the variation in food quality and increases

competition among termite species and their natural enemies. Comparison of termite functional

group was significantly different. This study provides a baseline data on termite communities in

UDSM. Habitat changes have lead to moderate modification of termite communities in terms of

species richness, diversity and evenness.

5.1Finding from this Study

Habitat clearance for various purposes in the university campus impacts negatively on food

availability, nesting sites and termite species richness and Forest disturbance does not

immediately affect species evenness and distribution in UDSM probably because tree stumps,

dead root, and bunches provided adequate food for different species

5.2 Recommendation

1. All forest habitats should be protected and conserved to sustain termite species in

the campus as some termite are unable to withstand harsh environment resulting

from habitat alternation

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2. Termite species richness in different habitat during dry season is not done.

Therefore there is need to carry out a campus wide survey aiming at identifying

different termite species in relation to factors influencing their richness and

diversity and help to contribute to additional information in Tanzania.

3. Termite molecular biology should be used in combination with morphological

characters to improve identification of termite species in Tanzania

4. Here I recommend for future research of termites covering under one areas of

termites specie richness during dry season,

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6.0 REFERENCES

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in the Caatinga, Brazil

Avenant, N. L (200), “Small mammals community characteristics as indicator of ecological disturbances

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Wildlife Research, 30: 26-30

Bandeira, A. G (1979), “Ecological de cupins (insect: Isoptera) da Amazonian Central: efeitos

doesmatamento sobre as populaces’’, Acta Amazoan, 9(3):481-99

Baroni, U. C., Josens, G. & Peakin, G.J. (1978). Empirical data and demographic parameters. In:

Production ecology of ants and termites (Brian, M.V. Ed.). Cambridge University Press,

Cambridge, UK,

Black, H. I. J. and Wood, T.G (1989), “The effect of cultivation on the vertical distribution of

Microtermes species (Isoptera: Termitidae; Macrotermitinae) in soil at Mokwa, Nigeria’’,

Sociobiology 15: 133-138

Breznack, J.A and Brune, A (1994), “Role of Micro organism in the Digestion of Lignocelluloses by

Termite” Annual Review of Entomology, Vol, 39: 453-487

Brouwer, J., Fussel, L. K. and Herman, (1993), “Soil and crop growth micro variability in the West

Africa semi arid topics a possible risk reducing factor for disturbance for subsistence farmers’’,

Agriculture Ecosystem and Environment, 45(3-4)

Collins, N.M. (1979), “Observations on the foraging activity of Hospitalitermes umbrinus (Havilland),

(Isoptera: Termitidae) in the Gunung MuluNational Park. Sarawak’’ Ecological Entomology, 4:

231-238

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Davies, R.G. (1997), “Termite species richness in fire-prone and fire-protected dry deciduous

dipterocarp forest in DoiSuthep-PuiNational Park. Northern Thailand”, Journal of Tropical

Ecology, 13: 153-160.

Dawes-Gromadzki, T. Z (2005), “Bugs beneath the surface: the functional significance of soil macro

invertebrates to landscape health in Australia’s tropical savannas”, Insect Science 12: 307–312.

Eggleton, P. Bignell, D.E. (1995), Monitoring the response of tropical insects to changes in the

environment: Troubles with termites. In: R. Harrington and N.E. Stork, eds. Insects in a changing

environment, pp. 473-497. Academic Press, London.

Encarta encyclopedia 2007

Eggleton, P., Bignell, D.E., Sands, W.A., Mawdsley, N.A., Lawton, J.H., Wood, T.G. & Bignell, N.C.

(1996), “The diversity, abundance, and biomass of termites under differing levels of disturbance

in the Mbalmayo Forest Reserve Southern Cameroon”, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal

Society of London, series B 35:561-68

Eggleton, P (2000), Global diversity pattern of termite in: termite evolution, society symbiosis, Ecology

(Eds T. abe, M. Higashi and D.E. Bignell) Kluwer Academic press Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

Eligne, J. (1966), “Caracteres adaptifs au regime alimetaire dans la mandibule des termites (Insectes

Isopteres)”, Compte Rendu d'Academie des Sciences. Paris, 263: 1323-1325.

Fragoso, B.I., Goanzales, C., Arteaga, C., and Patron, J.C (1994), Relationship between earth worms and

soil organic matter levels in natural and managed ecosystem in the Mexico tropics; In (K.

Mulongoy and Mecchx eds), Soil organic matter dynamics and sustainability of tropical

agriculture. Pp231-240 Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK

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Holloway, J. D. A. H. A Kirk Spring, And V.K. Chey (1992), “the Response of Rainforest Insect groups

to logging and Conversion to Plantation. Philosophical Transaction’’, Royal Society, 335: 255-

236

Jones D.T., Susilo, F. X., Bignell, D. E., Suryo, H., Gillison, A. N. and Eggleton, P (2003), “Termite

assemblage collapse along a land use intensification gradient in lowland Central Sumatra,

Indonesia’’, Journal of Applied Ecology 40(2): 380-391

Jones, D.T (2002), “A survey of the termites (Insecta: Isoptera) of Tabalong District, South Kalimantan,

Indonesia”. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 50, 117–128.

Jones D.T. (2000), “Termite assemblages in two distinct montane forest types at 1000 m elevation in the

Maliau Basin, Sabah”, Journal of Tropical Ecology, 16: 271-286

Kayan, S.A.; Sheikh, K.H. and Ahmad, M (1979), “Altitudinal distribution of termites in relation to the

vegetation and soil condition”, Parkistan journal of zoology, 11: 123-137

Krishna, K. and Weesner, F.M (1970), Biology of termite, vol.2, PP.477-525, New York and London:

academic press

Lavelle, P., Bignell, D. E and Lepage, M (1997), “Soil function in a changing world: the role of

invertebrate ecosystem engineers”, European Journal of Soil Biology 33, 159–193.

Magurran, A.E (2004), Measuring Biological Diversity, Blackwell Science, Oxford.

Nash, M. S., Anderson, J.P and Whitforld, W.G (1996), “Spatial and temporal variability in relative

abundance and foraging behavior of subterranean termite decertified and relatively intact”,

Chihuahua Desert ecosystems, Applied soil Ecology, 12: 149-157

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problems in agro forestry in Tororo district, Uganda. Agricultural Research and Extension

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Sleaford, F., Bignell, D.E. & Eggleton, P. (1996), “A pilot analysis of gut contents in termites from the

Mbalmayo Forest Reserve, Cameroon’’. Ecological Entomology, 21: 279-288

Tho, Y. P. (1978), Termite of peninsular Malaysia, (Kirton, L.G.Ed.), Malayan Forest Records, No.

36:224pp. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong

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Australian Journal of Entomology,. Vol 44(2), P152-157

Watson, J.A.L. and Gay, F.J (1991), “Eutermes Exitiosus”, Hill, 1925(insect, isopteran) proposed

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Production ecology of ants and termites, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

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7.0 APPENDICES

Appendix 1: comparison of termite functional groups

FUNCTIONAL GROUP

ABUNDANCE UNCTIONAL FROUP

ABUNDANCE

ii 18 iii 38

ii 56 iii 26

ii 9 iii 8

ii 5 iii 140

ii 18 iii 22

ii 5 iii 80

ii 21 iii 19

ii 18 iii 115

ii 27 iii 20

ii 12 iii 30

ii 40 iii 37

ii 29 iii 13

ii 113 iii 10

ii 50 iii 61

ii 33 iii 80

ii 80 iii 32

ii 12 iii 3

ii 80 iii 34

ii 10 iii 7

ii 20 iii 12

ii 40 iii 26

i 65 iii 34

i 40 iii 5

i 9 iii 31

i 1 iii 5

i 15 iii 5

i 39 iii 16

i 23 i 80

i 10 i 39

i 23 i 0

i 39

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Appendix 2: comparison of termite microhabitats

MICRO HABITAT TOTAL MICRO HABITAT

TOTAL

Dry WOOD 18 SOIL 20

Dry WOOD 56 SOIL 30

Dry WOOD 9 SOIL 37

Dry WOOD 5 SOIL 13

Dry WOOD 18 SOIL 10

Dry WOOD 5 SOIL 61

Dry WOOD 21 SOIL 80

Dry WOOD 18 SOIL 32

LEAF LITTER 27 SOIL 3











LEAF LITTER 20 WOOD 65

LEAF LITTER 40 WOOD 40

SOIL 38 WOOD 9

SOIL 26 WOOD 1

SOIL 8 WOOD 15

SOIL 140 WOOD 39

SOIL 22 WOOD 23

SOIL 80 WOOD 10

SOIL 19 WOOD 23

SOIL 115 WOOD 39

WOOD 39 WOOD 80

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Appendix 3: shows 30 samples collected on each habitat and their respective subfamily

richness between two selected habitats for three days to obtain cumulative curve

WOODED GRASSLAND

BUSH THICKET FOREST

SAMPLES COMMULATIVE SUB FAMILIES

SAMPLES COMMULATIVE SUBFAMILIES

1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3

4 6 4 4

5 7 5 5

6 8 6 6

7 10 7 7

8 11 8 7

9 12 9 8

10 13 10 9

11 13 11 10

12 15 12 10

13 15 13 11

14 15 14 11

15 16 15 12

16 17 16 12

17 18 17 12

18 18 18 12

19 18 19 12

20 18 20 12

21 18 21 12

22 18 22 12

23 18 23 12

24 18 24 12

25 18 25 12

26 18 26 12

27 18 27 12

28 18 28 12

29 18 29 12

30 18 30 12

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