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Perceptual, Attitudinal, and BehavioralOutcomes of Organization–PublicEngagement on Corporate SocialNetworking SitesLinjuan Rita Men a & Wan-Hsiu Sunny Tsai ba Communication Studies , Southern Methodist Universityb University of MiamiPublished online: 11 Nov 2014.

To cite this article: Linjuan Rita Men & Wan-Hsiu Sunny Tsai (2014) Perceptual, Attitudinal, andBehavioral Outcomes of Organization–Public Engagement on Corporate Social Networking Sites,Journal of Public Relations Research, 26:5, 417-435, DOI: 10.1080/1062726X.2014.951047

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Perceptual, Attitudinal, and Behavioral Outcomesof Organization–Public Engagement on Corporate

Social Networking Sites

Linjuan Rita Men

Communication Studies, Southern Methodist University

Wan-Hsiu Sunny Tsai

University of Miami

This study proposes and tests a conceptual model that not only measures public engagement with

corporate pages on social networking sites, but also evaluates the influence of such engagement

on important perceptual, relational, and behavioral outcomes. Study results provide empirical

evidence of the positive effects of public engagement on perceived corporate authenticity, organiza-

tional transparency, organization–public relationships, and public advocacy. Findings underscore the

importance of public engagement via social media on enhancing perceived corporate transparency

and authenticity, and thereby cultivating strong relationships. Additionally, organization–public

relationships emerged as a deciding factor driving the effects of public engagement on advocacy

behaviors.

Various organizations today, including government agencies, nonprofits, and businesses, are

striving to adopt social media as a strategic communication channel to engage digital-savvy

publics (Rooksby & Sommerville, 2012; Waters, Burnett, Lamm, & Lucas, 2009). It has been

reported in trade publications that publics now use social media more frequently than corporate

web sites when searching for information on a company, brand, or product (Dei Worldwide,

2008). Yet, scholars have pointed out that the open and user-centric environment of social media

also constitutes a critical challenge for communication management and control (Macnamara &

Zerfass, 2012). Unlike the traditional corporate-controlled media, user-centered social media

platforms allow individual users to become media gatekeepers and content-creators who colla-

boratively and proactively engage with companies through likes, posts, and shares within their

personal social networks (Muntinga, Moorman, & Smit, 2011). Social media has thus changed

how organization-related content is created, distributed, and used, transferring the power to define

corporate images from corporate communicators to stakeholders’ online networks (Muntinga et al.,

2011).

Recognizing that social media has sparked a revolution within the communication industry,

Edelman (2008) called for a paradigm shift from public relations to public engagement

Correspondence should be sent to Dr. Linjuan Rita Men, Ph.D., Southern Methodist University, Department of

Communication Studies, 6550 Shady Brook Lane, Dallas, TX 75206. E-mail: cicirita@gmail.com

Journal of Public Relations Research, 26: 417–435, 2014

Copyright # Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ISSN: 1062-726X print/1532-754X online

DOI: 10.1080/1062726X.2014.951047

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to emphasize the complex process of debate, discussion, and interaction between publics and

organizations. The engagement construct involves behavioral dimensions, such as participation,

as well as psychological aspects like efficacy and dedication (Saks, 2006). Specifically, in

contrast to the one-way communication model associated with traditional media, social media

communication is not only interactive, but also participatory, collaborative, personal, and simul-

taneously communal, thus allowing organizations to engage publics in constant conversations,

supportive behaviors, and meaningful relationships. In other words, social media serve as more

than a communication channel; they constitute a powerful relationship building and public

engagement tool. Based on the growing literature on social media communications, this study

not only measures organization–public engagement in the social media context but also

evaluates the key perceptual, relational, and behavioral outcomes of such engagement.

There exist various types of social media, including blogs, cooperative projects (e.g.,

Wikipedia), content communities (e.g., YouTube), and virtual social worlds (e.g., Second Life).

In particular, social networking sites (e.g., Facebook) have been considered to be the main

drivers of the new media landscape (Vogt & Knapman, 2008). Recent media surveys report that

online publics spent most time on social networking sites (SNSs), followed by checking e-mail,

watching videos, and using search engines (Fox, 2013). According to a study by the Pew

Research Center, SNSs are also increasingly used for news consumption (Holcomb, Gottfried,

& Mitchell, 2013). Particularly in the media-centered lifestyle of young publics (Glynn, Huge,

& Hoffman, 2012), and in domains such as health (Fuscaldo, 2011; Park & Calamaro, 2013) and

tourism (S.-B. Kim, Choi, & Kim, 2013; Kontos, Emmons, Puleo, & Viswnath, 2010; Xiang &

Gretzel, 2010), SNSs have become the primary source of information. The dominance of

SNSs makes it imperative to investigate organization–public engagement in the SNS context

and the resulting consequences.

Earlier SNS studies examined the common communication strategies employed by corporate

communicators via content analyses (e.g., Bortree & Seltzer, 2009; Men & Tsai, 2011; Smith,

2010; Waters et al., 2009). Based on dimensions of connectivity and shared content, different

social media stakeholders were also identified (Sedereviciute & Valentini, 2011). Research

has focused on identifying users’ motivations, including information, entertainment, and

empowerment, to interact with organizations on SNSs (e.g., Men & Tsai, 2011; Muntinga

et al., 2011; Tsai & Men, 2012). Recent studies have adopted various theoretical frameworks

to understand the underlying mechanisms that drive users’ response to various SNS communica-

tions. For instance, Lee, Kim, and Kim (2011) examined the roles of social identification and

intrinsic motives of altruism in driving consumers’ engagement with consumer-initiated brand

communities on SNSs. Antecedents contributing to organization–public engagement, including

para-social interaction, social media dependency, and community identification, have also been

analyzed (Men & Tsai, 2013; Tsai & Men, 2013). However, with the dynamic and expanding

functions of SNSs, existing research has yet to achieve a holistic understanding of the process

and, more important, the consequences of public engagement with organizations on SNSs.

Despite hype and speculations in trade publications, there is little evidence regarding why

and how user engagement on SNSs is crucial for organizations. Notably, Agozzino’s (2012)

study with millennial students reports that users’ increased interactions with a company across

multiple social media platforms do not necessarily translate into greater satisfaction with

the company. Such an unexpected result demands empirical examinations to illuminate the con-

nection between publics’ social media engagement and their relationship with the organizations

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they interact with on social media. Our study, one of the earliest, proposes and tests a theoretical

model that links public engagement behavior to perceived corporate transparency and

authenticity—two emerging trends that drive communications on social media (Shen & Kim,

2012)—as well as key public relations outcomes of relationship and advocacy.

Scholars have suggested that an organization’s perceived transparency and authenticity are

crucial for cultivating quality relationships with its stakeholders and boosting public trust

(Rawlins, 2009). In the Web 2.0 era, when any individual user can be a media gatekeeper

and content-creator who actively monitors and publicizes corporate action, policy, and commu-

nications, there is unprecedented demand for corporate transparency (Shen & Kim, 2012; Mol-

leda & Roberts, 2008). The Arthur W. Page Society (2011) coined the term authentic enterpriseto emphasize the new public relations model. By the same token, perceived authenticity that

addresses an organization’s central, enduring, and distinctive character (Albert & Whetten,

1985) emerged as another important factor for relationship-oriented SNS communications. How-

ever, it remains unknown how perceived corporate authenticity and transparency may be related

to publics’ interactions with companies on SNSs, relationship quality, and positive behavioral

response. Therefore, the study purpose was to (a) examine how public engagement may improve

the perceived transparency and authenticity of corporate communication, and (b) explore how

public engagement and perceived corporate transparency and authenticity on SNSs may lead

to positive relational and behavioral outcomes of organization–public relationships (OPRs)

and public advocacy.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Public Engagement

With the growth of the relationship management field in public relations, engagement has been

proposed as a new public relations paradigm (Edelman, 2008; Stoker & Tusinski, 2006). In

particular, recent studies have recognized public engagement via social media as an important

and influential factor in cultivating and reinforcing relationships (Sashi, 2012). User engagement

with strategically managed corporate SNS pages can naturally lead to the formation and main-

tenance of relationships with an organization. By joining in the conversations embedded

in a company’s SNS pages (e.g., commenting on the organization and its products or services,

raising questions, expressing support, making suggestions, and sharing the corporate posts with

one’s online contacts), online stakeholders can directly engage the organization and each other

on a more personal and social level. This study adopts Men and Tsai’s conceptualization of

public engagement on social media as a behavioral construct with hierarchical activity levels,

from passive message consumption to active two-way conversation, participation, and online

recommendation (Men & Tsai, 2013; Tsai & Men, 2013).

OPRs

Given the relationship-oriented nature of SNSs, this study focuses on OPR—a major outcome of

effective public relations (L. A. Grunig, J. E. Grunig, & Dozier, 2002)—as a vital consequence

PERCEPTUAL, ATTITUDINAL, AND BEHAVIORAL OUTCOMES 419

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of public engagement. The concept has been studied in a variety of contexts, including

businesses, nonprofit organizations, and government sectors, as well as in cross-cultural,

offline, and online communities (e.g., Brunig, Castle, & Schrepfer, 2003; Hung, 2006; Ni

& Wang, 2011; Seltzer & Zhang, 2011). Broom, Casey, and Richey (2000) defined OPRs

as ‘‘the patterns of interaction, transaction, exchange, and linkage between an organization

and its publics’’ (p. 18). In particular, Hon and Grunig (1999) noted that a relationship

begins when consequences created by an organization affect the publics or vice versa. Such

an interdependent state serves as the foundation and requirement for forming meaningful

OPRs. As an ongoing, dynamic, and dialogic process, OPRs should be managed

through continuous communication and evaluated as an important outcome that can be

cultivated over time, with reciprocal consequences for both parties in the relationship (i.e.,

organizations and publics).

Strategies for building and maintaining quality relationships with the publics have been

evaluated by practitioners and theorists for several decades (Kent & Taylor, 2002). Compo-

nents and measurements of OPRs have thus been widely studied. For instance, L. A. Grunig,

J. E. Grunig, and Ehling (1992) identified six OPR dimensions, including reciprocity, trust,

mutual legitimacy, openness, mutual satisfaction, and mutual understanding. Hon and J. E.

Grunig (1999) later developed a widely adopted measurement scale of relationship quality

based on six dimensions of trust, commitment, satisfaction, control mutuality, communal

relationship, and exchange relationship. To be specific, Hon and J. E. Grunig (1999) defined

trust as ‘‘one party’s level of confidence in and willingness to open oneself to the other party’’

(p. 19). Commitment refers to the extent to which the public feels that their relationship with

an organization is worth maintaining. Satisfaction addresses the degree to which one party

feels favorably toward the other because positive expectations about the relationship are ful-

filled and strengthened. Control mutuality indicates ‘‘the degree to which parties agree on who

has rightful power to influence one another’’ (Hon & J. E. Grunig, 1999, p. 19). A communal

relationship refers to a mutually beneficial relationship in which both parties are concerned

with the welfare of the other. Finally, an exchange relationship addresses reciprocating

a benefit received from the other party.

Engagement and OPRs

Regarding the study focus of public engagement, Bortree’s (2011) study on OPRs in a nonprofit

setting indicated that greater involvement or engagement with an organization leads to more

satisfactory relationships. Also focusing on nonprofits, Smitko’s (2012) qualitative textual

analysis suggested that social media like Twitter are effective tools for engaging stakeholders

to build and strengthen relationships. In their study on newspaper readership, Mersey,

Malthouse, and Calder (2012) argued that reader engagement with the news organization is more

important than satisfaction in predicting readership because engagement induces and enhances

prosocial relationships between the newspaper and its readers. Through qualitative interviews,

Bruce and Shelly (2010) also suggested that stakeholder engagement contributes to constructive

relationships. Yet, despite the importance of social media for relationship management, the con-

nection between users’ engagement with organizations on SNSs and the resulting relationship

quality has not been sufficiently analyzed. This study paid special attention to how users’

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reactive and proactive engagement behaviors on corporate SNS pages are connected to OPRs by

testing the following hypothesis:

H1: Public engagement with organizations on corporate SNS pages positively influences the quality

of OPRs.

Perceived Authenticity and Transparency

In the midst of various emerging communication trends driven by social media, authenticity is

considered to be the most important in the 21st century (Gilmore & Pine 2007). In ‘‘an era where

people want authentic stories about authentic people’’ (Cook, 2007, p. 33), authenticity has been

advocated as a novel communication model (Molleda & Roberts, 2008). Scholars across differ-

ent fields have theorized about different types of authenticity in various settings. For instance, in

the marketing and strategic communication literature, Molleda and Roberts (2008) discussed five

types of brand authenticity, including natural, original, exceptional, referential, and influential,

that are associated with economic offerings such as product, service, and experience. Based

on an analysis of a wine company, Camilleri (2008) reported nine types of authenticity,

including existential, exceptional, iconic, and symbolic, for strategic communication purposes.

From the perspective of corporate authenticity, Shen and Kim (2012) identified three

components of perceived authentic organizational behavior—truthfulness, transparency, and

consistency. Being truthful to an organization itself, and its publics, is at the core of organizational

authenticity (Henderson & Brookhart, 1996; Shen & Kim, 2012). To construct an authentic ident-

ity, organizations should act genuine and not manipulate their publics, which suggests another

key component of authenticity—consistency. In other words, an organization’s conduct should

be congruent with its values, beliefs, mission, principles, and rhetoric (Molleda, 2010; Shen &

Kim, 2012). Authenticity thus requires ongoing efforts by an organization to recognize and

evaluate its own motives, beliefs, feelings, and aspirations as well as those of its publics.

Similar to corporate authenticity, the related construct of perceived organizational trans-

parency has drawn much academic and professional interest in recent years (DiStaso & Bortree,

2012). Although authenticity and transparency are closely related in theoretical considerations,

and both involve trust as a defining element, authenticity is grounded in truthfulness and

consistency, and the essence of transparency is openness and visibility. Particularly relevant

to the study focus of SNS engagement, the open and user-empowered model of social media

communication has increased both users’ expectations and organizations’ opportunities to share

information and knowledge, and in turn, reinforce organizational transparency.

Rawlins (2009) theorized that organizational transparency involves three aspects—substantial

information, participation, and accountability. The informational aspect requires organizations

to ‘‘make available publicly all legally releasable information—whether positive or negative

in nature—in a manner which is accurate, timely, balanced, and unequivocal’’ (Heise, 1985,

p. 209, cited in Rawlins, 2009). Yet, providing information alone does not constitute

transparency. Instead, the ultimate goal of distributing and communicating information should

be to enhance understanding. As Cotterrell (2000) astutely argued, ‘‘Transparency as a process

involves not just availability of information but active participation in acquiring, distributing and

PERCEPTUAL, ATTITUDINAL, AND BEHAVIORAL OUTCOMES 421

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creating knowledge’’ (p. 419). Consequently, it is imperative to understand what publics need to

know through participation—stakeholder involvement in identifying the information is needed

for decision-making. The third element of organizational transparency involves accountability,

which centers on organizations being held accountable for their words, actions, and decisions,

which are readily seen and judged by the netizens empowered by new media technologies.

To generate theoretical insights on organizations’ social media character, this study applied cor-

porate transparency along with organizational authenticity in the corporate SNS setting and

examines its connections to public engagement and relational and behavioral outcomes among

online stakeholders.

Despite wide recognition of the importance of corporate authenticity and transparency for

social media communications, research efforts exploring the process and mechanism contribu-

ting to corporate authenticity and transparency are extremely scarce. Golob and Bartlett

(2007) suggested that reporting corporate social responsibility issues leads to greater corporate

transparency and stakeholder engagement. Furthermore, research linking perceived authenticity

and transparency with relationship quality remains sparse in general (e.g., Shen & Kim, 2012)

and has not specifically explored the relationship-centric social media platforms. This study was

thus intended to fill the research void by examining the connections between public engagement,

perceived corporate transparency and authenticity, and the quality of OPRs on SNSs.

H2: Public engagement with organizations on corporate SNS pages positively influences the

perceived transparency (H2a) and authenticity (H2b) of the company.

H3: Perceived transparency (H3a) and authenticity (H3b) positively influences the quality of OPRs.

Public Advocacy

To enrich the theoretical understanding of public engagement outcomes, this study went a step

beyond OPRs and explored the important behavioral outcome of public advocacy. Recognizing

the growth of consumer power in the era of ‘‘consumer advocacy’’ (Urban, 2005, p. 155),

marketing researchers have proposed a new business model that emphasizes a partnership

relationship with customers that will transform them into advocates for the company. In the

public relations field, public advocacy has been recognized as one of the most important

outcomes of public engagement and strong OPRs (Walz & Celuch, 2010). Advocacy is

characterized by publics’ active promotion of an organization through such behaviors as positive

word-of-mouth and defense against critics (Walz & Celuch, 2010). As an ultimate test of the

bond between an organization and its public, advocacy significantly extends the effectiveness

and efficacy of the organization’s communication efforts (Reicheld, 2003; Walz & Celuch,

2010). In particular, the communal and collaborative environment of social media naturally

and readily contributes to publics’ awareness that their advocacy or criticism behavior can have

a rapid and broad impact, and thereby increases the likelihood that they will engage in advocacy

activities (Pınar Ozdemir, 2012).

Given the potential effectiveness of social media in inducing public advocacy, recent studies

have analyzed advocacy campaigns on social media (e.g., Pınar Ozdemir, 2012). The effects of

communication quality, company trust, and source credibility on public advocacy in various

settings such as organization and marketplace have also been assessed (Krapfel, 1985; Walz

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& Celuch, 2010). Urban (2005) argued that a company must provide open, honest, and complete

information to encourage consumer advocacy, suggesting the importance of perceived corporate

authenticity and transparency. However, the connection between these important constructs has

not been empirically examined. Therefore, public advocacy was examined as a crucial outcome

of transparent and authentic communication, public engagement, and OPRs. Following Walz

and Celuch’s approach (2010), this study defined public advocacy as a behavioral construct—the voluntary promotion or defense of a company, its products, or its brands by a member of

the organizational publics.

H4: Public engagement with organizations on corporate SNS pages positively influences public

advocacy.

H5: Perceived transparency (H5a) and authenticity (H5b) positively influence public advocacy.

H6: The quality of OPRs positively influences public advocacy behavior.

METHODOLOGY

To test the proposed model as presented in Figure 1, a Web-based survey was conducted. The

study population comprised active American SNS users who have liked or followed at least one

company’s Facebook page. According to the Pew Research Center (2011), SNSs are most popu-

lar with young adults under the age of 30 years. Specifically, research suggests that people

between the ages of 18 and 24 years are the most active social media users (Akar & Topcu,

2011). For a generation of individuals growing up with digital media, use of SNSs has been

an integral part of their social lives. Additionally, with their attractive demographic background

FIGURE 1 Conceptual model of outcomes of public engagement with companies on social media.

PERCEPTUAL, ATTITUDINAL, AND BEHAVIORAL OUTCOMES 423

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of being young and well-educated and their early adopter attitudes (Tufte, 2003), college stu-

dents represent an important group of online targeting for corporate communications campaigns.

Therefore, college students were included as the first stratum of the sample. Further, recognizing

that SNSs are increasingly used among young professionals and other demographic groups, we

also solicited nonstudent older participants via Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (MTurk) to provide

a more complete picture of publics’ social engagement. Prior research suggests that MTurk

subjects are considered more representative of the US population than convenience samples

often used in social science research (Berinsky, Huber, & Lenz, 2012; Buhmester, Kwang, &

Gosling, 2011).

The data were gathered in September 2013. The survey link was sent to around 300 colleague

students recruited from communication majors from two private universities in the southern and

southeastern United States. Extra credits were offered to reward students’ participation by their

professors. Meanwhile, the survey was posted on MTurk with monetary incentives offered to

recruit respondents from other age groups. Only SNSs users who had followed at least one com-

pany’s Facebook page were eligible to participate in this study. Within a 3-week data collection

period, a total of 250 respondents were recruited. The sample included 170 college students and

80 nonstudent adult users recruited from MTurk. A series of t-tests were conducted to examine

the difference between student and nonstudent respondent in terms of SNSs usage, engagement

level, and their evaluations of the dependent variables in the proposed model. Results showed

that students (average age 19) are more likely to consume messages on companies’ SNSs pages

and advocate for the company offline as compared to those non-student respondents (average

aged 33). No significant difference was found in terms of SNSs usage, contributing engagement

activities, perceived authenticity, transparency, or the quality of organization-public relation-

ships. Thus, the student and MTurk samples were combined for data analysis.

The average age of the respondents surveyed was 24 years. Among the respondents, 69% were

women and 31% were men. Anglo Americans comprised 71.9% of the sample, followed by

Latino=Hispanic (12.9%), Asian (8.0%), African Americans (10.4%), and other (4.4%). In terms

of SNS usage, over 96% of the respondents had used Facebook for more than 3 years, and approxi-

mately 68% spent more than 1 hr per day on Facebook. Prior to the main survey, a pretest was

conducted in May 2013 with 100 students to ensure the reliability and validity of the measures.

MEASURES

All measurements used in this study were adopted from prior studies and adapted to fit the SNS con-

text. Specifically, six items measuring users’ levels and types of engagement (i.e., consuming and

contributing) with corporate SNS pages were adapted from Muntinga et al.’s (2011) typology and

Tsai and Men’s (2012) social media study (a¼ .87). Specifically, the respondents were asked

how often they participate in the various activities on the company’s Facebook page, such as ‘‘read-

ing company posts, user comments, or product reviews, . . . engaging in conversations by comment-

ing or asking and answering questions,’’ and ‘‘uploading product-related pictures, videos, or

audio.’’1 Four items from Rawlins’ (2009) study were used to measure the perceived transparency

1Before answering these questions, respondents were directed to their Facebook profile and were asked to locate the

company that had the most recent post under ‘‘Page Feeds.’’

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of the company (a¼ 0.73), including statements such as ‘‘The company wants to understand how its

decisions affect people like me.’’ The measure of perceived authenticity was adapted from Shen and

Kim’s study (2012), which included six items (a¼ .91) such as ‘‘I believe that this company’s beha-

vior matches its core values.’’ To measure the perceived quality of OPRs, Hon and J. E. Grunig’s

(1999) scale with 20 items was adopted (a¼ .92) to measure relational trust (a¼ .74; ‘‘I feel very

confident about this company’s skills’’), control mutuality (a¼ .92; ‘‘The management of this com-

pany gives me enough say in the decision-making process’’), commitment (a¼ .81; ‘‘I can see that

this company wants to maintain a relationship with me’’), and satisfaction (a¼ .89; ‘‘I am happy

with this company.’’). Finally, the measure of public advocacy was adapted from Walz and Celuch

(2010), whose study included four items (a¼ .91; ‘‘I say positive things about this company to

people I know’’). All items were measured on a 7-point Likert scale.

The hypotheses were tested with structural equation modeling (SEM).2 A two-step latent variable

modeling approach was used. Multiple criteria were used to evaluate the goodness-of-model fit,

including the comparative fit index (CFI), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA),

and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) indexes, which are a minimal set of fit indexes

that should be reported and interpreted when reporting the results of SEM analyses (Kline, 2005).3,4

RESULTS

Preliminary Data Analysis

The results of the descriptive analysis (Table 1) showed that the surveyed SNS users had

a medium level of corporate SNS engagement. The respondents engaged more in message-

consuming activities (M¼ 4.15, SD¼ 1.47, n¼ 250) than contributing activities (M¼ 3.17,

SD¼ 2.03, n¼ 250). On average, respondents perceived a high level of transparency

(M¼ 5.20, SD¼ 1.03, n¼ 250) and authenticity (M¼ 5.38, SD¼ 1.01, n¼ 250) of the

companies whose Facebook pages they followed. In terms of specific relationship variables,

respondents reported medium to high levels of trust (M¼ 4.73, SD¼ 1.06, n¼ 250), control

mutuality (M¼ 4.17, SD¼ 1.38, n¼ 250), commitment (M¼ 4.61, SD¼ 1.34, n¼ 250), and

satisfaction (M¼ 5.65, SD¼ 1.04, n¼ 250). Moreover, respondents reported a high level of

advocacy (M¼ 5.44, SD¼ 1.36, n¼ 250), indicating that they are likely to speak favorably or

defend the companies they followed on Facebook. Correlations between the observed variables

in the study ranged from .17 to .66.

2According to Kline (2005), SEM is a technique that can be applied to both non-experimental and experimental data

to verify a priori models comprised of latent variables or a mix of latent and observable variables. Thus, in the present

study, structural SEM was used as the primary statistical method to test the hypothesized model.3According to Hu and Bentler (1999), a cutoff value close to 0.95 for CFI and Tucker-Lewis index (TLI); a cutoff

value close to 0.08 for standardized root mean square residual (SRMR); and a cutoff value close to 0.06 for RMSEA

indicate good fit between the hypothesized model and the observed data. Additionally, according to Hu and Bentler’s

(1999) joint cutoff criteria, an SEM model with CFI, TLI� 0.95 and SRMR <0.10 or RMSEA �0.06 and SRMR

�0.10 suggests that the fit between the data and the proposed model is reasonable.4According to Kline (2005), a single-fit index reflects only a particular aspect of model fit and a favorable value of

that index does not by itself indicate good fit. There is no single ‘‘magic index’’ that provides a gold standard for all

models. The chi-square is the most commonly reported measure of model-data fit. However, it is strongly dependent

on the sample size.

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Analysis of Structural Equation Modeling

The analysis of the proposed model involved a two-stage process: (a) an assessment of the

construct validity of the measurement model using confirmatory factor analysis, and (b) an

assessment of the structural model. Public engagement and OPRs in the structural model were

considered latent variables, and perceived transparency, authenticity, and public advocacy were

treated as observed variables. The maximum likelihood method was employed for model

estimation. The test of the initial measurement model indicated inadequate fit to the data, thus

it was modified accordingly. Byrne (2010, p. 111) argued that ‘‘forcing large error terms to

be uncorrelated is rarely appropriate with real data.’’ Allowing error covariance within the same

construct can also explain content redundancy. Following this line of thinking and based on

model modification indices, five error covariances were added.5 The modified model demon-

strated satisfactory fit with the data: v2(15)¼ 43.18, p< .001, v2=df¼ 2.88, RMSEA¼ .08

(90% confidence interval: .05–.10), SRMR¼ .04, TLI¼ .94, and CFI¼ .97. Thus, it was

retained as the final CFA model. The standardized factor loadings between latent variables

and their indicators ranged from .63 (consuming! engagement) to .93 (contributing!engagement), indicating that the proposed model demonstrated good validity.

The multivariate normality assumption of SEM was evaluated in AMOS before the hypo-

thesized model was estimated. Results indicated that the sample data showed a significant

positive multivariate kurtosis. Therefore, bootstrapping (N¼ 2,000 samples) using the maximum

likelihood method was performed to address the multivariate nonnormality of the data. The

bootstrap parameter estimations did not deviate from those based on normal theory, indicating

that the significant results in Figure 2 remained significant in the bootstrapping6 process.

TABLE 1

Descriptive of Level of Public Engagement with Corporate Social Networking Site Pages, Perceived Corporate

Transparency and Authenticity, Relational Outcomes, and Public Advocacy (Mean, Standard Deviation, and

Correlations)

Alpha Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Consuming .76 4.15 1.47 1.00

2. Contributing .87 3.17 2.03 .59�� 1.00

3. Transparency .73 5.20 1.03 .23�� .23�� 1.00

4. Authenticity .91 5.38 1.01 30�� 17�� 56�� 1.00

5. Trust .74 4.73 1.06 42�� 37�� 45�� 63�� 1.00

6. Control mutuality .92 4.17 1.38 .29�� .37�� .34�� .40�� .64�� 1.00

7. Commitment .81 4.61 1.34 .30�� .23�� .40�� .41�� .60�� .58�� 1.00

8. Satisfaction .89 5.65 1.04 .45�� .32�� .46�� .60�� .64�� .49�� .60�� 1.00

9. Advocacy .91 5.44 1.36 .48�� .29�� .39�� .48�� .54�� .32�� .46�� .66�� 1.00

Note. ��Correlation is significant at p< .01 (2-tailed).

5The error covariance between trust and control mutuality was .39. The error covariance between control mutuality

and commitment was .36. The error covariance between trust and commitment was .21. The error covariance between

engagement-contributing and control mutuality was .20. The error covariance between contributing and trust was .18.6According to Byrne (2010), bootstrapping is a procedure in which one takes repeated, smaller random samples of

an existing sample to develop empirical estimates of standard errors of any parameter. Bootstrapping is a common

procedure used to address multivariate non-normality issues.

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The hypothesized structural model displayed in Figure 2 demonstrated satisfactory fit to the data:

v2(15)¼ 43.18, p< .001, v2=df¼ 2.88, RMSEA¼ .08 (90% confidence interval: .05–.10),

SRMR¼ .04, TLI¼ .94, and CFI¼ .97. Seven structural paths demonstrated significant results.

Hypothesis Testing

H1 predicted positive effects of public engagement on OPR. The results revealed that respondents

who were more engaged with the pages of the organizations they followed on SNSs tended to

perceive a better relationship with these organizations (b¼ .37, p< .001), thus supporting H1

(see Figure 2). Results also provided supported for H2 and showed that public engagement has large

positive effects on organizational transparency (b¼ .26, p< .001) and authenticity (b¼ .32,

p< .001). In other words, respondents who were more engaged with organizations on the corporate

SNS pages perceived the organizations as being more transparent and authentic.7 In addition, H3,

which proposed positive effects of perceived organizational transparency and authenticity on the

quality of OPRs, was confirmed; organizational transparency demonstrated a medium-sized

positive effect on OPRs (b¼ .19, p< .001) and authenticity demonstrated a large positive effect

(b¼ .50, p< .001). To be specific, when the company’s social media presence is perceived

as transparent and authentic, the publics tend to develop stronger trust in the organization, agree

on the mutual influence, and be more committed to and satisfied with the organization.

FIGURE 2 Results of SEM analysis. For the sake of brevity, only the path model is demonstrated. The CFA model

pattern coefficients, error terms of indicators, and disturbances of endogenous variables were omitted from the figure.

Coefficients are standardized regression weights. ���p< 0.001, ��p< 0.01, �p< 0.05.

7According to Keith (2006), a standardized coefficient (a) of less than 0.05 suggests a negligible effect; a standardized

coefficient of 0.05–0.10 suggests a small but meaningful effect; a standardized coefficient of 0.10–0.25 suggests

a moderate effect; and a standardized coefficient of above 0.25 suggests a large effect.

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Hypotheses 4 to 6 center on the positive effects of public engagement (H4), perceived

organizational transparency (H5a) and authenticity (H5b), and the quality of OPRs (H6) on

public advocacy behavior. Results provided support for H4 and H6, but failed to support

H5a and H5b. Specifically, public engagement demonstrated a small positive effect on public

advocacy (b¼ .13, p< .05), meaning that the more the publics consume messages and interact

with a company on its Facebook page, the more likely they are to publicly advocate and defend

the organization. The quality of organization–employee relationships demonstrated a large

positive effect on public advocacy (b¼ .73, p< .05). The results thus indicate that when the

publics are trusting of, committed to, and satisfied with a company and are empowered in the

relationship, they are more likely to become an advocate who speaks favorably of the company,

supports it, and defends it against criticism.

Moreover, a test of indirect effects using a bootstrap procedure (N¼ 2,000 samples) revealed

that the indirect effect in paths from public engagement to advocacy behavior through perceived

organizational transparency, authenticity, and OPRs was significant, b¼ .39, p¼ .001 (95% CI:

.29–.52). Likewise, the indirect effect in paths from public engagement to OPRs through

perceived organizational transparency and authenticity was significant, b¼ .21, p¼ 0.001

(95% CI: .11–.32). OPRs also significantly mediated the positive effects of organizational

transparency, b¼ .13, p¼ .001 (95% CI: .04–.36), and authenticity, b¼ .38, p¼ .02 (95% CI:

.32–.86), on public advocacy behavior.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

With the interactive, collaborative, communal, relational, and social characteristics (Muntinga et al.,

2011; Tsai & Men, 2012), SNSs have fundamentally changed how organizations and brands engage

with today’s digital-savvy publics. Regardless of their knowledge of the value or effects of social

media engagement, increasingly more organizations are including SNS channels in their corporate

communication plans. Meanwhile, academic research has explored the sundry factors that drive

social media engagement (e.g., Men & Tsai, 2013; Muntinga et al., 2011; Tsai & Men, 2013)

and the strategies that effectively utilize these new media tools. However, little empirical evidence

exists regarding why social media are key to an organization’s success and why public engagement

via social media matters (Gummerus, Liljander, Weman, & Pihlstrom, 2012). The purpose of this

study was to systematically assess the influences of public engagement with corporate SNSs on

publics’ perceptual, attitudinal, and behavioral consequences to provide an integrated model on

public engagement outcomes. Specially, the model focused on the positive effects of social media

engagement on publics’ evaluation of organizational transparency, authenticity, relational outcomes

(i.e., trust, control mutuality, commitment, and satisfaction), and public advocacy behavior.

Effects of Public Engagement on Perceived Organizational Authenticityand Transparency

Transparency and authenticity are invaluable attributes of organizational reputation and

character (Fombrun & van Riel, 2004). Although the importance of social media engagement

in boosting organizational transparency and authenticity among strategic stakeholders has been

recognized (Bryer, 2013; Pronschinske, Groza, & Walker, 2012), few empirical investigations

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have explored the linkage. This study addressed the research void by demonstrating the positive

effects of public engagement with corporate SNSs pages on perceived organizational trans-

parency and authenticity. Results showed that respondents who were more deeply engaged with

the company’s Facebook page tended to perceive the corporation as a more transparent entity.

Indeed, corporate SNS pages provide companies an easily accessible tool to disseminate detailed

and up-to-date information in a timely manner. The viral nature of social networking allows

messages to rapidly reach a wider range of publics and audiences. Most important, constructed

with two-way interactive features, corporate SNS pages allow companies to listen closely to their

fans and incorporate their voice in deciding what information is truly needed by the publics.

Disseminating detailed, complete, timely, and substantial information on a needed basis could

gradually contribute to greater organizational transparency. Therefore, the more the publics

engage in message consumption activities (e.g., reading posts, watching videos, viewing

pictures) and two-way conservations with an organization, the more likely they tend to view

it as transparent.

By the same token, public engagement with corporate SNSs pages was found to positively

influence public evaluation of organizational authenticity. Constructing an authentic corporate

character requires an organization to truthfully and genuinely present themselves (Shen & Kim,

2012). Corporate SNSs allow companies to be embedded in the publics’ personal networks and

communicate in a personal, intimate, genuine, and friendly manner (Men & Tsai, 2013; Tsai

& Men, 2013). Organizations can be imbued with a unique character and a genuine personality,

and in turn be perceived as a corporate person. In the corporate SNS community, fans and

followers can experience parasocial interactions and develop intimate interpersonal relationships

with an organization’s SNS page representative, which further enhances organization–public

engagement (Men & Tsai, 2013; Tsai & Men, 2013). As a consequence, when publics are highly

engaged with a company on the corporate SNS pages, they tend to perceive the organization

as a personal friend (Men & Tsai, 2013; Tsai & Men, 2013) and as an authentic corporate character.

Effects of Public Engagement on OPRs

Recent public relations and marketing studies have recognized the growing importance of public

engagement via social media as an influential factor in cultivating and reinforcing public

relationships (Bortree, 2011; Bruce & Shelly, 2010; Sashi, 2012). Findings of this study provide

empirical evidence for this notion. Results showed that respondents who were more deeply

engaged with corporate SNS pages tended to be more trusting of, more satisfied with, and

more committed to the organization. In addition, these users also felt more empowered in the

relationship. When respondents were engaged, they paid more attention and were more receptive

to the messages distributed on the company’s SNS pages. Furthermore, by participating in the

conversations embedded in corporate SNS pages (e.g., responding to the organizations’ posts,

expressing support, making suggestions and criticisms, sharing corporate messages with one’s

social connections), online stakeholders could directly engage the company and fellow corporate

community members on a more personal level—a mechanism that would gradually reinforce

their relationships with the organizations. Through engagement with an organization’s SNS

pages, users become an integral part of the company’s SNS community, fostering a sense of

involvement and identification with the organization, which again contributes to the formation

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of lasting and committed relationships (Pronschinske, Groza, & Walker, 2012). Therefore,

as noted by Gummerus et al. (2012), even though users who participate in corporate SNS

communities are believed to already have a baseline relationship with the organization, such

a relationship can be enhanced via engagement with corporate SNS communities.

Furthermore, the study results show that perceived organizational transparency and authen-

ticity significantly and largely contribute to the relationships between an organization and its

online publics. Engaged respondents who perceived a company as being more transparent

and authentic also perceived a better quality relationship with the organization and reported

higher trust, control mutuality, commitment, and satisfaction levels. Interestingly, perceived

authenticity demonstrated a larger impact on the quality of OPRs than perceived transparency.

Although corporate transparency realized in accessible, detailed, complete, substantial, and

timely information (Rawlins, 2009) via corporate SNSs pages contributes to perceived relation-

ship quality, an authentic corporate identity with genuine, consistent, and personable communi-

cation plays an even more crucial role in relationship formation and maintenance. The particular

importance of perceived authenticity in cultivating meaningful relationships directly points to the

power of social media for relationship management beyond information dissemination functions.

This study thus supports Shen and Kim’s (2012) conclusion that ‘‘organizations must

supplement their communication endeavors with authentic behavior to sustain long-term quality

relationships with their publics’’ (p. 384), particularly in the social media environment. The way

social media revolutionize public relations is not through technologies, but through the manner

in which authentic organizations can act as authentic people to instill spirit and emotions in

the communication messages to generate public resonance, understanding, and identification.

Effects of Public Engagement on Public Advocacy Behavior

This study further demonstrated the value of public social media engagement in encouraging

publics’ advocacy behavior that goes beyond conventional word-of-mouth. Results showed that

the more the publics are engaged with corporate SNS pages, the more likely they are to become

advocates of a company who support, protect, and defend the organization, and to recommend it

and its product or services within their personal networks. More importantly, public engagement

with corporate SNS pages was found to nurture a positive OPR through fostering transparency

and authenticity. Such long-term, positive relationships could stimulate supportive public beha-

vior while preventing destructive behavior (L. A. Grunig et al., 2002). J. Kim and Rhee (2011)

reported that employees with good relationships with an organization engage in

microboundary-spanning activities (i.e., self-propelled information seeking, selecting, forward-

ing, and sharing) to support the organization. Shen and Kim (2012) found that publics in a posi-

tive relationship with an organization are more likely to engage in positive messaging and less

likely to participate in negative messaging. In a similar vein, this study found that publics who

trust an organization, are satisfied with and committed to it, and agree on mutual influence are

likely to become valuable corporate advocates.

Contrary to our hypothesis, neither perceived authenticity nor perceived transparency exerted

a direct influence on public advocacy due to the strong mediation effect of OPRs. However, the

indirect effect of public engagement on public advocacy through perceived transparency,

authenticity, and OPRs was indeed significant. In other words, OPRs emerged as a deciding

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factor in the conceptual model that mediates the effects of public SNS engagement. This finding

suggests that the effects of consumer engagement are not necessarily straightforward and readily

observable. Further research exploring the underlying process connecting public engagement

and behavioral outcomes such as advocacy is thus called for.

Theoretical and Practical Implications

The study findings provide important guidelines and implications for public relations scholars

and professionals. Theoretically, this study advances the growing literature on public engage-

ment by defining engagement from a behavioral perspective in the social media context. Second,

by establishing the linkage between online engagement activities, perceptual factors of organiza-

tional transparency and authenticity, relationship outcome, and advocacy behavior, the con-

ceptual model presented in this study highlights the importance of social media engagement

and illuminates the underlying mechanisms of how public engagement could affect various

key public relations outcomes. As one of the earliest investigation focusing on the effects

of organization–public engagements on SNSs, this study provides much-needed evidence that

confirms the value of social media engagement that was merely speculated about and assumed

in the professional literature. Third, this study enriches the understanding of public engagement

by addressing the growing concerns of corporate authenticity and transparency, two overused yet

underresearched constructs in the professional literature, and documents their impacts on public

relational and behavioral outcomes. Finally, this study contributes to the growing body of

knowledge on relationship management, particularly via social media platforms. It establishes

connections between corporate SNS engagement and OPRs and empirically validates the impact

of OPRs on public advocacy.

In terms of strategic implications, the study findings underscore the effectiveness of corporate

SNS communications to foster corporate transparency and authenticity and thereby, develop last-

ing and quality relationships with online stakeholders. Embedded in online publics’ personal

social networks, corporate SNSs pages should be utilized to communicate with publics

with informative, genuine, truthful, and personable messages to influence public attitudes and

behavior. The results attest to the value of social media engagement in nurturing positive public

attitudes and behaviors toward organizations, providing evidence on why social media

communications are worth organizations’ investment. The conceptual model of public engage-

ment on SNSs also provides guidelines for public relations professionals and social media

strategists to measure the effectiveness of social media engagement efforts, which goes beyond

evaluating descriptive and superficial outputs (e.g., number of followers, likes, posts=comments). For best practices, companies need to create up-to-date content tailored to meet

and gratify publics’ needs, constantly manage their social media presence, and engage publics

in conversations, communities, and activities. Recent studies have provided multiple solutions

in driving public engagement on social media (e.g., Gummerus et al., 2012; Men & Tsai,

2013; Tsai & Men, 2013). For instance, providing information of economic rewards (e.g.,

coupons, sweepstakes, prizes) and entertainment benefits (e.g., videos, pictures, jokes, stories,

comic strips, gaming) could help attract fans and boost user engagement (Gummerus et al., 2012;

Tsai & Men, 2013). With regard to communication strategies, corporate SNS representatives

could act like a caring friend and communicate in a genuine and authentic manner to improve

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parasocial interactions (i.e., intimate interpersonal relationships) with the publics. Similarly,

strategies like peer linking that promote member-to-member interactions and community

identification could induce proactive engagement (i.e., Men & Tsai, 2013). In sum, social media

have become an indispensable public relations tool to cultivate relationships with online stake-

holders. To address the hype, guesswork, confusion, and frustrations arising from the social

media revolution, more empirical research explicating the underlying process of organization–

public engagement on social media is critically needed.

Limitations and Directions for Future Research

This study has several limitations that should be noted and addressed in future research.

Although the sample covered both college students and working professionals from multiple

age groups to improve the representativeness, the generalizability of the findings is limited

due to the nonprobability of the sampling approach. This study focused only on one leading

social network site, Facebook, in the American context. Given that the features, purposes,

and community dynamics of many SNSs around the globe vary (Men & Tsai, 2011; Tsai &

Men, 2012), future studies should explore other major SNS sites such as Twitter, Instagram,

and LinkedIn, as well as popular SNSs in different cultural and organizational (e.g., government,

nonprofit) contexts, to gain a broader understanding of the effects of public engagement with

organizations on SNSs. Also, with the explosion of mobile audiences and the growing popularity

of emerging mobile Internet and social media tools such as Snapchat, Whatsapp, and Wechat,

future research could investigate how organizations could capitalize on such new technology

to engage the increasing empowered and connected publics. By the same token, future studies

should also consider how different stakeholder groups in terms of age, income, gender, and race,

and their engagement in different social media platforms for varied purposes may entail dissimi-

lar engagement mechanisms and consequences. For instance, an older business professional’s

engagement activities with a company on LinkedIn may lead to outcomes that are different from

those of a college student’s corporate engagement on Facebook. Additionally, this study focused

on examining the perceptual, attitudinal, and behavioral outcomes of public engagement with

corporate SNS pages. Future endeavors should connect social media engagement efforts to

business objectives to understand its business value on return on investment. Other important

outcomes of public engagement, such as public empowerment (L. A. Grunig et al., 2012), should

be considered in future studies to establish a holistic model of public social media engagement.

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