Outline of Knowledge Database - Outline of Knowledge Website

1

Outline of History

May 20, 2013

Contents

SOCI>History .................................................................................................................................................................... 2

SOCI>History>Philosophy Of History ......................................................................................................................... 2

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups ...................................................................................................................................... 2

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Africa ..................................................................................................................... 2

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Americas ................................................................................................................ 4

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Americas>North America ................................................................................. 4

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Americas>South America ................................................................................. 7

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Asia ........................................................................................................................ 7

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Asia>East Asia .................................................................................................. 9

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Asia>Middle East............................................................................................ 10

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Europe .................................................................................................................. 10

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Europe>North Europe ..................................................................................... 12

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Europe>South Europe ..................................................................................... 13

SOCI>History>History ............................................................................................................................................... 14

SOCI>History>History>Universe .......................................................................................................................... 14

SOCI>History>History>Age .................................................................................................................................. 22

SOCI>History>History>Battle ............................................................................................................................... 27

SOCI>History>History>Culture ............................................................................................................................ 46

SOCI>History>History>Dynasty ........................................................................................................................... 71

SOCI>History>History>Era ................................................................................................................................... 89

SOCI>History>History>Explorers ....................................................................................................................... 100

SOCI>History>History>Invention ....................................................................................................................... 105

SOCI>History>History>Invention>Africa ...................................................................................................... 107

SOCI>History>History>Invention>America .................................................................................................. 112

SOCI>History>History>Invention>Asia ......................................................................................................... 123

SOCI>History>History>Invention>Asia>Middle East .............................................................................. 131

SOCI>History>History>Invention>Europe ..................................................................................................... 147

SOCI>History>History>Leaders .......................................................................................................................... 165

SOCI>History>History>Life ................................................................................................................................ 207

SOCI>History>History>Migration ...................................................................................................................... 224

SOCI>History>History>Nation ........................................................................................................................... 227

SOCI>History>History>Nation>Africa .......................................................................................................... 228

SOCI>History>History>Nation>America ....................................................................................................... 244

SOCI>History>History>Nation>Asia ............................................................................................................. 270

SOCI>History>History>Nation>Asia>Middle East ................................................................................... 298

SOCI>History>History>Nation>Europe ......................................................................................................... 323

SOCI>History>History>Population ..................................................................................................................... 371

SOCI>History>History>Rulers ............................................................................................................................ 373

SOCI>History>History>Rulers>Africa ........................................................................................................... 373

SOCI>History>History>Rulers>America ....................................................................................................... 374

SOCI>History>History>Rulers>Asia .............................................................................................................. 377

SOCI>History>History>Rulers>Asia>Middle East ................................................................................... 383

SOCI>History>History>Rulers>Europe ......................................................................................................... 399

SOCI>History>History>Town ............................................................................................................................. 441

SOCI>History>History>Treaty ............................................................................................................................ 446

SOCI>History>History>War ............................................................................................................................... 457

SOCI>History>Historians ......................................................................................................................................... 483

SOCI>History>Historians>USA History ............................................................................................................. 488

2

Note: To look up references, see the Consciousness Bibliography, listing 10,000 books and articles, with full journal

and author names, available in text and PDF file formats at

http://www.outline-of-knowledge.info/Consciousness_Bibliography/index.html.

SOCI>History

history

Social studies can be about peoples, historical events, and philosophy {history}.

SOCI>History>Philosophy Of History

philosophy of history

History can have patterns, evolutions, and regularities, which convey meaning to history {philosophy of history}.

History can reflect divine purpose or plan. History can be expression of Reason or Spirit in matter. Economic forces

can determine history. History can have cycles.

Hegelian idealism

History progressively realizes one self that hypothesizes itself {self-positing mind} as mind or spirit {Hegelian

idealism}.

historical rationalism

History can have patterns {historical rationalism}.

historical skepticism

No one can know if history has patterns {historical skepticism}.

historical subjectivism

The only historical patterns are ones that people imagine or impose on history {historical subjectivism}.

nihilism

History can have no pattern {nihilism} {historical irrationalism}.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups

ethnic group

People {ethnic group} diversified over continents.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Africa

Bantu group

central Africa {Bantu}.

Baster group

south-Africa white and Khoi mixture {Baster}.

Basuto group

south Africa {Basuto}.

Benin group

west Africa {Benin, group}.

Berber group

north Africa {Berber}.

Biaka group

pygmy group {Biaka}.

3

Boer group

south Africa {Boer}.

Bushmen group

Kalahari Desert, Namibia {Bushmen}.

Egyptian group

Egypt {Egyptian}.

Ewe group

west Africa {Ewe}.

Hausa group

north Nigeria {Hausa}. They are now Muslim.

Herero group

Namibia {Herero}.

Ibo group

Nigeria {Ibo}.

Khoi group

south Africa and herders {Khoi}. Bushmen are Khoi.

Khoisan group

south Africa. It includes Hottentot and Bushmen {Khoisan}.

Kung group

Botswana Kalahari Desert {!Kung} {Kung}.

Mandenka group

Africa {Mandenka}.

Masai group

east Africa {Masai}.

Mbuti group

pygmy group {Mbuti}.

Moor group

north Africa {Moor}.

Nama group

Namibia {Nama}.

Ovambo group

Namibia {Ovambo}.

Pygmy group

equatorial Africa rainforest {Pygmy}.

San or Hottentot group

south Africa hunter-gatherers {San} {Hottentot}.

Somali group

4

east Africa {Somali}.

Swahili group

Kenya {Swahili}.

Ubangi group

Africa {Ubangi}.

Yoruba group

Africa {Yoruba group}.

Zulu group

south Africa {Zulu}.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Americas

Americas groups

Americas groups {Americas groups} are in North and South America.

Karitiana group

{Karitiana}.

Pima group

{Pima}.

Surui group

{Surui}.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Americas>North America

Aborigine group

Australia {Aborigine}.

Algonquin group

northeast USA {Algonquin}.

Apache group

north USA {Apache}.

Arapaho group

north USA {Arapaho}.

Blackfoot group

north USA {Blackfoot}.

Cajun group

French Acadians came from Nova Scotia to Louisiana. French from Caribbean also live near New Orleans,

Louisiana {Cajun}.

Canuck group

Canada {Canuck}.

Cherokee group

USA {Cherokee}.

Cheyenne group

5

USA {Cheyenne, group}.

Chippewa group

USA {Chippewa}.

Choctaw group

USA {Choctaw}.

Comanche group

USA {Comanche}.

Cree group

USA {Cree}.

Creek group

USA {Creek}.

Creole group

Mixed peoples live in Louisiana {Creole, group}.

Crow group

USA {Crow}.

Dakota group

north-central USA {Dakota}.

Delaware group

Delaware {Delaware, group}.

Eskimo group

Alaska {Eskimo}.

Hopi group

southwest USA {Hopi}.

Huron group

Michigan {Huron}.

Iroquois group

New York {Iroquois}.

Kwakiutl group

northwest USA {Kwakiutl}.

Mandan group

central USA {Mandan}.

Miami group

Florida {Miami, group}.

Mohawk group

northeast USA {Mohawk}.

Mohican group

northeast USA {Mohican}.

6

Mound Builder group

central USA {Mound Builder}.

Navajo group

southwest USA {Navajo, group}.

Nootka group

British Columbia {Nootka}.

Ojibway group

USA {Ojibway}.

Okie group

slang. Oklahoma {Okie}.

Omaha group

Oklahoma {Omaha, group}.

Ottawa group

east Canada {Ottawa, group}.

Pan-American group

Western Hemisphere {Pan-American}.

Pawnee group

USA {Pawnee}.

Pennsylvania Dutch group

Netherlands-settler descendants live in Pennsylvania {Pennsylvania Dutch}.

Pueblo group

southwest USA {Pueblo}.

Seminole group

Florida {Seminole}.

Shawnee group

USA {Shawnee}.

Shoshone group

northwest USA {Shoshone}.

Sioux group

USA {Sioux}.

Tlingit group

northwest USA {Tlingit}.

Ute group

USA {Ute}.

Yankee group

northeast USA. It is slang {Yankee}.

Zuni group

southwest USA {Zuni}.

7

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Americas>South America

Arara group

Amazon rain forest in Brazil {Arara}.

Guarani group

South America {Guarani}.

Jivaro group

Amazon River in Brazil {Jivaro}.

Korubo group

Amazon rain forest in Brazil {Korubo}.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Asia

Ainu group

north Japan, perhaps Caucasian {Ainu}.

Andaman Islander group

Negrito. Burma {Andaman Islander}.

Arunta group

Australia {Arunta}.

Balochi group

central Asia {Balochi}.

Barusho group

central Asia {Barusho}.

Brahui group

central Asia {Brahui}.

Caroline group

South Pacific Ocean {Caroline}.

Chinese group

Adjective is Sino- {Chinese}.

Cimmerian group

central Asia {Cimmerian}.

Cuman group

Cuman, Polovtsi, or Kipchak were in central Asia {Cuman} {Polovtsi} {Kipchak}.

Dravidian group

India {Dravidian}.

Dysk group

Sarawak {Dysk}.

Gurkha group

Nepal {Gurkha}.

8

Hazara group

central Asia {Hazara}.

Hebrew group

Adjective is Hebraic. Palestine {Hebrew}. Adjective is Judaic {Jewish}.

Hmong group

Vietnam highlanders speak Miao {Hmong}.

Hun group

central Asia {Hun}.

Indian group

Adjective is Indic. Prefix is Indo-. India {Indian}.

Japanese or Nipponese

Japan {Japanese, group} {Nipponese}.

Kafir group

Hindu Kush Mountains {Kafir}.

Kalash group

central Asia {Kalash}.

Khazar group

central Asia {Khazar}.

Kurd group

Iraq/Iran/Turkey {Kurd}.

Makrani group

central Asia {Makrani}.

Mandingo group

Philippines {Mandingo}.

Maori group

New Zealand {Maori}.

Mongol group

northeast Asia {Mongol}.

Oriental group

Asia {Oriental}.

Papuan group

East Indies {Papuan}.

Pathan group

central Asia {Pathan}.

Polynesian group

South Pacific Ocean {Polynesian}.

Samoyed group

Siberia {Samoyed, group}.

9

Saracen group

Arabia {Saracen}.

Sarawak group

Sarawak {Sarawak, group}.

Semang group

Negrito. Malaysia {Semang}.

Semite group

Adjective is Semitic. Near East {Semite}.

Sherpa group

Tibet {Sherpa}.

Sikh group

north India {Sikh}.

Sindhi group

central Asia {Sindhi}.

Sundanese group

East Indies {Sundanese}.

Tanka group

South Pacific Ocean {Tanka}.

Tonga group

South Pacific Ocean {Tonga}.

Trobriand Islander group

South Pacific Ocean {Trobriand Islander}.

Tuareg group

Philippines {Tuareg}.

Turkoman group

Kazakhstan {Turkoman}.

Uygur group

central Asia {Uygur}.

Uzbek group

central Asia {Uzbek}.

Veddoid group

Negrito. Sri Lanka {Veddoid}.

White Hun or Ephthalite

central Asia {White Hun} {Ephthalite}.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Asia>East Asia

Dai group

{Dai}.

10

Daur group

{Daur}.

Han group

{Han}.

Hezhen group

{Hezhen}.

Lahu group

{Lahu}.

Miaozu group

{Miaozu}.

Naxi group

{Naxi}.

Oregen group

{Oregen}.

She group

{She}.

Tu group

{Tu}.

Tujia group

{Tujia}.

Xibo group

{Xibo}.

Yakut group

{Yakut}.

Yizu group

{Yizu}.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Asia>Middle East

Bedouin

Arabia {Bedouin}.

Druze

{Druze}.

Mozabite

{Mozabite}.

Palestinian

{Palestinian}.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Europe

11

Adygei group

{Adygei}.

Armenian group

east Turkey {Armenian}.

Aryan group

Europe/India {Aryan}.

Avar group

east Europe {Avar}.

Breton group

France {Breton}.

Burgundii group

southeast France {Burgundii}.

Caucasian group

Caucasia {Caucasian}.

Celt or Kelt group

west Europe {Celt} {Kelt}.

Frank group

east France and west Germany. Prefix is Franco- {Frank}.

Gaul group

Adjective is Gallic. France {Gaul, group}.

Goth group

east Europe {Goth}.

Magyar group

central Asia and Hungary {Magyar}.

Merovingian group

Europe {Merovingian}.

Moravian group

Moravia {Moravian}.

Occidental group

Europe/Western Hemisphere {Occidental}.

Orcadian group

{Orcadian}.

Ostrogoth group

east Europe {Ostrogoth}.

Salian Frank group

east France {Salian Frank}.

Sardinian group

Sardinia {Sardinian}.

12

Tartar or Tatar group

central Asia {Tartar} {Tatar}.

Vandal group

east Europe {Vandal}.

Visigoth group

east Europe {Visigoth}.

Yiddish group

Jewish peoples live in east Europe {Yiddish}.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Europe>North Europe

Alemanni group

Germany {Alemanni, group}.

Angle group

north Germany. Prefix is Anglo- {Angle}.

Bavarian group

Bavaria {Bavarian}.

Bohemian group

Bohemia {Bohemian}.

British or Briton group

Britain {British} {Briton}.

Cantabridgian group

Cambridge, England {Cantabridgian}.

Cossack group

Russia {Cossack, group}.

Dane group

Denmark {Dane}.

Druid group

England {Druid}.

Finn group

Finland {Finn}.

Gaelic group

Ireland {Gaelic}.

German group

Germany {German, group}.

Hessian group

Germany Hess region {Hessian}.

Irish group

Ireland {Irish}.

13

Jute group

Germany {Jute}.

Lapp group

north Norway and north Sweden {Lapp}.

Nordic group

Norway {Nordic}.

Norman group

Normandy {Norman}.

Oxonian group

Oxford, England {Oxonian}.

Saxon group

north Germany {Saxon}.

Scandian group

Scandinavia {Scandian}.

Swiss group

Switzerland {Swiss, group}.

Teuton group

Adjective is Teutonic. Germany {Teuton}.

Viking group

Norse, Northmen, Norman, Dane, or Viking were in Scandinavia {Viking} {Northmen} {Norse}.

Welsh group

Wales {Welsh}.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Europe>South Europe

Achaean group

Greece {Achaean}.

Attic group

Greece {Attic}.

Basque group

north Spain {Basque, group}.

Etruscan group

north Italy {Etruscan}.

Greek group

Prefix is Greco-. Greece {Greek}.

Gypsy group

Romania {Gypsy}.

Iberian group

Spain {Iberian}.

14

Latin group

Rome, Italy {Latin}.

Lombard group

north Italy {Lombard}.

Neapolitan group

Naples, Italy {Neapolitan}.

Olympian group

Mt. Olympus, Greece {Olympian}.

Panhellenic group

Greece {Panhellenic}.

Portuguese group

Portugal {Portuguese}.

Sabine group

Italy {Sabine}.

Serb group

Balkan Peninsula {Serb}.

Slav group

east Europe {Slav}.

Spartan group

Sparta, Greece {Spartan}.

Tuscan group

north Italy {Tuscan}.

SOCI>History>History

history in history

history

Earth

-13720000000 to 2012

History includes ages, eras, future history, inventions, leaders, nations, rulers, treaties, and religions, and wars.

SOCI>History>History>Universe

universe origin

beginning

Universe

-13720000000

About 13.72 billion years ago, universe space-time began, and space expanded at light speed.

It was not an explosion. Expansion happened to space, not in space. Because all space expanded equally, expansion

and space had no center and no edge. Explosions have central point and farthest reach.

At origin, radiation had maximum density, maximum temperature (too hot to allow particles), and maximum

pressure. Radiation was homogeneous, so every point had the same temperature, pressure, and density. Space had

maximum curvature. Radiation had random motion but no net motion, because space expanded equally in all

directions.

As universe cooled, lower energies allowed symmetry breaking, and new phases and matter-and-energy states arose.

15

Planck era

beginning

Universe

-13720000000

From universe origin to Planck time {Planck epoch} {Planck era}, 10^-43 seconds after universe origin, universe

was quantum foam, with quantum gravity. Temperature was more than 10^32 K. Total energy was more than 10^15

GeV. Universe diameter was less than 10^-36 meters. Universe was homogeneous, because all parts were close enough

so gravitons and photons from any point affected all other points, and so united the universe.

forces unified

beginning

Universe

-13720000000

About 10^-43 seconds after universe origin, universe diameter was 10^-36 meters, temperature was 10^32 K, total

energy was 10^15 GeV. Until 10^-39 seconds after universe origin, universe had united forces. Strong force was

weaker, electromagnetic force was similar, weak force was stronger, and gravity was very much stronger.

unity ended

beginning

Universe

-13720000000

About 10^-39 seconds after universe origin, by symmetry breaking, strong nuclear force disengaged from

electromagnetic and weak nuclear forces. Temperature was 10^30 K. Universe diameter was smaller than electron

diameter. Some universe points were farther away than light travels during 10^-39 seconds, so universe had separate

and independent gravitationally and electromagnetically evolving points, and was no longer homogeneous.

Gravitational collapse can occur only in region sizes over which gravitons can travel during 10^-39 seconds, so energy

distribution began to be irregular.

inflation of universe

beginning

Universe

-13720000000

Between 10^-36 and 10^-34 seconds after universe origin, temperature was 10^28 K, and universe diameter was

smaller than electron diameter. Starting between 10^-36 and 10^-34 seconds after universe origin until 1 second after,

space underwent even more rapid expansion {inflation of universe} of 10^30 times, as allowed by general relativity.

Universe grew to softball size. Photons had least-ordered thermal energy states, and nucleons had most order.

Compton time

beginning

Universe

-13720000000

About 10^-23 seconds {Compton time} after universe origin, universe was 10^-15 meters diameter {Compton

wavelength}, electron size.

unity stopped

beginning

Universe

-13720000000

About 10^-11 seconds after universe origin, at temperature 2.5 x 10^15 K, electromagnetic and weak forces became

independent, by symmetry breaking. Universe was atom size.

hadrons and mesons

beginning

Universe

-13720000000

16

About 10^-5 seconds to 10^-4 seconds after universe origin, quarks formed short-lived hadrons and mesons, as

universe cooled enough to allow matter. Temperature was 2 x 10^12 K. Matter had charges, so universe had hot

plasma.

stable matter

beginning

Universe

-13720000000

About 10^-3 seconds after universe origin, temperature was 10^12 K. Universe had diameter two light-years. Long-

lived protons, neutrons, electrons, positrons, and neutrinos formed, all traveling at nearly light speed, with masses ten

times more than rest masses. Universe density was 4 x 10^9 g/cm^3. Number of protons equaled number of neutrons.

Universe had hot plasma. Strong force was dominant.

neutrinos

beginning

Universe

-13720000000

About 10^-2 seconds after universe origin, temperature was 10^11 K. Number of neutrinos became constant,

because they no longer interacted with other matter. Neutrinos had lower background temperature than photons.

Universe was mostly in thermal equilibrium.

deuterium

beginning

Universe

-13720000000

From 10^-2 seconds to 2 * 10^2 seconds after universe origin, protons and neutrons became deuterium, helium, and

lithium. Free protons are hydrogen nuclei. One proton and one neutron bind to make deuterium nuclei. Two protons

and two neutrons bind to make helium-4 nuclei. Three protons and four neutrons bind to make lithium-7 nuclei.

antimatter ended

beginning

Universe

-13720000000

About 1 second after universe origin, temperature was 5 x 10^10 K. Universe had diameter 1 light-year. Electrons

and positrons were no longer created, so they annihilated each other, except for excess electrons that made hot plasma.

Protons and neutrons were still being created, and universe was 75% protons and 24% neutrons. Density was 10^5

g/cm^3.

helium

beginning

Universe

-13720000000

About 100 seconds after universe origin, temperature was 10^9 K to 10^10 K. Particle creation stopped, so only

protons, electrons, and neutrons existed. Neutron number was 1/6 to 1/7 of proton number: 85% protons and 15%

neutrons. Protons and electrons made hot plasma. Weak force was dominant, so neutrons and protons were in thermal

equilibrium. Nuclear fusion began to make helium nuclei from hydrogen nuclei.

density fluctuations

beginning

Universe

-13720000000

About 1000 seconds after universe origin, temperature was 10^9 K. Universe diameter was 100 light-years. 25% of

protons were in helium. Lithium-7 nuclei had 10^-10 of protons. Hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium nuclei were 75% of

matter. Helium was 25% of matter. Lithium was 0.0000000001% of matter. Matter and energy density was 0.9 g/cm^3.

Photons interacted with free electrons {coupling of matter and radiation} {Thomson scattering}. Electromagnetic force

17

was dominant over gravity and pressure, so photons were like viscous fluid, allowing universe density fluctuations

{density fluctuations}, which persisted.

matter clumping

beginning

Universe

-13719930000

About 70,000 years after universe origin, matter became more than radiation. Gravity clumped matter.

recombination

beginning

Universe

-13719700000

About 300,000 years after universe origin, temperature was 3000 K. Universe had density 10^-20 g/cm^3 and

diameter 10^8 light-years. Because temperature dropped below ionization temperature, atomic nuclei had cooled

enough to capture electrons, and neutral hydrogen atoms formed {recombination, cosmology}. Gas pressure was

stronger than gravity in dense regions.

Universe was no longer hot plasma and no longer opaque to radiation {last scattering surface}. Because ionization

stopped, particles no longer absorbed radiation, and photons were no longer in equilibrium with particles, so universe

became transparent, as it is now. Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) began. CMB was homogeneous to 1

part in 10,000 (but that small irregularity began galactic clusters).

darkness

beginning

Universe

-13719000000

About 1,000,000 years after universe origin, background radiation had cooled to below temperature of visible light,

and universe became dark, as it is now.

photon energy

beginning

Universe

-13620000000 to -12720000000

Before recombination, atom kinetic energy, photon energy, and neutral-hydrogen-atom spin energy {spin

temperature} were the same. Kinetic energy caused collisions that transferred energy to and from electron spin.

Kinetic-energy exchanges between atoms and free electrons caused photon-energy changes. Photon energy transferred

to and from electron spin. After recombination, kinetic energy and spin energy declined faster than CMB photon

energy. Continual collisions equalized spin and kinetic energies. About 10^8 years after universe origin, gas was too

dilute to have enough collisions to keep spin and kinetic energies equal, and spin energy started to increase as particles

absorbed photon energy. At same time, star and/or galaxy radiation started to heat gas and cause higher kinetic energy.

About 10^9 years after universe origin, spin and kinetic energies were equal again. Photon energy decreases

continuously as universe expands.

galaxies

beginning

Universe

-13620000000

About 10^8 years after universe origin, temperature was -170 C. Universe had diameter 3 x 10^9 light-years, 1/30 of

now. Universe asymmetries resulted in inhomogeneities that allowed galactic strings, galactic clusters, and galaxies to

form. Dwarf galaxies formed by gravity, as hydrogen and helium atoms condensed into clouds. Clouds started to rotate,

as they became denser. Colliding galaxies developed central supermassive black holes. As galaxies collided, densest

spots became stars, as shock waves concentrated matter. Star gravity further clustered gas. Stars gave off light and heat.

Radiation began to ionize surrounding gas.

stars

beginning

18

Universe

-13220000000

About 5 x 10^8 years after universe origin, stars began to form as galaxies collided and became bigger. Exploding

stars formed elements heavier than lithium.

reionization

beginning

Universe

-12720000000

About 10^9 years after universe origin, all intergalactic gas ionizes. Perhaps, galaxy central black-hole formation

caused ionizing radiation. Perhaps, radiation came only from stars.

Milky Way Galaxy

galaxy

Milky Way Galaxy

-1200000000 to -900000000

From 12 billion to 9 billion years ago, Milky Way Galaxy formed, along with other galaxies.

star formation peak

star

Universe

-9000000000

About 9 billion years ago, galaxy collisions and star formation maximized.

expansion increase

energy

Universe

-5000000000

About 5 billion years ago, dark energy started to increase space expansion, because its density was greater than

matter density. Universe diameter was 10^11 light-years. Density was 3 x 10^-30 g/cm^3, with 10^8 photons/nucleon.

Background photons had 3 K blackbody background radiation, so temperature was 3 K.

Sun

star

Solar System

-4570000000

About 4.57 billion years ago, sun and planets formed. Galaxy shock waves concentrated matter and encouraged star

formation.

Earth formed

planet

Earth

-4570000000 to -4500000000

High-metal-content stars can form planets with air, land, and liquid water. About 4.57 billion years ago, Earth

accreted matter from stellar disk. Then radioactivity melted Earth, and Earth formed different-density layers.

Atmosphere had mostly carbon dioxide.

Moon formed

moon

Earth

-4500000000 to -4450000000

About 4.5 billion years ago, Moon formed when asteroid or comet twice as wide as Moon hit Earth.

Hadean

era

Earth

19

-4500000000 to -4000000000

About 4.5 billion years ago, gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy conversion (as iron sank to form Earth's

core), meteorite collisions, and radioactive decay (six times more intense than now) melted Earth. Surface was 1300 K.

asteroids hit

asteroid

Earth

-4500000000 to -3500000000

About 4.5 billion years ago, asteroids regularly hit Earth.

crust formed

land

Earth

-4450000000 to -4400000000

About 4.45 billion years ago, Earth's crust formed, and liquid water appeared. (However, if meteorites were few and

atmosphere did not trap much heat, crust appeared after only 10,000,000 years and surface was cool, because Sun was

faint.)

oceans formed

ocean

Earth

-4450000000 to -4400000000

About 4.45 billion years ago, water in comets and asteroids formed oceans.

zircon

rock

Australia

-4300000000

ZrSiO4 [4 is subscript] {zircon, rock} has zirconium, silicon, and oxygen. Zircons do not change in metamorphic

processes and can move far from sources. Zircons contain radioactive uranium, which allows determining age. Their

oxygen can have different isotopes, depending on formation temperature, with more oxygen-18 at low temperatures

and with liquid water (from rain or ocean). Dot-sized zircon crystals are in Jack Hills conglomerate [-3,000,000,000]

and Mt. Narryer in west Australia. These zircons had more oxygen-18 than mantle zircons and so formed in water.

These zircons also have minerals from formation-site granitic rock, like continental crust. Therefore, these zircons had

stayed on surface and never gone inside Earth, implying that Earth had a stable surface by 4.3 billion years ago.

Isua

life

Isua, Greenland

-3800000000

About 3.8 billion years ago, the oldest sedimentary rocks (which only form underwater) formed in southwest

Greenland. They have fossil cells.

1000 years from now

future

Earth

3000

About 1000 years from now, people will occupy all solar-system planets, moons, and space stations and be at nearby

stars. The human line can then never end. Transceivers will allow accurate control of distant actions. Space stations and

spaceships will link all solar system planets and satellites.

Energy production and control will increase greatly.

People will know exact conditions for starting and evolving life for all stars, planets, and life forms. Curiosity will be

high. There will be no fear of contact. Transceivers will scan universe for signals from all possible life sources outside

solar system.

Many miniature robot probes will explore all stars within 1000 light-years. Probes will have communication and

analyzing powers. They will need no occupants, and light weights will allow speeds of 0.01 c. High quality, large

20

numbers, and multiple controls cause probes never to stop or fail. Places found to have life will have many probes. The

advanced economy and energy efficiencies can pay for probes.

Individual life span will lengthen to 150 years by organ replacement, cell rejuvenation, genetic alteration and

supplementation, drugs, nutrition, exercise and relaxation programs, and mental health care.

Control over environment will be better.

Childhood will lengthen.

Brain will extend by man-machine interfaces, drugs, feedback techniques, and other mental controls. Humans will

have consciousness that can inhabit machine, body, or both at once, with many specialized modules. People will be

able to consciously move between consciousness types.

People will have many activities available. People will have exact mastery of all tasks. People can choose to be

perfect in anything. Memory will be easy for all. Language will become perfect. All current knowledge will always be

available. Perception techniques will enable perception from smallest to largest and coldest to hottest.

10000 years from now

future

Earth

12000

About 10000 years from now, many experiments will test social-science and natural-science theories. All knowledge

and culture will be available to all people. All people will connect by many communication channels.

Cities will have buildings that change color and transparency to save energy.

People will have lifetime of 150 years. New people species will develop, for specialized tasks and environments, like

under sea or in space. Specialized robotic beings will perform set tasks, repair each other, and plan. Species Homo will

be extinct. People will have interconnection with machines, aided by drugs and bionics, making man-machines.

Earth will federate all cultural groups (Terran Union), with no states. Individual rights and interests will always

prevail over state and society rights. Freedom, cooperation, harmony, and responsibility will be values. There will be

congenial environments for all people and person types. Work will have further specialization and labor division.

Humans will not get to universe limits, because it is expanding, but they can inhabit nearby regions. However,

inhabitants will not be able to communicate efficiently.

1000000 years from now

future

Earth

1002000

About 10^6 years from now, people will have evolved into many new species. Intelligent computers will work at all

levels. Special analyzers will be available for medicine, law, and technology.

Giant solar collectors and large-scale hydrogen fusion will give billions of times more energy, with little pollution.

Moons and planets will give unlimited raw materials, and planet construction will begin. There will be great wealth for

all. Galaxy will have large-scale changes.

Giant communications antennas and equipment will be everywhere. People will be able to use very low and very

high temperatures.

Tectonic activity will become smaller as Earth cools. Mountain building will decrease, Earth will be flatter, Siberia

and Alaska will join, Asia and Australia will join, Panama will submerge, ocean will cover current continent edges, and

glaciers will return.

10 to the 9 years from now

future

Universe

1000002000

About 10^9 years from now, growth will eventually slow. Space expansion, cooling, and randomization effects will

tend to minimize space curvature and deconcentrate mass and energy. Everything will run best, with no waste or

inefficiency. Thought and Mind growth will taper off. Perhaps, thought will control future.

5 x 10 to the 9 years from now

future

Universe

5000002000 to 6000002000

21

About 5 x 10^9 years from now, Sun will become red giant. Earth will be 700 K.


future

Universe

15000002000

About 1.5 x 10^10 years from now, Sun will become cool white dwarf star. Earth will freeze.


future

Universe

700000002000

About 7 x 10^11 years from now, universe will be at Gibbons-Hawking temperature.


future

Universe

5000000002000

About 2 x 10^12 years from now, only nearby galaxies will be visible.


future

Universe

100000000002000

About 10^14 years from now, no more stars form. Stars will be iron and have no more fuel, because iron cannot

fuse, so all stars will cool.


future

Universe

1000000000002000 to 100000000000002000

About 10^15 years from now, no planets will be around stars.


future

Universe

1000000000000002000

About 10^18 years from now, many stars will escape from galaxies, and galaxies will collapse, to leave only small

galaxy cores.


future

Universe

100000000000000002000 to 1000000000000000000000000002000

About 10^20 years from now, escaped stars will maintain universe temperature of 3 K to 100 K, until 10^30 years

after.


future

Universe

1000000000000000000000000002000

About 10^30 years from now, all galaxies will be in black holes.


future

Universe

22

100000000000000000000000000002000

About 10^32 to 10^33 years from now, proton decay to leptons will finish. Universe will be 10^13 to 10^20 bigger

than now, so distance between two free particles will be 10^5 light-years. Universe will be gas of electrons, positrons,

photons, neutrinos, and supermassive black holes.


future

Universe

10000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000002000

About 10^65 years from now, matter becomes liquid through quantum tunneling.


future

Universe

1000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000002000

About 10^70 years from now, if radiation dominates at critical density, electrons and protons will be part of atoms as

big as universe is now. They will attract each other and annihilate to make photons.


future

Universe

1000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000002000

About 10^85 years from now, electrons and positrons will combine.


future

Universe

100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

02000

About 10^98 years from now, largest black holes have evaporated.


future

Universe

100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

00002000

About 10^100 years from now, black holes will have all decayed and evaporated, making mostly photons. If

radiation dominates universe, it will become anisotropic.

If universe closes at maximum expansion, it will have dead stars, black holes, photons, and neutrinos. If universe

contracts, it will make more energy, because photons will be blue-shifted instead of red-shifted, and black holes will eat

all matter until all things are in one black hole.

SOCI>History>History>Age

Lower Paleolithic or Lower Old Stone Age

age

Africa

-2000000 to -150000

Oldowan, PreChellean, Abbevillian or Chellean, Acheulian, and Mousterian cultures evolved, in that order.

Paleolithic or Old Stone Age

age

Africa

-600000 to -10000

Acheulian and Mousterian cultures existed.

23

Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age

age

Earth

-150000 to -35000

Mongoloid and Caucasian peoples began and then Negroid and Brunet peoples began. Brunets are Iberian or

Mediterranean, Hamitic or Berber in Egypt, East Indian, Polynesian, Dravidian in India, and Maori in New Zealand.

Upper Paleolithic or Upper Old Stone Age or Recent Stone Age

age

Earth

-50000 to -10000

Cultures were first Aurignacian, then Solutrean and Gravettian, and then Magdalenian. Homo sapiens dominated

Neanderthals, and Neanderthals became extinct.

People lived up to forty years.

Hunter-gatherers ground and polished stone tools. They used bows and arrows, used spears and spear-throwers,

fished with nets with sinkers, fished with bone fishhooks, and hunted with barbed arrowheads. Small flint blades in

wood or bone made sickles or knives, to gather wild plants. They chipped long blades from cylindrical stone cores. In

Northern Hemisphere, flint burin chisels were for wood or antler/bone carving. They had stone saws, bone needles, and

wooden tools.

They had earth, stone, mud, reed, bone, skin, and wood tents and houses, some with sunken floors. They had

dwellings with kitchen, living, and sleeping rooms. They put wooden houses on stilts in lakes. They had fires and

hearths. They used food storage. They had houses and villages, with up to 300 people. They followed herds near ice

edge.

They had fur clothing from skin strips and used ornaments. They had mattocks, spoons, wheels, and lamps.

They tried sympathetic magic and had medicine men. They had religion.

They had rituals and ceremonies. They decorated themselves and tools. They carved.

They migrated to Australia and America. Cro-Magnon man, Galley hill man, and Swanscombe skull lived in Upper

Paleolithic. Galley hill man was short and stocky, with thick skull.

Neolithic or New Stone Age

age

Africa/Asia/Europe

-13000 to -5000

Neolithic peoples had villages, advanced stone tools, and bone and wood tools. Ice ages were over. Burials were not

elaborate. Votive offerings started in late Neolithic.


age

Greece

-6000 to -3000

Neolithic people set stone tools, such as axes and hoes, in hafts. They used ground and polished stone tools, rather

than chipped or flaked, such as celt ax heads. They had pottery making, carpentry, and weaving to make fabric. They

used copper melting and casting. They had tattoos, jewelry, and personal property. They stored wheat and barley.

They had patriarchal society, used circumcision, followed couvade, and used levirate. Neolithic people had

mummies, built large stone circles, and started burial mounds [-5000]. Late Neolithic had second burial of bare bones.

Chalcolithic Era or Copper Age

age

Near East

-5000 to -1000

Metal workers hammered copper weapons and tools.

Taurian Age

age

Earth

-4000 to -2000

24

Began.

Bronze Age

age

Near East

-3800 to -1400

Bronze is 90% copper and 10% tin melted together. It was for armor, helmets, shields, and ornaments but not for

farm tools. Armies had 3000 to 5000 soldiers, with hardened weapons. It is harder than copper but easier to melt and

pour into molds. No bronze was in Americas.

Bronze Age

age

Thailand

-3600

It came from India.

Neolithic

age

Southeast Asia

-3000

It came from India.

Bronze Age

age

Greece

-3000 to -1000

By legend, the first age was the Golden Age, when immortals walked on Earth and no one worked. The second

Silver Age was just before recorded history, when there was no war and a goddess ruled Earth. The third Age was the

Bronze Age.

Bronze

age

Vietnam

-2000 to -800

Pre Dong Son culture lived near Red, Ma, and Ca Rivers in north Vietnam. Pre Sa Huynh culture lived in south

center near Dong Nai River. They used water buffalo, ox, and pig.

Bronze

age

Britain/Scotland/Ireland

-2000 to -700

Celts learned it from continental Europe.

Iron Age

age

Anatolia

-1800

Iron Age began.

Bronze Age

age

Scandinavia

-1600 to -450

Bronze Age people used barley, wheat in primitive form, and domesticated animals.

Iron Age

25

age

Mesopotamia

-1500 to -600

Hittites began to use iron for tools, weapons, and chariots. Iron is harder than copper or bronze. Iron ore supply was

greater than copper or tin supply.

Iron Age of Europe

age

Europe

-500 to 1

It came from Middle East.

Roman Iron Age

age

Scandinavia

1 to 400

Horse sacrifices replaced bull sacrifices. It used rune writing symbols. It had seasonal ceremonies.

Aquarian Astrological Age or Age of Aquarius

age

Earth

1 to 2000

In astrology, constellation in which vernal equinox occurs determines age. Currently, Earth is in Age of Pisces. 2600

will start Age of Aquarius.

Dark Ages

age

Europe

400 to 800

Nomad movements predominated.

Golden Age

age

China

618 to 907

Tang dynasty had ceramics, porcelain, and sculpture. Printing on paper using moveable wood type began.

feudalism

age

Europe

800 to 1000

Land ownership was hereditary, or high lord granted it in return for loyalty, service, soldiers, and money

{feudalism}. Serfs belonged to lord's land. Roman laws and customs helped lead to feudalism. Aliens {clientes} were

under patrician's legal protection. People attached themselves to powerful citizens {patrocinium}. People deeded land

to patron {precarium}, in return for land use for life.

fief

age

Europe

800 to 1000

Barbarian chiefs gave land {benefice} {fief}| {fee, fief} {feud} {fiefdom} {feuda} or land tenure {enfeoffment} to

their favorites, in return for allegiance and military service. As king, Charlemagne established this practice.

vassal

age

Europe

26

800 to 1000

Lords protected lower lords {vassal}|.

Middle Ages

age

Europe

800 to 1400

After nomadic migrations ceased, Dark Ages ended and stable empires based on heredity and feudal systems

developed.

Age of Chivalry

age

Europe

1200 to 1500

After Gothic era, kings became dominant in Europe. Ideas of womanly beauty and grace, chivalry, and courtly love

began with cult of the Virgin and Persian ideas about women. Many noble wives were at home during Crusades, and

this code protected them. Nature observation began. Nobles had free time for play and fantasy.

Renaissance

age

Europe

1400 to 1550

Classical thought and art spread from east. National states rose, along with languages. Protestants broke from

Catholic Church, which underwent Counter-Reformation. It emphasized humans {humanism, Renaissance}. What

property do all humans have?

Baroque Era

age

Europe

1550 to 1700

It emphasized human genius and emotion. European countries began exploration and colonialism.

Enlightenment or Age of Reason

age

Europe

1660 to 1780

Wars between Protestants and Catholics ended. Kings became dominant. It emphasized science and realism. Locke,

Bayle, Diderot, Voltaire, d'Alembert, Montesquieu, Wolff, Mendelssohn, Lessing, and Kant were main thinkers.

Ethics

People are good. Reason is people's unique faculty, allowing thought, action, art, and education. Progress can move

toward culture based on reason. People are equal in reason. Tolerance of local differences is virtuous. Atheism or deism

is correct. However, no one can reason through everything, correctly or incorrectly, so history and culture supply

missing information and wisdom. Perhaps, progress and equality are illusions.

Romantic Era

age

Europe

1750 to 1830

Era favored democracies, emotion and individualism in art, and feeling for the past.

Industrial Revolution

age

Europe

1760 to 1820

Industrial Revolution favored democracies, large industries, social reform by government, continuous change,

invention, practical applications, goods, Unitarian religion with Puritan ethics, energy, time, hygiene, and comfort.

27

Nationalism

age

Earth

1850 to 1920

Arts relied on national themes.

Cold War

age

Europe

1945 to 1991

Russia and USA never fought but increased military strength to counter each other and vied to control other nations.

SOCI>History>History>Battle

Qarqaar

battle

Assyria

-853

Israel and Damascus defeated King Shalmaneser III of Assyria.

Raphia

battle

Raphia, Mesopotamia

-717

Sargon II of New Assyrian Empire defeated Babylon.

Babylon

battle

Babylonia

-689

Sennacherib of New Assyrian Empire destroyed Babylon.

Marathon

battle

Marathon, Greece

-490

Greece defeated Persia.

Salamis

sea battle

Salamis, Cyprus

-480

Greece defeated Persia.

Thermopylae

battle

Thermopylae, Greece

-480

Leonidas, king of Sparta, held pass against much larger Persian army but eventually was overcome.

Aegospotami

sea battle

Aegospotami, Greece

-405 to -404

Sparta eliminated Athens' ships.

28

Leuctra

battle

Sparta, Greece

-371

Other Greek city-states defeated Sparta.

Chaeronea

battle

Chaeronea, Greece

-338

Philip II of Macedon defeated Athens and Thebes.

Granicus

battle

Granicus, Asia Minor

-334

Alexander the Great of Macedonia crossed Dardanelles Strait and defeated Darius III of Persia. He then went to

Bythnia and Cilicia.

Issus

battle

Asia Minor

-333

Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeated Darius III of Persia. He then went to the Levant and Syria. He seized

Tyre [-332]. Then he took Egypt and founded Alexandria.

Arbela

battle

Arbela

-331

Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeated Darius III of Persia.

Gaugamela

battle

Fars Region, Iran

-331

Alexander the Great went to Mesopotamia and won at Gaugamela to take Persia from Darius III.

Ipsus

battle

Ipsus, Asia Minor

-301

Seleucus I of Seleucid Dynasty in Persia defeated Antigonus I of Macedon.

Greek-Persia Battle

battle

Persia

-281

Seleucus I of Seleucid Dynasty in Persia defeated Lysimachus of Macedon.

Roman Battle

battle

France

-279

Roman Republic under Pyrrhus defeated Gauls.

29

Telamon

battle

Telamon, Italy

-225

In north Italy, Roman Republic defeated Gauls.

Cannae

battle

Cannae, Italy

-216

Carthage under Hannibal defeated Roman Republic.

Metaurus

battle

Metaurus, Italy

-207

Roman Republic defeated relief forces aiding Hannibal.

Zama

battle

Zama, Tunisia

-202

Roman Republic under Scipio Africanus Major defeated Carthage under Hannibal to end Second Punic War. Rome

gained south Spain and north Africa.

Cynoscephalae

battle

Cynoscephalae, Greece

-197

In north Greece, Roman Republic defeated Philip V of Macedon.

Arausio

battle

Arausio, Italy

-105

Cimbri German tribe defeated Roman Republic under Quintus Caepio.

Acqua Sextiae

battle

Acqua Sextiae, Italy

-102

Roman Republic under Gaius Marius defeated Teutons.

Vercellac

battle

Vercellac, Italy

-101

Roman Republic under Gaius Marius defeated Cimbri.

Chaeronea

battle

Chaeronea, Greece

-86

Roman Republic under Sulla defeated Greece.

30

Granicus

battle

Granicus, Asia Minor

-73

Roman Republic defeated Pontus.

Pharsala

battle

Pharsala, Greece

-49 to -48

Pompey, for Senate, lost to Julius Caesar, for the people, in Roman Republic civil war, ending republic and starting

Roman Empire.

Philippi

battle

Philippi, Asia Minor

-42

Octavian (later Augustus), his general Agrippa, and Roman general and Second Triumvirate member Marcus

Antonius (Marc Anthony) defeated republican forces representing Senate and ruled Middle East.

Actium

sea battle

Actium, Greece

-31

Octavian (Augustus) defeated Marc Anthony and Cleopatra.

Teutoburg Forest

battle

Rhine River

9

German tribes stopped Rome, eliminating three legions, at Rhine River in Germany. Romans put boundary across

Europe {limes} at Rhine and Danube Rivers, with roads, camps for legions, and towers. At that time, Rome had 28

infantry legions with 160,000 men and as many men in cavalry and other units.

Jerusalem

battle

Jerusalem, Palestine

73

Roman Empire destroyed Maccabees, who had fled to Masada.

Edessa

battle

Edessa, Turkey

260

Persia defeated Rome and took Emperor Valerian prisoner.

Rome

battle

Rome, Italy

410

Rome fell to Visigoths under Alaric I. Stilicho, a Vandal, led Roman Visigoth, Alan, and Hun army, but someone

murdered him before battle.

Troyes or Châlones

battle

Troyes, France

31

451

Attila the Hun lost to Rome under Aetius, a Visigoth who commanded Visigoths, Franks, Celts, and Burgundians.

Rome

battle

Rome, Italy

455

Odoacer, king of Vandals, came from Carthage and sacked Rome.

Rome

battle

Rome, Italy

476

Western Roman Empire ended as Vandals under Odoacer sacked Rome second time and killed the western emperor,

Romulus Augustus.

Qadesiyya

battle

Qadesiyya, Persia

635

Moslem Empire defeated Persia under Yazdegard.

Nahavand

battle

Nahavand, Persia

642

Moslem Empire defeated Persia under Yazdegard, ending Sassanian Dynasty. Zoroastrians fled Moslems, went to

Gujerat Province in India, and became Parsees.

Bukhara

battle

Bukhara, Afghanistan

713

Omayyad Caliphs took Bukhara.

Tours

battle

Poitiers, France

732

Charles Martel, king of Franks, defeated Moorish Kingdom.

Talas

battle

Talas River, Turkestan

751

Arabian Empire defeated Tang Dynasty, in Pamir Mountains.

Roncesvalles

battle

France/Germany

778

Basques of north Spain defeated Charlemagne.

Fontenoy

battle

France/Germany

32

843

Eastern Frankish kingdom and Charles the Bold defeated Lothair I.

Hafrs Fjord

battle

Hafrs Fjord, Norway

872

Harold I won and united small kingdoms, driving losers overseas.

Ethandune

battle

Ethandune, England

878

Alfred, king of Wessex [871], defeated Vikings. Guthrum, Viking lord, kept England north half {Danelaw}.

Kiev

battle

Kiev, Ukraine

882

Varangians took Kiev from Khazars.

Baghdad

battle

Baghdad, Iraq

947

All-e Buyeh of Persian Buyides took Baghdad.

Lechfeld

battle

Lechfeld, Austria

955

Otto I of Saxony took Austria from Magyars near Augsburg. Bavaria added Austria as Eastern March. Slovakia

became part of Hungary [955 to 1918].

Rechnitz

battle

Germany

955

Otto defeated Slavs.

Balkh

battle

Balkh, Afghanistan

1037

Seljuk Turks under Toghrol or Tughril defeated Mas'ud of Ghaznavid Dynasty of Persia.

Coimbra

battle

Coimbra, Spain

1064

Ferdinand I, king of Castile, captured Coimbra from Moors.

Hastings

battle

England

1066

33

Edward the Confessor died with no heir. He had promised throne to William, Duke of Normandy, but English nobles

wanted Harold, Earl of Wessex. William the Conqueror of Normandy defeated Harold of England.

Stamford Bridge

battle

England

1066

Normans and English defeated Norwegian invasion.

Manzikert

battle

Manzikert, Asia Minor

1071

Seljuk Turks from Baghdad, under Toghrol, defeated Byzantine Empire and captured emperor.

Rome

battle

Rome, Italy

1083

Henry IV of Holy Roman Empire took Rome, forcing Pope Gregory VII to flee.

Jerusalem

battle


1096 to 1097

Peter the Hermit and Crusaders passed through Constantinople and Sultanate of Rum and took Jerusalem from

Seljuk Turks.

Jerusalem

battle


1099

Seljuk Turks lost Jerusalem to Byzantine Emperor Alexius I, Tancred, and Godfrey of Bouillon. Christians set up

Kingdom of Jerusalem and founded County of Tripoli around Tripoli, Lebanon, and Principality of Antioch and County

of Edessa around Maras, east of Tarsus. Sultanate of Rum still ruled Asia Minor and Turkey. Fatimids ruled

undisturbed in Egypt.

Legnano

battle

Legnano, Italy

1176

Lombard League, for Pope Alexander I, defeated Frederick I of Holy Roman Empire.

Hattim

battle


1187

Saladin of Saracens defeated Christians and captured Jerusalem, as Second Crusade failed.

Jerusalem

battle


1192

Saladin of Saracens defended Jerusalem against Richard I of England, Philip II of France, and Third Crusade.

Las Navas de Tolosa

34

battle

Las Navas de Tolosa, Spain

1212

Spain and Portugal defeated the Berber Almohades. Only Granada remained Berber.

Beijing

battle

Beijing, China

1214

Genghis Khan captured Beijing.

Cortenuova

battle

Cortenuova, Italy

1237

Frederick II of Holy Roman Empire defeated Lombard League. This created Guelph cities and Ghibelline cities,

which fought each other. Guelph cities were Bologna, Florence, Genoa, and Naples. Ghibelline cities were Rome,

Verona, Milan, Pisa, and Arezzo. Papacy, supported by Guelphs, was against Holy Roman Empire, supported by

Ghibellines.

Neva River

battle

Neva River, Russia

1240

Alexander Nevsky of Russia defeated Sweden.

Algarve

battle

Algarve, Spain

1249

Alfonso III of Portugal drove Moors from Spain.

Baghdad

battle

Baghdad, Iraq

1258

Holuga Khan of Mongol Empire took Baghdad, and Maragheh became capital.

Ayn Jalut

battle

Ayn Jalut, Palestine

1260

Mamelukes stopped Mongol attack on Syria, near Nazareth.

Battle of the Spurs

battle

France

1302

The count of Hainaut in Flanders defeated Duke of Burgundy.

Bannockburn

battle

Bannockburn, Scotland

1314

Robert Bruce of Scotland defeated England under Edward II.

35

Sluys

battle

Sluys, France

1340

England defeated France at sea.

Crècy

battle

Crecy, France

1346

England, using longbows, defeated France.

Calais

battle

Calais, France

1347

England defeated France.

Poitiers

battle

Poitiers, France

1356

Edward the Black Prince, Duke of Cornwall, captured John II of France and gained Bordeaux.

Adrianople

battle

Adrianople, Greece

1361

Murad I or Amaruth I of Ottoman Turks took Adrianople from Byzantine Empire.

La Rochelle

battle

France

1369

France defeated England at sea, and England lost Aquitaine.

Roosebeke

battle

Roosebeke, Belgium

1382

Arteveldes, counts of Hainaut in Flanders, lost to duke of Burgundy.

Kossovo

battle

Kossovo, Serbia

1389

Christian Serbia lost to Ottoman Turks.

Nikopol

battle

Nikopol, Bulgaria

1396

Ottoman Empire, which was Moslem, defeated Bulgaria, which was Christian.

Ankara or Angora or Ankyra

battle

36

Ankara, Turkey

1402

Tamerlane, Mongol from central Asia, and Timurids defeated Ottoman Empire.

Baghdad

battle

Baghdad, Iraq

1410

Turkomans took Baghdad and western lands from Timurids.

Agincourt

battle

Agincourt, France

1415

England, under Henry V, and Burgundian allies defeated France under Louis, Duke of Orleans in Azincourt, north

France. English used longbows. Professional soldiers began.

Bursa

battle

Bursa, Turkey

1423

Tamerlane sacked Bursa, capital of Ottoman Turks.

Orléans

battle

France

1429

France, led by Joan of Arc, defeated England.

Patay

battle

France

1429

France, led by Joan of Arc, defeated England.

Kossovo

battle

Kossovo, Serbia

1448

Byzantine Empire defeated Serbia.

Normandy

battle

Normandy

1449

France defeated England.

Chatillon

battle

France

1452

France defeated England to end 100 Years War [1453]. Calais was still English.

Constantinople

battle

Constantinople, Turkey

37

1453

Ottoman Turks under Mohammed II or Muhammed II or Mehmet II conquered Constantinople, ending Byzantine

Empire by defeating Constantine XI. Knowledge of Greek philosophers reached Europe.

Belgrade

battle

Belgrade, Serbia

1456

John Hunyadi and John Capistran of Hungary defeated Ottoman Empire. John Capistran became a Catholic saint.

Tannenberg

battle

Poland

1460

Lithuania defeated Teutonic Knights.

Bosworth Field

battle

England/Wales

1485

Henry VII defeated last Plantagenet king, Richard III, and started Tudor line.

Granada

battle

Granada, Spain

1492

King Ferdinand V and Queen Isabella I of Spain defeated last Moors.

Taro

battle

Taro, Italy

1495

Francesco Gonzaga of Italy fought France in Italian Wars.

Goa

battle

Goa

1510

Portugal took Goa.

Marignano

battle

Switzerland

1515

Switzerland lost at Marignano and began neutrality policy.

Belgrade

battle

Belgrade, Serbia

1521

Ottoman Empire took Belgrade from Hungary.

Mohacs

battle

Mohacs, Hungary

1526

38

Louis II of Hungary lost to Suleiman I the Magnificent of Ottoman Empire.

Shimbra Kure

battle

Ethiopia

1529

Muslim Ethiopians defeated Christian Ethiopians until 1543, when Portuguese troops defeated Muslim Ethiopians.

Calais

battle

France

1558

England lost Calais.

Lepanto

sea battle

Lepanto, Italy

1571

Venice and Spain stopped Ottoman Empire in Mediterranean off west Greece.

Vienna

battle

Vienna, Austria

1583

Ottoman Empire besieged Vienna and Austria. John III of Poland relieved Vienna but did not take Moldavia or

Walachia from Ottoman Empire.

Cadiz

sea battle

Cadiz, Spain

1587

Francis Drake of England destroyed Spain's fleet.

Spanish Armada

sea battle

English Channel

1588

Spanish Armada lost to England under Francis Drake.

Sekigahara

battle

Japan

1601

Hideyoshi, Ieyasu, or Iyeyasu, of Toyotomi clan, defeated other barons and unified nation.

White Mountain

battle

White Mountain, Bohemia

1620

Frederick the Winter King and Protestant Bohemian princes lost to Spain and Hapsburgs of Holy Roman Empire.

Blenheim

battle

Blenheim, Germany

1648

John Churchill of England defeated Holy Roman Empire. Blenheim is in west Germany.

39

Drogheda

battle

Ireland

1651

Oliver Cromwell of England ended ten-year rebellion in Ireland.

Czestochowa

battle

Czestochowa, Poland

1655

Poland defeated Sweden at Czestochowa monastery.

Boyne

battle

Boyne, Ireland

1690

England defeated Ireland. England enacted more Penal Laws against Ireland.

Port Royal

battle

Port Royal, Canada

1710

Britain took Port Royal from France and settled in Acadia (Nova Scotia).

Pondichery

battle

Pondichery, India

1741

France defeated England.

Plassey

battle

Plassey, India

1757

Robert Clive of British East India Company defeated France, ending French influence in India. As governor of

Bengal, he also got Behar, Calcutta, and Crissa for Britain.

Plains of Abraham

battle

Canada

1759

Britain under Wolfe defeated France under Montcalm in French and Indian War.

Bunker Hill

battle

Boston, Massachusetts

1775

Britain defeated USA.

Concord

battle

Concord, Massachusetts

1775

Britain and USA fought second battle.

40

Fort Ticonderoga

battle

USA

1775

Britain lost to USA.

Lexington

battle

Lexington, Massachusetts

1775

Battle between Britain and USA was first Revolutionary-War fighting {shot heard round the world}. When he

looked at Old North Church to see the lights, "one if by land, two if by sea", Paul Revere saw one lantern and rode to

get colonists ready {Paul Revere's ride}.

Boston

battle


1776.08

Britain failed to stop siege of Boston by USA under Washington and had to leave Boston.

Long Island

battle

Long Island, New York

1776.08

USA under Washington failed in defense of New York City against British.

Brandywine

battle

Brandywine, Pennsylvania

1776.09

USA under Washington failed to save Philadelphia from British.

Germantown

battle

Germantown, Pennsylvania

1776.09

USA under Washington failed to save Philadelphia from British.

Princeton

battle

Princeton, New Jersey

1776.1225

USA under Washington crossed Delaware River on Christmas to route Hessian (German) mercenaries at night.

Trenton

battle

Trenton, New Jersey

1776.1225

USA under Washington crossed Delaware River on Christmas to route Hessian (German) mercenaries at night.

Bennington

battle

Bennington, Vermont

1777

Ethan Allen successfully led Green Mountain Boys of USA against British.

41

Saratoga Springs

battle

Saratoga, New York

1777

Saratoga Campaign of Britain ended when General Burgoyne surrendered to General Gates of USA at Saratoga

Springs.

Vincennes

battle

Vincennes, Indiana

1779

General Clark defeated British who allied with American natives.

Camden

battle

Camden, South Carolina

1780

In Carolina campaign, General Cornwallis of Britain took Camden from USA.

Charleston

battle

Charleston, South Carolina

1780

Carolina campaign of Britain started with General Cornwallis of Britain taking Charleston from USA.

King's Mountain

battle

King's Mountain, North Carolina

1781

USA defeated Britain.

Yorktown

battle

Yorktown, Virginia

1781

Yorktown campaign began when Cornwallis of Britain retreated to Yorktown, waiting for more soldiers. France

blockaded Chesapeake Bay. USA under Washington marched to Yorktown, where Cornwallis surrendered.

Aboukir

sea battle

Aboukir, Egypt

1798

France lost to Horatio Nelson and Britain, when French ships tried to go to India.

Battle of the Pyramids

battle

Egypt

1798 to 1801

France occupied Egypt, but Britain and Ottoman Empire forced France out.

Copenhagen

sea battle

Copenhagen, Denmark

1801

Horatio Nelson of England defeated Denmark.

42

Marengo

battle

Marengo, Italy

1801

France under Napoleon defeated Austria.

Austerlitz

battle

Austerlitz, Austria

1805

France defeated Austria in Napoleonic Wars.

Trafalgar

sea battle

Trafalgar Cape, Spain

1805

Horatio Nelson of England defeated France.

Friedland

battle

Friedland, Germany

1806

France defeated Russia in north Germany.

Jena

battle

Jena, Germany

1806

France defeated Prussia in Napoleonic Wars.

Wagram

battle

Wagram, Austria

1807

France defeated Austria.

Tippecanoe

battle

Tippecanoe, Indiana

1811

William Henry Harrison opened Ohio and Indiana to settlers by beating American natives.

Leipzig

battle

Leipzig, Germany

1814

Allies defeated Napoleon and sent him into exile on island of Elba.

New Orleans

battle

New Orleans, Louisiana

1815

USA, under Andrew Jackson, defeated Britain in War of 1812.

Waterloo

battle

43

Waterloo, Belgium

1815

Napoleon escaped from Elba and rallied France. England under Duke of Wellington defeated Napoleon. Napoleon

went into exile on St. Helena Island.

Navarino or Pylos

battle

Navarino, Greece

1821

Mohammed Ali of Egypt allied with Ottoman Empire and fought Greece and Wahabis of Arabia but lost.

Ayacucho

battle

Ayacucho, South America

1824

Simon Bolivar led South America to victory over Spain.

Navarino or Pylos

battle

Navarino, Greece

1827

Greece under president Capo d'Istrai defeated Ottoman Empire in Greek War of Independence and became

independent.

Cracow

battle

Cracow, Poland

1846

Austria took free city of Cracow.

Harpers Ferry

battle

Harpers Ferry, Maryland

1859

Abolitionist John Brown captured Harpers Ferry arsenal.

Antietam

battle

Virginia

1862

North defeated South.

New Orleans

battle


1862

David Farragut defeated Confederate ships to take New Orleans for Union. He then closed off Mobile Bay.

Little Bighorn or Custer's Last Stand or Battle of the Greasy Grass

battle

South Dakota

1876

George Custer lost to Lakota and its allies under Chief Sitting Bull of the Hunkpapa Lakota.

Rosebud

battle

44

Montana

1876

General Crook lost to Teton Sioux.

Aduwa

battle

Aduwa, Ethiopia

1895

Italy invaded Ethiopia but lost.

Crete

battle

Crete

1896

Greece fought Ottoman Empire to get Crete but failed.

Marne

battle

Marne, France

1914

Marshal Foch of France held back Germany.

Tannenberg

battle

Tannenberg, Poland

1914

Marshall Hindenburg of Germany defeated Russia and occupied Poland. He became commander of all Central

Powers forces.

Mexico City

battle

Mexico City, Mexico

1915

Pancho Villa took Mexico City from Diaz.

Verdun

battle

Verdun, France

1916

Henri Petain, marshal of France, stopped Germany.

Crimea

battle

Crimea

1920

Civil war in Russia ended as Reds or Bolsheviks and Red Army under Leon Trotsky defeated Whites or Mensheviks

and government.

Fiume

battle

Fiume, Italy

1921

Italy took Fiume.

Smyrna

battle

45

Smyrna, Turkey

1922.06

Kemal Ataturk stopped attacking Greece, captured Smyrna, and deposed Sultan of Ottoman Empire.

Battle of the Atlantic

battle

USA

1941

USA protected Allied ships from submarines.

Pearl Harbor

battle

Pearl Harbor, Hawaii

1941.1207

Japan attacked without declaring war. USA declared war on Japan.

El Alamein

battle

Egypt

1942

Rommel of Germany lost to Field Marshal Montgomery of Britain. Montgomery later commanded in north France.

Singapore

battle

Singapore

1942

British, French, and Indian soldiers surrendered to Japan.

Coral Sea

sea battle

Coral Sea

1942.0507

USA defeated Japan.

Midway

sea battle

Midway Islands

1942.0604 to 1942.0607

USA decisively defeated Japan, as air power crippled Japanese fleet.

Solomon Islands

sea battle

Solomon Islands

1942.08

USA defeated Japan.

Volvograd

battle

Caucasia

1943

Germany reached Volvograd and Caucasia.

Marshall Islands

sea battle

Marshall Islands

1944.02

46

USA defeated Japan.

Iwo Jima

battle

Iwo Jima

1945.03

USA defeated Japan.

Berlin

battle

Berlin, Germany

1945.0508 to 1955

World War II ended in Europe as Allies entered Berlin from east and west. Germany had four zones.

Hiroshima

battle

Hiroshima, Japan

1945.0806

USA dropped atomic bomb.

Nagasaki

battle

Nagasaki, Japan

1945.0809

USA dropped atomic bomb.

Dien Bien Phu

battle

Dien Bien Phu, Vietnam

1954

Vietnam defeated France, and Vietnam divided into North Vietnam, which was Communist, and South Vietnam,

which was republic.

Saigon

battle

Saigon, Vietnam

1975.0430

North Vietnam took over South Vietnam.

SOCI>History>History>Culture

Oldowan

culture

Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania

-2000000 to -1500000

In early Lower Paleolithic, Homo habilis chipped sharp flakes from larger stones {stone core}. They were meat

eaters and hunter-gatherers.

Abbevillian or Chellean

culture

Europe

-1900000 to -1500000

Abbevillian or Chellean culture first half developed hammerstone technique for making stone tools. Percussion with

hammer at edge back pops out semi-cones, leaving jagged edges and concave intersecting surfaces. Top was round and

held in power grip.

47

Acheulian

culture

Africa/Europe

-1800000 to -150000

In early Lower Paleolithic, Homo erectus had symmetrical, teardrop-shaped, heavy stone choppers {hand axe}

flaked on both sides [-750,000] in a bifacial blade, used for cutting, whittling, scraping, shredding, and butchering

bone, antler, meat, hide, wood, and plants.

Chellean

culture

Europe

-1800000 to -150000

In Chellean-culture second half, a new stone-tool-making developed. Toolmaker hit stone against large anvil stone to

make bigger tools than before.

Middle Acheulian

culture

Africa/Europe

-800000 to -500000

In Lower Paleolithic, Homo erectus developed cylinder-hammer technique for making stone tools. Wood branches,

bones, or weathered stones are softer hammers to spread percussion, to give wide arcs to cones, with less-jagged edges.

This technique did not make original edge but finished the blade.

Late Acheulian

culture

Europe

-500000 to -400000

In Lower Paleolithic, Homo erectus invented prepared core technique.

Mousterian

culture

Europe

-150000 to -35000

In Middle Paleolithic, Homo sapiens had flaked and chipped stone tools and knives, used stone hand ax, used bone

tools, and used wooden spears. They hafted handles on tools. They did little carving or polishing. Nomads built

cooking fires and lived in caves, with few dwellings. They gathered food and hunted animals. They buried the dead and

began painting and sculpture.

Châtelperronian

culture

Europe

-50000

Homo neanderthalensis in Upper Paleolithic was similar to Mousterian and Aurignacian cultures of Homo sapiens.

Aurignacian

culture

Europe

-50000 to -30000

In Upper Paleolithic, Homo sapiens tried new stone-tool-making forms. Cro Magnons painted cave walls in France

and Spain.

Aborigine

culture

Australia/New Guinea

-40000 to -25000

48

Homo sapiens reached Australia from Southeast Asia by boat. Aborigines (early inhabitants) fished near coasts.

Giant animals became extinct: giant kangaroo, marsupial diprotodont, marsupial leopard, giant python, giant lizard, and

400-pound bird.

nomads

culture

Earth

-35000 to 500

Nomads depended on families, were herders, and domesticated sheep and dogs. Nomads used barbed harpoons,

bows and arrows, fishhooks, fishnets, and fish traps. They used flint master tools, adz, straightening tool, woodworking

tools, ice picks, sickles, mortars and pestles, sledges, combs, and needles. They had baskets, leather, paving, and

handicrafts. They did not store goods. They had sacrifices but no rituals or burials. They built pyramid mounds. They

used swastika symbol for luck [Bronowski, 1974].

hunter-gatherer

culture

Lesotho/Zambia

-34000

Culture began.

Solutrean

culture

Europe

-31000 to -16000

Upper Paleolithic culture was in west Europe.

Nui Do

culture

Vietnam

-30000 to -23000

Homo erectus lived.

Gravettian

culture

Europe

-30000 to -22000

Upper Paleolithic culture was in west Europe.

Pre-Clovis

culture

Pedra Furada, Brazil

-28000

Culture began.

Son Vi

culture

Vietnam

-23000 to -10000

Homo erectus lived in caves in Lang Son and Nghe An provinces.

Gagadju

culture

Australia

-20000

The first people, Nayuhyunggi, lived in the Dreamtime, which had mythical beings who lived deep underground.

Paintings are on Ubirr Rock and in caves.

49

Grimaldi

culture

Greece

-20000 to -8300

Upper-Paleolithic Grimaldi man had culture similar to Bushmen, Hottentots, and Aborigines.

hunter-gatherer

culture

Zaire

-18000

Culture began.

Kutikina Cave

culture

Tasmania

-18000 to -11000

Culture was in south Tasmania and had stone tools.

Magdalenian

culture

Europe

-18000 to -11000

Upper Paleolithic cave paintings in France and Spain have animals and hands. Perhaps, paintings overcame fear of

animals, idealized experience, expressed feeling, or were play.

Pre-Clovis

culture

Cactus Hill, Virginia

-16000

Upper Paleolithic peoples were Amerindian, Polynesian, Scandinavian, or African. They used hearth.

Pre-Clovis

culture

Topper, South Carolina

-16000 to -12000

Upper Paleolithic stone blades and scraping tools were made.

Azilian

culture

Europe

-15000 to -7000

Neolithic culture was in west Europe.

Pre-Clovis

culture

Bluefish Caves, Yukon

-14800

Culture began.

Pre-Clovis

culture

Alaska

-13070 to -12700

50

Mongoloid peoples crossed from Siberia into Alaska over Bering Strait. Sea level was lower during Ice Age, and no

glacier was on low-lying Bering Strait. Two glaciers over Canada forced people to travel down valley from Yukon

River to United-States region.

Perhaps, people traveled along Pacific Coast in small boats from Southeast Asia.

Perhaps, people traveled from Iberia across North Atlantic Ocean by boat, taking with them Solutrean technology [-

22000 to -14000].

Perhaps, people traveled from Australia through islands across South Pacific Ocean by boat.

Nile River

culture

Nile River, Egypt

-13000

People settled along Nile River in Egypt, as rain increased as ice age receded.

Clovis

culture

Monte Verde, Chile

-12700

Neolithic campsite in south Chile had 30 people, who left footprints and used stone spearpoints, animal hides, and

wooden things.

Clovis

culture

Los Toldos, Argentina

-12600

Culture began.

Tepexpan

culture

Mexico

-12000 to -7000

Neolithic Tepexpan man was in Central Valley of Mexico.

Clovis

culture

Pachamachay, Peru

-11900

Culture began.

Clovis

culture

Topper, South Carolina

-11700

Culture began.

Clovis

culture

Tibito, Colombia

-11600

Culture began.

Clovis

culture

Lapa Vermelha IV, Brazil

-11500

Luzia skull was at Neolithic site.

51

Pre-Clovis

culture

Walker Road, Alaska

-11300

Culture began.

Fukui Cave

culture

Fukui, Japan

-11000

Culture was near Nagasaki.

Pre-Clovis

culture

Santa Rosa Island, California

-11000

Arlington Springs woman was at Neolithic site.

Clovis

culture

Clovis, New Mexico, USA

-11000 to -5000

Neolithic Amerindian peoples used large fluted stone spear points and hunted big game.

Clovis

culture

Cactus Hill, Virginia

-10920

Neolithic Amerindian peoples used side scrapers, stones for woodworking, fluted stone points, and hearths. Forests

were pine, not hardwood.

Clovis

culture

Los Tapiales, Guatemala

-10900

Culture began.

Pre-Clovis

culture

Meadowcroft Rockshelter, Pennsylvania

-10900

Neolithic peoples were Amerindian, Polynesian, Scandinavian, or African. They ate deer, rabbit, snake, nuts, berries,

fish, and turtles. They had hearths, baskets, nets, wooden tools, and skin or wood boats. They were in southwest

Pennsylvania.

Clovis

culture

Taima-Taima, Brazil

-10500

Culture began.

Basque

culture

Spain

-10000

52

Basques have lived in Spain since Stone Age.

Germanic

culture

Sweden

-10000

Neolithic Germanic tribes went to south Sweden.

Hoa Binh/Bac Son

culture

Vietnam

-10000 to -4000

Culture began.


culture

Earth

-10000 to -3000

Animal carvings and paintings were probably to ensure good hunting and herding. Animals, spirals, triangles,

circles, squares, and mazes were in early Neolithic paintings. Artists drew line, dot, and symbol patterns for rain,

lightning, and wind, but not for Sun or Moon, in middle Neolithic era. Fertility symbols appeared in late Neolithic.


culture

Earth

-10000 to -3000

Matriarchal societies had few sexual taboos, did not treat illegitimate children badly, had less emphasis on property,

were more vegetarian, and did not have possessive love.

Clovis

culture

Great Plains

-9000

Culture hunted bison.

Ertebolle or Kitchen Midden

culture

Finland/Sweden

-9000

Culture was early Neolithic hunters.

Kongemose

culture

Denmark

-9000

Culture had early Neolithic hunters.

Maglemose

culture

Norway

-9000

Culture was early Neolithic hunters.

Natufian

culture

Levant

53

-9000 to -8500

Flint sickles cut wild wheat. They cooked bread.

Joman

culture

Japan

-9000 to -300

Small settlements were on coast, at river mouths, or at mountain bottoms. Homes were huts half in ground. Roofs

had branches and leaves. They ate shellfish, hunted mammals, and gathered berries and nuts.

Clovis

culture

Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia

-8200

Neolithic culture was at Hecate Strait.

Clovis

culture

Kennewick, Washington

-7500

Kennewick man was at Neolithic site.

Mexican Nomads

culture

Mexico

-7000 to -6000

Neolithic people were hunters and food gatherers, including grain.


culture

Earth

-6000 to -3000

Magician shamans dealt in trances, dead, animal spirits, and making pictures. Shamans were in Scandinavian, Finno-

Ugric, and American Indian cultures. Aborigines had magic-power symbols {Tjurunga}. Bushmen believed in the

Great Spirit, symbolized by praying mantis.

Halaf

culture

Mesopotamia

-6000 to -5500

Halaf culture precede Ubaid culture.


culture

Mesopotamia/China

-5500

First chiefdoms began.

Chinese

culture

Yellow River, China

-5500 to -5000

Neolithic culture had first Chinese language written characters. It used agriculture based on millet, which grows well

in arid land Later, millet grew in north China. It had jade and woodcarving. Clans kept land and had kinship patterns.

Ubaid

54

culture

Mesopotamia

-5500 to -4000

Neolithic culture had large settlements, had large temples, had sailboats, used trade, used copper, and fired clay. One

settlement was Tell Zeidan, in northern Syria, on the Balikh River, which had irrigation, social classes, and political

leaders and traded with far towns. Tepe Gawra was in the north Iraq. Ubaid, Eridu, and Oueli were in the south.

Chonchorros

culture

Chile

-5000

Culture was in north Chile.

Chumash

culture

California

-5000

Culture began.

Cochise

culture

USA

-5000

Culture was in southwest USA.

Sumerian

culture

Sumer

-5000

Sumerian language started.

Linearbandkeramik

culture

Europe

-5000 to -4000

Neolithic farmers used digging sticks and later plows pulled by oxen in central Europe.

Gumelnitsa

culture

Romania

-5000 to -400

Culture began.

Uruk

culture

Mesopotamia

-4000 to -3200

Bronze-Age Uruk, Ur, and Nineveh cities had mud public buildings, priests, writing, agricultural organization,

irrigation, pottery, and metalworking.

Caucasian

culture

Mesopotamia

-4000

Neolithic Caucasian peoples from Georgia and Caucasus lived in Fertile Crescent.

55


culture

Caribbean Sea

-4000

Caribbean islands became populated.

Hoabinhian

culture

Asia

-4000 to -3000

Culture was Neolithic hunter-gatherers in southeast Asia.

Ta-p'en-k'eng

culture

Formosa

-4000 to -3000

Neolithic culture had pottery, hollowed out canoes, and used bark beater to make rope, nets, and cloth.

Neolithic

culture

Vietnam

-4000 to -2000

Culture had stone rings and ceramics.

Semite or Semitic

culture

Mesopotamia

-4000 to -2000

Neolithic Semitic peoples from Arabia occupied central Mesopotamia, at Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, Fertile

Crescent [-4000 to -2000] [Durant and Durant, 1967] [Roberts, 1994] [Toynbee, 1961] [Wells, 1920].

Chilca

culture

Peru

-3750

Culture was in Chilca River valley and was maritime.

Haida

culture

Canada

-3500

Culture was on Canada northwest coast.

Semite or Semitic

culture

Egypt

-3500

Neolithic Semitic peoples were in Egypt [-3500].

Naqada

culture

Hierakonpolis, Egypt

-3500 to -3000

Upper Egypt had wall paintings and pottery. Egypt began unification at end of Naqada culture.

Kranzhugel

56

culture

Tell Halaf, Syria/Tell Cheura, Syria/Nagar, Syria/Tell Brak, Syria/Tuttul, Syria

-3000 to -2500

Bronze-Age Semitic city was near upper Euphrates River and near Khabur River. It had fortifications around city

and used sun-dried mud brick and stone terraces for temples.

Persian

culture

Iran

-3000 to -2000

Neolithic culture Indo-European peoples from south Russia entered Iran.

Hittite

culture

Anatolia

-3000 to -1700

Neolithic culture Indo-European peoples from south Russia entered Anatolia [-3000 to -2000]. It occupied area from

Black Sea to Syria [-2300 to -1700].

Negroid/Tuareg/Europoid

culture

Sahara Desert

-3000 to -1000

Tuareg were Hamitic, and Europoid were forebears of Berbers. They lived on savanna and used hippopotamus,

elephant, cattle, sheep, and goats. They drew cave paintings of daily life. Sahara rivers flow into Lake Chad (Lake

Tchad) or Niger River.

Stonehenge

megalith

Salisbury Plain, England

-2800

Megalith was for seasonal festivals.

Achaean

culture

Greece

-2500

Neolithic Indo-European people from Aeolia reached Attica and Peloponnesus, replaced Pelasgoi people, used sheep

and chariots, and had patriarchy.

Beaker

culture

Netherlands/Belgium/France

-2500

Culture put drinking cups in warrior graves.

Chilca

culture

Paloma, Peru

-2500

Paloma was port in Chilca River valley.

Middle Joman

culture

Japan

-2500 to -1500

57

Population and production increased at Joman period peak [-9000 to -300].

Afanasievo

culture

Siberia

-2000

Neolithic culture was in south Siberia.

Battle-Ax/Pitted-Ware

culture

Denmark/Scandinavia

-2000

Bronze Age rock carvings were made.

Inuit

culture

Arctic

-2000

Inuits, Arctic Small Tool people, hunted caribou, whale, and seal.

Scythian

culture

Scythia

-2000

Scythians bred horses to invade Near East.

Hebrew

culture

Canaan/Palestine

-1800 to -1200

Hebrew means wanderer. Semitic Hebrews came to Palestine, probably from Ur [-1800]. The legendary Joshua led

Israelites into Palestine [-1400]. Traditionally, Hebrews had exodus from Egypt [-1300 to -1200].

Vedic

culture

Pakistan/India

-1700 to -350

Vedas

Indo-European Aryan nomads from Iran had horses, chariots, and bronze weapons. They entered through Hindu

Kush and moved to Indus and upper Ganges Rivers by -1700. They used wood, not bricks. By -600, there were many

kingdoms. They grew rice in Ganges River valley and had coins, elephants, and writing.

Aryans had four sacred books {Vedas} [-1500 to -500], which mainly describe public and family sacrifice rituals.

Indus religion combined with Vedas in early Hinduism. The three most important Hindu gods are Brahma the creator,

Vishnu the preserver, and Shiva the destroyer, who rules over life and death. They used Sanskrit language.

Hundreds of castes evolved, in which people worked, married, performed rituals, and ate special foods. Brahmins

were priests of Vedic religion. Soldier and farmer castes also existed. Dravidians were all in lowest caste.

Hindu gods began. Agni was god of fire. Varuna was god of heaven and justice. Indra was god of war and water.

Vishnu was god. People sacrificed to gods. Culture had child marriages and used sutlee.

Lapita

culture

Polynesia

-1600 to 1000

Culture formed pottery.

horticultural societies

58

culture

Mexico

-1500

Culture practiced horticulture.

Polynesian

culture

Polynesia

-1500 to 1000

Australoid and Mongoloid peoples came from southeast Asia and Australia, went to Micronesia [-1500 to 400], and

then continued to Polynesia [300]. They built stone temples [1000].

Mitanni

kingdom

Syria/Mesopotamia

-1450

Kingdom resisted Thotmes III of Egypt in east Syria and north Mesopotamia.

Chavin

culture

Cerro Sechin, Peru

-1200

Culture was on Peru central coast.

Achaean/Ionian

culture

Asia Minor

-1200 to -1100

Achaeans went to islands and coast of Asia Minor (Ionia) and became Ionians, who lived south of Aeolians in

coastal towns of Ephesus, Miletus, and Didyma, and islands of Chios and Samos.

Dorian

culture

Greece

-1200 to -1100

Indo-Europeans came to Greece and settled in south Peloponnesus (Laconia), Greek islands, and Knossus, Crete.

Nok

culture

Africa

-1200 to -500

Culture used iron and artistic terra-cotta pottery [-900].

Philistine

culture

Palestine

-1175

Indo-Europeans settled in Canaan.

Mesoamerican

culture

Andes Mountains/Mesoamerica

-1000

First chiefdoms began.

Ainu

59

culture

Japan

-1000 to -300

Ainu came to Japan when Japan connected to Asia, before Jomon period [-10,000 to -300], and lived in north

Honshu and south Hokkaido.

Bantu

culture

Cameroon

-1000 to -100

Culture herded sheep and cattle.

Khoisan

culture

Kalahari Desert

-1000 to -100

Culture hunted and did not farm. Bantu-speaking peoples from Cameroon took over [-100].

Olympic Games

culture

Mount Olympus, Greece

-776

quadrennial multi-sport competition {Olympic Games}.

Bushmen ancestors

culture

Africa

-600 to -500

Culture lived in open areas from Sahara to south tip.

Negroid

culture

Africa

-600 to -500

Culture lived in central and western forests of Africa.

Pygmy

culture

Africa

-600 to -500

Culture lived in small south-Africa region.

Altai

culture

Siberia

-500

Altai is in west Siberia.

Seven Wonders of the Ancient World

culture

Greece/Middle East

-500 to 400

Hanging Gardens of Babylon; Colossus of Rhodes; Pyramid of Cheops; Lighthouse at Pharos; Mausoleum of

Halicarnassus; Temple of Artemis or Artemision [at Ephesus]; Statue of Zeus [at Olympus, by Phidias]

Only Pyramid of Cheops remains. Pharos is near Alexandria.

60

Sarnathian

culture

Volga River

-300

Sarnathians displaced Scythians.

Gaul

culture

France

-300 to -200

Gauls were Celts. Gaul had three parts: Aquitaine in southwest France, Gaul in central France, and Belgica in

Belgium.

Silk Road

culture

China/Europe

-100

Road was between China and Europe.

Batavi or Batavians or Batavii

culture

Belgium/Netherlands

-51

Germanic tribe of Chatti lived on Rhine River.

Belgae

culture

Belgium/Netherlands

-51

German and Celt tribes were in northeast Gaul at Rhine River and fought Caesar.

Frisian

culture

Netherlands/Germany

-51

Germanic tribe lived in north Netherlands and Germany.

Bantu

culture

Africa

1 to 800

Bantu speakers moved from east Nigeria through Congo to south Africa. Zanz (Zanzibar) had gold, iron, and copper.

Arabians, Indonesians, and Chinese traded goods and slaves with each other.

Carib

culture

West Indies

1 to 900

Caribs were cannibals and used Tupi language. Zemis were their spirit powers.

Taino

culture

West Indies

1 to 900

Farming people from Paraguay traveling Amazon River and coast of Brazil to Venezuela settled West Indies. They

used Tupi language. They grew maize, sugar cane, manioc {starch root}, cassava, and sweet potato.

61

Bohemian

culture

Bohemia

50 to 450

Bohemians were Celts.

Czech

culture

Bohemia

50 to 450

Czechs were Celts.

Vlach or Walach

culture

Dacia

100

Walach is Slavic name for southeast-Europe Romance-language peoples, such as Romanians and Dacians.

Khazar

culture

Caucasia/Volga River/Ukraine/Crimea

100 to 969

Khazars moved to Caucasia [100]. They then settled near Volga River in south Russia [500 to 600]. Khazars took

Crimea [600 to 700]. Khazar Empire ended in south Russia, when it lost to Duke of Kiev [969].

Rhenish

culture

Germany

200

Germanic Rhenish tribe moved inside the limes, pushed by Huns from the Han Empire of Hsing-Nu.

Goth

culture

Volga River/Germany/Ukraine

200 to 300

Goths were Germanic tribes, supposedly descended from south-Sweden Gotar tribe. Goths settled Volga River and

south Russia [200 to 300]. Goths came inside the limes at Danube River in Germany [251]. Ostrogoths or East Goths

stayed. Visigoths or West Goths went west to Danube River and into Austria [400]. Romans took some German tribes,

such as Goths in north Balkans, into service as foederati [600].

Hun

culture

Mongolia/China

220 to 581

Culture began when Huns, Mongoloid tribes from north-central Asia, broke though refortified Great Wall of China,

overthrew Han Dynasty, and took China, using horse stirrups [220 to 581]. Their era had many small wars and no

central administration.

Frank

culture

Germany

256 to 400

Franks are Celts. Franks came to Gaul and Switzerland inside the limes at Rhine River, as Huns came from east.

Bantu

62

culture

Africa

300 to 400

Culture was in southeast Africa.

Hun

culture

Volga River

300 to 400

Huns settled Volga River and south Russia [300 to 400].

Angle

culture

Germany

300 to 450

Angles were Germanic tribes that had come to Roman domains in Britain and north Gaul.

Saxon

culture

Germany/France/Britain

300 to 500

Saxons were Germanic tribes that came to Roman domains [300 to 400]. Saxons entered north Gaul [400 to 500].

Saxons entered Britain [420 to 450].

Slav

culture

Balkan Peninsula/Greece/Germany

300 to 500

Slavs settled east of Elbe River [300 to 500]. Slavs settled in Balkans [602]. Slavs moved into Greece from area of

Poland and Russia [620 to 700]. West Slavs were Moravians, Poles, Czechs, and Slovaks. East Slavs were Great and

White Russians. South Slavs were Serbs, Croats, and Bulgars. They attacked Germany and divided it into feudal

domains [900 to 962].

Southwest American Indian

culture

Southwest USA

300 to 500

Culture built large adobe-brick houses, with 200 to 300 rooms, using wooden frames six stories high, near riverbeds.

Courtyard had roofed-over circular pit for men's ceremonies to gods.

Nordic

culture

Scandinavia

350 to 550

People came to Scandinavia.

Hun

culture

Russia

372 to 376

From central Asia, it invaded Volga River area and Black Sea coast [372]. It invaded lower Danube River area [376].

Invasions caused Goths and other tribes to migrate toward Roman Empire.

Hun

culture

Hungary

63

372 to 450

Culture occupied Hungary [372 to 450].

Visigoth

culture

Adrianople, Greece/Rome, Italy

378

Visigoths defeated Romans and killed Emperor Valens [378]. Visigoths under Alaric II lost to Franks [412 to 414].

King Alaric besieged Rome until it gave up [410 to 429]. Visigoths under Euric and Alaric II fought Vandals in Italy.

Visigoths moved to south France and defeated Vandals, and then, under Alaric II, pushed them out of Spain [429].

Visigoths took Lusitania (Portugal). Visigoths then merged with Spanish-Roman peoples.

Lombard

culture

Lombardy/Austria

395 to 500

Lombard Germanic tribe attacked north Italy [395]. Lombards moved into Austria [400 to 500].

Cimmerian

culture

Europe/Asia Minor

400

Cimmerians lived from east Europe down to Asia Minor.

Avar

culture

Volga River

400 to 500

Avars settled Volga River and south Russia.

Bavarian

culture

Austria

400 to 500

Bavarians moved into Austria.

Jute

culture

Rhine River

400 to 500

Jutes Germanic tribe was in northwest Germany [400 to 500]. Jutes entered Britain [420].

Suebi

culture

Portugal

400 to 500

Suebi took Lusitania.

Alemanni

culture

Switzerland

400 to 600

Germanic Alemanni tribe moved into Switzerland.

Burgundii

culture

64

Switzerland

400 to 600

Germanic Burgundii tribe moved into Switzerland.

German

culture

Britain

400 to 600

German tribal immigrations divided Britain into England, Scotland, and Wales. German tribes became monarchies.

Pallava

culture

India

400 to 825

Pallavas of Conjeeveran flourished.

Alan

culture

Spain

406

Alans crossed Rhine and moved into Spain.

Suevi

culture

Spain

406

Suevi crossed Rhine and moved into Spain.

Vandal

culture

Spain/Africa/Carthage, Tunisia

406 to 439

Vandals, Germanic tribe, crossed Rhine and moved into Spain [406]. After Visigoths pushed them out of Spain,

Vandals conquered north Africa [429 to 439]. Under Gaiseric, they took Carthage after moving through Gaul, Spain,

and north Africa [439]. They then controlled Mediterranean. Capital was at Carthage.

White Hun or Ephthalite

culture

Transoxania, Afghanistan/Khurasan, Persia/India

425

Turks or Tibetans, under khan, lived from Oxus River to Mongolia, speaking Turkish language [425]. White Huns

took Persia [483]. White Huns took over Gupta Empire [544].

Ostrogoth

culture

Hungary/Italy

450 to 650

Ostrogoths occupied Hungary [450 to 650]. Theodoric the Great and Ostrogoths took Italy after defeating Odoacer

and Vandals [493].

Swede

culture

Uppsala, Sweden

450 to 1600

Local assemblies {Thing} met from 450 through 16th century.

65

Hun

culture

Venice, Italy

452

Huns conquered east Italy [452]. Huns then merged with other European peoples.

Magyar

culture

Caucasia/Hungary/Romania/Moravia/Germany

460 to 962

Magyars were from Ural Mountains and came to Caucasia [460]. Magyar nomads from central Asia, led by Arpad,

moved west into Hungary and Romania [895]. Magyars overran Moravian Empire [900 to 962], and attacked Germany

and divided it into feudal domains [962].

Finn

culture

Scandinavia

500

Finns lived in east Scandinavia.

Gotar

culture

Sweden

500

Germanic tribes came to Sweden in Neolithic times and became Gotar.

Lapp

culture

Scandinavia

500

Lapps lived in north Scandinavia.

Svear

culture

Sweden

500

Svear Germanic tribe defeated Gotar tribe in south Sweden.

Thule

culture

Alaska

500

Thule people moved into Alaska.

West Slav

culture

Europe

500

Moravian West Slavs settled in Czechoslovakia. Other West Slavs settled in Slovakia and Silesia. West Slavs did not

migrate.

Hun

culture

India

500 to 515

Nomadic central Asian people destroyed Gupta Empire [500 to 515].

66

Polynesian

culture

Hawaiian Islands/Easter Island

500 to 600

Polynesians came from east Polynesia [500 to 600]. Ships were two hulls bound together. They navigated by

observing star movements, wave patterns, and wind changes.

Huari

culture

Peru

500 to 800

Culture was on Peru north coast, and culture was like that of Tiahuanaco and Pachacamas, ancient religious centers.

Serb

culture

Balkan Peninsula/Serbia

500 to 900

Serbs settled in Bosnia and Montenegro [500 to 700]. It converted to Eastern Orthodox Church [800 to 900].

Diola

culture

Africa

500 to 1500

Culture was in west Africa. Causative substance that is eternal and unchanging exists everywhere. Different amounts

and modes formed all things, in a hierarchy of being, with different energies and forms.

Dogon

culture

Africa

500 to 1500

Culture was in west Africa. Dense mass has motions and patterns, making air, fire, water, and earth, and from them

come society and mind.

Algonquin

culture

USA

500 to 1600

Culture was in east USA.

Cherokee

culture

North Carolina

500 to 1600

Culture was in east USA. Cherokee had an alphabet, built special houses for chiefs and elders, and built small

temples for nature gods.

Chippewa

culture

USA

500 to 1600


Choctaw

culture

USA

67

500 to 1600


Delaware

culture

USA

500 to 1600


Huron

culture

USA

500 to 1600


Iroquois

culture

USA

500 to 1600


Mandan

culture

USA

500 to 1600


Miami

culture

USA

500 to 1600


Mohawk

culture

USA

500 to 1600


Mohegan

culture

USA

500 to 1600


Mohican

culture

USA

500 to 1600


Natchez

culture

USA

500 to 1600

68

Culture was in east USA. River mouth had temples for wood and clay images, 3000 people, and 1000 warriors.

Castes were chiefs, priests, citizens, second-class citizens, and slaves.

Ojibway

culture

USA

500 to 1600


Ottawa

culture

USA

500 to 1600


Pacific Northwest Indian

culture

USA/Canada

500 to 1600

Neolithic culture had no agriculture but had villages. Large villages had chiefs, householders, and slaves. Tribes had

twelve villages with large wood houses.

Fish, game, berries, and roots were abundant. Fish were for oil.

Spruce and cedar tree roots supplied textile fibers.

Dugout canoes were 3 meters x 25 meters.

Marriages were with affiliated clan. Totems were clan symbols. Myths were about virtues of totem animals: raven,

bear-mother, earth frog, eagle, and wolf. Old women were storytellers.

Plains Indian

culture

USA

500 to 1600

In north-central USA were Apache, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Comanche, Cree, Creek, Crow, Dakota, Omaha, Pawnee,

Shawnee, Shoshoni, Sioux, and Ute. Plains Indians hunted bison and grew beans, squash, and maize in river valleys.

Pemmican was lard beaten with berries, packed in tanned leather parfleche pouch. People had wood frame houses

covered with earth, with smoke holes in center, up to 20 meters wide or bison-leather teepees.

Powkaton

culture

USA

500 to 1600


Pueblo

culture

Southwest USA

500 to 1600

Culture lived in adobe and wood multistoried houses. Zuni pueblos used dried clay. Navajo pueblo hogans were

round dome-like wood frames covered by clay. Hopi built kiva pueblos. Clan-chief councils and discussions governed

the pueblo. Pueblo culture grew squash, gourds, maize, and fruit trees, ground corn on flat metates stones, and ate half-

wild turkeys. It formed pottery and spun cotton. Men wove blankets.

Bedouin

culture

Arabia

600

Bedouins were native Semitic nomads.

69

Croatian

culture

Croatia

600 to 700

Croatians settled Croatia [600 to 700]. They converted to Catholicism [800 to 900].

Polynesian

culture

Easter Island

600 to 1300

Polynesians settled Easter Island [600 to 1300]. They grew sweet potatoes, taro, bananas, and gourds and had

chickens and pigs. They built rectangular platforms {ahu} along coast.

Avar

culture

Hungary

650 to 800

Avars occupied Hungary.

Bulgar

culture

Bulgaria

660 to 675

Bulgars were probably Huns. Bulgars took Slavic Thrace and Moesia [660]. Krum was early leader. Bulgars from

Volga River and south Russia settled south of Danube River [675].

Polynesian

culture

Cook Islands/Society Islands

700 to 1300

Polynesians settled Cook Islands [700]. Stone temple complexes {marae} were in Rarotonga, Cook Islands, and

Moorea Island, Society Islands [1300].

Basque

culture

Spain

715

Arabian empire did not take the mountainous north.

Avar

culture

Bohemia

800

Avars took Bohemia.

East Slav

culture

Russia

800

East Slavs settled in west Russia.

Pole

culture

Poland

800 to 900

70

Culture converted to Catholicism.

Slovene

culture

Slovenia

800 to 900

Culture converted to Catholicism.

Ovambo

culture

Africa

1000

Culture was in southwest Africa.

Bantu

culture

South Africa

1000 to 1100

Bantu came from southeast Africa.

Cuman or Polovtsi or Kipchak

culture

Vladimir, Russia/Walachia

1000 to 1100

From north Russia, they took south Russia. Prince Igor fought against them.

Pecheneg

culture

Russia

1000 to 1100

From central Asia, they moved into south Russia.

Quimbaya

culture

Colombia

1000 to 1500

Quimbaya cannibal tribe spoke Chibcha language.

Sinu

culture

Colombia

1000 to 1500

Sinu cannibal tribe spoke Chibcha language.

Maori

culture

New Zealand

1000 to 1560

Maori people settled North Island, New Zealand [1000] and settled at river mouths, such as Wairau Bar [1150], in

north South Island. It had terraced fortifications {pa, fortification} [1350] and later built fortresses [1550 to 1560].

Yoruba

culture

Nigeria

1050 to 1400

It has Yoruba language and Orisha religion and is mainly in southwest Nigeria.

71

Polynesian

culture

Pitcairn Island

1100 to 1200

Polynesians settled Pitcairn Islands [1100 to 1200].

Hawaiian

culture

Hawaii

1100 to 1500

Culture had valley irrigation and class structure [1250]. Later, it used wet taro [1400 to 1500].

Malinke

culture

Mali

1200

Malinke were Mande speakers.

Tatar or Tartar

culture

Russia

1245 to 1255

Culture started when Tatars or Tartars, Mongoloid tribes from east-central Asia and central Siberia, took east Russia

and defeated Cumans. They got tribute from west Russian princes and occupied Crimea.

Tongan

culture

Tonga

1300 to 2000

Polynesians settled by a lagoon in north Tongatapu, the largest island. Tui Tonga dynasty, of Mu'a district in

northeast Tongatapu, ruled and built ceremonial center at Mu'a [1400]. It had ditch and bank enclosing platforms with

houses for chief families and their servants. Few Polynesian societies had classes. At ceremonies, root-based kava drink

caused drowsiness. New dynasty ruled [1500]. Later, Tui Kanokupolu dynasty ruled, as it does now.

Seminole

culture

Florida

1767 to 1804

Creek and Hitchiti tribes migrated to Florida.

Pacific Northwest Indian

culture

USA/Canada

1880

Culture built totem poles depicting three generations [1880] and became wealthy from fur trade with Americans.

SOCI>History>History>Dynasty

Hsia or Xia

dynasty

Yellow River, China

-1994 to -1523

Neolithic culture was first legendary dynasty. Shen-nung, legendary king, taught cultivation techniques to humans.

Hyskos or Shepherd Kings

72

dynasty

Egypt

-1785 to -1554

Iron Age 13th to 17th dynasties were probably Semitic, had iron weapons, and had iron-wheeled chariots. They

attacked the pharaoh at Thebes.

Ethiopian

dynasty

Egypt

-712 to -671

Dynasty was the 25th Dynasty of Egypt.

Ethiopian

dynasty

Egypt

-671

Dynasty ended when Assyrians took Lower Egypt.

Saite

dynasty

Egypt

-663 to -593

First Psamtik and then Necho ruled. Sais, Memphis, and Heliopolis were cities.

Nanda

dynasty

India

-600 to -400

Secular kings united north India, formed provinces under strong administration, and disarmed and split subject

peoples.

Ch'in or Ts'in

dynasty

China

-356 to -207

Dynasty started when Ch'in tribe took Szechwan. Hsien Yang was capital. They used iron long sword.

Ptolemaic or Macedonian or Lagid or XXXI

dynasty

Egypt

-322 to -30

After Alexander the Great died, Ptolemy I, general of Alexander, got Egypt and then defeated Antigonus I of

Macedon in Wars of the Diadochi.

Qin

dynasty

China

-221

Zheng or Cheng, king of Qin, formed China's first united empire.

Han or Early Han [Han, Early] or Former Han [Han, Former] or Western Han [Han, Western]

dynasty

China

-206 to 9

Liu family started Han dynasty. Confucianism became official, and civil service required knowledge of Confucian

texts. It standardized Confucian documents [-200] and wrote dictionary and history. It used coins, had census, and

73

registered land for land taxes. District governors had staff and official compounds {yamen}. Great Wall lengthened.

Buddhism came to China. Silk Road started [-100].


dynasty

Egypt

-200 to -30

After Ptolemy IV, kingdom declined.

Sunya

dynasty

India

-175 to -125

Brhadratha ended Maurya Dynasty. Pusyamitra took India back to Hinduism.

Maccabees

dynasty

Judah

-168 to -63

Maccabees first ruled Palestine under control of Syria. Judas the Maccabee and his brothers took Judah's capital,

Jerusalem [-166], from Syria. They saved and rededicated Temple at Jerusalem.

Han

dynasty

China/Vietnam

-111 to 936

Han dynasty of China conquered and ruled until defeated by Ngo Quyen dynasty of Vietnam.

Maccabees

dynasty

Israel

-63

Dynasty ended when conquered by Rome.


dynasty

Egypt

-31

Dynasty ended when Octavian or Augustus defeated Egypt under Cleopatra and Anthony at Actium and then at

Alexandria, destroying library.

Hsin

dynasty

China

9 to 25

Wang Mang, nephew of the Han empress, usurped emperor [9].

Sassanid or Sassanian

dynasty

Persia

226 to 640

Dynasty started when Ardashir I revolted against Parthians and reunited Persia. Ctesiphon was capital. Rey and

Hamadan were main cities. Sasan and Bahram Gur were famous Sassanid kings. In feudal systems, four classes were

under king: priests {Magi} and government officials, warriors, bureaucrats and scholars, and workers. The four

provinces, each with governor {marzuban}, were Persia, Transoxania to north, Kushana to northeast, and Gupta

Dynasty to east.

74

Gupta

dynasty

Patna, India/Ganges Valley, India

320 to 544

Gupta Dynasty ruled Magadha and Ganges River valleys. It used decimal system. Vedanta began. It established

Hinduism and castes. It built many stone temples. Religious festivals used large wheeled carts {juggernaut cart}.

Funerals for husbands also burned their wives {suttee}. Culture had child marriages, rituals, and meditation. Art

flourished. Dramas based on epics began. It possibly ended in 467.

Yamato

dynasty

Japan

400 to 500

Yamato clan, led by Shinto priest-chief, organized Japan. First emperor supposedly descended from sun goddess. All

emperors of Japan trace back to that emperor.

Gupta

dynasty

Patna, India

480 to 530

Huns entered India and caused dynasty to decline.

Sui or Suy

dynasty

China

581 to 618

Dynasty reunited China. Canal system linked Yangtze, Yellow, and Hangchow Rivers.

Sassanid

dynasty

Persia

642

Arabian Empire ended it by conquering Iran.

Omayyed or Ummayad

dynasty

Damascus, Syria

661 to 750

Dynasty of Moslem Empire started when Muawiya assassinated the fourth caliph, Ali, and deposed Hassan and

Hussein, sons of Ali [661]. It ended when Abu Muslem of Khorassan revolted against Marwan II, the 14th caliph [750].

Omayyed or Ummayad

dynasty

Damascus, Syria

750

Dynasty ended when Abbasid leader Abu Muslem of Khorassan revolted against Marwan II, the 14th Omayyed

caliph and killed all Omayyeds except Abdu-r-Rahman I.

Abbasid

dynasty

Baghdad, Iraq

750 to 1258

Dynasty started when Abu Muslem of Khorassan revolted against Marwan II, 14th caliph of Moslem Empire. Abu

Muslem named Abu'l-Abbas-as-Saffash first Abbasid caliph. Abu'l-Abbas-as-Saffash descended from Abbas, uncle of

75

Mohammed, and from Ali, son-in-law of Mohammad. Abu Muslem moved capital to Baghdad. Dynasty ended when

Hulagu Khan of Mongols overthrew Abbasid Dynasty.

Aghladbid

dynasty

Tunis, Tunisia

800 to 909

Aghladbid dynasty founded colony in Sicily [827 to 902] and invaded south Italy.

Angkorian

dynasty

Angkor Wat, Cambodia

802

Jayavarman II, Khmer king, founded it and built large temple complexes.

Taherid

dynasty

Khorassan, Persia

820 to 875

Dynasty began when Taherids under Taher Zolyaminayn and his sons Talha and Abd Allah revolted against Moslem

Empire. Naishapur was capital. They paid tribute to Caliphs at Baghdad.

Taherid

dynasty

Khorassan, Persia

840

Dynasty featured trial of Afshin.

Saffarid

dynasty

Sistan, Persia

861 to 902

Dynasty began when Saffarids under Ya'ghub Layce Saffar or the Coppersmith revolted in Sistan and defeated

Taherids. Caliph approved Saffar's brother Amir.

Samanid

dynasty


864 to 999

Dynasty began when Samanids under the brothers Nasr and Esmail, sons of Saman Khudat, who was under Caliph

Mamun's protection, revolted and defeated Saffarids.

Taherid

dynasty

Khorassan, Persia

875

Dynasty ended when beaten by Saffarids.

Samanid

dynasty


880

Samanids controlled from China to Kermanshah. Nasr and Nooh, sons of the brothers Nasr and Esmail, built schools

at Naishapur and Bukhara. They also reestablished court of Sassanids.

Guelph

76

dynasty

Italy

900

Guelph family rose in importance.

Samanid

dynasty


900 to 999

Dynasty had only Afghanistan and northeast Iran.

Saffarid

dynasty

Sistan, Persia

902

Dynasty ended when Saffar's brother Amir lost to Samanids after he attacked them.

Five Dynasties

dynasty

China

906 to 960

Five Dynasties followed Tang Dynasty and had disorder.

Ngo Quyen/Dinh

dynasty

Vietnam

939 to 965

Dynasty forced China out [939] but Dinh dynasty of Vietnam replaced it [965].

Liao

dynasty

China

947 to 1125

Dynasty was in north China.

Brandenburg

dynasty

Austria

955 to 1251

House of Brandenburg or Ottonians ruled upper and lower Austria.

Dinh

dynasty

Vietnam

960 to 980

Dynasty replaced Ngo Huyen dynasty of Vietnam until overcome by Pre Le dynasty of Vietnam.

Ghaznavid

dynasty

Iran/Afghanistan/India

962 to 1190

Dynasty began when Albtakin gained rule of Ghazneh.

Piast

dynasty

Poland

77

962 to 1370

Dynasty began in south Poland under first Piast King Boleslaus I.

Fatimid or Fatimite

dynasty

Egypt

969

Dynasty came from Tunis, conquered Tulunid dynasty, and built Cairo as capital. al-Azhar University began in

Cairo.

Pre Le

dynasty

Vietnam

980 to 1009

Dynasty replaced Dinh dynasty of Vietnam until overcome by Le dynasty of Vietnam. Le Hoan repulsed Sung

dynasty of China [981].

Capetian

dynasty

France

987 to 1328

Dynasty began when Hugh Capet deposed Carolingian line and became king of France. Capetians tried to control

nobles and build commerce. France had Aquitaine, Gascony, Burgundy, Catalonia, Languedoc, and Provence.

Ly

dynasty

Vietnam

1009 to 1225

Dynasty replaced Pre Le dynasty of Vietnam. Ly Thuong Kiet repulsed Sung dynasty of China [1075 to 1077]. It

ended when replaced by Tran dynasty of Vietnam.

Piast

dynasty

Poland

1020 to 1100

Boleslaus III reunited Poland, but his succession law split it again. Casimir II, Piast, ruled Duchy of Cracow after

Boleslaus III died. Silesia and Bohemia became part of Poland.

Abbasid

dynasty

Seville, Spain

1023 to 1091

Dynasty replaced caliph of Cordoba.

Ghaznavid

dynasty

India

1030

Seljuk Turks reduced it.

Guelph

dynasty

Bavaria/Saxony/Florence, Italy/Genoa, Italy/Bologna, Italy

1070 to 1180

Guelph family ruled Bavaria and Saxony, struggled against Hohenstaufen emperors, allied with the pope in Lombard

League, and controlled cities of Florence, Genoa, and Bologna. Hanover family came from Guelph family.

78

Hohenstaufen

dynasty

Holy Roman Empire

1079 to 1254

Hohenstaufens and Ghibellines fought Papacy and Guelphs.

Ludovisi

dynasty

Rome, Italy

1100 to 1200

Ludovisi family ruled Rome.

Savoy

dynasty

Italy

1100 to 1798

Savoy family ruled Piedmont, Savoy, and Turin.

Kin or Jin

dynasty

China

1115 to 1234

Wanyan Aguda or Okota of Jurchen or Nuzhen tribe took Khitan, and his successor took K'ai-feng from Sung.

Ch'in or Chin

dynasty

China

1126 to 1234

Dynasty was in north China.

Ghibelline

dynasty

Italy

1138 to 1400

Ghibellines, Hohenstaufen faction, controlled Verona, Milan, Pisa, and Romano and struggled against Guelph cities.

Angevin

dynasty

Europe

1144 to 1486

Angevins ruled several kingdoms. It ruled Hungary from 1308 to 1386.

Almohades

dynasty

Spain

1145

Berber Almohades invaded Spain.

Ghorid

dynasty

India

1148 to 1215

Dynasty ruled part of India.

Fujiwara

79

dynasty

Japan

1150

Dynasty controlled emperors at Kyoto. However, civil war among Fujiwara, Taira, and Minamoto clans followed.

Zagwe

dynasty

Ethiopia

1150 to 1160

Dynasty was in Ethiopian highlands.

Rurik

dynasty

Kiev, Ukraine

1154

Empire of Kiev broke up, but House of Rurik still ruled Kiev.

Plantagenet

dynasty

England

1154 to 1399

Dynasty was branch of Angevin line and had Henry II, Richard I, John, Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, Edward II,

and Richard II.

Ayyubite or Ayyubid or Saracen

dynasty

Cairo, Egypt

1171 to 1250

Dynasty began when Saladin of Saracens, who were Sunni Moslems, overthrew Fatimite caliph Nureddim. He took

Tunisia, Arabia, Yemen, and Syria [1174]. He took Mesopotamia [1185]. He took Palestine and captured Jerusalem

[1187], at Battle of Hattim, as Second Crusade failed. He retook Latin states [1189], which First Crusade had

established. He defended territory against Third Crusade, but Richard I of England took and held Tyre [1191] and

Philip Augustus of France took Acre [1191 to 1192].

Crusaders kept Tyre, Tortosa, Krak des Chevaliers, and Mu'arrat al-Nu'man.

Almohades

dynasty

Spain

1174

Berber Almohades took over from Berber Almoravids.

Hohenzollern

dynasty

Germany

1192

Hohenzollern family of Germany divided into Swabian line and Franconian line.

Ghorid

dynasty

Delhi, India

1192 to 1206

Kutb-ud-din, Afghan general, took Delhi and established Moslem dynasty.

Hohenstaufen

dynasty

Italy/Sicily

80

1194 to 1266

Holy Roman Empire took south Italy and Sicily and fought the pope.

Piast

dynasty

Silesia

1200

Silesia divided into areas ruled by various Piasts.

Tui Tonga

dynasty

Tonga

1200

Dynasty built coral platform for ceremonies.

Barberini

dynasty

Rome, Italy

1200 to 1300

Barberini family ruled Rome.

Hapsburg

dynasty

Switzerland

1200 to 1300

Hapsburg counts controlled part of Switzerland.

Savoy

dynasty

Switzerland

1200 to 1300

Savoy counts controlled part of Switzerland.

Livonian Knights

dynasty

Estonia

1202 to 1560

Livonian Brothers of the Sword were German. Bishop Albert of Livonia and Pope Innocent III started them [1202].

Lithuanians defeated them at Battle of Schaulen or Saule [1236], and they merged with Teutonic Knights. In Livonian

War, Moscow defeated them at Battle of Ergeme [1560].

Tran

dynasty

Vietnam

1226 to 1400

Dynasty replaced Ly dynasty of Vietnam. Ports were at Hoi Thong and Van Don. Tran Hung Dao and other Tran

kings repulsed Mongol Empire of China [1258, 1285, 1288]. It ended when replaced by Ho dynasty of Vietnam.

Nasrid

dynasty

Granada, Spain

1232 to 1492

Nasrids of Granada ruled last Moslem city in Spain.

Este

dynasty

81

Ferrara, Italy/Modena, Italy

1240 to 1597

Este family ruled Guelph cities Ferrara and Modena and built Villa d'Este at Tivoli.

Ayyubite or Ayyubid or Saracen

dynasty

Egypt

1250

Dynasty ended when Mamelukes took Egypt.

Bahrite

dynasty

Cairo, Egypt

1250 to 1382

First Mameluke dynasty had Turks and Mongols.

Malatesta

dynasty

Rimini, Italy

1250 to 1463

The Guelph condottiero Malatesta da Verucchio [1212 to 1312] founded it [1295 to 1312]. Sigismondo Pandolfo

Malatesta [1417 to 1468] built Tempio Malatestiano but lost all territory [1463] except Rimini. Cesare Borgia took

Rimini [1500]. Rimini became part of Holy See in 1528.

Il-khan

dynasty

Persia

1256 to 1349

Il-khan were offshoots of Mongol rulers.

Abbasid

dynasty

Baghdad, Iraq

1258

Dynasty ended when Hulagu Khan of Mongols overthrew it. Abbasids fled to Egypt and took over that caliphate,

with Mamelukes.

Lancaster

dynasty

England

1267 to 1485

It is Plantagenet branch. Edmund, Henry III's son, ruled [1267 to 1296], followed by Henry IV [1399 to 1413],

Henry V [1413 to 1422], and Henry VI [1422 to 1461] [1470 to 1471].

Hohenstaufen

dynasty

Germany/Austria

1268

Someone murdered last Hohenstaufen emperor of Holy Roman Empire.

Bourbon

dynasty

France

1272

Bourbon family began.

82

Visconti

dynasty

Milan, Italy

1277 to 1447

Dynasty was Ghibelline.

Hapsburg

dynasty

Germany/Austria

1282 to 1918

Dynasty ruled Holy Roman Empire and Austria.

Khalji

dynasty

Delhi, India

1290 to 1320

Dynasty ruled Delhi Sultanate.

Douglas

dynasty

Scotland

1297 to 1588

Douglas family had older Black branch and younger Red branch.

Arpad

dynasty

Hungary

1301

Dynasty ended.

Tughlakid

dynasty

Delhi, India

1320 to 1398

Dynasty ruled Delhi Sultanate under Tughlak.

Valois

dynasty

France

1328 to 1589

Valois family ruled France directly [1328 to 1498] or collaterally. Valois kings were John II, Charles V, Charles VI,

Charles VII, Louis XI, and Charles VIII. Louis XII was of Valois-Orleans line.

Gonzaga

dynasty

Mantua, Italy

1328 to 1708

Luigi Gonzaga [1267 to 1360] became captain general of Mantua [1328] under Holy Roman Empire. After War of

the Spanish Succession [1708], Hapsburg Austria got Mantua and Savoy got Montferrat. Gonzaga Castle is near

Mantua.

Piast

dynasty

Poland

1370

In south Poland, Casimir III the Great was last Piast and consolidated king's power.

83

Ghara-Ghoyunlu

dynasty

Iran

1378 to 1468

Ghara-Ghoyunlu line ruled northeast Iran.

Burjite

dynasty

Egypt

1382 to 1517

New line of Mamelukes ended Bahrite Dynasty.

Shan

dynasty

Burma

1400

Shan chiefs ruled Burma.

Ho

dynasty

Vietnam

1400 to 1407

Dynasty replaced Tran dynasty of Vietnam. It ended when beaten by Minh dynasty of China.

Valois-Orleans

dynasty

France

1411

When Charles VI became insane, Louis, Duke of Orleans, caused civil war between south-France Armagnacs and

east-France Burgundians. He started Valois-Orleans kings. Burgundians allied with Henry V of England when he

invaded and defeated Louis, forcing Treaty of Troyes, which gave Normandy to Henry V.

Sayyid

dynasty

India

1414 to 1443


Hohenzollern

dynasty

Brandenburg

1415 to 1618

Dynasty ruled electorate of Brandenburg.

Savoy

dynasty

Savoy

1416 to 1946

Savoy family ruled Savoy and parts of France and Italy.

Le

dynasty

Vietnam

1428 to 1527

84

Under Le Loi, it fought Minh dynasty of China for 10 years, winning under Nguyen Trai. It ended when beaten by

Mac Dang Dung.

Medici

dynasty

Italy

1434 to 1532

Merchants and bankers upheld democracy in Florence and patronized art. They also ruled Siena and Tuscany.

Sforza

dynasty

Milan, Italy

1450 to 1535

Ludovico Sforza took over Duchy of Milan.

Lodi

dynasty

India

1451 to 1519


Borgia

dynasty

Rome, Italy

1455 to 1572

Borgia family ruled Rome and papacy.

York

dynasty

England

1461 to 1485

York family ruled Britain.

Agh-Ghoyunlu

dynasty

Iran

1468 to 1502

Agh-Ghoyunlu line ruled northeast Iran.

Sture

dynasty

Sweden

1470 to 1520

Sture were regents.

Hosokawa clan

ruler

Japan

1473 to 1493

Civil war began again in 1493.

Tudor

dynasty

England

1485 to 1603

Dynasty had Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I.

85

Jagiello or Jagello

dynasty

Poland

1490 to 1526

Dynasty ruled Poland, Lithuania, Bohemia, and Hungary.

Toungoo

dynasty

Burma

1500 to 1600

Toungoo Dynasty, which was native, took over from Shan chiefs.

Safavid

dynasty

Iran

1501 to 1722

Dynasty started under Shah Isma'il Safavi.

Valois-Angouleme

dynasty

France

1515 to 1589

Dynasty started with Francis I, followed by Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III.

Vasa

dynasty

Sweden

1523

Dynasty had Gustavus I, Eric XIV, Charles IX, Gustavus II, Christina, Charles X, and Charles XI.

Hapsburg

dynasty

Bohemia

1526

Hapsburg kings of Austria began rule of Bohemia.

Zapolya

dynasty

Hungary

1526 to 1571

John I Zapolya or John Sigismund [1487 to 1571] was king of Hungary [1526 to 1540]. John II Zapolya or John

Sigismund Zapolya was king of Hungary and prince of Transylvania [1540 to 1571].

Mac

dynasty

Vietnam

1527 to 1788

Mac Dang Dung defeated Le dynasty of Vietnam. Capital was Phu Xuan, now Hue. It ended when beaten by the

brothers Nguyen Nhac, Nguyen Lu, and Nguyen Hue. Le Chieu Thong asked Qin dynasty of China for help but

Nguyen Hue defeated it [1789] at Thang Long.

Farnese

dynasty

Rome, Italy/Parma, Italy

1534 to 1731

86

In 1545, it was most powerful.

Hapsburg

dynasty

Hungary

1541 to 1918

Dynasty began when King Ferdinand I of Austria fought Zapolya family and gained Hungary.

Orange

dynasty

Netherlands

1544 to 1747

William the Silent of House of Nassau was first Orange king.

Safavid

dynasty

Iran

1587 to 1628

Shah Abbas I took land from Ottoman Empire and organized state.

Stuart

dynasty

England

1603 to 1714

Stuarts were James I, Charles I, Charles II, and James II.

Tokugawa Shogunate

dynasty

Japan

1603 to 1867

Hideyoshi founded dynasty when he defeated other barons. Edo or Yedo (Tokyo) was capital.

Borghese

dynasty

Rome, Italy

1605 to 1621

Dynasty controlled Papacy and Rome.

Romanov

dynasty

Russia

1613 to 1917

Dynasty started when nobles elected Michael Romanov Tsar of Russia.

Hohenzollern

dynasty

Brandenburg

1618 to 1871

Hohenzollern Electors of Brandenburg ruled Prussia.

Barberini

dynasty

Italy

1620

Barberini family was powerful in Italy.

87

Hapsburg

dynasty

Bohemia

1627

Holy Roman Empire (Austria) regained control of Bohemia.

Safavid

dynasty

Iran

1628

Dynasty ended when Mahmud and Afghans defeated them.

Tokugawa Shogunate

dynasty

Japan

1638 to 1867

Dynasty controlled 1/4 of all land and supervised the rest through lesser rulers {daimyo}. Travel abroad halted, it

banned large ships, and trade declined. Agriculture flourished. Towns grew, so Tokyo had 800,000 people by 1700. It

persecuted missionaries and Christians, who numbered approximately 500,000.

Schönborn

dynasty

Germany

1670 to 1756

Schönborn family ruled in Germany and patronized art.

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha

dynasty

Germany

1672

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha family began. It later ruled Britain [1901 to 1918].

Hanover

dynasty

Germany

1692

Hanover family, descended from Guelph family, ruled in Germany.

Hanover

dynasty

Great Britain

1714 to 1837

Hanover kings were George I, George II, George III, George IV, and Victoria.

Afshar

dynasty

Persia

1736 to 1747

Dynasty started under Nader Afshar or Nader Shah, who defeated Afghans and Ottoman Empire and invaded India,

taking Koh-i-noor diamond and Peacock Throne.

Zand

dynasty

Persia

1750 to 1779

Dynasty started under Karim Khan Zand. Shiraz was capital.

88

Tay Son

dynasty

Vietnam

1771 to 1788

Nguyen Nhac, Nguyen Lu, and Nguyen Hue brothers fought Mac dynasty and established Tay Son dynasty of

Vietnam. It defeated Siam [1785] at Rach Gam Soai Mut. It then defeated Trinh dynasty in Dang Ngoai. Nguyen Hue

became king [1788] and defeated Qin dynasty of China [1789].

Qajar

dynasty

Persia

1779 to 1919

Dynasty started under Agha Mohammad Ghajar.

Tay Son

dynasty

Vietnam

1788 to 1802

After the brothers Nguyen Nhac, Nguyen Lu, and Nguyen Hue fought Mac dynasty, Nguyen Hue became king

[1788]. King renamed capital Hue. He defeated Qin dynasty of China [1789]. It ended when Nguyen Anh and French

took Mekong delta.

Qajar

dynasty

Persia

1813 to 1828

Persia lost Caucasia to Russia.

Hohenzollern

dynasty

Germany

1871 to 1918

Dynasty led German Empire.

Chakkri

dynasty

Thailand

1872 to 1932

First Mongkut was king, and then Chulalongkorn followed.

Qajar

dynasty

Persia

1907 to 1919

England and Russia controlled Qajar Iran.

Windsor

dynasty

England

1917 to 2003

Family changed from German name Wetlin to Windsor: George V, Edward VIII, George VI, and Elizabeth II.

Qajar

dynasty

Persia

89

1919

Dynasty ended when Iran became independent.

SOCI>History>History>Era

Azoic

era

Earth

-4400000000

Zircon crystal from west Australia proves that continental crust was there. Granite crust can only form in liquid

water. Atmosphere had mostly carbon dioxide.

Azoic

era

Earth

-4050000000

Azoic gneiss rocks, the oldest rocks, formed underground and are now in cliffs along Acasta River in northwest

Canada.

Archeozoic or Archean

era

Earth

-3600000000 to -1600000000

After continents began, volcanoes made basalt and andesite rocks. Oceans were warm and had high sedimentation.

Era ended with first great catastrophe or revolution, of unknown cause.

Cryptozoic

era

Earth

-3600000000 to -600000000

Rocks are in mountain cores exposed by erosion, high-plateau gorges cut by water, or exposed continent granite.

Pre-Cambrian

era

Earth

-3600000000 to -600000000

In first era of Earth life, single-cell organisms responded to various stimuli and moved. Multicellular organisms

began. Animals and plants began.

Pacific Ocean/Atlantic Ocean

ocean

Earth

-3000000000 to -2600000000

Oceans reached current depths and extents, from water brought by comets and asteroids hitting Earth.

Huronic

glaciation

Earth

-2450000000 to 2200000000

Ice covered world as oxygen concentration rose.

Paleoroterozoic

era

Earth

-1800000000 to -1500000000

Columbia or Hudsonland supercontinent melded Laurentia, Baltica, Ukraine, Amazonia, and Australia.

90

Proterozoic

catastrophe

Earth

-1600000000

Asteroid, comet, high volcanism, sea-level change, warming, or cooling caused mass extinction.

Proterozoic

era

Earth

-1600000000 to -600000000

Era had volcanoes, glaciers, rain, erosion, and high sedimentation. Algae, fungi, and marine protozoa began.

Amoebas sensed chemicals, temperature, touch, and radiation. Amoebas responded to stimulation by withdrawing or

extending pseudopods. They detected stimulus magnitude, summed stimuli over time, and adapted to stimuli.

Euglena had eyespot, which detected light, sent signal along membrane, and thereby caused flagellum to move.

Era ended with second great catastrophe or revolution, of unknown cause.

continents

continent

Earth

-770000000 to -700000000

All continents, Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South America, were together near equator.

Neoproterozoic

era

Earth

-750000000 to -580000000

Four times ice covered Earth for 10 million years, with average temperature of -50 C. Earth interior heat kept sea

bottom unfrozen. In each cycle, volcano carbon dioxide increased 1000 times and heated Earth by absorbing sunlight.

Land reflected less light from fewer glaciers. Increased moisture trapped more heat. Earth warmed 100 degrees in 1000

years. Average temperature was 50 C, with heavy rains and erosion. Rain took carbon dioxide from air and eroded

more, so Earth cooled, making more ice, which cooled it more, so Earth became icy again in 1000 years.

Phanerozoic Eon

eon

Earth

-700000000 to 2000

At current-eon beginning, Asia and Africa collided and all continents came together, to form mountains.

glaciation first

glaciation

Earth

-600000000

Ice covered world.

Pre-Cambrian

era

Earth

-600000000 to -545000000

All phyla had begun, but animals had only soft bodies. Vertebrates had not yet started.

Paleozoic Era or Age of Ancient Life

era

Earth

-600000000 to -225000000

Land plants began -600000000. By end, there were insects and reptiles. Era ended with Appalachian Revolution.

91

Gondwana

continent

Earth

-570000000

The four continents were Gondwana in south and North America (Laurentia), Siberia, and north Europe (Baltica) in

north.

Cambrian

catastrophe

Earth

-545000000 to -515000000

Asteroid, comet, high volcanism, sea-level change, warming, or cooling caused mass extinction.

Lower Cambrian or Early Cambrian [Cambrian, Early]

era

Earth

-542000000 to -515000000

Life proliferated.

Cambrian

era

Earth

-542000000 to -488000000

Animals and plants filled oceans. Crust folding built mountains. Sea level rose and fell. At end, continental shelf

invertebrates increased rapidly, with trilobites dominant. Burgess Shale in British Columbia, Chengjiang in China, and

Sirius Passet in Greenland from this period have many fossils.

continent rotation

continent

Earth

-540000000 to -520000000

Continents drifted and rotated 90 degrees, causing ten cold and hot cycles, with mass extinctions.

Middle Cambrian

era

Earth

-520000000 to -52000000

Life proliferated.

Upper Cambrian or Late Cambrian [Cambrian, Late]

era

Earth

-505000000 to -488000000

Life proliferated.

Ordovician

era

Earth

-500000000 to -425000000

Vertebrates began as jawless fish appeared. Mountain building was by crust folding. Sea level rose and fell. Plants

were on land.

Laurentia/Baltica/Gondwana/Siberia

continent

Earth

92

-470000000

North America {Laurentia} lay lengthwise along equator. Siberia lay to east, rotated 180 degrees. Australia, India,

Africa, South America, and Antarctica lay to east, forming a continent {Gondwana}, with North Africa at South Pole

and Australia north of equator. North Europe {Baltica} lay south between Laurentia and Siberia.

Late Ordovician [Ordovician, Late]

catastrophe

Earth

-443000000

60% of marine genera became extinct, possibly as sea level changed widely.

Laurentia/Baltica

continent

Earth

-425000000

Formerly separated by Iapetus Sea, Laurentia and Baltica collided, making Caledonides Mountains. Caledonides

Mountains are now in Appalachia, Scotland, and Norway. Hercynian Sea spread over central Europe.

Silurian

era

Earth

-425000000 to -405000000

Mountain building was by crust folding. Sea level rose and fell. Insects began. Bony fish began.

Devonian

era

Earth

-405000000 to -345000000

Great climate changes made trilobites extinct. Lobefin fish began, and later amphibians began. Pine forests began.

European Mountains

mountain

Earth

-400000000

European mountains formed in northwest Europe when Europe and North America collided, while Gondwana and

Asia were still separate.

Frasnian-Famennian Event

catastrophe

Earth

-374000000

55% of marine genera became extinct in Late Devonian {Frasnian-Famennian event}, perhaps by global coolness,

low sea oxygen, or meteor or comet impact.

Carboniferous

era

Earth

-345000000 to -280000000

Forests were at maximum. Amphibians were dominant. Reptiles began. Crust down-folded. Appalachian Mountains

formed in east USA. Cordilleran Mountains formed in Spain, north Africa, Greece, Turkey, India, and Burma.

Pennsylvanian

era

Earth

-326000000 to -286000000

Life proliferated.

93

Appalachian Mountains

mountain

USA

-300000000

Appalachians formed in east USA when Gondwana collided with Europe and North America.

Cordilleran Mountains

mountain

Europe/Asia

-300000000

Cordilleran Mountains formed in Spain, north Africa, Greece, Turkey, India, and Burma.

Permian

era

Earth

-286000000 to -248000000

Permian had glaciation and was cold. Continental shelf invertebrates began to decrease. Mammal-like reptiles began.

Gondwana

glaciation

Earth

-275000000

Gondwana glaciation was greatest.

Permian-Triassic/Permian/Great Dying

catastrophe

Earth

-251000000

Perhaps triggered by asteroid or comet, volcanoes {Siberian Traps} near Tunguska Basin in Siberia caused Permian-

Triassic catastrophe. Sea level and climate changed. 84% of marine genera and 95% of marine species died out. 70% of

land species became extinct. Perhaps, mountain-sized meteor landed northwest of Australia at Bedout crater, making

quartz fractures in multiple directions and making glasses inside crystals. Volcanoes fracture quartz in one direction.

Triassic

era

Earth

-230000000 to -181000000

Erosion was dominant. Continental shelf invertebrates began to increase. Therapsids began.

Mesozoic Era or Age of Reptiles

era

Earth

-225000000 to -70000000

Era was possibly -248000000 to -65000000. Dinosaurs were on land and sea. First dinosaur fossil was in 1824 and

first called "dinosaur" in 1842. First birds began. Mammals began. Flat spiral-shelled, octopus-like ammonites were in

sea. Gymnosperms rose and fell. First monocotyledon plants appeared. Era ended with Rocky Mountain Revolution.

Pangaea

continent

Earth

-220000000

A large landmass {Pangaea} had center at 0 degrees longitude and 0 degrees latitude, with few species and only

shallow waters. It caused great climate changes. Asia with Gondwana joined other three continents and caused Ural

Mountains. Africa collided with North America and caused Appalachian Mountains. South America and Yucatan

collided with North America and caused Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Oklahoma.

94

Late Triassic

catastrophe

Earth

-201000000

High volcanism and widespread warming eliminated 52% of marine genera.

Tethys Sea

sea

Earth

-190000000

Gondwana separated from Pangaea, making Tethys Sea.

Jurassic

era

Earth

-181000000 to -135000000

Mammals began. Dinosaurs were dominant.

Sierra Nevada

mountain range

Earth

-180000000

Sierra Nevada Mountains formed in west USA, and west North America submerged.

Madagascar

island

Earth

-160000000

Island separated from Africa.

Cretaceous

era

Earth

-135000000 to -63000000

Numbers of continental-shelf invertebrates remain constant from now on. Flowering plants began. Alps and Rocky

Mountains formed. Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea formed. Surface temperature began to decrease, with great

climate changes.

Alps

mountain range

Europe

-130000000

Alps formed in west-central Europe.

Rocky

mountain range

USA

-130000000

Rocky Mountains formed in west USA.

Madagascar

island

Earth

-90000000

Island separated from India.

95

Late Miocene

epoch

Earth

-90000000 to -60000000

Alps, Himalayas, and East African mountains grew. Ocean currents changed. Polar ice caps formed. Monsoons

started in Asia. East Africa became dry. Europe became temperate. Forests became grasslands and woodlands [-

66000000].

Mississippi Embayment

ocean

Louisiana

-80000000

After passing over Bermuda hotspot and rising, followed by erosion, land subsided {Mississippi Embayment}, and

ocean flowed into gap between Appalachian Mountains and Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Oklahoma.

Cenozoic Era or Age of Mammals

era

Earth

-70000000 to 2000

Forests rose and fell. Climate was mostly warm. Mammals became bigger.

continents

continent

Earth

-70000000 to 2000

All continents reached current positions.

Cretaceous-Tertiary

catastrophe

Gulf of Mexico/Earth

-65000000

50-kilometer-wide 10-kilometer-deep asteroid hit Earth at 180-kilometer-wide Chicxulub crater off Yucatan

Peninsula in Gulf of Mexico, leading to high volcanism and fires across Earth middle. Up to 75% of marine genera

died. 75% of animal and plant species ended. 18% of land vertebrates, mostly dinosaurs, became extinct. 240-

kilometer-wide circular fault surrounds crater. Chlorine and bromine removed ozone layer. Carbon dioxide, carbon

monoxide, and methane increased. Toxic minerals entered oceans. Ferns were first to recover, followed by flowering

plants that pollinate by wind.

Did dinosaurs die by alkaloids in the new flowering plants? Did dinosaurs die from repeated eruptions in the Deccan

Traps in India?

Paleocene

epoch

Earth

-63000000 to -58000000

Climate was warm and forested. Prosimians were abundant.

Tertiary

era

Earth

-63000000 to -1000000

Forests flourished but then retracted. Climate was mostly warm. Mammals evolved.

Eocene

epoch

Earth

96

-58000000 to -36000000

North-America coastal plains submerged. Climate was warm and forested. Modern mammals began.

methane explosion

catastrophe

Earth

-55000000

Decaying organic matter formed methane on continental shelves. Water molecules formed lattices around methane

molecules, hydrating methane {methane ice}. Sediment forced hydrated methane hundreds of meters below ocean

floor. At equator, ocean surface warmed, water evaporated, and top layer became denser and saltier. Perhaps, ocean

surface warmed from increased volcanic activity. Dense water sank to bottom and melted methane-hydrate ice near

coastlines. Methane gas rose to surface {methane explosion}. Rising methane gas took oxygen gas from water, leaving

dead zones. Many foraminifers became extinct, many land species perished, and modern mammals took hold. Methane

in atmosphere warmed Earth more, by trapping heat, so methane release continued. More ocean evaporation left land

bridges between north continents. Melting methane also destabilized ocean floor, causing landslides, tsunamis, and

more methane release.

Today, people can use methane deposits for energy.

Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum or PETM

epoch

Earth

-55000000

Atmosphere carbon-dioxide levels doubled or tripled, causing temperatures to rise 10 C for 50,000 to 100,000 years.

grasslands

grasslands

Andes Mountains

-32000000

First grasslands {grasslands} formed, replacing forests as Earth cooled and dried.

Miocene

epoch

Earth

-25000000 to -13000000

Volcanoes increased.

Antarctic ice

glaciation

Antarctica

-20000000

Antarctic ice cap formed as climate cooled. Grasslands formed in warmer regions, replacing forests.

Pliocene

epoch

Earth

-13000000 to -1000000

Epoch had many volcanoes and cool climate.

Australia

continent

Earth

-4300000

Australia separated from South America and Antarctica landmass.

Africa

continent

97

Africa

-4100000 to -1000000

Drought caused African forest to become savanna. African fauna became like today.

glaciation continent

glaciation

Earth

-3500000

Continents had ice sheets.

glaciation cycles

glaciation

Earth

-2400000

Glacial cycles started.

Isthmus of Panama

isthmus

Earth

-2300000

Ocean current changes led to glaciation, and land bridge formed between South America and Latin America.

Yellowstone

catastrophe

Wyoming

-2100000

Tuff erupted and spread 1000 cubic kilometers of ash.

Matuyama boundary

magnetic pole reversal

Earth

-1770000

Magnetic poles reversed.

land bridge

region

Southwest Asia/Northwest Africa

-1700000 to -1650000

Sea level dropped, and land connected Africa and Asia. Lesser apes, elephants, rodents, pigs, and antelopes migrated

to Europe and Asia.

Taupo

catastrophe

New Zealand

-1600000

Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) extends from White Island to Ruapehu and includes active cone volcanoes Ruapehu,

Tongariro/Ngauruhoe, and White Island and twin calderas Okataina and Taupo.

Yellowstone

catastrophe

Wyoming

-1300000

Tuff erupted and spread 1000 cubic kilometers of ash.

glaciation recent

glaciation

98

Earth

-1000000

More intense glaciation started. Aridity increased. Grasslands spread more.

Pleistocene

epoch

Earth

-1000000 to -11000

Epoch had ice ages.

Quaternary Period

era

Earth

-1000000 to 2000

Era had ice ages.

Long Valley

catastrophe

California

-760000

Bishop tuff erupted and spread 750 cubic-kilometers of ash.

Yellowstone

catastrophe

Wyoming

-640000

Lava Creek tuff erupted and spread 1000 cubic kilometers of ash.

Gunz Glacial Period or Nebraskan Glacial Period

era

Earth

-600000 to -540000

Gunz was first ice age.

Ice Ages

era

Earth

-600000 to -23000

Ice Ages in Europe formed Middle-East and Mediterranean fluvials, with more water and more fertility. Axis-tilt

variation, orbit-eccentricity variation, Earth-axis precession, continental-plate movements, and mountain growth caused

glaciation. Variations change ocean-current and air-current circulation and cool poles. Ice Ages ended as Wurm glacial

period ended.

interglacial

era

Earth

-540000 to -480000

Mindel Glacial Period or Kansan Glacial Period

era

Earth

-480000 to -430000

Mindel was second ice age. Glaciers were at greatest extent in -450,000.

interglacial

era

99

Earth

-430000 to -240000

Riss Glacial Period or Illinoian Glacial Period

era

Earth

-240000 to -180000

Riss was third ice age.

Eemian interglacial

era

Earth

-140000 to -120000

Eemian was third and last major interglacial period.

Würm Glacial Period or Wisconsin Glacial Period

era

Earth

-120000 to -23000

Wurm was fourth ice age. Ice was at maximum extent in -55,000.

Mount Toba

disaster

Sumatra, Indonesia

-72000

Mount Toba on Sumatra exploded and ejected 2800 cubic kilometers of ash.

Small Ice Age

era

Earth

-18000

Small Ice Age reached greatest extent.

Bering land bridge

land

Alaska

-13070 to -12700

During an ice age, Bering land bridge existed for last time, allowing further human migration.

Recent

epoch

Earth

-11000

Rainfall decreased.

Younger Dryas

era

Earth

-10900 to -9000

A small ice age began, perhaps after a comet hit North America.

8200 Year Event

era

Earth

-6200

A cold period began 8200 years ago.

100

Mount Etna

eruption

Sicily

-6000

Mount Etna erupted, causing an avalanche, undersea mudslide, and tsunami.

Crater Lake

era

Oregon

-5600

Mt. Mazama erupted and spread 50 cubic-kilometers of ash.

Sahara

desert

Sahara Desert

-3000 to -1000

Desert started to become dry [-3000]. It became dry [-1000].

Medieval Warm Period

era

Earth

1000 to 1400

Little Ice Age

era

Earth

1550 to 1850

It followed Medieval Climate Optimum or Medieval Warm Period. High rainfall caused Great Famine in Europe

[1315 to 1317]. Glaciers began to increase [1550]. Some years [1650] [1770] [1850] had very low temperatures.

Tunguska event

catastrophe

Siberia

1908

A 5-meter-diameter asteroid or comet exploded 5 kilometers above Tunguska region of central Siberian forest,

flattening 80-mile diameter circle.

SOCI>History>History>Explorers

Eric the Red

discoverer

Iceland/Greenland, Denmark

970 to 986

Norse navigator colonized Greenland.

Leif Ericson [Ericson, Leif]

discoverer

Iceland/North America

1000 to 1050

He was from Iceland, was navigator and explorer, and discovered northeast America and called it Vinland.

Afterward, other Icelanders visited Baffin, Labrador, and Newfoundland in Canada, up to 1350. He was son of Eric the

Red, who had reached Greenland. From Viking settlement in Godthafjord, he landed in Newfoundland.

Marco Polo

explorer/historian/biographer

101

Venice, Italy/China

1271 to 1295

Travels of Marco Polo [1295]

Marco Polo lived 1251 to 1324. Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, two brothers from Venice, went to China [1271 to 1274]

with Niccolo's son Marco, through Palestine, Persia, central Asia, and across Gobi desert in Mongolia. He visited

Kublai Khan at Cambuluc [1275]. The Polos returned to Venice [1295].

Bartholomew Diaz [Diaz, Bartholomew]

discoverer

Portugal/Africa

1488

He lived 1450 to 1500, was from Portugal, explored west coast of Africa, was first to round Cape of Good Hope, and

found way to India.

Christopher Columbus [Columbus, Christopher]

discoverer

Spain/San Salvador, Dominican Republic/Bahamas/Cuba/Hispaniola/Honduras/Nicaragua/Costa

Rica/Panama/Columbia

1492 to 1504

He lived 1451 to 1506 and used money from Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand V of Spain. He rode the Santa

Maria, accompanied by the smaller Nina and Pinta, on the first of four voyages to West Indies [1492]. He explored

Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, and Columbia [1502 and 1504].

John Cabot [Cabot, John]

discoverer

England/Canada

1497

He lived 1450 to 1499 and discovered coast of Canada.

Vasco da Gama [Gama, Vasco da]

explorer

Portugal/South Africa/India

1497 to 1499

He lived 1469 to 1524. From Portugal, he went to Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and sailed to India. He opened

east Africa and India to trade, by force. He captured the gold-trading port of Kilwa in Zimbabwe [1498].

Amerigo Vespucci [Vespucci, Amerigo]

discoverer

Florence, Italy/Spain/South America

1499 to 1504

New World [1504: forgery]; Four Voyages [1504: forgery]

He lived 1454 to 1512, was from Florence, and devised system to find longitude closely. He found South America

[1499] for Spain. He voyaged to Americas [1501 to 1504]. He sailed to Plate River in South America [1502]. On

returning, he had maps made. German mapmaker Martin Waldseemuller called New World "America" [1507].

Pedro Alvares Cabral [Cabral, Pedro Alvares]

discoverer

Portugal/Brazil

1500

He lived 1467 to 1520 and took Brazil.

Vasco Nunez de Balboa [Balboa, Vasco Nunez de]

explorer

Spain/Panama/Pacific Ocean

1513

He lived 1475 to 1519. From Spain, he was first European to see Pacific Ocean at Panama (Darien).

102

Juan Ponce de Léon [Ponce de Léon, Juan]

discoverer

Spain/Florida/Puerto Rico

1513

He lived 1460 to 1521 and discovered Florida, and later tried to colonize Florida. He also governed Puerto Rico.

Ferdinand Magellan [Magellan, Ferdinand]

discoverer

Spain/Philippines

1519 to 1522

He lived 1480 to 1521. His ships circumnavigated world and showed Asia and America relation to Europe. Magellan

discovered Philippines [1521] and claimed them for Spain. Juan Sebastian Del Cano returned home, but Magellan was

slain.

Hernando Cortez [Cortez, Hernando] or Hernan Cortes [Cortes, Hernan]

discoverer

Spain/Mexico

1521

He lived 1485 to 1547. Coming to Mexico for Spain, people thought he was descendant of the Aztec god

Quetzalcoatl. He renounced his allegiance to Spain and defeated Spanish army. He turned to defeated Aztecs, but he

lost his powers.

Francisco Pizarro [Pizarro, Francisco]

discoverer

Spain/Peru

1532 to 1541

He lived 1475 to 1541 and conquered Peru starting at Cajamarca and marching to Cuzco [1533]. He ruled until

assassinated.

Jacques Cartier [Cartier, Jacques]

explorer

France/Canada

1534

He lived 1491 to 1557. From France, he explored and then settled in Canada.

Domingo de Soto [de Soto, Domingo]

discoverer

Spain/Georgia

1540

He lived 1494 to 1560, was Dominican, explored Georgia, and started Sea Island Missions.

Lopez de Legaspi [Legaspi, Lopez de]

discoverer

Spain/Philippines

1564

He lived 1502 to 1572 and conquered Philippines.

Alvaro de Mendaña [Mendaña, Alvaro de]

explorer

Spain/Ellice Islands/Solomon Islands/Marquesas Islands

1567 to 1569

He lived 1541 to 1595. From Spain, he left Callao in Peru, crossed Pacific Ocean, and came back [1567 to 1569].

From Spain, he found Marquesas Islands [1595].

Martin Frobisher [Frobisher, Martin]

103

explorer

England/Canada

1576

He lived 1535 to 1594. From England, he tried to find Northwest Passage to China and reached Canadian coast.

Willem Barents [Barents, Willem]

discoverer

Holland/Canada

1594

He lived 1550 to 1597 and explored northeast coast of America, looking for Northwest Passage.

Henry Hudson [Hudson, Henry]

discoverer

Holland/England/New York

1607 to 1614

He lived 1565 to 1611 and discovered New York [1607], which was part of Iroquois Confederacy of Native

Americans. He claimed Hudson River area for Holland [1611]. He claimed Connecticut for England [1614].

Samuel de Champlain [Champlain, Samuel de]

discoverer

France/Canada

1608

He lived 1567 to 1635 and founded Quebec, Canada, on St. Lawrence River.

Louis de Buade [Buade, Louis de] or Comte de Frontenac [Frontenac, Comte de]

discoverer

France/Canada

1608 to 1700

He lived 1620 to 1698 and explored and traded in Canada and west North America.

Louis Joliet [Joliet, Louis]

discoverer

France/Canada

1608 to 1700


François Montmorency de Laval [Laval, François Montmorency de]

discoverer

France/Canada

1608 to 1700


Jacques Marquette [Marquette, Jacques]

discoverer

France/Canada

1608 to 1700


Abel Tasman [Tasman, Abel]

discoverer

Holland

1642 to 1644

He lived 1603 to 1659 and discovered Tasmania and New Zealand.

Sieur de La Salle [La Salle, Sieur de] or René-Robert Cavelier [Cavelier, René-Robert]

discoverer

104

France/Canada

1643

He lived 1643 to 1687 and explored Canada and interior of North America, claimed Mississippi River valley for

France, and built forts for trade.

La Verendrye or Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de la Verendrye [Verendrye, Pierre Gaultier de Varennes,

sieur de la]

discoverer

France/Canada

1708


Louis Antoine de Bougainville [Bougainville, Louis Antoine de]

discoverer

France/South Pacific Ocean

1766 to 1769

He lived 1729 to 1811 and explored south Pacific Ocean as he went around world.

James Cook [Cook, James]

discoverer

England/Hawaii/Australia

1770

He lived 1728 to 1779. While circumnavigating Earth, he discovered Sandwich Islands (Hawaii) [1768] and later

claimed east coast of Australia for Britain [1770]. Original inhabitants were Aborigines.

William Clark [Clark, William]/Meriwether Lewis [Lewis, Meriwether]

explorer

USA

1803 to 1806

Clark lived 1770 to 1838. Lewis lived 1774 to 1809. They organized Lewis and Clark Expedition, started at St.

Louis, went up Missouri River, crossed Rocky Mountains, and traveled to Columbia River mouth. Sacajawea of Lemhi

Shoshone accompanied them.

Mungo Park [Park, Mungo]

explorer

England/Africa/Nigeria

1805

He lived 1771 to 1806 and reached upper Niger River.

Antarctica Russian explorer

discoverer

Russia/Antarctica

1821

Russian ship discovered Antarctica.

John Lort Stokes [Stokes, John Lort]

discoverer

England/Australia/Tasmania

1838 to 1842

He lived 1812 to 1885. From England, he went to Tasmania, Gulf of Carpentaria, Adelaide, and Port Darwin.

David Livingstone [Livingstone, David]

discoverer

Scotland/Africa/Tanzania

1841 to 1873

105

He lived 1813 to 1873 and explored south Africa [1841], crossed Kalahari Desert, explored Zambesi River, reached

Luanda on Atlantic [1854], searched for source of Nile [1866], got to Lake Tanganyika, saw Victoria Falls, and went

down upper Congo. USA journalist Henry Stanley found him [1871] and said, "Dr. Livingstone, I presume." He died in

Africa.

James Clark Ross [Ross, James Clark]

discoverer

England/Antarctica/Arctic

1842

He lived 1800 to 1862.

Henry Stanley [Stanley, Henry]

discoverer

England/Africa

1871

He lived 1841 to 1904 and found Dr. Livingstone. Later, he helped Belgium rule Congo and Britain rule other

African lands.

Roald Amundsen [Amundsen, Roald]

discoverer

Norway/Arctic/Antarctic

1906 to 1926

He lived 1872 to 1928 and sailed Northwest Passage [1906]. He lost race to North Pole [1909]. He found South Pole

[1911]. He flew over North Pole [1926].

Robert E. Peary [Peary, Robert E.]

discoverer

USA/Arctic

1909

He lived 1856 to 1920 and discovered North Pole and north Greenland.

Richard Byrd [Byrd, Richard]

discoverer

USA/Arctic

1925

He lived 1888 to 1957 and explored North Pole.

Apollo astronauts

explorer

USA/Moon

1968

Apollo spacecraft orbited Moon.

Neil Armstrong [Armstrong, Neil]

explorer

USA/Moon

1969

He lived 1930 to ? and was first person to step on Moon.

SOCI>History>History>Invention

bifacial blade

inventor

Africa/Europe

-1800000 to -150000

106

In early Lower Paleolithic, Homo erectus had symmetrical, teardrop-shaped, heavy stone hand axe flaked on both

sides {bifacial blade}, used for cutting, whittling, scraping, shredding, and butchering bone, antler, meat, hide, wood,

and plants.

cylinder-hammer technique

inventor

Africa/Europe

-800000 to -500000

In Lower Paleolithic, Homo erectus developed new technique {cylinder-hammer technique} for making stone tools.

Wood branches, bones, or weathered stones can make soft hammers to spread percussion to give wide arcs to cones, to

make less-jagged edges. This technique did not make original edge but finished the blade.

prepared core technique

inventor

Atapuerca, Spain/Nice, France/Ibernia/Italy/Mauer, Germany/Africa/China

-800000 to -200000

Homo heidelbergensis invented tools chipped from shaped stone cores {prepared core technique} {tortoise core

technique}. Toolmakers hit large stones with sharp blows to crack off finished tools.

burin

inventor

Northern Hemisphere

-50000

burin [-50000 to -10000]

Flint chisels {burin} were for wood or antler/bone carving.

drum

inventor

Earth

-30000

drum [-30000]

Musical instruments {drum} can have skin stretched over gourd or hollow wood. Before, people used wood blocks.

flute of bone

inventor

Earth

-30000

bone flute [-30000]

Hollow bones {flute, music} had drilled holes at right places.

basket weaving

inventor

Earth

-13000

basket weaving [-13000]

People wove reeds and leaves {basket weaving}.

animal domestication

inventor

Asia/Europe

-10000 to -2500

animal domestication [-10000 to -2500]

Before domestication, people had pets. Perhaps, bird domestication {animal domestication} began by imprinting.

Perhaps, cow domestication began by imprinting. Perhaps, domestication began by propinquity at water holes. Perhaps,

domestication began for warmth, in North Africa only. Perhaps, domestication began by taking in scavenger pups.

107

Perhaps, domestication began by taming certain nomadic animals, such as reindeer, goats, and sheep using salt from

urine to attract them.

Dogs were first domesticated animals. People ate domesticated reindeer, sheep, goats, and fowl. People ate cows,

pigs, and oxen by late Neolithic. Later, people used horse, ass, and onager for riding, pulling loads, and carrying loads.

Totem animals typically are not domesticated animals.

cloth weaving

inventor

Earth

-9000

cloth weaving [-9000]

Fiber sewing began {cloth weaving}, with no looms.

howe

inventor

Europe/Near East

-3800 to -1400

howe [-3800 to -1400]; cairn [-3800 to -1400]

Burials with barrow or cairn for one person or flat-topped mound {howe} for more than one person began, with

coffins, cremation, and house of the dead. Ships associate with burial and dead.

grave

inventor

Greece/Italy/Asia Minor/Egypt

-3000 to -2000

grave [-3000 to -2000]

Stone graves {grave} with passageways, for up to 100 people, were above ground. After first burial was a second

bone burial. Later tombs, for 20 to 60 people, were below ground.

tin smelting

inventor

Anatolia/Mesopotamia/Afghanistan

-1500 to -1000

tin smelting [-1500 to -1000]

White tin and gray tin have low melting points {tin smelting}.

Phoenicians

inventor

Lebanon/Cyprus/Yugoslavia

-1000

copper mining [-1000]

Phoenicians built copper mines {copper mining}, with sixty-foot long shafts underground.

SOCI>History>History>Invention>Africa

grindstone

inventor

Africa

-300000

grindstone [-300000]

Two flat-sided stones {grindstone} show characteristic marks.

pigment invented

inventor

Africa

-300000

108

pigment [-300000]

African Middle Stone Age used colored minerals {pigment}.

stone point invented

inventor

Africa

-250000

stone point [-250000]

Flint or chert was struck to make sliver {stone point}.

shellfish Africa

inventor

Africa

-140000

shellfish gathering [-140000]

fresh and salt water clams {shellfish gathering}.

trading invented

inventor

Africa

-140000

trading [-140000]

Home erectus traders carried native products to far places {trading}.

fishing Africa

inventor

Africa

-130000

fishing [-130000]

People used fish hooks and line.

barb on stone point

inventor

Africa

-80000

barb on stone point [-80000]

Toolmaker struck flint or chert to make sliver and then worked side {barb point}.

bead

inventor

Africa

-75000

bead [-75000]

Pebbles {bead} can have a drilled hole.

microlith

inventor

Africa

-75000

microlith [-75000]

3-centimeter chipped flint or chert stone tool {microlith}.

bone tool

inventor

South Africa

-70000

109

bone tool [-70000]

First Homo sapiens used tools {bone tool}.

jewelry

inventor

Africa

-50000

jewelry [-50000: ostrich egg shell and bead jewelry]

Egg shells and beads were strung {jewelry}.

stone tool Africa

inventor

Africa

-50000

stone tool [-50000]

Stone tools {stone tool} had standard shapes.

spear

inventor

Africa

-45000 to -35000

spear [-45000 to -35000]

Throwing sticks {spear} began, and spear throwers began later [-15000].

counting device

inventor

South Africa/Swaziland

-35000

counting device [-35000]

Baboon fibula has 29 notches {counting device}.

quartz decoration

inventor

Zaire

-33000

quartz [-33000]

Small tools had quartz decorations.

rock painting Namibia

inventor

Apollo, Namibia

-25500 to -23500

rock painting [-24000]

Apollo-cave rock paintings show rituals. Wonderwerk Cave [-8000] is in north Cape Province, South Africa.

terracotta figures

inventor

Algeria

-13000

terra-cotta figures [-13000]

Red clay can dry in sun {terracotta}.

rock painting N Africa

inventor

North Africa

-8000

110


Tassili-n-Ajjer in Algeria and Fezzan in Libya have petroglyphs {rock painting}. Neolithic paintings are in Morocco.

fishing Sahara

inventor

Sahara, North Africa

-7000

fishing [-7000]

People used fish hooks and line.

pottery Egypt

inventor

Nile River, Egypt

-7000

pottery [-7000]

People hand-made vessels {pottery} from river clay, with no wheel.

weaving invented

inventor

Nile River, Egypt

-7000

weaving [-7000]

People wove reeds and fibers but used no looms.

donkey domestication

inventor

Nile River, Egypt

-6000 to -4000

donkey domesticated [-6000 to -4000]

Donkey is cross between horse and mule.

guinea hen domestication

inventor

Sahel, Africa

-5000

guinea hen domestication [-5000]

Bird domestication {guinea hen, domestication} began.

rice Africa

inventor

Sahel, Africa

-5000

rice cultivation [-5000]

As desert dried, Middle Niger floodplain became good for plants {rice, cultivation}. Jenne-jeno in Mali is there.

sorghum cultivation

inventor

Sahel, Africa

-5000

sorghum cultivation [-5000]

Grain domestication {sorghum, cultivation} began.

copper Egypt

inventor

Nile River, Egypt

-5000 to -4000

111

copper chunks used [-5000 to -4000]; copper hammering [-4000]

Metal workers hammered natural copper {copper, hammering}, with no ore smelting or metal melting.

pottery Nubia

inventor

Nubia

-4500

pottery [-4500]

Pottery used river clay but no wheel.

pottery Ghana

inventor

Ghana

-4000

pottery [-4000]

Pottery used river clay but no wheel.

sail

inventor

Nile River, Egypt

-4000

sail [-4000]

Fixed cloths {sail} helped boats go up Nile River.

silver hammering

inventor

Nile River, Egypt

-4000

silver hammering [-4000]

natural silver {silver, hammering} with no smelting.

rope

inventor

Nile River, Egypt

-4000 to -3500

rope [-4000]

Fibers can twist or braid {rope}.

cattle domestication

inventor

Sahara, Africa

-4000 to -2000

cattle domestication [-4000 to -2000]

Sahara had wet climate with wide grasslands for cattle {cattle}.

palm oil

inventor

Africa

-3000

palm oil extraction [-3000]

People extracted oil {palm oil} from palm trees in central west Africa.

teff

inventor

Ethiopia

-3000 to -800

112

teff cultivation [-3000 to -800]

Millet-like grain {teff} is native to Ethiopia and has small round gray grains.

coffee bean

inventor

Ethiopia

-3000 to 1400

coffee bean use [-3000]

Plants can have beans {coffee bean} and be native to Ethiopia. Trade began [1300 to 1400]. Yemen was major

producer [1400 to 1600].

yam West Africa

inventor

West Africa

-1200

yam cultivation [-1200]

Plants {yam, cultivation} can be native to, and first farmed, in central west Africa.

copper mining Katanga

inventor

Katanga/Mauritania/Senegal

-600 to -500

copper mining and smelting [-600 to -500]

Countries still have great copper deposits {copper, mining and smelting}.

iron Nigeria

inventor

Nigeria

-500 to -400

iron [-500 to -400]

Iron smelters {iron, smelting} were maguzawa or fire magicians. Iron was main factor in Dahomey, Benin, and

Yoruba kingdoms, especially at Ife and Oyo.

copper Mauritania

inventor

Mauritania

-400

copper smelting [-400]; copper arrowheads [-400]

Mauritania was in west Sahara {copper, smelting}.

iron East Africa

inventor

East Africa

400

iron smelting [400]

Iron smelting came from Congo.

SOCI>History>History>Invention>America

cemetery

inventor

Arkansas

-7500

cemetery [-7500]

Early Archaic Dalton culture had burial places {cemetery}.

113

maize from teosinte

inventor

Mexico

-5000

maize [-5000: developed from teosinte]

Corn {maize, corn} became more edible.

bean Mexico

inventor

Mexico City, Mexico

-3500

bean cultivation [-3500]

Kidney or pinto beans {bean, cultivation} farmed.

guinea pig domestication

inventor

Andes Mountains

-3500

guinea pig domestication [-3500]

Rodents {guinea pig, domestication} can be native to South America.

llama domestication

inventor

Andes Mountains

-3500

llama domestication [-3500]

Goat-like animals {llama, domestication} can be native to Andes.

manioc cultivation

inventor

Andes Mountains

-3500

manioc cultivation [-3500]

Plants {manioc, cultivation} can be native to South America.

pumpkin cultivation

inventor

Mexico City, Mexico

-3500

pumpkin cultivation [-3500]

Plants {pumpkin, cultivation} can be native to Mexico.

squash Mexico

inventor

Mexico City, Mexico

-3500

squash cultivation [-3500]

Plants {squash, cultivation} can be native to Mexico.

turkey domestication

inventor

Mexico City, Mexico

-3500

turkey domestication [-3500]

Birds {turkey, domestication} can be native to Americas.

114

corn Mexico

inventor

Mexico City, Mexico

-3500 to -3000

corn cultivation [-3500]

Native corn {corn, cultivation} grew in Valley of Tehuacán in south Puebla and north Oaxaca.

cotton Peru

inventor

Peru

-3500 to -2000

cotton cultivation [-3500 to -2000]

Plants {cotton, cultivation} can grow on coast.

corn Central America

inventor

Central America

-2500


Corn cultivation came from Mexico.

goosefoot

inventor

USA

-2500

goosefoot cultivation [-2500]

Genus Chenopodium {goosefoot} has herbs like wild spinach.

sunflower cultivation

inventor

USA

-2500

sunflower cultivation [-2500]

Plants {sunflower, cultivation} can be native to USA.

potato Peru

inventor

Peru

-2500 to -2000

potato cultivation [-2500 to -2000]

Plants {potato, cultivation} can be native to Peru.

corn South America

inventor

South America

-2100


Corn grew in Andes.

bean Peru

inventor

Peru

-2000

bean cultivation [-2000]

Lima beans farmed.

115

fired clay

inventor

Peru

-2000

fired clay [-2000]

Towns, temples, and tombs used baked clay {fired clay} bricks.

maize modern

inventor

Mexico

-2000

modern maize [-2000]

Corn became easily edible.

quinoa seeds

inventor

Peru

-2000

quinoa cultivation [-2000]

Plants {quinoa} can be native to Peru and have edible seeds.

squash Peru

inventor

Peru

-2000

squash cultivation [-2000]

Squash came from Mexico.

tecoatl

inventor

Puebla, Mexico

-800 to 1500

In south Mexico, Tehuacán Valley, 1200 kilometers of canals were dug that became coated with travertine from

calcite-soaked water and today look like stone snakes {tecoatl}. Small terraces layered sloped ground. It rains only six

months and is dry six months. Purrón Dam was near Puebla [-750 to 1150].

glyph writing Zapotec

inventor

Mexico

-600

glyph writing [-600]

Zapotec culture was in south Mexico {glyph writing}.

woodworking tool

inventor

Canada/Alaska

-450

woodworking tool [-450]

Totem carving began {woodworking tool}.

hogan

inventor

Southwest USA

500 to 1600

Navajo pueblos were round, dome-like wood frames {hogan}| covered by clay.

116

kiva

inventor

Southwest USA

500 to 1600

kiva pueblo [500 to 1600]

Hopi pueblo {kiva} built.

metates

inventor

Southwest USA

500 to 1600

Pueblo culture ground corn on flat stones {metates}.

parfleche

inventor

USA

500 to 1600

tanned leather pouch {parfleche}.

pemmican invented

inventor

USA

500 to 1600

lard beaten with berries.

tipi

inventor

USA

500 to 1600

Bison leather covered conical wood frames {teepee} {tipi}|.

pueblo

inventor

Canyon de Chelly, Arizona

700 to 1100

Dwellings {pueblo}| had interconnecting mud-brick rooms in layers.

Benjamin Franklin [Franklin, Benjamin]

inventor/statesman

USA

1732 to 1790

Poor Richard's Almanac [1732 to 1757: maxims and practical advice]; lightning rod [1752]; Franklin stove [1757];

bifocals [1760]; Autobiography [1790]

He lived 1706 to 1790 and helped found University of Pennsylvania [1751]. He found that lightning is electric, using

kite and key [1752].

Kentucky rifle

inventor

Lancaster, Pennsylvania

1740 to 1750

Kentucky rifle or long rifle [1740 to 1750]

German gunsmiths invented it. Rifles {Kentucky rifle} can have barrels longer than one meter.

Eli Whitney [Whitney, Eli]

inventor

Europe/USA

117

1794 to 1798

cotton gin [1794]; interchangeable parts [1798: for muskets]

He lived 1765 to 1825 {cotton gin}. Honoré Blanc used interchangeable parts for muskets in France [1785].

Robert Fulton [Fulton, Robert]

inventor

USA

1807

steamboat [1807]

He lived 1765 to 1815 {steamboat}.

fertilizer

inventor

South America

1820 to 1830

fertilizer [1820 to 1830]

South America shipped nitrate fertilizer {fertilizer} to Europe.

Abbot, Downing Company

inventor

Concord, New Hampshire

1827

Concord coach [1827]

Overland Stage Company used western version [1862] {Concord coach}.

American ax

inventor

USA

1830 to 1850

American ax [1830 to 1850]

single-bit felling ax {American ax}.

gutta-percha

inventor

USA

1830 to 1850

gutta-percha used [1830 to 1850]

Latex {gutta-percha} can be polyterpene or isoprene polymer. Caoutchouc is elastic, and gutta-percha is not elastic.

trotting wagon

inventor

USA

1830 to 1850

trotting wagon [1830 to 1850]

Wagons {trotting wagon} can be two-wheeled bench seats, for pleasure driving.

Cyrus McCormick [McCormick, Cyrus]

inventor

USA

1831 to 1938

reaper for wheat harvesting [1831]; combine for grain harvesting [1838]


Samuel Morse [Morse, Samuel]

inventor

USA

118

1835 to 1840

telegraph [1835 to 1837]; Morse code [1840]


John Deere [Deere, John]

inventor

USA

1837

steel plow [1837]

He lived 1804 to 1886 {steel plow}.

Charles Goodyear [Goodyear, Charles]

inventor

USA

1844

rubber vulcanization [1844]

He lived 1800 to 1860 {rubber vulcanization}. He did not found or run Goodyear Rubber Company. Mesoamericans

vulcanized rubber [-1600].

Elias Howe [Howe, Elias]

inventor

USA

1846

lock stitch sewing machine [1846]

He lived 1819 to 1867 {lock stitch sewing machine}.

Elisha Graves Otis [Otis, Elisha Graves]

inventor

USA

1846 to 1852

railway safety brake [1846 to 1852]; elevator brake [1852]

He lived 1811 to 1861 {railway safety brake}.

George Henry Corliss [Corliss, George Henry]

inventor

USA

1848

steam valve gear [1848]

He lived 1817 to 1888 {steam valve gear}.

Donald McKay [McKay, Donald]

inventor

Canada/USA

1855

clipper ship [1855]

He lived 1810 to 1880 {clipper ship}.

Joseph Fawkes [Fawkes, Joseph]

inventor

USA

1858

steam plow [1858]

He lived 1804 to 1886 {steam plow}.

petroleum USA

inventor

119

Pennsylvania

1859

petroleum [1859]

Oil {petroleum} was near surface in Pennsylvania.

Christopher Sholes [Sholes, Christopher]/S. W. Soule [Soule, S. W.]/G. Glidden [Glidden, G.]

inventor

USA

1868

typewriter [1868]


Thomas Alva Edison [Edison, Thomas Alva]

inventor

USA

1869 to 1910

stock ticker tape [1869]; automatic telegraph [1872]; phonograph [1877]; carbon button microphone [1878];

incandescent light bulb [1879]; electric dynamo [1879]; electrical distribution system [1880]; experimental electric

railroad [1880]; Edison effect [1883]; silent movies [1893]; projector [1896]; storage battery [1900 to 1910]

He lived 1847 to 1931, found Edison effect [1883], and invented light bulb {light bulb}, movies, phonograph, and

electric generator {electric dynamo}. He projected kinetoscopes onto screens and showed vaudeville acts [1896].

John Wesley Hyatt [Hyatt, John Wesley]

inventor

USA

1872

celluloid plastic [1872]

He lived 1837 to 1920 {celluloid plastic}.

Alexander Graham Bell [Bell, Alexander Graham]

inventor

USA

1876 to 1901

telephone [1876]; audiometer [1879]; photophone [1880]; metal locator [1881]; wax cylinders for recording [1886];

tetrahedral kite [1901]


time zone

inventor

USA

1883 to 1884

time zone [1883 to 1884]

Time zones {time zone} became international [1884].

William Stanley, Jr. [Stanley, Jr., William]

inventor

USA

1886

transformer [1886]


Charles Proteus Steinmetz [Steinmetz, Charles Proteus]

inventor

USA

1891

alternating current [1891]; Law of Hysteresis or Steinmetz's Law [1891]

120


welding invented

inventor

USA

1893

welding [1900]

Thermite welding {welding, thermite} uses acetylene. Oxyfuel welding began at same time.

Frederick Winslow Taylor [Taylor, Frederick Winslow]

engineer/inventor

USA

1899

Taylor-White process [1899: heat-treated steel tools, with Maunsel White]

He lived 1856 to 1915 {Taylor-White process}.

Wilbur Wright [Wright, Wilbur]/Orville Wright [Wright, Orville]

inventor

Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

1903

controlled powered airplane flight [1903]

Wilbur lived 1867 to 1912 {controlled powered airplane flight}. Orville lived 1871 to 1948.

Henry Ford [Ford, Henry]

inventor

USA

1906 to 1913

assembly line [1906 to 1913]; standardized parts [1913]; mass production [1913]

He lived 1863 to 1947, built automobiles, opposed unions, and started Ford Foundation.

Elmer Ambrose Sperry [Sperry, Elmer Ambrose]

inventor

USA

1908

gyroscopic compass [1908]

He lived 1860 to 1930 and invented gyroscopic compass.

tractor

inventor

USA

1910

tractor with engine [1910]

Farm vehicles {tractor} developed from automobiles.

Robert H. Goddard [Goddard, Robert H.]

inventor

USA

1926

liquid fuel rocket [1926]

He lived 1882 to 1945 {liquid fuel rocket}.

Warren Marrison [Marrison, Warren]

inventor

Canada/USA

1927

quartz clock [1927]

121


Howard Aiken [Aiken, Howard]

inventor

USA

1944

Mark I digital computer [1944]


John V. Atanasoff [Atanasoff, John V.]/John Mauchly [Mauchly, John]/J. Presper Eckert [Eckert, J. Presper]

inventor

USA

1944

ENIAC digital computer [1944]

Atanasoff lived 1904 to 1995. Mauchly lived 1907 to 1980. Eckert lived 1919 to 1995.

John von Neumann [Neumann, John von]

inventor

Hungary/USA

1932 to 1946

EDVAC electronic digital computer design [1946]

He lived 1903 to 1957. He showed that entanglement and non-locality do not send information faster than light

speed [1932].

Harold Lyons [Lyons, Harold]

inventor

USA

1948

atomic clock [1948]

He lived 1913 to ?.

An Wang [Wang, An]

inventor

USA

1948

magnetic core memory [1948]

He lived 1920 to 1990. Jay Forrester also developed magnetic core memory [1951].

J. Presper Eckert [Eckert, J. Presper]/John Mauchly [Mauchly, John]

inventor

USA

1951

UNIVAC magnetic tape computer [1951]

Eckert lived 1919 to 1995 {magnetic tape computer}. Mauchly lived 1907 to 1980.

John Bardeen [Bardeen, John]/Walter Brattain [Brattain, Walter]/William Shockley [Shockley, William]

inventor

USA

1955

transistor [1955]

Bardeen lived 1908 to 1991. Brattain lived 1902 to 1987. Shockley lived 1910 to 1989.

Edsger W. Dijkstra [Dijkstra, Edsger W.]

inventor

USA

1955 to 1965

122

multiprocessing and multiprogramming computer [1955 to 1961]; structured programming [1965]; top-down design

[1965]


Jean Hoerni [Hoerni, Jean]

inventor

USA

1957

semiconductor planar technology [1957]

He lived 1924 to ? and used masking {photomask} to add and etch layers for silicon wafers {planar technology}.

Explorer satellite

inventor

USA

1958

Explorer satellite [1958]

Satellite detected Van Allen radiation belts.

Jack Kilby [Kilby, Jack]/Robert Noyce [Noyce, Robert]

inventor

USA

1958 to 1959

integrated circuit [1958 to 1959]

Kilby lived 1923 to 2005. Noyce lived 1927 to 1990.

transistor for computer

inventor

USA

1959

transistor in computer [1959]

Transistors {transistor, computer} replaced vacuum tubes.

Vanguard I

satellite

USA

1959

Satellite had solar cells.

Telstar

communications satellite

USA

1962

Satellites {communications satellite} can allow picture transmission around world.

Donald Davies [Davies, Donald]/Paul Baran [Baran, Paul]/Leonard Kleinrock [Kleinrock, Leonard]

inventor

England/USA

1964 to 1967

packet switching [1964 to 1967]

Davies lived 1924 to 2000.

Edward Feigenbaum [Feigenbaum, Edward]/Robert K. Lindsay [Lindsay, Robert K.]

inventor

Stanford, California

1965

DENDRAL expert system [1965: for molecules]

123

Feigenbaum lived 1936 to ?.

Michael Flynn [Flynn, Michael]

inventor

USA

1966

parallel processing [1966]

Algorithm instruction and data-input stream can be simultaneous. SISD is Single Instruction stream, Single Data

stream. SIMD is Single Instruction, Multiple Data. MIMD is Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data. SPMD is Single

Program, Multiple Data.

IBM Corporation

inventor

USA

1967

computer data communications system or Binary Synchronous Communication [1967]

input and output devices {computer data communications system}.

E. F. Codd [Codd, E. F.] or Ted Codd [Codd, Ted]

inventor

USA

1970

relational database [1970]


very large-scale integrated circuit

inventor

USA

1972

very large-scale integrated circuit or VLSI [1972]

transistors on boards {very large-scale integrated circuit} (VLSI).

space shuttle

inventor

USA

1977

space shuttle [1977: reusable]

Spacecraft {space shuttle} can fly to orbit and return, with three people.

Marvin H. Caruthers [Caruthers, Marvin H.]

inventor

USA

1986

solid phase phosphoramidite chemistry [1986]

He invented method to synthesize DNA {solid phase phosphoramidite chemistry}, using DNA on polystyrene beads

exposed to acid. Overlapping matching-end oligos can allow longer sequences. Process can make oligos up to 100

bases.

SOCI>History>History>Invention>Asia

rock engraving

inventor

Australia

-40000

rock engraving [-40000]

Engravings {rock engraving} are in Olary region, south Australia.

124

waisted ax

inventor

New Guinea

-38000

waisted ax [-38000]

Axes {waisted ax} can look like heavy hoes.

stone ax grinding

inventor

Australia

-28000

stone ax grinding [-28000]

Stone axes {stone ax grinding} were ground flat in north Australia.

cremation invented

inventor

Australia

-24000

cremation [-24000]

People burned dead bodies and kept ashes.

rock painting Australia

inventor

Australia

-17000


Rock painting is in Kimberley in northwest Australia.

pottery Japan

inventor

Japan

-14000

pottery of fired clay [-14000]

Potters hand-formed and baked pottery.

millet Asia

inventor

Asia

-13000 to -10000

millet cultivation [-13000 to -10000]

Agriculture {millet, cultivation} began in southeast Asia.

rice Asia

inventor

Asia

-13000 to -10000

rice cultivation [-13000 to -10000]

Agriculture began in southeast Asia.

dog China

inventor

China

-10000

dog domestication [-10000]

Animals {dog, domestication} had domestication, but no breeding.

125

pottery China

inventor

China

-10000


Potters hand-formed and baked pottery {pottery of fired clay}.

mud-brick

inventor

Asia

-8000

mud-brick [-8000]

Dried clay {mud-brick} buildings were in west Asia.

pig China

inventor

Yellow River, China

-8000 to -6000

pig domestication [-8000 to -6000]

Animals {pig, domestication} can be native to China.

silk from silkworms

inventor

China

-7500

silk from silkworms [-7500]

Silkworms make silk.

banana cultivation

inventor

New Guinea

-7000

banana cultivation [-7000]

Plants {banana, cultivation} can be native to New Guinea.

eggplant cultivation

inventor

Indus River

-7000

eggplant cultivation [-7000]

Plants {eggplant, cultivation} can be native to India.

humped cattle

inventor

Indus River

-7000

humped cattle domestication [-7000]

Cattle {humped cattle} can be native to India.

pottery southeast Asia

inventor

Asia

-7000


Southeast Asia had pottery and pottery decoration.

126

sesame Indus

inventor

Indus River

-7000

sesame cultivation [-7000]

Plants {sesame, cultivation} can be native to India.

sugar cane cultivation

inventor

New Guinea

-7000

sugar cane cultivation [-7000]

Plants {sugar cane, cultivation} can be native to New Guinea.

cow India

inventor

India

-6000

cow domestication [-6000]

Animals {cow, domestication} can be native to India.

millet China

inventor

Yellow River, China

-6000

millet [-6000]

Millet came from southeast Asia.

jade trading

inventor

Yellow River, China/Siberia

-5000

jade trading [-5000]

Yellow River settlements imported jade from Siberia {jade trading}.

rice China

inventor

Yangtze River, China

-5000

rice [-5000]

Rice came from southeast Asia.

copper Thailand

inventor

Thailand

-4000

copper smelting [-4000]

Smelting separated copper from ore.

water buffalo domesticat

inventor

Southeast Asia

-4000

water buffalo domestication [-4000]

Buffalo {water buffalo, domestication} can be native to Southeast Asia.

127

plow China

inventor

China

-3000

plow [-3000]

Perhaps, plow came from India.

pig Indochina

inventor

Indochina

-2900

pig domesticated [-2900]

Pig came from China.

silk cloth

inventor

China

-2540

silk cloth [-2540]

Silk threads became cloth {silk cloth}.

camel Afghanistan

inventor

Afghanistan

-2500

camel domestication [-2500]

Animals {camel, domestication} can be native to Afghanistan.

elephant Dravidian

inventor

Indus River

-2500

elephant domestication [-2500]

Animals {elephant domestication} can be native to India.

stone tool ground

inventor

Southeast Asia

-2000

stone tool with ground edge [-2000]

Hard stones {stone tool with ground edge} like flint and chert can scratch softer stones.

sutlee

inventor

Pakistan/India

-1700 to -350

Husband's funeral pyre also burned widow {sutlee}.

bronze China

inventor

China

-1500

bronze [-1500]

Copper and tin smelting to make bronze began.

128

iron plow share

inventor

India

-1400

iron plow share [-1400]

Wooden plows {iron plow share} had an iron share and cutter.

logogram invented

inventor

China

-1300

logogram writing [-1300]

Pictorial writing began.

fortified cities

inventor

Southeast Asia

-1000

fortified city [-1000]

Cities {fortified city} had walls and towers.

spice

inventor

India

-1000

spice [-1000]

Spices {spice} are native to India.

steel India

inventor

India

-1000

steel [-1000]

Iron mixed with carbon at high heat can make steel. Steel is stronger and rusts less than iron.

iron China

inventor

China

-500

iron casting [-500]; iron forging [-500]

Cast-iron sickles began {iron casting}.

poultice invented

inventor

China

-500

poultice [-500]

Mold from soybean curds covered boils.

cotton India

inventor

India

-450

cotton cultivation [-450]

Cotton is native to India.

129

rudder at stern

inventor

China

25 to 220

stern rudder for ships [25 to 220]

Rear had hinged wood board {rudder, invented}.

breast harness

inventor

China

25 to 220

breast harness for horses for pulling loads [25 to 220]

Leather apparatus {breast harness} was over horse head.

caliper invented

inventor

China

25 to 220

decimal caliper [25 to 220]

Hinged points can be for measuring.

magnetic compass China

inventor

China

25 to 220

magnetic compass for temple construction [25 to 220]

A magnetized needle {magnetic compass} can balance on a point.

crossbow

inventor

China

25 to 220

crossbow with bronze lock [25 to 220]

Horizontal bows {crossbow} can have locking mechanisms.

glaze invented

inventor

China

25 to 220

colored glazes [25 to 220]

Ceramics had baked glossy colors {glaze, ceramic}.

map

inventor

China

25 to 220

map with grid [25 to 220]

Maps {map with grid} showed longitude and latitude.

insecticide invented

inventor

China

100

insecticide [100: dried chrysanthemum powder]

Chrysanthemums repel insects.

130

Cai Lun or Ts'ai Lun

inventor

China

105

paper [105]

He lived 50 to 121.

Zhang Heng [Heng, Zhang]

inventor

China

120

seismograph [120]

He lived 78 to 139.

stirrup Huns

inventor

Mongolia/China

220

stirrup for horses [220]

Footrests {stirrup} hang from saddle and can direct and speed horse.

zero symbol

inventor

India

500

zero symbol [500]

Decimal system added null digit symbol {zero symbol}.

decimal system

inventor

India

595

decimal system [595]

ten-digit positional notation {decimal system}.

Grand Canal

inventor

China

605 to 610

Grand Canal [605 to 610: links Yangtze River with Chang'an River]

Sui dynasty built it.

paper money

inventor

China

650

paper money [650]

China printed money {paper money}.

porcelain

inventor

Kaingsi, China

700

porcelain [700]

kaolin baked at high temperature {porcelain}.

131

printing began

inventor

China

700

printing [700]

Carved wood block had applied ink {printing}.

gunpowder invented

inventor

China

700 to 800

gunpowder [700 to 800: sulfur, charcoal, and saltpeter or potassium nitrate]

Guns used powder.

mechanical clock

inventor

Kaifeng, China

1090

mechanical clock driven by water [1090]

Kaifeng was capital {mechanical clock}.

card

inventor

China

1120

card with painting [1120]

Court played card game.

Yongle Dadian

encyclopedia

China

1403 to 1409

encyclopedia [1403 to 1409]

Encyclopedia had 20,000 chapters.

toothbrush

inventor

China

1498

toothbrush [1498]

bristle brush {toothbrush}.

SOCI>History>History>Invention>Asia>Middle East

wild grain grew

inventor

Sea of Galilee, Palestine

-17000

wild grain [-17000]

Wheat precursors {wild grain} grew like grass.

pottery Mesopotamia

inventor

Mesopotamia

-10000

pottery [-10000]

132

Potters hand-formed and sun-dried pottery.

wild grain gathering

inventor

Asia Minor

-9500

wild grain gathering [-9500]

Wheat precursors grew like grass {wild grain gathering}.

copper bead

inventor

Iraq

-9000

copper bead [-9000]

Natural copper {copper bead} needed no smelting.

sea trading

inventor

Asia Minor

-9000 to -4500

sea trading [-9000]

Phoenicians traveled Mediterranean Sea {sea trading}.

barley Near East

inventor

Near East

-8500

barley cultivation [-8500]

Barley is native to Near East.

dog Mesopotamia

inventor

Mesopotamia

-8500

dog domestication [-8500]

Dog domestication did not include breeding.

olive Near East

inventor

Near East

-8500

olive cultivation [-8500]

Olive is native to Middle East.

pea cultivation

inventor

Near East

-8500

pea cultivation [-8500]

Plants {pea, cultivation} can be native to Middle East.

farming Near East

inventor

Near East

-8500 to -6000

farming [-8500 to -6000]

133

Agriculture began in Fertile Crescent from Nile River mouth to Caspian Sea. Wild barley, emmer wheat, and grasses

grew on lightly wooded hills.

goat Iraq

inventor

Iraq

-8500 to -6000

goat herding [-8500 to -6000]

Animals {goat, herding} can be native to Iraq.

sheep herding

inventor

Iraq

-8500 to -6000

sheep herding [-8500 to -6000]

Animals {sheep, herding} can be native to Iraq.

fertility cult

inventor

Mesopotamia

-8300 to -6000

fertility cult [-8300 to -6000]

male and female gods {fertility cult}.

grain grinding

inventor

Mesopotamia

-8300 to -6000

grain grinding [-8300 to -6000]

People gathered, threshed, and hand ground precursors to wheat {grain grinding}.

grain storage

inventor

Mesopotamia

-8300 to -6000

grain storage [-8300 to -6000]

People stored precursors to wheat and kept them dry {grain storage}.

bread invented

inventor

Levant

-8000

bread [-8000]

Natufian culture baked unleavened bread {bread}.

chickpea

inventor

Turkey

-8000

chickpea cultivation [-8000]

Plants {chickpea} can be native to Turkey.

copper natural

inventor

Near East

-8000

134

copper use [-8000]

Natural copper needs no smelting {copper, use}.

mead invented

inventor

Near East

-8000

mead [-8000: first fermented beverage, from honey]

Honey fermented naturally.

pig Mesopotamia

inventor

Mesopotamia

-8000

pig domestication [-8000]

Pig is native to Mesopotamia.

flax Arabia

inventor

Arabia/Armenia

-7000

flax cultivation [-7000]

Plants {flax, cultivation} grew near Red Sea and Black Sea.

copper Anatolia

inventor

Anatolia

-7000 to -6000

copper hammering [-7000]

Copper hammering spread to Cyprus and Aegean Sea.

farming Egypt

inventor

Egypt/Levant

-7000 to -3000

farming [-7000 to -3000]

Planting and cultivating went from Near East to Nile Valley and west Europe. Wheat, barley, pea, and lentil farms

{farming, beginning} were in cleared areas.

boat

inventor

Near East

-6000

boat [-6000]

wood planks with sealant {boat}.

cat domestication

inventor

Egypt

-6000

cat domestication [-6000]

Animals {cat domestication} had domestication, but no breeding.

chufa

inventor

Egypt

135

-6000

chufa cultivation [-6000]

Sedges {chufa} can have small edible tubers and be native to Egypt.

cow Mesopotamia

inventor

Mesopotamia

-6000

cow domestication [-6000]

Cows are native to Mesopotamia.

irrigation invented

inventor

Sumer

-6000

field irrigation [-6000]

River water ran in channels to fields.

sycamore fig

inventor

Egypt

-6000

sycamore fig cultivation [-6000]

Plants {sycamore fig} can be native to Egypt.

barley Egypt

inventor

Egypt

-5000


Barley came from Middle East.

copper Sumer

inventor

Persia/Afghanistan/Sumer

-5000

copper annealing [-5000]; copper hammering [-5000]; copper smelting [-5000]

Melting copper ore extracts copper, and melting and cooling copper strengthens it {copper, annealing}.

wheat Egypt

inventor

Egypt

-5000

wheat development [-5000]

Plants {wheat, development} developed from wheat precursors.

gold jewelry

inventor

Egypt

-4300

gold jewelry [-4300]

Hammered gold can make jewelry {gold jewelry} or money.

calendar Egypt

inventor

Egypt

136

-4241

calendar [-4241]

Egyptian solar calendar {calendar, Egypt} had 12 months of thirty days, with five extra days. 10-day periods had

constellations {decan}. 12 decans were in the sky at Nile-River annual flooding, marking 12 hours {temporal hour}.

opium invented

inventor

Sumer

-4000

opium production [-4000]

Poppies are native to Sumer {opium production}.

fig cultivation

inventor

Near East

-3800 to -3400

fig cultivation [-3800 to -3400]

Plants {fig cultivation} can be native to Middle East.

reflex bow

inventor

Near East

-3800 to -3400

reflex bow [-3800 to -3400]

Curved bows {reflex bow} began.

sundial invented

inventor

Near East

-3800 to -3400

sundial [-3800 to -3400]

Pointer shadow shows time of day.

walled town

inventor

Near East

-3800 to -3400

walled town [-3800 to -3400]

Towns {walled town} became fortified with walls.

wax seal

inventor

Near East

-3800 to -3400

wax seal [-3800 to -3400]

People folded documents and sealed them with wax {wax seal}.

nickel-iron

inventor

Egypt

-3500

nickel-iron [-3500: from meteorites]

Meteorite smelting can make alloy {nickel-iron}.

Botai culture

inventor

137

Kazakhstan

-3500

horse domestication [-3500]

Botai domesticated and rode horses {horse domestication}.

wheel

inventor

Turkey

-3400

wheel [-3400]

Black-Sea area had potter's wheels {wheel}, solid three-plank wood wheels, and axles.

hieroglyphics invented

inventor

Egypt

-3200 to -3100

hieroglyphics [-3200 to -3100]

Picture writing began.

bronze Sumer

inventor

Sumer

-3100

bronze [-3100]

Bronze has copper and tin.

alcohol invented

inventor

Sumer

-3000

alcohol [-3000]

People can make drinks {alcohol, invented} from fermented barley.

apple

inventor

Sumer

-3000

apple cultivation [-3000]

Plants {apple, cultivation} can be native to Sumer.

arch invented

inventor

Near East

-3000

arch [-3000]

Rounded parts {arch} can curve from column to keystone.

ass domestication

inventor

Egypt

-3000

ass domestication [-3000]

Animals {ass, domestication} can carry loads.

barley Sumer

inventor

138

Sumer

-3000


Alcohol can come from fermented barley.

candle invented

inventor

Egypt

-3000

candle [-3000]

Reeds soaked in tallow {rushlight} can burn at tip. Later, Romans used wicks rolled in tallow and possibly beeswax

{candle} [-3000].

date cultivation

inventor

Sumer

-3000

date cultivation [-3000]

Plants {date, cultivation} can be native to Sumer.

flax Sumer

inventor

Sumer

-3000

flax [-3000]

Plants {flax, Sumer} can be native to Sumer.

grape Sumer

inventor

Sumer

-3000

grape cultivation [-3000]

Plants {grape, cultivation} can be native to Sumer.

millet Sumer

inventor

Sumer

-3000

millet cultivation [-3000]

Millet is native to Sumer.

onager

inventor

Near East/Asia

-3000

onager domestication [-3000: wild ass used as draft animal]

Asia had draft-animal domestication {onager}, but Americas had no such domestication.

ox domestication

inventor

Near East/Asia

-3000

ox domestication [-3000: used as draft animal]

Asia had draft-animal domestication {ox domestication}, but Americas had no such domestication.

papyrus

139

inventor

Egypt

-3000

papyrus [-3000]

Paper {papyrus}| can use stripped and crossed reeds and have sheets pasted at edges to make scrolls.

plow Egypt

inventor

Egypt

-3000

plow [-3000]

Crook plow developed from hoe. Spade plow developed from digging stick. Men plowed, but women used hoe or

digging stick. Early sub-Saharan Africa and New World had no plows. Plows improve soil fertility by bringing up

buried nutrients, and they control weeds. People, oxen, horses, or cattle can pull plows. Animals produce manure to

make ground more fertile.

plow Mesopotamia

inventor

Mesopotamia

-3000

plow [-3000]

Wooden plows, pulled through ground, broke soil surface, so seeds went underground.

plum Sumer

inventor

Sumer

-3000

plum cultivation [-3000]

Plants {plum, cultivation} can be native to Sumer.

sesame Sumer

inventor

Sumer

-3000

sesame cultivation [-3000]

Sesame is native to Sumer.

wheat Sumer

inventor

Sumer

-3000

wheat cultivation [-3000]

Wheat came from Egypt.

glass invented

inventor

Sumer/Egypt

-3000 to -2500

glass [-3000 to -2500]

People used natural glass pieces, with no sand melting.

stone temple

inventor

Malta

-3000 to -2500

stone temple [-3000 to -2500]

140

Groups built houses {stone temple} of worship to local gods.

bronze Egypt

inventor

Egypt

-2500

bronze [-2500]

Bronze has copper and tin.

iron smelting Egypt

inventor

Egypt

-2500

iron smelting [-2500]

Iron smelting began.

post-and-lintel

inventor

Egypt

-2500

post-and-lintel architecture [-2500]

two vertical supports and horizontal beam {post-and-lintel}.

square-rigged sail

inventor

Egypt

-2500

square-rigged sail [-2500]

Square sails {square-rigged sail} turned on mast.

wine invented

inventor

Egypt

-2350

wine [-2350]

Wine can come from fermented fruit.

mummification

inventor

Egypt

-2300

mummification [-2300: embalming]

Life after death needed a body, so embalming began {mummification}.

metal alloy

inventor

Near East

-2000

metal alloy [-2000]

Bronze and brass {metal alloy} began.

metal annealing

inventor

Near East

-2000

metal annealing [-2000]

141

Metal heating and cooling {metal annealing} strengthens it.

metal casting

inventor

Near East

-2000

metal casting [-2000]

Melted iron hardened in sand molds {metal casting}.

metal joining

inventor

Near East

-2000

metal joining [-2000]

Melted metals can stick together {metal joining}.

smelting metal

inventor

Near East

-2000

smelting metal [-2000]

Heating metal ore {smelting metal} can extract metal.

work hardening

inventor

Near East

-2000

work hardening [-2000]

Pounding metal {work hardening} can make it stronger.

petroleum Mesopotamia

inventor

Mesopotamia

-2000

petroleum from rock asphalt [-2000]

Heating surface asphalt can remove petroleum.

pictogram invented

inventor

Sumer

-2000

pictogram [-2000]

Pictograms pressed into clay with reed showed human processions, heroes fighting two beasts, and war.

silver money

inventor

Cappadocia

-2000

silver ingots for money [-2000]

Precious metal was in coins {silver ingots for money}.

chariot invented

inventor

Scythia

-1800

chariot [-1800]

142

two wheels and horses pull it.

iron Assyria

inventor

Assyria

-1800

iron from ore [-1800]

Strong metal {iron from ore} came from Egypt.

beer invented

inventor

Sumer

-1750

beer [-1750]

Beer can come from fermented barley.

brass invented

inventor

Near East

-1500

brass [-1500]

Alloys {brass} can have copper and zinc.

coin Sumer

inventor

Sumer

-1500

coin [-1500]

Metal coins had images.

glass bowl

inventor

Sumer

-1500

glass bowl [-1500]

Melted sand cooled to glass {glass bowl}.

irrigation by water wheel

inventor

Sumer

-1500

irrigation using water wheels and pulleys [-1500]

People and animals turned wheels to move water.

merchant travel

inventor

Sumer

-1500

merchant travel [-1500]

Traders went all over Middle East {merchant travel}.

mercury

inventor

Egypt

-1500

mercury [-1500]

143

Cinnabar can separate into mercury {mercury} and sulfur by heating.

pewter invented

inventor

Near East

-1500

pewter [-1500]

Pewter is tin with some lead.

solder invented

inventor

Near East

-1500

solder [-1500]

Tin and lead {solder} melts easily and can join metal pieces.

spinning invented

inventor

Sumer

-1500

spinning [-1500]

Twisted plant fibers {spinning} can make string.

sulfur purified

inventor

Egypt

-1500

sulfur [-1500]

Cinnabar can separate into mercury and sulfur by heating.

aqueduct Egypt

inventor

Egypt

-1500 to -1300

aqueduct [-1500 to -1300]

Aqueduct carried water to palace.

shadoof

inventor

Egypt

-1500 to -1300

shadoof [-1500 to -1300: raises water to higher level]

Aqueducts {shadoof} were for irrigation.

alphabet Phoenicia

inventor

Phoenicia

-1400 to -1000

alphabet [-1400 to -1000]

Letters {alphabet, Phoenicia} can be sounds, with no pictures.

canal

inventor

Egypt

-1300

canal [-1300]

144

A waterway {canal} went from Nile River to Arabian Gulf.

ship

inventor

Egypt/Mediterranean Sea

-1300

ship [-1300: much larger than boats]

Large boats {ship} began.

camel Arabia

inventor

Arabia

-1200

camel domestication [-1200]

Camel is native to Arabia.

linear measurement

inventor

Assyria

-1200

measurement [-1200]

Linear measurements {linear measurement} began.

positional notation began

inventor

Assyria

-1200

mathematics [-1200]

Assyria used base-60 number system and positional notation. Arithmetic included multiplication and division.

Fractions and ratios included common denominator. They found squares, cubes, and square roots.

steel Near East

inventor

Near East

-1200

steel [-1200: iron heated very hot with charcoal]

Iron mixed with carbon at high heat can make steel. Steel is stronger and rusts less than iron.

ships sealed decks

inventor

Phoenicia

-1000

ships with sealed decks [-1000]

Ships {ships with sealed decks} had wood planks with sealant.

dye

inventor

Egypt

-1000

dye from plant [-1000]

Water or alcohol can extract plant pigments {dye from plant}.

enamel

inventor

Egypt

-1000

145

enamel [-1000]

Oil with pigment {enamel, oil} can bake on surfaces.

glass tinting

inventor

Egypt

-1000

glass tinting [-1000]

Melted glass can have pigment {glass tinting}.

gold fusion

inventor

Egypt

-1000

gold fusion [-1000]

Gold can mix with other metals {gold fusion}.

oil extraction

inventor

Egypt

-1000

oil extraction from plant [-1000]

Squeezing or heating plants can extract oil {oil extraction from plant}.

astronomy Babylonia

inventor

Babylonia

-1000 to -700

astronomy [-1000 to -700]

They knew Sun, moon, and planet paths and predicted lunar eclipses.

triangle and circle

inventor

Babylonia

-1000 to -700

triangle and circle geometry [-1000 to -700]; geometry

Babylonians studied triangle geometry and gave circle 360 degrees {triangle and circle geometry}.

mathematics tables

inventor

Babylonia

-1000 to -700

mathematics tables [-1000 to -700]

Babylonians calculated mathematics tables {mathematics tables} for arithmetic.

sixty-minute hour

inventor

Babylonia

-1000 to -700

sixty-minute hour [-1000 to -700]

Babylonia divided day into time units {sixty-minute hour}.

azimuth invented

inventor

Assyria

-700

146

azimuth [-700]

Assyrians used mathematical astronomy to measure azimuth.

calendar Assyria

inventor

Assyria

-700

calendar [-700]

Lunar calendar {calendar, Assyria} had 12 months.

iron tools

inventor

Egypt

-700

iron tools and weapons

Iron tools {iron tools} began.

coin Phoenicia

inventor

Phoenicia

-700 to -600

coin [-700 to -600]

Metal discs {coin} had images.

cheese

inventor

Near East

-600

cheese [-600]

Domesticated cows, sheep, and goats make milk that can ferment {cheese}.

wine from grapes

inventor

Egypt

-400 to -300

grape wine [-400 to -300]

Wine can come from fermented grapes.

silk Byzantium

smuggler

Byzantium

552 to 553

silkworm smuggling [552 to 553]

Monks smuggled silkworms to Constantinople from China {silkworm smuggling}.

Callinicus of Heliopolis or Kallinikos

inventor/architect

Syria/Constantinople, Byzantium

673

Greek fire [673]

Byzantine army used flammable liquid {Greek fire}, first in battle of Cyzicus [673] during reign of Constantine

Pogonatus [648 to 685].

perfume

inventor

Baghdad, Iraq

147

800

perfume [800]

Pressed roses form perfume {perfume}.

soap Iraq

inventor

Baghdad, Iraq

800

soap [800]

Soap is animal fat mixed with lye.

sugar Iraq

inventor

Baghdad, Iraq

900

sugar refining [900]

Processing plants can extract sugar with water {sugar refining}.

SOCI>History>History>Invention>Europe

hammerstone technique

inventor

Europe

-1900000 to -1500000

In first half of Abbevillian or Chellean culture, new stone-tool-making technique {hammerstone technique}

developed. Percussion with hammer at edge back pops out semi-cones, leaving jagged edges and concave intersecting

surfaces. Top was round and held in power grip.

anvil technique

inventor

Europe

-1800000 to -150000

In second half of Chellean culture, new stone-tool-making technique {anvil technique} developed. Toolmaker hit

stone against large anvil stone to make bigger tools than before.

hafting

inventor

Europe

-150000 to -35000

In Middle Paleolithic, Homo sapiens added tool handles {hafting}|.

burial began

inventor

Europe

-85000

burial [-85000]

Burials began, perhaps from belief in life after death.

permanent house

inventor

Europe

-24000

permanent house with clay roof [-24000]

Houses {permanent house} used baked clay.

boomerang

148

inventor

Poland

-21000

ivory boomerang [-21000]

Thrown curved sticks {boomerang} can return.

hut with mammoth bone roof

inventor

Russia

-16000 to -10000

hut with mammoth bone roof [-16000 to -10000]

Huts {hut with mammoth-bone roof} with mammoth bone roofs were especially in west Russia.

obsidian tools

inventor

Greece

-11000

obsidian tools [-11000]

Obsidian was in caves.

shellfish Europe

inventor

Europe

-8000

shellfish gathering [-8000]

They gathered shellfish with nets.

oats cultivation

inventor

Europe

-6000 to -3500

oats cultivation [-6000 to -3500]

Plants {oats, cultivation} can be native to Europe.

poppy cultivation

inventor

Europe

-6000 to -3500

poppy cultivation [-6000 to -3500]

Plants {poppy, cultivation} can be native to Europe.

celt

inventor

Greece

-6000 to -3000

Neolithic people used ground and polished stone tools, rather than chipped or flaked, such as ax heads {celt}.

couvade

inventor

Greece

-6000 to -3000

Neolithic father went to bed at time of childbirth {couvade}.

levirate

inventor

Greece

149

-6000 to -3000

Neolithic widows sometimes married brother of dead husband {levirate}.

town France

inventor

France

-5000

town [-5000]

Farms began in south France.

tumulus

inventor

Russia

-5000 to -3000

kurg or tumulus [-5000 to -3000]

burial mounds {kurg} {tumulus}.

megalith Goseck

inventor

Goseck, Germany

-4900

megalith [-4900]

A 75-meter circle had circular mound, ditch, and two wooden fences. Fence gates pointed toward sunrise and sunset

at winter solstice. It also had a north gate.

copper smelting Vinca

inventor

Yugoslavia

-4500

copper smelting [-4500]

Vinca culture was in Copper Age, which came from Middle East.

barrow

inventor

Wiltshire, England

-4000

barrow graves [-4000]; West Kennet barrow [-4000: 100 meters long]

Collective graves were long chambers covered with earth to form mounds {barrow}|. Round barrows were for chief,

ancestor worship, magic, and offerings for afterlife. First English towns began.

passage grave France

inventor

Carnac, France

-4000

passage grave [-4000]

Community burials were in northwest France.

town England

inventor

England

-4000

town [-4000]

Farms {town} began in south England.

dolmen

inventor

150

Italy/Greece/Spain/Asia Minor

-4000 to -3000

dolmen [-4000 to -3000]

Stone graves {dolmen}| for one or several persons were above ground, with no entrance. Stone chests were for small

graves.

passage grave Europe

inventor

Europe

-3300 to -3000

passage grave [-3300 to -3000]

Community burial tombs {passage grave} used large stones: Newgrange in Ireland [-3200], Maes Howe in Orkney,

Scotland [-3300 to -3000], Jordhoj in Denmark [-3350], Los Millares in Spain [-3300 to -3000], and Mane Karnaplaye

in France [-3500 to -3300].

barley Europe

inventor

Europe

-2500


Plants {barley cultivation} came from Middle East.

wheat Europe

inventor

Europe

-2500

wheat cultivation [-2500]

Plants {wheat cultivation} came from Middle East.

bronze England

inventor

England

-2000 to -500

bronze [-2000 to -500]

Bronze came from Middle East.

Phaistos Disk

inventor

Crete

-1700

Phaistos Disk [-1700]

Scribes pressed symbols into clay, on both sides, using 45 printing blocks, and then baked the clay.

Nebra disk

inventor

Nebra, Germany

-1600

Nebra disk [-1600: bronze astronomical instrument with gold leaf]

Two opposing arcs depict sunrise and sunset positions from winter to summer solstice. It has crescent moon, full

moon, and Pleiades.

olive Crete

inventor

Crete

-1600

olive cultivation [-1600]

151

Plants {olive, cultivation} can be native to Crete.

amber

inventor

Baltic Sea

-1000

amber [-1000]

fossil tree resin {amber, discovered}.

iron Greece

inventor

Greece/Italy

-1000

iron casting [-1000]

Iron came from Middle East.

iron Austria

inventor

Hallstatt, Austria

-900

iron swords and harnesses [-900]

Strong metal {iron} came from Middle East.

salt mining

inventor

Hallstatt, Austria

-900

salt mining [-900]

People used salt for curing and flavor {salt mining}.

Greek alphabet began

inventor

Greece

-725

Greek alphabet [-725]

similar to Phoenician.

aqueduct Greece

inventor

Athens, Greece

-400

aqueduct [-400]

Aqueduct carried water to Athens.

dam invented

inventor

Greece

-400

dam [-400]

Earth, wood, or stone can block river.

crop rotation Greece

inventor

Greece

-250

crop rotation [-250]

152

Different plant types can grow successively.

harbor

inventor

Rome, Italy

-100

harbor [-100]

Concrete docks {harbor} began.

Antikythera mechanism

inventor

Greece

-87

Antikythera mechanism [-87]

A 19-year astronomical calendar has bronze gears and a differential turntable.

aqueduct Rome

inventor

Rome, Italy

-31 to 476

aqueduct [-31 to 476]

Aqueduct carried water to Rome.

bath

inventor

Rome, Italy

-31 to 476

bath [-31 to 476]

Public baths {bath} began.

concrete invented

inventor

Rome, Italy

-31 to 476

concrete [-31 to 476]

Concrete is sand and pebbles in cement.

crane lever invented

inventor

Rome, Italy

-31 to 476

crane [-31 to 476]

lever {crane, invented}.

central heating

inventor

Rome, Italy

-31 to 476

central heating [-31 to 476]

Heating {central heating} used ducts.

plumbing began

inventor

Rome, Italy

-31 to 476

plumbing [-31 to 476]

153

Pipes led to houses with water and from houses to sewer system {plumbing}.

tackle

inventor

Rome, Italy

-31 to 476

tackle [-31 to 476]

Pulleys {tackle, construction} aided construction.

water mill Rome

inventor

Rome, Italy

-31 to 476

water mill [-31 to 476]

Vertical wheels with slats can turn in rivers, and water-mill rotating force can grind grain or cut wood.

windlass invented

inventor

Rome, Italy

-31 to 476

windlass [-31 to 476]

Crank can turn horizontal cylinder to wind cable or rope and lift something.

glass window Rome

inventor

Rome, Italy

1

glass window [1]

Melted sand becomes transparent or translucent.

road tunnel

inventor

Rome, Italy

1

road tunnel [1]

Arches allowed tunnels {road tunnel}.

motte-and-bailey castle

inventor

Europe

700 to 1600

motte-and-bailey castle [700 to 1600]

Timber castles {motte-and-bailey castle} had an earth mound with a wooden tower and walled enclosure.

crop rotation Europe

inventor

Europe

900 to 1000

crop rotation [900 to 1000]

Rotating crops {crop rotation} allowed oxen to plough whole field, in northwest Europe.

stirrups Europe

inventor

Europe

900 to 1000

stirrups [900 to 1000]

154

Armored knights rode horses with saddles and foot holders {stirrups}.

water mill Europe

inventor

Europe

900 to 1000

water mill [900 to 1000]

Vertical wheels {water mill} with slats turn in rivers, and rotating force can grind grain or cut wood.

wheeled plow

inventor

Europe

900 to 1000

wheeled plow [900 to 1000]

Wheeled plows {wheeled plow}, pulled by oxen, dug in north-plains sticky and heavy soil.

harness

inventor

Europe

1000

harness [1000]

Horses replaced oxen, as harnesses {harness} improved.

whipple-tree

inventor

Europe

1000

whipple-tree [1000]

Horses replaced oxen because new devices {whipple-tree} harnessed horses.

cotton paper

inventor

Europe

1200

cotton paper [1200]

Cotton fibers can be cut, bleached, and pressed dry {cotton paper}.

linen paper

inventor

Europe

1200

linen paper [1200]

Flax fibers must be cut, bleached, and pressed dry {linen paper}.

fulling

inventor

Europe

1200 to 1300

fulling [1200 to 1300]

cleaning and thickening cloth {fulling}.

water wheel

inventor

Europe

1200 to 1300

water wheel [1200 to 1300]

155

Water mills {water wheel} ground corn, blew bellows for forges, cleaned and thickened cloth, moved hammers, and

cut wood.

windmill invented

inventor

Europe

1200 to 1300

windmill [1200 to 1300]

Windmills ground corn.

navigation chart

inventor

Europe

1270

navigation chart [1270]

Explorers mapped coastlines {navigation chart}.

verge and foliot

inventor

Bedfordshire, England

1283

mechanical clock with verge and foliot escapement [1283]

First escapement {verge and foliot escapement} and mechanical clock began.

spectacles

inventor

Italy

1290

spectacles [1290]

Lens grinding {spectacles} began just before.

astronomical clock

inventor

Strasbourg, France

1352 to 1354

astronomical clock [1352 to 1354]

Clocks {astronomical clock} had ornamental figures.

Johannes Gutenberg [Gutenberg, Johannes]

inventor

Germany

1456

movable type [1456]

He lived 1398 to 1468 and printed Mazarin Bible or Gutenberg Bible [1456], using transferable letters {movable

type} on printing presses.

Peter Henlein [Henlein, Peter]

inventor

Nuremberg, Germany

1510

spring-powered clock [1510]

He lived 1480 to 1542 {spring-powered clock}.

Jacob the Czech of Prague

inventor

Prague, Czech Republic

156

1525

fusee [1525]

Conical devices {fusee} can keep constant tension in clock springs.

Chrétien Herlin [Herlin, Chrétien]/Conrad Dasypodius [Dasypodius, Conrad]

inventor

Strasbourg, France

1547 to 1574

astronomical clock [1547 to 1574: clock with escapement and moving figures]

Dasypodius lived 1532 to 1604.

graphite

inventor

England

1564

graphite discovered [1564]

Carbon particles {graphite} can be fine and smooth.

pencil invented

inventor

England

1564

graphite pencil or black lead pencil [1564]

Writing utensils {pencil, graphite} had graphite mixed with clay.

Cornelius Corneliszoon [Corneliszoon, Cornelius]

inventor

Netherlands

1580 to 1600

sawmill [1580 to 1600]; pitman [1580 to 1600]

He lived 1550 to 1600 and invented pitman to convert rotary motion into back-and-forth motion.

William Lee [Lee, William]

inventor

England

1589

knitting machine [1589]

He lived 1550 to 1610 {knitting machine}.

Denis Papin [Papin, Denis]

inventor

London, England

1680 to 1707

steam pressure cooker [1680: with safety valve]; steam piston engine [1690]; New Method of Obtaining Very Great

Moving Powers at Small Cost [1690]; New Art of Pumping Water by using Steam [1707]

He lived 1647 to 1712 {steam pressure cooker}.

Thomas Savery [Savery, Thomas]

inventor

England

1698

steam engine [1698]


canal lock

inventor

157

Europe

1700

canal lock [1700]

If two waterways are at different heights, enclosed structures {canal lock} can fill or empty, to transfer boats.

ship design

inventor

Europe

1700

ship design [1700]

Ships {ship design} became more seaworthy.

Norfolk crop rotation

inventor

England

1700 to 1800

Norfolk crop rotation [1700 to 1800]

Crop rotation {Norfolk crop rotation} can plant different foods on different fields each year, to preserve soil.

Jethro Tull [Tull, Jethro]

inventor

England

1701

horse-drawn hoe with seed drill [1701]

He lived 1674 to 1741 {hoe with seed drill}.

Abraham Darby [Darby, Abraham]

inventor

England

1708 to 1709

iron smelting with coke [1708 to 1709]

He lived 1677 to 1717 {iron smelting with coke}. Previously, smelting used charcoal.

Thomas Newcomen [Newcomen, Thomas]

inventor

England

1712

steam engine [1712]


George Graham [Graham, George]

inventor

England

1715

deadbeat escapement for clocks [1715]

He lived 1674 to 1751 {deadbeat escapement}.

Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount [Townshend, 2nd Viscount, Charles]

inventor

England

1730 to 1738

crop rotation [1730 to 1738]

He lived 1674 to 1738. Crop rotation rotated clover, wheat, turnips, and barley.

John Kay [Kay, John]

inventor

158

England

1733

flying shuttle [1733: for looms]

He lived 1704 to 1780 {flying shuttle}.

John Harrison [Harrison, John]

inventor

England

1737 to 1761

marine chronometer to determine longitude at sea [1737 to 1761]

He lived 1693 to 1776 {marine chronometer}.

sugar beet sugar

inventor

Prussia

1747

sugar beet sugar [1747]

Sugar beets {sugar beet, sugar} were cheaper and replaced honey for sweetening.

James Brindley [Brindley, James]

inventor

England

1752 to 1758

water wheel [1752]; flint mill [1756]; steam-engine boiler [1758]


Jedediah Strutt [Strutt, Jedediah]

inventor

England

1758

rib knit knitting machine [1758]

He lived 1726 to 1797 {rib knit knitting machine}.

Robert Bakewell [Bakewell, Robert]

inventor

England

1760 to 1790

selective animal breeding [1760 to 1790]


veterinary

school

Lyon, France

1762

veterinary school [1762]

First animal-care school {veterinary school} began.

James Hargreaves [Hargreaves, James]

inventor

England

1764

spinning jenny [1764]

He lived 1720 to 1778. Spinning jenny spun four threads simultaneously, and spun 120 threads soon after.

James Watt [Watt, James]

inventor

159

Scotland

1765

governor [1765]

He lived 1736 to 1819. Devices {governor, engine} can regulate steam-engine rotation velocity [1765]. Steam

engines pumped water out of mines and increased coal production greatly.

Richard Arkwright [Arkwright, Richard]

inventor

England

1769

water frame [1769]

He lived 1732 to 1792 and owned large cotton mills with spinning and weaving machines. Machines {water frame}

spun pure cotton, with no added flax.

Samuel Crompton [Crompton, Samuel]

inventor

England

1775

spinning mule [1775]

He lived 1753 to 1827. Machines {spinning mule} had a spinning-jenny moving carriage and water-frame rollers, to

spin fine threads.

blast furnace

inventor

Birmingham, England

1776

blast furnace using steam power [1776]

Furnaces {blast furnace} can smelt iron and make steel.

Abraham Darby III [Darby III, Abraham]

inventor

England

1779

Iron Bridge Coalbrookdale [1779: cast iron bridge]

He lived 1750 to 1791 {iron bridge}.

Edmund Cartwright [Cartwright, Edmund]

inventor

England

1779 to 1785

yeast treatment for putrid fever [1779]; power loom for weaving [1785]

He lived 1743 to 1823 {power loom}.

Marquis Claude de Jouffroy d'Abbans [d'Abbans, Marquis Claude de Jouffroy]

inventor

France

1783

steamboat [1783]


Henry Cort [Cort, Henry] or Great Finer

inventor

England

1783

puddling [1783]; rolling [1783]

160

He lived 1740 to 1800. Processes {puddling} can convert brittle pig iron to wrought iron, which is more malleable

for shaping {rolling}.

Joseph Michel Montgolfier [Montgolfier, Joseph Michel]/Jacques Étienne Montgolfier [Montgolfier, Jacques

Étienne]

inventor

Paris, France

1783

hot air balloon [1783]

Joseph lived 1740 to 1810 {hot air balloon}. Jacques lived 1745 to 1799.

plowshare invented

inventor

England

1785

plowshare of cast iron [1785]

Share and cutter were cast iron {plowshare, cast iron}.

John Wilkinson [Wilkinson, John]

inventor

England

1787

iron boat [1787]

He lived 1728 to 1808 {iron boat}.

Henry Maudslay [Maudslay, Henry]

inventor

England

1797

lathe for metal [1797]

He lived 1771 to 1831 {lathe for metal}.

Charles Newbold [Newbold, Charles]

inventor

USA

1797

iron plow [1797]

He lived 1764 to 1835 {iron plow}.

Decroix

inventor

France

1798

circular loom [1798]

Looms {circular loom} can weave socks and shirts with no seams.

Richard Trevithick [Trevithick, Richard]

inventor

England

1802 to 1812

high-pressure steam engine carriage [1802]; locomotive [1804]; steam threshing machine [1812]

He lived 1771 to 1833 {high-pressure steam engine}.

Joseph Marie Jacquard [Jacquard, Joseph Marie]

inventor

France

161

1804

Jacquard loom [1804]

He lived 1752 to 1834. Power looms {Jacquard loom} had punched cards to make cloth designs.

Matthew Murray [Murray, Matthew]

inventor

Leeds, England

1804

steam locomotive on timber rails [1804]

He lived 1765 to 1826 {steam locomotive}.

Alexander Forsyth [Forsyth, Alexander]

inventor

Scotland

1805

percussion lock [1805: shooter poured potassium chlorate in bottle into flash pan]

He lived 1768 to 1843 {percussion lock}.

tin can

inventor

France

1810

tin can [1810]

Sealed metal can store food.

Johannes Samuel Pauly [Pauly, Johannes Samuel]

inventor

Switzerland

1810 to 1820

bullet [1810 to 1820: cartridge has brass head with explosive primer]

He lived 1766 to 1820 {bullet}. Pin-fire cartridges, with pins, began in France [1830 to 1840]. Center-fire cartridges

[1860 to 1870] had pin in gun.

Joshua Shaw [Shaw, Joshua]

inventor/painter

England/USA

1816

percussion cap [1816: steel nipple replaced flash pan and held copper caps]

He lived 1776 to 1860 {percussion cap}.

Charles Babbage [Babbage, Charles]

mathematician/inventor

London, England

1816 to 1833

difference engine designed to compute tables [1816]; Analytical Engine Drawings [1833]; ophthalmoscope; railway

cowcatcher

He lived 1792 to 1871 {analytical engine}.

George Stephenson [Stephenson, George]

inventor

England

1829

miner's safety lamp [1815]; steam locomotive [1829]


bedstead

162

inventor

England

1830

bedstead [1830]

bed frame {bedstead}.

glass window Europe

inventor

Europe

1830

glass window [1830]

Melted sand becomes transparent or translucent {glass window}.

soap Europe

inventor

Europe

1830

soap [1830]

Animal or vegetable fat mixes with lye.

underwear

inventor

England

1830

underwear [1830]

Underclothes {underwear} can be less bulky than clothes layers.

Jordan Mott [Mott, Jordan]

inventor

England

1833

coal stove [1833]

He lived 1768 to 1840 {coal stove}.

William Augustus Taylor [Taylor, William Augustus]

inventor

England

1833

balloon frame for house using 2x4 boards and nails [1833]

He lived 1818 to 1886 {balloon frame for house}.

Isaac Pitman [Pitman, Isaac]

inventor

England

1837

phonographic shorthand [1837]

He lived 1813 to 1897 {phonographic shorthand}.

Matthew Townsend [Townsend, Matthew]

inventor

England

1847 to 1856

latch needle for knitting [1847 to 1856]

He lived 1817 to ?. Knitting needles {latch needle} can open and close.

Henry Bessemer [Bessemer, Henry]

163

inventor

England

1856

open-hearth process [1856]

He lived 1813 to 1898 and invented cheaper steel manufacturing process {open-hearth process}.

Werner Siemens [Siemens, Werner]

inventor

Germany

1860 to 1870

electric dynamo [1860 to 1870]


Alexander Parkes [Parkes, Alexander]

inventor

England

1861

nitrocellulose plastic [1861]

He lived 1813 to 1890 {nitrocellulose plastic}.

Alfred Nobel [Nobel, Alfred]

inventor

Sweden

1866

dynamite [1866]

He lived 1801 to 1872. His trust provided for Nobel Prizes [1901].

Nikolaus Otto [Otto, Nikolaus] or Nicholas Otto [Otto, Nicholas]

inventor

Germany

1866 to 1867

internal combustion engine using Otto cycle [1866 to 1867]


refrigerated ship

inventor

Australia/United Kingdom

1882

refrigerated ship for food transport [1882]

Refrigeration began just before {refrigerated ship}.

Gottfried Daimler [Daimler, Gottfried]

inventor

Germany

1885

motorcycle [1885]

He lived 1834 to 1900 {motorcycle}.

Karl Friedrich Benz [Benz, Karl Friedrich]

inventor

Germany

1885 to 1896

automobile [1885 to 1896]


Nicola Tesla [Tesla, Nicola]

164

inventor

Italy

1887

magnetic coil [1887]; rotating magnetic field [1887]

He lived 1856 to 1943 {magnetic coil}.

Rudolf Diesel [Diesel, Rudolf]

inventor

Germany

1892

diesel engine [1892]


Nobel Prize

prize

Norway/Sweden

1901 to 2003

Alfred Nobel financed scientific prizes for living people.

sewage treatment

inventor

Manchester, England

1914

sewage treatment with bacteria [1914]

Treating sewage {sewage treatment} began.

John Baird [Baird, John]

inventor

Scotland

1926 to 1932

mechanical television [1926]; mechanical color television [1932]


V-2

rocket

England/Belgium

1944

Rocket bombed London and Antwerp from Germany.

satellite Sputnik I

inventor

Russia

1957

Sputnik I satellite [1957]

Satellite orbited Earth and then burned up. Sputnik means traveler.

spacecraft Sputnik II

inventor

Russia

1958

Sputnik II spacecraft [1958: carried dog and did not return to Earth]

Craft {spacecraft} orbited Earth.

Moon landing

rocket

Russia

165

1959

Moon landing [1959]

Luna 2 crashlanded on Moon {Moon landing}.

Moon orbit

rocket

Russia

1959

Moon orbit [1959]

Luna 3 recorded Moon far side {Moon orbit}.

Tim Berners-Lee [Berners-Lee, Tim]

inventor

Switzerland

1989 to 1990

World Wide Web [1989]; Hypertext Markup Language or HTML [1990]

He lived 1955 to ?.

SOCI>History>History>Leaders

Abraham

patriarch

Palestine

-1500 to -1200

The Bible tells that he started Judaism.

Lycurgus

founder/lawgiver

Sparta, Greece

-885 to -825

Rhetras or Constitution of Sparta [-825: harsh and strict law]

He lived -885 and -825, reformed constitution to create the harsh Spartan way, and founded military oligarchy with

harsh laws.

Ezekiel

priest

Chaldea

-592

Ezekiel [-592]

The Bible says that he saw wheel in the air and was prophet.

Hanno

admiral

Carthage, Tunisia

-580 to -550

He sailed along West African coast from Carthage. He founded settlement in Morocco [-550].

Pisistratus

tyrant

Athens, Greece

-561 to -527

He lived -600 to -527. He seized power after unrest caused by nobles dissatisfied with Solon's laws [-561]. He ruled

during prosperity and decreased upper-class power.

Hipparchus/Hippias

tyrant

166

Athens, Greece

-527 to -510

Hippias lived -551 to -490. Hipparchus lived -550 to -514. Sons of Pisistratus, first Hipparchus then Hippias, brought

prosperity and decreased upper-class power. Revolt deposed Hippias [-510].

Cleisthenes

archon

Greece

-508 to -507

He lived -570 to -507. He became archon [-508], stabilized reforms of Solon, and added democratic reforms. He

allowed more citizens to vote and reduced clan power. Ekklesia had power to decide major issues. Boule performed

detailed government work. Major offices had elections. Lower offices rotated annually, chosen by lot. Officials were

accountable for acts.

Isagoras

archon

Athens, Greece

-508 to -507

He was rival archon to Cleisthenes.

Sun Tzu

general

Suzhou, China

-500

Art of War [-500]

He lived -544 to -496.

Coriolanus

leader

Rome, Italy

-491

Senate expelled him from Rome for offering to feed the people if Senate ended office of tribune [-491]. He joined

Volscians and was about to sack Rome when his wife's tears stopped him. Volscians then killed him.

Pericles

statesman/general

Athens, Greece

-466 to -448

Pericles' Funeral Oration [-429]

He lived -495 to -429, built Acropolis, fostered Delian League, and negotiated peace with Persia. Art, literature, and

democracy flourished. Athens needed to import corn and exported wine, oil, and pottery. Plague and Peloponnesian

War caused his downfall [-448]. Athens had 25% slaves.

Cincinnatus

dictator

Rome, Italy

-460 to -439

He lived -519 to -430, was consul [-460], and was dictator [-458] [-439]. Senate appointed him dictator [-458]. He

defeated enemy for Roman Republic and then went back to his farm.

Dionysius the Elder

tyrant

Syracuse, Sicily

-406 to -367

He lived -432 to -367 and fought Italian cities and Carthage. He encouraged arts.

167

Lysander

admiral

Sparta

-405

He lived ? to -395, led Heraclidae, and defeated Athens at Aegospotami [-405].

Damocles

courtier

Syracuse, Sicily

-400

Damocles, at banquet in his honor, had sword suspended over his head by hair by order of Dionysius, tyrant of

Syracuse.

Appius Claudius Caecus [Caecus, Appius Claudius]

leader

Rome, Italy

-312 to -285

legis actiones or Legal Actions [-300]

He lived -340 to -273, was censor [-312 to -308], was consul [307] [296], and was dictator [-292] [-285]. He illegally

remained in office as censor five years. With his power to fill vacancies in Senate, he appointed plebians to Senate. He

also allowed plebians to be priests. He reapportioned tribes to give plebians control of Tribal Assembly. His clerk

published the legis actiones law methods. He built Appian Way and main Roman aqueduct.

Hasdrubal

general

Carthage, Tunisia

-226 to -221

He lived -260 to -207, was son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca, founded city of New Carthage in Spain [-226], and

governed Spain [-228 to -221], but later someone killed him.

Hannibal

general

Carthage, Tunisia

-218 to -200

He lived -247 to -182 and led Carthage army in Second Punic War. He ruled in Carthage after the peace.

Fabius the Cunctator or Fabius the Delayer

consul

Rome, Italy

-217

He lived -275 to -203. As Roman Republic fought against Hannibal in Second Punic War, he did not commit to

battle, and Rome replaced him before Rome's defeat at Cannae.

Scipio Africanus Major

consul

Rome, Italy

-209 to -202

He lived -236 to -183. Roman Republic conquered Spain and defeated Hannibal of Carthage at Battle of Zama [-

202]. He tried to prevent revenge on Hannibal, but Cato the Elder rigged trial against Scipio.

Scipio Africanus Minor or Scipio Africanus the Younger

consul

Rome, Italy

-146 to -121

He lived -185 to -129. Roman Republic fought Third Punic War and sacked Carthage. He quelled rebellion in Spain.

He tried to nullify the Gracchi's reforms.

168

Caius Gracchus [Gracchus, Caius]/Tiberius Gracchus [Gracchus, Tiberius]/Gracchi

tribune

Rome, Italy

-133 to -121

Caius lived -154 to -121. Tiberius lived -163 to -133. The Gracchi of Roman Republic were sons of Cornelia.

Tiberius Gracchus passed Sempronian law, which redistributed public lands to more people. Someone murdered him in

riot over his renomination. Caius Gracchus then started social reforms and blocked Senate and consuls. Someone

murdered him in riots protesting intent of Senate to repeal his measures. They redistributed land and had other land

reforms. State began to feed the poor. State did not enforce army service until man was 17 years old. Equites and

patricians were judges.

Gaius Marius [Marius, Gaius]

tribune

Rome, Italy

-100

He lived -155 to -86 and tried more reform.

Cornelius Sulla [Sulla, Cornelius]

general

Rome, Italy

-88 to -81

Leges Corneliae [-88 to -81]

He lived -138 to -78. As ex-consul, he took Rome [-88], passed new laws (Leges Corneliae) to block reforms, and

increased Senate to 600 members [-81].

Pompey the Great

consul

Rome, Italy

-76 to -48

He lived -106 to -48. Roman Republic conquered Spain. Senate and equite knights stopped revolt of Spartacus [-61].

Pompey cleared Mediterranean Sea of pirates, defeated Pontus, formed First Triumvirate [-60], and led Senate against

Caesar, who defeated him at Pharsala during civil war. Senate passed agrarian laws that kept land from plebians.

Julius Caesar

consul/historian/biographer

Rome, Italy

-59 to -44

Gallic Wars [-45]

He lived -100 to -44. Julius Caesar became consul [-59]. He conquered Gaul [-58 to -50]. He defied Senate's order to

disband army and crossed Rubicon River [-49], starting civil war [-49 to -45]. He marched to Rome. He then defeated

Pompey in Pharsala, Greece [-48]. He went to Greece and met Cleopatra. He went to Pontus and defeated Egypt, where

he said "I came, I saw, I conquered." After he won the civil war, he became dictator of Rome, organized Roman

Empire, ended anarchy, started social reforms, and began Julian calendar. Marcus Brutus assassinated him on March 15

{Ides of March} [-44], followed by more civil war.

He limited number of lawyers {jurisconsult} allowed to give opinions and gave them imperial authority. Only

emperor set new laws. The people disliked his new laws {Julian law}. Men had to marry if younger than 60. Women

had to marry if younger than 50. People that had children had reduced taxes and got jobs. Adultery was punishable.

Weddings had to be modest. Extravagance was bad.

His great-nephew Octavian later became Caesar Augustus (Augustus Caesar).

Marcus Tullius Cicero [Cicero, Marcus Tullius] or Tully

consul

Rome, Italy

-50

Tuscany Disputations [-50]

169

He lived -106 to -43. Through alliance with Pompey, as consul he destroyed Catiline conspiracy against Roman

Republic. Philosophy is about soul {cultura animi}.

Lepidus

patrician

Rome, Italy

-43 to -36

He lived ? to -19, was praetor [-49], was consul [-46], and was Triumvirate member [-43 to -36].

Tacfarinas

general

Maghreb/Numidia

17 to 24

He led Berber tribal revolt in Maghreb (Numidia) against Rome [17 to 24].

Strabo

historian/geographer/philosopher

Greece

18

Geography [18]

He lived -63 to 24.

Pontius Pilate

governor

Judea

26 to 36

He lived ? to 36 and was Roman Judea governor [26 to 36]. A Jewish sect {Zealot} wanted a nation. Jews in Syria

and Palestine were against each other, their neighbors, and Rome. According to the Bible, he had Jesus arrested,

condemned, and crucified [29].

Lucius Seneca the Younger [Seneca the Younger, Lucius]

leader/playwright

Rome, Italy

40 to 62

Agamemnon [40 to 60: tragic play]; Oedipus [40 to 60: tragic play]; Phaedra [40 to 60: tragic play]; Thyestes [40 to

60: tragic play]; Moral Letters to Lucilius [40 to 60: essays on ethics]; Natural Questions [40 to 60: essays]; Dialogues

[40 to 60: essays on anger, providence, impassivity, and soul]; On the elements [40 to 60: essay]; Medea [41: tragic

play]

He lived -2 to 65 and ruled Roman Empire while tutoring emperor Nero [54 to 62]. His father was Seneca the elder

[-60 to 37].

Anthony

saint

Egypt

100 to 300

He lived 251 to 356 and was Roman Catholic saint.

George

saint

England

303

Golden Legend

He lived 280 to 303 and was Catholic patron saint of England and of soldiers. By legend, he slew a dragon.

Gildo

prince

170

North Africa

375 to 398

As Berber prince and general, he first helped Romans defeat his brother Firmus [375] but then rebelled against

Roman emperor Honorius [386 to 398].

Mazdak

leader

Persia

494 to 524

He lived ? to 524 or 528 and advocated class equality and sharing of all goods, including wives. His sect [494 to

524] was Gnostic.

Rurik

leader

Russia

860 to 879

He lived 830 to 879. Swedish Viking traders under Rurik built settlements at Novgorod and Kiev [860 to 879]. He

attacked Byzantine Empire [860] in Rus'-Byzantine War. He started Rurik Dynasty that ruled Russia [862 to 1054].

Oleg

leader

Russia

879 to 913

He lived 850 to 913, followed Rurik, and united Viking Russian settlements by capturing Kiev [882].

Ubaydullah

leader

Tunisia/Africa

909 to 934

He founded Fatimid dynasty in Tunisia [909]. He conquered from Morocco to edge of Egypt [914].

Gawhar

general

Egypt

969

He invaded Egypt [969]. The Fatimid ruler al-Muiz built Cairo as Fatimid Empire capital.

Vladimir I

prince/duke

Kiev, Ukraine

978 to 1015

He lived 950 to 1015, was Oleg's grandson, and became Grand Prince of Kiev [978 to 1015]. He chose Eastern

Orthodox Church and Byzantine Christianity over Islam as official religion [989] and so is saint.

Yaroslav the Wise

prince

Kiev, Russia

1019 to 1054

He lived 978 to 1054. As ruler of Kiev [1019 to 1054], he united Russian principalities.

Lady Godiva [Godiva, Lady] or Godgyfu or Godgifu

activist

Coventry, England

1040

She rode through Coventry naked to get her husband Leofric to lower taxes. "Peeping Tom" looked.

171

Robert Guiscard [Guiscard, Robert]

leader

Albania

1059 to 1085

Robert Guiscard lived 1016 to 1085 and controlled Albania as Duke of Apulia and Calabria. Illyria and Epirus were

in Albania mountain regions.

Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar [Bivar, Rodrigo Diaz de] or El Cid Campeador or Lord Champion [Champion, Lord] or

Ruy Díaz de Vivar [Vivar, Ruy Díaz de]

warrior

Castile

1065 to 1099

He lived 1043 to 1099. He served under Alfonso VI until 1081, when he sided with Muslims. Later, he captured

Valencia from Muslims. Cid is same as Arabic "sayyid", "seid", or "lord". Campeador means "champion".

Hassan Sabbah [Sabbah, Hassan] or Old Man of the Mountain

leader

Iran

1090

Batinis or Ismaili sect believed that Imam Jaffar's sons were the only true Imams. Imam Jaffar's first son was Ismail.

Hassan's followers were the Assassins.

Taira no Kiyomori [Kiyomori, Taira no]

leader

Japan

1153 to 1181

He lived 1118 to 1181, led Taira clan [1153 to 1181], and defeated Fujiwara clan, but Taira lost to Minamoto clan at

Battle of Dan No Ura [1185].

Thomas à Becket [Becket, Thomas à]

archbishop

Canterbury, England

1162 to 1170

He lived 1118 to 1170 and was Archbishop of Canterbury [1162 to 1170]. He opposed Henry II on jurisdiction over

clergy and refused to ratify Constitutions of Clarendon [1164], which gave more power to king's courts. He fled to

Europe. On his return, someone murdered him in Canterbury Cathedral by order of King Henry II. Reactions to his

death caused Henry II to rescind Constitutions of Clarendon.

Yoritomo or Minamoto Yoritomo [Yoritomo, Minamoto] or Minamoto no Yoritomo [Yoritomo, Minamoto no]

shogun

Japan

1185 to 1192

He lived 1147 to 1199, led Minamoto clan, and established military government in emperor's name at Kamakura

[1185]. He won the long civil war and became first shogun [1192], by emperor's decree. He set up feudal system.

Stephen Langton [Langton, Stephen]

archbishop

Canterbury, England

1215

He lived 1155 to 1228 and led baron and prelate revolt against King John [1215], as Archbishop of Canterbury

[1207 to 1228].

Firoz Shah [Firoz, Shah] or Shah Firoz

sultan

India

1351 to 1388

172

He lived 1310 to 1388 and ruled Tughluq Empire [1351 to 1388].

Yi Song-gye or T'aejo

general

Korea

1354 to 1358

He lived 1335 to 1408, revolted against Mongols, and returned Korea to Koryo dynasty of China [1354]. He ended

Koryo dynasty [1392] and founded Yi dynasty or Choson dynasty [1392 to 1910]. Capital was at Kyon-Song (Seoul).

Zheng He

admiral

China

1405 to 1433

He lived 1371 to 1433, was Chinese Muslim, and voyaged seven times to west to collect tribute for Ming dynasty.

He traded gold, porcelain, silks, and spices. He reached Africa.

John Huss [Huss, John] or Jan Hus [Hus, Jan]

religious reformer

Bohemia

1415

He lived 1369 to 1415. He burned at stake.

Joan of Arc or Jeanne d'Arc [d'Arc, Jeanne] or Maid of Orleans

leader

France

1428 to 1431

She lived 1412 to 1431 and was farmer's daughter. At age 16, she said saints told her to lead France against England

to help the Dauphin. She persuaded the Dauphin, Charles VII, heir to throne, to give her troops, and she relieved

besieged city of Orléans [1429] and defeated England at Patay [1429]. She helped crown Charles VII king at Rheims.

She tried to regain Paris [1430], but Duke of Burgundy captured her at Compiegne and sold her to Duke of Bedford,

regent of England. English tried her for heresy and burned her at stake in Rouen on May 30, 1431.

She became saint [1920].

Scanderbeg or Iskander Bey or George Castriota [Castriota, George]

prince

Albania

1443 to 1468

He lived 1403 to 1468. Venice supported him.

Ashikaga Yoshimasa [Yoshimasa, Ashikaga]

shogun

Kyoto, Japan

1449 to 1490

He lived 1436 to 1490. Hosokawa and Yamana clans fought to choose new shogun [1443 to 1467]. This ended

Muromachi Era [1333 to 1467]. He built Silver Pavilion or Ginkakuji temple [1489].

Girolamo Savonarola [Savonarola, Girolamo]

religious reformer

Florence, Italy

1498

He lived 1452 to 1498. He burned at stake.

Cesare Borgia [Borgia, Cesare]

cardinal

Rome, Italy

1502

173

He lived 1476 to 1507. He lured his enemies to castle and had them strangled.

Lucrezia Borgia [Borgia, Lucrezia]

duchess

Ferrara, Italy

1505

She lived 1480 to 1519 and had brilliant court.

Bishops of Cetinje

bishop

Montenegro

1516 to 1851

Bishops of Cetinje ruled Montenegro [1516 to 1851].

Claude de Lorraine [Lorraine, Claude de]

duke

Guise, France

1520 to 1550

He lived 1496 to 1550 and was first Duke of Guise [1520 to 1550], branching from House of Lorraine. Second Duke

of Guise [1550 to 1588] controlled King Francis II of France, suppressed Protestant Huguenots, and provoked Wars of

Religion [1562] by opposing Catherine de' Medici's tolerance. He helped plan St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of

Protestants in Paris. He formed Catholic League [1576] and revolted against Henry III [1588].

Suleiman I or Suleiman the Magnificent or Suleiman the Lawgiver or Sulayman the Magnificent

sultan

Istanbul, Turkey

1520 to 1566

He lived 1494 to 1566. As Sultan of Ottoman Empire [1520 to 1566], he conquered Belgrade, Rhodes, Hungary at

Mohacs, Persia, Arabian coast, and Mediterranean Sea under Admiral Barbarossa. He lost siege of Vienna, failed to

take Malta and Tunis, and did not defeat Spain or Venice at sea. He allied with France against Austria [1536], reformed

government, and favored arts.

Diego Ribeiro [Ribeiro, Diego]

mapmaker

Spain

1525

He lived ? to 1533 and charted Pacific Ocean.

Ivan IV or Ivan the Terrible

grand duke/tsar

Moscow, Russia

1533 to 1584

He lived 1530 to 1584 and was three years old when he became grand duke [1533]. Later, he began rule himself

[1547 to 1584]. He took European Russia and Siberia, conquering Tatars under Yermak [1582]. He lost Poland and

Sweden. He put down nobles, created army corps to put down rebellion, and became insane.

Francis Xavier [Xavier, Francis]

missionary

Japan

1539 to 1551

He lived 1506 to 1552 and was Roman Catholic saint and missionary [1539 to 1551].

William the Silent or William of Orange

stadholder

Netherlands

1555 to 1584

174

He lived 1533 to 1584. As prince of Orange, Spain appointed him stadholder of Holland [1555]. Later, he supported

the Gueux, who were Dutch and Flemish nobles opposed to intervention from Spain, and fought Spain. After deposing

Philip II of Spain, he ruled United Provinces [1579 to 1584] and founded Dutch Republic. Someone assassinated him

before struggles with Spain ended.

Catherine de' Medici

regent

France

1560

She lived 1519 to 1589. Catherine de' Medici, queen to Henry II, was regent for Charles IX of France [1560]. She

persecuted Protestants.

Filippo Neri [Neri, Filippo]

saint

Rome, Italy

1560 to 1580

He lived 1515 to 1595 and became Roman Catholic saint.

Theresa of Avila

saint

Rome, Italy

1560 to 1580

She lived 1515 to 1582 and became Roman Catholic saint.

John Hawkins [Hawkins, John]

slaver

West Africa

1562

He lived 1532 to 1595. From England, he took slaves from West Africa to Americas.

Martin Alfonso de Sousa [Alfonso de Sousa, Martin]

governor

Brazil

1567

He lived 1500 to 1564 and founded Sao Paolo. Portugal ousted France from Rio de Janiero [1567].

Francis Drake [Drake, Francis]

captain

England

1577 to 1588

He lived 1540 to 1596 and sailed around world [1577 to 1580]. He pirated ships from Spain and helped defeat

Ireland. He destroyed fleet of Spain at Cadiz [1587] and helped defeat Spanish Armada [1588].

John of the Cross

saint/poet

Rome, Italy

1580 to 1590

He lived 1542 to 1591 and became Roman Catholic saint and mystic.

Walter Raleigh [Raleigh, Walter]

colonist/poet

England

1585 to 1599

Nymph's Reply to the Shepherd [1599: poem]

175

He lived 1552 to 1618 and started Roanoke Colony on North Carolina Outer Banks, but it died out [1585 to 1597].

He introduced tobacco and potatoes to Europe. He was rival to Earl of Essex for Elizabeth's hand. James I became king

and imprisoned him in Tower of London.

Virginia Dare [Dare, Virginia]

colonist

Roanoke Colony, Virginia

1587

She lived 1587 to ? and was first child born in USA of parents from England.

Earl of Essex or Robert Devereux [Devereux, Robert]

earl

England

1590

He lived 1566 to 1601. After being her favorite, Queen Elizabeth I arrested and executed him for marrying secretly

and for failing to put down rebellion in Ireland.

Tokugawa Hideyoshi [Hideyoshi, Tokugawa] or Tokugawa Ieyasu [Ieyasu, Tokugawa] or Tokugawa Iyeyasu

[Iyeyasu, Tokugawa]

shogun

Japan

1592 to 1616

He lived 1543 to 1616 and invaded Korea [1592], trying to take China. He founded Tokugawa Shogunate [1603 to

1867] when he defeated other barons [1603]. He allowed no one to change occupation, stabilized existing classes, and

took all swords away from classes. He encouraged foreign trade and tolerated missionaries at first.

Madame de Mornay [Mornay, Madame de] or Charlotte Arbaleste de la Borde [Arbaleste de la Borde,

Charlotte]

salon

Paris, France

1600

Memoirs [1600]

She lived 1548 to 1606 and was wife of Philippe de Mornay.

Pocahontas

princess

Jamestown, Virginia

1607

She lived 1595 to 1617. Chief's daughter saved John Smith of Jamestown Colony from death. She later married an

Englishman and went to England.

John Winthrop [Winthrop, John]

governor

Massachusetts

1620

He lived 1588 to 1649. First Puritan governor worked closely with church.

Vincent de Paul

saint

Rome, Italy

1620 to 1640

He lived 1581 to 1660 and became Roman Catholic saint.

Richelieu or Armand Jean du Plessis [Plessis, Armand Jean du]

cardinal/prime minister/composer/lyricist

Paris, France

176

1622 to 1641

Prosperity of the Arms of France [1641: masque]

He lived 1585 to 1642 and became cardinal [1622] then prime minister [1624]. With Louis XIII, he founded absolute

monarchy, put down Huguenots, controlled nobles, helped Protestants in Thirty Years War, founded French Academy,

and depleted treasury. He controlled Anne of Austria, consort of Louis XIII.

Roger Williams [Williams, Roger]

leader

Boston, Massachusetts/Providence, Rhode Island

1635 to 1636

He lived 1603 to 1683 and claimed that American Indians owned Puritan lands. He stood trial at General Court in

Boston [1635] but escaped to Rhode Island [1636].

Thomas Hooker [Hooker, Thomas]

leader

Hartford, Connecticut

1636

Fundamental Orders

He lived 1586 to 1647, left Puritans in Massachusetts, and moved near Hartford, Connecticut [1636]. He wrote one

of the first constitutions [1639], which required magistrate elections. Freemen controlled General Court.

Ann Hutchinson [Hutchinson, Ann]

leader

Massachusetts

1637

She lived 1591 to 1643. The state banished her after her trial [1637] on charges of altering religious concepts.

Jules Mazarin [Mazarin, Jules] or Giulio Raimondo Mazzarino [Mazzarino, Giulio Raimondo]

minister

France

1642

He lived 1602 to 1661. Under Louis XIII and then Louis XIV, he dictated Peace of Westphalia, but his strong power

and France's weak finances resulted in revolt of Fronde nobles and Parliament of Paris. He ended revolt of Fronde

[1653]. He got Peace of the Pyrenees with Spain [1659]. He controlled the regent Anne of Austria.

John Endicott [Endicott, John]

governor

Massachusetts

1646

He lived 1588 to 1665 and succeeded Winthrop as Massachusetts Bay Colony governor.

Oliver Cromwell

prime minister

England

1649

After Charles I died, Oliver Cromwell led Commonwealth.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert [Colbert, Jean-Baptiste]

minister

Paris, France

1661 to 1677

Memorandum on Trade [1664]; Criminal Code [1670]; Maritime Code [1672]; Commercial Code [1677]

He lived 1619 to 1683 and appointed council to codify laws. Under Louis XIV, he opposed Fourquet, who had

become wealthy by mismanaging Treasury. He espoused the policy of protecting industry by tariffs and subsidies,

regulating prices, making roads and canals, and colonizing {mercantilism, Colbert}.

177

Increase Mather [Mather, Increase]

preacher

Massachusetts

1664 to 1692

He lived 1639 to 1723. As Puritan, he supported Massachusetts Bay Colony theocracy, supported education, and led

Salem witch trials [1692]. His son was Cotton Mather, who lived 1663 to 1728.

Henry Morgan [Morgan, Henry]

pirate

Barbados

1666

He lived 1635 to 1688. English pirate took Spanish ships.

Gobind Singh

leader

India

1690

He lived 1666 to 1708 and was tenth and last Sikh guru. He changed Sikhs to Hindu practices, urging them to follow

the Guru Granth Sahib scripture. He emphasized militarism, started a brotherhood {khalsa}, and gained land.

William Kidd [Kidd, William]

pirate

Scotland

1696

He lived 1645 to 1701 and pirated Spanish ships.

André de Fleury [Fleury, André de]

cardinal/prime minister

France

1726

He lived 1653 to 1743, controlled Louis XIV [1726], corrected finances, and had to wage War of the Polish

Succession and War of the Austrian Succession.

John Peter Zenger [Zenger, John Peter]

writer

Germany/USA

1735

He lived 1697 to 1746. He wrote against the governor in his New York Weekly Journal and went to jail. His lawyer,

Andrew Hamilton, asked the jury to consider the fact that the libel was true, which it was, so they acquitted him [1735].

Ever since then, truth has been defense against libel.

Horace Walpole [Walpole, Horace]

prime minister

England

1742

He lived 1717 to 1797. Criticism of War of the Austrian Succession by William Pitt caused him to lose prime

ministership [1742].

Madame Pompadour [Pompadour, Madame] or Jeanne Antoinette Poisson [Poisson, Jeanne Antoinette]

mistress

France

1745 to 1764

She lived 1721 to 1764 and was mistress of Louis XV of France until she died. Her influence allied France with

Austria in Thirty Years War. She patronized arts.

House of Orange

178

stadholder

Holland

1747

House of Orange became permanent stadholder.

Giacomo Casanova [Casanova, Giacomo]

lover

Italy/Bohemia

1755

Memoirs

He lived 1725 to 1798 and was adventurer and famous lover.

William Pitt the Elder [Pitt, William the Elder]

prime minister

England

1757 to 1761

He lived 1708 to 1778 and became Prime Minister by his stand against Seven Years War [1757 to 1761]. He

defeated France in India and Canada. He wanted to concede everything to the American colonies to keep them. His

love of Constitution's rights made him the Great Commoner.

Madame du Barry [du Barry, Madame] or Comtesse du Barry [du Barry, Comtesse] or Marie-Jeanne Bécu

[Bécu, Marie-Jeanne]

mistress

France

1764

She lived 1743 to 1793 and was last mistress of Louis XV.

Warren Hastings [Hastings, Warren]

governor

India

1773 to 1787

He lived 1732 to 1818. Appointed by Britain as governor-general [1773 to 1785], he reformed law and finances.

Parliament impeached him [1787].

Samuel Adams [Adams, Samuel]

leader

USA

1774

He lived 1722 to 1803 and persuaded Massachusetts Assembly to invite other colonies to send delegates to First

Continental Congress.

Daniel Boone [Boone, Daniel]

pioneer

Kentucky

1775


George Washington [Washington, George]

general/president

USA

1775 to 1797

He lived 1732 to 1799. Second Continental Congress appointed him commander-in-chief [1775]. As first president

[1989 to 1797], he approved Alexander Hamilton's finance plans and pursued conservative policies, leaning toward

Federalists.

Nathan Hale [Hale, Nathan]

179

spy

USA

1776

He lived 1755 to 1776. Britain hanged officer of USA as spy [1776]. He said, "I regret that I have but one life to lose

for my country."

Henry Lee [Lee, Henry] or Light Horse Harry

general

USA

1776

He lived 1756 to 1818 and was father of Robert E. Lee.

Betsy Ross [Ross, Betsy]

seamstress

USA

1776

She lived 1752 to 1836 and supposedly sewed first USA flag.

Marquis de Lafayette [Lafayette, Marquis de] or Marie-Joseph-Paul-Roch-Yves-Gilbert du Motier [Motier,

Marie-Joseph-Paul-Roch-Yves-Gilbert du]

general

France

1777 to 1983

He lived 1757 to 1834 and helped USA in Revolutionary War.

John Paul Jones [Jones, John Paul]

admiral

USA

1778


Benedict Arnold [Arnold, Benedict]

traitor

USA

1780

He lived 1741 to 1801, was general, and betrayed USA plans to British in American Revolution.

Stephen Decatur [Decatur, Stephen]

captain

USA

1780

He lived 1779 to 1820 and captained warship.

Casimir Pulaski [Pulaski, Casimir]

soldier

Poland

1780


Grigori Alexandrovich Potemkin [Potemkin, Grigori Alexandrovich]

governor

Crimea

1783

He lived 1739 to 1791, annexed Crimea for Russia [1783], and advised Catherine II of Russia. He set up model

villages {Potemkin village} as Catherine toured south Russia.

180

William Pitt the Younger [Pitt the Younger, William]

prime minister

London, England

1783 to 1801

Catholic Emancipation Bill [1783 to 1801]

He lived 1759 to 1806. As prime minister under George III [1783 to 1801], he held general elections, cut debt

through taxation, and led reforms in Parliament. He reformed India and Canada administrations. Wars with France

caused financial crisis. He achieved union with Ireland but resigned when King George III vetoed his Catholic

Emancipation Bill.

Alexander Hamilton [Hamilton, Alexander]

treasurer

USA

1789 to 1791

Federalist Papers [1787 to 1788]

He lived 1755 to 1804. As first Treasury secretary, he established USA treasury system and Bank of the USA. He

favored centralized and strong Federal government and favored Britain in foreign policy.

President of USA

president

USA

1789 to 2007

Washington. John Adams. Jefferson. Madison. Monroe. John Quincy Adams. Jackson. Van Buren. Harrison. Tyler.

Polk. Taylor. Fillmore. Pierce. Buchanan. Lincoln. Johnson. Grant. Hayes. Garfield. Arthur. Cleveland. Harrison.

McKinley. Theodore Roosevelt. Taft. Wilson. Harding. Coolidge. Hoover. Franklin Roosevelt. Truman. Eisenhower.

Kennedy. Johnson. Nixon. Ford. Carter. Reagan. George H. W. Bush. Clinton. George W. Bush.

Jean Paul Marat [Marat, Jean Paul]

journalist

France

1792

He lived 1743 to 1793 and led Cordeliers in National Convention against Girondists during French Revolution.

Other revolutionaries stabbed him in his bath [1792].

Maximilian Robespierre [Robespierre, Maximilian]

leader

France

1792 to 1794

He lived 1758 to 1794. Elected to National Convention, he led Jacobin radicals and put down Girondists. As

Committee of Public Safety member, he started Reign of Terror and eliminated his rivals. The Convention resisted and

beheaded him [1974].

Thaddeus Kosciusko [Kosciusko, Thaddeus]

general

Poland

1794

He lived 1746 to 1817 and rebelled against Russia and Prussia. Before, he had fought in American Revolution.

Napoleon or Napoleon Bonaparte

general/emperor/lawgiver

France

1794 to 1815

Code Napoleon or Napoleonic Code [1801 to 1804: basis of European private law]; Code of Civil Procedure [1807];

Commercial Code [1808]; Code of Criminal Procedure [1811]; Penal Code [1811]

He lived 1769 to 1821, defeated the noble's Vendemaire Revolt against Directory, and gained fame. In French

Revolutionary Wars, he took Milan [1796], Venice [1797], and Austria [1801]. He became emperor [1804] and

181

defeated Austria [1805] and Prussia [1806]. He became king of Italy [1807]. As emperor, he lost to united Europe

[1814] and again at Waterloo [1815].

John Adams [Adams, John]

president

USA

1797 to 1801

Federalist Papers [1787 to 1788]

He lived 1735 to 1826. Second president prevented war with France. His wife was Abigail Adams.

Charles de Talleyrand-Perigord [Talleyrand-Perigord, Charles de]

foreign minister

France

1797 to 1807

He lived 1754 to 1838 and served as foreign minister under Directory and Napoleon.

John Jacob Astor [Astor, John Jacob]

merchant

Germany/USA

1800

He lived 1763 to 1848 and became wealthy fur merchant.

Beau Brummel [Brummel, Beau]

dandy

England

1800


Thomas Jefferson [Jefferson, Thomas]

president

USA

1801 to 1809

Declaration of Independence

He lived 1743 to 1826. Before becoming third president, he drafted Declaration of Independence [1776] and, in

Virginia, abolished entail and primogeniture, enacted religious freedom, and started public schools and University of

Virginia. He helped plan Washington, District of Columbia, and drafted Kentucky Resolution on states' rights. He

bought Louisiana Purchase of all middle USA [1803] and sent Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore it [1803]. He

tried to enforce Embargo Act [1807], which tried to block trade with France and England to force free trade.

Politics

He believed in free public education, self-sufficiency, and consent of the governed in renewable social contract. The

greatest possible freedom is best, with minimal state. Independent farmers are a democracy foundation.

Aaron Burr [Burr, Aaron]

vice-president

USA

1804

He lived 1756 to 1836 and killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel. His plan to colonize southwest USA led to trial for

treason.

Johnny Appleseed [Appleseed, Johnny] or John Chapman [Chapman, John]

wanderer

Midwest USA

1805

He lived 1774 to 1847 and began planting apple trees in midwest USA.

Nathan Mayer Rothschild [Rothschild, Nathan Mayer]

182

banker

Frankfurt, Germany

1805 to 1850

He lived 1777 to 1836 and started London bank [1805]. Later, firm opened banks in London, Vienna, Paris, and

Naples. Banks loaned to countries and influenced policy.

James Madison [Madison, James]

president

USA

1809 to 1817

He lived 1751 to 1836. Fourth president fought War of 1812. His wife was Dolly Madison.

Furst von Metternich [Metternich, Furst von]

minister

Austria

1809 to 1848

He lived 1773 to 1859, married Marie Louise to Napoleon, and allied with France [1809]. He joined Allies [1813].

He dominated German Confederation and Congress of Vienna [1815]. He led Holy Alliance and Quadruple Alliance to

maintain peace and order and set political boundaries. Holy Alliance had Austria, Russia, and Prussia. Revolution of

1848 ousted him.

Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov [Kutuzov, Mikhail Illarionovich]

general

Russia

1812 to 1813

He lived 1745 to 1813, fought Turkey [1770 to 1774], and defeated Napoleon.

Jean Lafitte [Lafitte, Jean]

pirate


1812 to 1815

He lived 1780 to 1826, was pirate of France against Spain, and helped USA in War of 1812.

James Monroe [Monroe, James]

president

USA

1817 to 1821

He lived 1758 to 1831. Fifth president resolved boundary with Canada, got Florida, settled Liberia with former

slaves, presided over Missouri Compromise, and formulated Monroe Doctrine, ending European influence in Americas.

John Quincy Adams [Adams, John Quincy]

president

USA

1825 to 1829

He lived 1767 to 1848. Sixth president opposed slavery and developed Monroe Doctrine.

Davy Crockett [Crockett, Davy]

pioneer/frontiersman

USA

1827


Andrew Jackson [Jackson, Andrew]

president

USA

1829 to 1837

183

He lived 1767 to 1845. Seventh president had Kitchen Cabinet of advisors. He started spoils system and emphasized

Democratic Party. He antagonized Calhoun and Clay. He fought Bank of the USA, leading to requirement that only

hard currency can buy public land. He ended National Bank and caused Panic of 1837.

Juan Manuel de Rosas [Rosas, Juan Manuel de]

dictator

Argentina

1829 to 1852


William Lloyd Garrison [Garrison, William Lloyd]

editor

USA

1831 to 1861

He lived 1838 to 1909. Abolitionist opposed violence and Civil War [1861].

Karl von Clausewitz [Clausewitz, Karl von]

general

Prussia

1832

On War [1832]

He lived 1780 to 1831 and advocated total war.

Antonio Santa Anna [Santa Anna, Antonio]

president

Mexico

1833 to 1855

He lived 1794 to 1876, failed to end revolution in Texas, defeated France, and failed in Mexican War. Juarez exiled

him.

Daniel Dunglas Home [Home, Daniel Dunglas]

spiritualist medium

Britain

1833 to 1886

Incidents of My Life [1863 to 1872]


Stephen Austin [Austin, Stephen]

leader

Texas

1836

He lived 1793 to 1836. Texas formed Republic of Texas and revolted against Mexico but lost.

Sam Houston [Houston, Sam]

president

Texas

1836 to 1861

He lived 1793 to 1863, was president of Texas Republic [1836 to 1844], and was governor of State of Texas

afterward. As governor of Texas, he refused to secede from Union. Other leaders removed him from office [1861].

Horace Mann [Mann, Horace]

educator

Massachusetts

1837


184

Martin Van Buren [Van Buren, Martin]

president

USA

1837 to 1841

He lived 1782 to 1862. Eighth president was follower of Jackson, but Panic of 1837 caused his unpopularity. He

advocated Treasury system independent of banks.

William Henry Harrison [Harrison, William Henry]

president

USA

1841

He lived 1773 to 1841. Ninth president died soon.

John Tyler [Tyler, John]

president

USA

1841 to 1845

He lived 1790 to 1862. Tenth president became president when Harrison died. He was Whig but vetoed Whig bank

acts. He annexed Texas.

Johan Wilhelm Snellman [Snellman, Johan Wilhelm]

statesman

Finland

1842 to 1845

He lived 1806 to 1881 and was leader and Hegelian philosopher.

Kit Carson [Carson, Kit]

scout

West USA

1845

He lived 1809 to 1868 and fought against American natives.

Sarah Margaret Fuller [Fuller, Sarah Margaret]

feminist

USA

1845

She lived 1810 to 1850.

James K. Polk [Polk, James K.]

president

USA

1845 to 1849

He lived 1795 to 1849, was follower of Andrew Jackson, reduced tariffs, directed Mexican War [1845 to 1848],

annexed Texas [1845], settled trouble over Oregon Territory [1846], and got California, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona

land [1848]. Treasury system became independent of banks.

Stephen A. Douglas [Douglas, Stephen A.]

senator

USA

1847 to 1858

He lived 1813 to 1861 and debated Lincoln [1858]. He advocated Squatter Sovereignty, permitting slavery in

territories and allowing state applying for statehood to vote to be slave or free. At Freeport [1860], he said that

territories can exclude slavery by voting, lost southern-Democrat support, and lost presidential race against Lincoln.

Elizabeth Stanton [Stanton, Elizabeth]

feminist

185

USA

1848

She lived 1815 to 1902 and worked for women's rights.

Martin Van Buren [Van Buren, Martin]

candidate

USA

1848.11

He lived 1782 to 1862 and ran for president as Free-Soil Party candidate.

Zachary Taylor [Taylor, Zachary]

president

USA

1849 to 1850

He lived 1784 to 1850. Before 1849, 12th president fought American Indians and fought in Mexican War.

Millard Fillmore [Fillmore, Millard]

president

USA

1850 to 1857

He lived 1800 to 1874. 13th president tried to implement Fugitive Slave act, avoided foreign affairs, and tried to

advance Whig party. Later, he was Know-Nothing Party candidate.

Matthew Perry [Perry, Matthew]

commodore

Japan

1853 to 1854

He lived 1794 to 1858. Japan granted trade concessions to USA. He opened Japan to outside commerce and

shipping, soon followed by trade agreements with other nations.

Franklin Pierce [Pierce, Franklin]

president

USA

1853 to 1857

He lived 1804 to 1869. 14th president got Gadsen Purchase [1853] from Mexico in south Arizona. Sectionalism

increased with Kansas-Nebraska Bill [1854]. The squatter controversy resulted in bloodshed.

Bartolome Mitre [Mitre, Bartolome]

leader

Argentina

1853 to 1870

He lived 1821 to 1906, changed constitution [1853], became president [1862 to 1870], and began reforms.

Florence Nightingale [Nightingale, Florence]

nurse

Crimea

1854

She lived 1820 to 1910 and founded hospitals in Crimean War, bettered soldier lives, and reformed nurse training to

emphasize cleanliness, knowledge, and organization.

James Buchanan [Buchanan, James]

president

USA

1857

He lived 1791 to 1868. 15th president dealt with slavery issues.

186

Benito Juarez [Juarez, Benito]

president

Mexico

1858 to 1871

He lived 1806 to 1872, led War of Reform, opposed Santa Anna, and resisted attempt of Maximilian to set up French

Empire, He led after Emperor Maximilian was overthrown [1867] and changed constitution. He put down rebellion by

Diaz [1871].

Giuseppe Garibaldi [Garibaldi, Giuseppe]

leader

Italy

1860

He lived 1807 to 1882 and unified Italy under his 1000 armed citizen followers {red shirts} by defeating Naples and

Sicily [1860]. He gave his conquests to King Victor Emmanuel II.

Adolf Krupp [Krupp, Adolf]

manufacturer

Germany

1860

He lived 1812 to 1887 and started munitions factory.

Boss Tweed or William M. Tweed [Tweed, William M.]

leader

New York, New York

1860 to 1870

He lived 1823 to 1878, controlled Tammany Hall as Democrat, and accumulated a fortune by graft.

Thomas Jackson [Jackson, Thomas] or Stonewall Jackson [Jackson, Stonewall]

general

Virginia

1861 to 1863

He lived 1824 to 1863 and tied first Battle of Bull Run, won Shenandoah Valley Campaign, won second Battle of

Bull Run, and died at Chancellorsville.

Jefferson Davis [Davis, Jefferson]

president

South USA

1861 to 1865

He lived 1808 to 1889 and led Confederate States of America.

Abraham Lincoln [Lincoln, Abraham]

president/essayist/orator

USA

1861 to 1865

Emancipation Proclamation [1863]; Gettysburg Address [1864: oration]; Second Inaugural Address [1865: oration]

He lived 1809 to 1865. 16th-president election started Civil War. South believed it needed slaves to produce cotton,

which it exported for profit. He had trouble with divided cabinet, discontent over war, bad generals, and abolitionists.

John Wilkes Booth assassinated Abraham Lincoln at Ford's Theater in Washington.

Emancipation Proclamation [1863] freed 4,000,000 slaves, mostly on cotton plantations. This act diminished states'

rights.

Pierre Beauregard [Beauregard, Pierre]

general

South USA

1862

He lived 1818 to 1893 and was Confederate general.

187

Ulysses S. Grant [Grant, Ulysses S.]

general

USA

1862 to 1865

He lived 1822 to 1885. After he fought at Shiloh in Virginia, Vicksburg in Mississippi, and Chattanooga, Tennessee,

he led Wilderness Campaign for the North, which led to Lee's surrender at Appomattox Courthouse in Virginia [1865].

Robert E. Lee [Lee, Robert E.]

general

South USA

1862 to 1865

He lived 1807 to 1872. Confederate general stopped march on Richmond in Seven Days battles, won second Battle

of Bull Run, fought to standstill at Antietam while trying to invade North, won at Fredericksburg, won at

Chancellorsville, lost at Gettysburg, fought Grant in Wilderness Campaign, endured siege at Petersburg, and

surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse [1865].

Otto von Bismarck [Bismarck, Otto von] or Iron Chancellor

premier

Prussia

1862 to 1890

He lived 1815 to 1898 and was first chancellor. He started Austro-Prussian War [1866]. He organized Germany

under Prussia as North German Confederation. He started Franco-Prussian War [1869]. He created German Empire

under King William I. He passed social security and labor laws to block more socialism. Kaiser Wilhelm II dismissed

him [1890].

John Graham Chambers [Chambers, John Graham]

boxer

England

1865

He lived 1843 to 1883 and invented Marquis of Queensberry rules for boxing [1865], published [1867].

Andrew Johnson [Johnson, Andrew]

president

USA

1865 to 1869

He lived 1808 to 1875. 17th president became president after Booth assassinated Lincoln. He proposed mild

Reconstruction for South, encouraged Seward to purchase Alaska from Russia [1867], and barely escaped

impeachment for trying to remove Stanton, Secretary of War, who was a radical Republican.

Jesse James [James, Jesse]

outlaw

West USA

1866


Thaddeus Stevens [Stevens, Thaddeus]

senator

USA

1867

He lived 1792 to 1868, was Senator, and wanted to punish South.

Charles Sumner [Sumner, Charles]

senator

USA

1867

188

He lived 1811 to 1874, was Senator from Massachusetts, and wanted to punish South.

Cornelius Vanderbilt [Vanderbilt, Cornelius]

businessman

New York

1867

He lived 1873 to 1942 and started New York Central railroad and shipping lines.

Benjamin Disraeli [Disraeli, Benjamin]

prime minister

England

1867 to 1880

He lived 1804 to 1881, was Conservative {Tory}, and passed Reform Bill, widening right to vote to workingmen.

He annexed Fiji Islands, Transvaal, and Cyprus. He fought Afghanistan and Zulu tribe in Africa. He bought control of

Suez Canal. He reduced Russian power in Balkans at Congress of Berlin. In 1874, he became Prime Minister again.

William E. Gladstone [Gladstone, William E.]

prime minister

England

1868 to 1894

He lived 1809 to 1898. Liberal passed Irish Land Act, enacted civil-service reform, started ballot vote, ended sale of

army commissions, reformed Parliament, and started public education. His career ended when he advocated Home Rule

for Ireland.

Ulysses S. Grant [Grant, Ulysses S.]

president

USA

1869 to 1877

He lived 1822 to 1885. 18th president allowed passage of harsh Reconstruction Act for South. He allowed legal

tender notes {greenback money} to stay in circulation after Panic of 1873, though gold and silver reserves backing the

money were low. He associated with dishonest politicians. His secretary of state was Hamilton Fish.

Thomas Nast [Nast, Thomas]

cartoonist

New York, New York

1870

He lived 1840 to 1902 and caricatured Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall. He used donkey for Democrats and elephant

for Republicans.

Booker T. Washington [Washington, Booker T.]

founder/historian/biographer

USA

1870 to 1901

Up from Slavery [1901: autobiography]

He lived 1856 to 1915 and started Tuskegee Institute.

Phineas T. Barnum [Barnum, Phineas T.]

showman

USA

1871

He lived 1810 to 1891 and owned circus called "The Greatest Show on Earth". He organized American Museum of

freaks.

Rutherford B. Hayes [Hayes, Rutherford B.]

president

USA

189

1873 to 1877

He lived 1822 to 1893 and was the 19th president.

Calamity Jane or Martha Jane Canary-Burke [Canary-Burke, Martha Jane]

frontierswoman

South Dakota

1875


James Hickok [Hickok, James] or Wild Bill Hickok [Hickok, Wild Bill]

marshal/scout

Kansas

1876


Tewfik Pasha

pasha

Egypt

1876 to 1892

He lived 1852 to 1892 and reformed law and education. He lost some of Sudan to Britain.

Porfirio Diaz [Diaz, Porfirio]

president

Mexico

1876 to 1911

He lived 1830 to 1915 and increased foreign investment, but it only helped the wealthy. His term ended with

revolution.

Crazy Horse/Dull Knife

surrender

Red Cloud Agency, South Dakota

1877

Crazy Horse lived 1840 to 1877 and was Oglala Lakota chief. Dull Knife lived 1810 to 1883 and was Northern

Cheyenne chief.

James A. Garfield [Garfield, James A.]

president

USA

1877 to 1881

He lived 1831 to 1881. 20th president opposed boss and Senator Roscoe Conkling and prosecuted frauds involving

mail routes {star route, Garfield}.

Julio Roca [Roca, Julio]

leader

Argentina

1879

He lived 1843 to 1914 and defeated South American natives, opened south Argentina, set up federal system, and

settled boundary with Chile.

Black Hand

party

Sicily

1880

Group terrorized Sicily.

Chester A. Arthur [Arthur, Chester A.]

190

president

USA

1881 to 1885

He lived 1830 to 1886. 21st president passed Civil Service Act.

Samuel Gompers [Gompers, Samuel]

founder

USA

1881 to 1924

He lived 1850 to 1924 and founded and led American Federation of Labor (AFL), which was against socialism and

profit sharing.

Thomas Masaryk [Masaryk, Thomas]

president


1881 to 1937

Suicide [1881]; Foundations of Concrete Logic [1885]; Social Question [1898]; Spirit of Russia [1913]

He lived 1850 to 1937. He helped found Czechoslovakia [1918] and had problems with extremists.

William F. Cody [Cody, William F.] or Buffalo Bill

showman/scout

USA

1883


Woodrow Wilson [Wilson, Woodrow]

college professor/president

USA

1884 to 1921

Congressional Government [1884]; Fourteen Points [1918]

He lived 1856 to 1924. 28th president [1913 to 1921] started New Freedom reforms. He sent Marines to Vera Cruz,

Mexico [1914]. He occupied Haiti and Santo Domingo [1914 to 1916]. He passed Farm Loan Act [1916]. He set up

Federal Reserve. USA became a creditor nation, as Allies paid in gold, sold their assets, and bought goods from USA.

He entered World War I [1917] after earlier neutrality. He presented 14 points for peace at Paris Peace Conference

[1919]. Republicans under Lodge blocked USA entry into League of Nations [1920]. His health broke while

campaigning [1920] and he died [1921].

Grover Cleveland [Cleveland, Grover]

president

USA

1885 to 1889

He lived 1837 to 1908 and was 22nd president.

José Rizal [Rizal, José]

leader

Philippines

1886

He lived 1861 to 1896 and led independence from Spain movement.

Adolph Strasser [Strasser, Adolph]

leader

USA

1886

He lived 1844 to 1939. American Federation of Labor (AFL) formed.

Benjamin Harrison [Harrison, Benjamin]

191

president

USA

1889 to 1893

He lived 1833 to 1901, was 23rd president, was under control of Republicans in Senate, approved McKinley Tariff

Act for high tariffs, and held first Pan-American Conference.

Joseph Chamberlain [Chamberlain, Joseph]

mayor

Birmingham, England

1890

He lived 1836 to 1914 and had city develop water supply and public transportation.

Karl Lueger [Lueger, Karl]

mayor

Vienna, Austria

1890

He lived 1844 to 1910 and had city develop water supply and public transportation.

Andrew Carnegie [Carnegie, Andrew]

businessman

Scotland/USA

1891

He lived 1835 to 1919, was steel manufacturer and philanthropist, and built 2800 libraries and Carnegie Hall in New

York City.

Susan B. Anthony [Anthony, Susan B.]

feminist

USA

1892

She lived 1820 to 1906 and worked for women's rights.

John D. Rockefeller [Rockefeller, John D.]

businessman

USA

1892

He lived 1839 to 1915, headed Standard Oil Company, and started Rockefeller Foundation.

Grover Cleveland [Cleveland, Grover]

president

USA

1893 to 1897

He lived 1837 to 1908, was 24th president upheld the gold standard, broke Pullman strike with army [1894], forced

Venezuela boundary dispute to arbitration, and wanted low tariffs but got high tariffs from Congress.

Arthur Evans [Evans, Arthur]

scientist

England

1894

He lived 1851 to 1941. He discovered Minoan palace at Knossos [1894] and restored it somewhat.

Alfred Dreyfus [Dreyfus, Alfred]

trial

France

1894 to 1906

He lived 1859 to 1935 and was French army officer. He had a German and Jewish background, so a faction accused

him of treason for passing secret documents, and a court convicted him [1894] {Dreyfus Affair}. His brother reopened

192

case [1897], which split France for nine years into military, royalist, Catholic, republican, socialist, and anti-cleric

factions. The state cleared him later [1906]. Dreyfus Affair spurred church and state separation.

William Jennings Bryan [Bryan, William Jennings]

populist

USA

1896

He lived 1860 to 1925 and gave the "Cross of Gold" speech in defense of free silver coinage. Later, he defended

religious fundamentalism in Scopes "monkey trial".

Fanny Farmer [Farmer, Fanny]

cook

USA

1896

She lived 1857 to 1915 and wrote first household cookbook [1896].

William McKinley [McKinley, William]

president

USA

1897 to 1901

He lived 1843 to 1901. 25th president insisted on the gold standard and worked for business interests with Mark

Hanna, Republican leader. After USS Maine sank in Havana, Cuba [1898], he instigated Spanish-American War,

though Spain wanted to avoid war. Spanish fleet lost at Manila Bay and later near Cuba. He obtained Hawaii. He

started Open Door Policy in China, allowing no foreign intervention, just trading. Currency Act [1900] ensured the

gold standard. Someone assassinated him.

Theodor Herzl [Herzl, Theodor]

founder

Austria

1898

He lived 1860 to 1904 and started Zionist Movement to create Jewish state in Palestine.

Jane Addams [Addams, Jane]

social worker

Chicago, Illinois

1899

She lived 1860 to 1935 and founded Hull House, settlement house.

Alfred von Schlieffen [Schlieffen, Alfred von]

field marshal

Germany

1899

He lived 1833 to 1912. He formulated a military plan (Schlieffen Plan) to go through Belgium to Paris and defeat

France in 42 days.

Harry Houdini [Houdini, Harry]

magician/escape artist

USA

1899 to 1926


Thomas Lipton [Lipton, Thomas]

businessman

Scotland/England

1900

He lived 1850 to 1931 and was tea merchant and started America's Cup sailboat racing.

193

Carry Nation [Nation, Carry]

temperance worker

USA

1900

She lived 1846 to 1911 and used hatchet to destroy saloons.

Billy Sunday [Sunday, Billy]

preacher

USA

1900 to 1920


Mohandas Gandhi [Gandhi, Mohandas] or Mahatma Gandhi [Gandhi, Mahatma]

leader

India

1900 to 1948

He lived 1869 to 1948 and led India nationalist movement. He was pacifist, followed strict abstinence, and used

passive resistance and hunger strikes. He first used non-violence {satyagraha} in South Africa to protest racism. He

used same practices in India against class system and colonialism. He advocated home industries and end to

untouchable class.

Ethics

People should not hurt other living things. Persuasion, self-control, and self-denial are good, but the process requires

zeal for truth.

John Pierpont Morgan [Morgan, John Pierpont]

financier

USA

1901

He lived 1837 to 1913 and financed railroads and U.S. Steel.

Theodore Roosevelt [Roosevelt, Theodore]

president

USA

1901 to 1905

He lived 1858 to 1919. He led invading horsemen {Rough Riders} in Spanish-American War in Cuba [1898]. The

26th president split big businesses with Sherman Anti-Trust Act. He encouraged conservation. He established

Roosevelt corollary to Monroe Doctrine and used money and threats in Latin America, especially at Santo Domingo in

Caribbean. He kept Open Door policy in China and mediated Russo-Japanese War. He founded Bull Moose Party.

Robert LaFollette [LaFollette, Robert]

senator

Wisconsin

1902 to 1924

He lived 1855 to 1925 and was Progressive governor and senator from Wisconsin. His program was Wisconsin Idea.

He led Progressive Party in 1924.

Sun Yat-sen

president

China

1905 to 1919

He lived 1866 to 1925 and founded Kuomintang [1905]. After defeating Ch'ing Dynasty, he became president

[1911]. He left the government of warlords in north China [1919] and went south, where he organized Kuomintang. He

split with Communists [1927].

Kemal Ataturk [Ataturk, Kemal]

194

leader

Istanbul, Turkey

1908 to 1938

He lived 1881 to 1938 and led Young Turks who restored constitution to Ottoman Empire [1908]. He was general in

World War I and then organized Nationalist Party. He defeated invasion by Greece at Smyrna [1922], abolished

sultanate [1922], and founded Turkey [1922]. He obtained peace at Lausanne Conference [1923] and then westernized

Turkey.

Coco Chanel [Chanel, Coco] or Gabrielle Chanel [Chanel, Gabrielle]

businesswoman

France

1908 to 1970

She lived 1883 to 1971 and created perfumes.

William Howard Taft [Taft, William Howard]

president

USA

1909 to 1913

He lived 1857 to 1930. 27th president broke up trusts, intervened in South America at Nicaragua, had high tariffs,

favored some businesses, and started income tax, postal savings system, and parcel post. He later was USA Supreme

Court Chief Justice.

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin [Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich]

founder

Russia

1909 to 1924

Materialism and Empirio-Criticism [1909]; Philosophical Notebooks [1929]

He lived 1870 to 1924. He led Russian Revolution [1917] and Bolshevik party. He fought Mensheviks in civil war

[1917 to 1919]. He started Soviet Union or Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. He founded Comintern or Third

International [1919], to spread Marxism by uniting all Communist countries. He tried New Economic Policy [1922],

allowing private enterprise to save economy.

Politics

Leninism was the idea that imperialism preceded capitalism downfall, and a strong Communist Party must guide the

proletariat.

Robert Baden-Powell [Baden-Powell, Robert]

founder

England

1910

He lived 1857 to 1941 and started Boy Scouts.

Francisco Villa [Villa, Francisco] or Pancho Villa [Villa, Pancho]

revolutionary

Mexico

1910 to 1915

He lived 1878 to 1923, helped Madero in Mexican Revolution, controlled north Mexico with Emil Zapata, and took

Mexico City [1915]. Later, he raided USA border.

Grigori Rasputin [Rasputin, Grigori]

politician

Russia

1911 to 1916

He lived 1872 to 1916 and controlled family of Czar Nicholas II through mysticism and supposed healing power.

Enver Pasha

dictator

195

Turkey

1913

He lived 1881 to 1922 and led Young Turks.

Georges Clemenceau [Clemenceau, Georges]

premier

France

1914

He lived 1841 to 1929 and allied with Czech, Russia, and China. Ferdinand Foch was marshal of France.

Paul von Hindenburg [Hindenburg, Paul von]

field marshal

Germany

1914.06 to 1918

He lived 1847 to 1934 and was German field marshal in World War I.

David Lloyd George [Lloyd George, David]

prime minister

England

1916 to 1922

He lived 1863 to 1945 and ended veto power of House of Lords during social insurance issue [1910]. He opposed

imperialism. He participated in Paris Peace Conference [1919].

Winston Churchill [Churchill, Winston]

lord admiral/prime minister/historian

England

1916 to 1950

Second World War [1948 to 1954]; History of the English Speaking Peoples [1956 to 1958]

He lived 1874 to 1965. The government dismissed him after failure in Dardanelles campaign [1916]. He formed

Atlantic Charter with Franklin Roosevelt of USA, defining United Nations. He was at conferences of Casablanca,

Quebec, Cairo, Yalta, Tehran, and Potsdam [1940 to 1946].

Ferdinand Foch [Foch, Ferdinand]

marshal

France

1918

He lived 1851 to 1929, was Allied supreme commander in World War I, and planned Grand Offensive with Haig

[1918].

Edvard Benes [Benes, Edvard]

founder

Czech Republic/Slovakia

1918 to 1948

He lived 1884 to 1948, helped found Czechoslovakia [1918], was president [1935 to 1948], and had problems with

extremists.

William Du Bois [Du Bois, William]

writer

USA

1920

He lived 1868 to 1963 and was radical editor, educator, and writer.

Reza Khan or Reza Pahlavi or Reza Shah

premier

Iran

1921

196

He lived 1878 to 1944 and staged coup [1921] to become shah.

Warren G. Harding [Harding, Warren G.]

president

USA

1921 to 1925

He lived 1865 to 1923. 29th president promised normalcy. He sponsored Washington Naval Conference, limiting

ships and protecting China. Teapot Dome Scandal and other scandals happened in his term but he died.

Mao Tse-Tung

founder

China

1921 to 1975

He lived 1893 to 1976, founded Communist Party (CCP) [1921], and allied with nationalists. He then lost cities to

Kuomintang nationalists [1927]. He directed civil war in rural south China. He ruled Kiangsi province [1930 to 1934].

He led Long March [1934] from Kiangsi through mountains to Shensi in north. He forced Nationalists to flee to

Formosa Island (Taiwan) and became People's Republic of China chairman [1949], with government in Beijing.

1,000,000 died. Chou En-lai was Premier. He started Great Leap Forward [1958]. He started Cultural Revolution

[1965].

Benito Mussolini [Mussolini, Benito]

premier

Italy

1922 to 1943

He lived 1883 to 1945 and became Fascist premier by coup d'état [1922]. Italy had high inflation and high

unemployment. Fascists terrorized communists and democrats and advocated authoritarianism. He marched nationalist

war veterans on Rome during strikes and unrest. He slowly became dictator and suspended legislature [1925]. He

formed corporate state and combined employers and employees into guilds controlled by government. He signed

Lateran Treaty with the pope. He was victorious in Ethiopia and Albania and allied with Germany in World War II.

Allies invaded Italy [1943]. Partisans shot him [1945].

Calvin Coolidge [Coolidge, Calvin]

president

USA

1923 to 1927

He lived 1872 to 1933. 30th president was taciturn, honest, and simple. He preferred laissez-faire economy and small

government.

Primo de Rivera [Rivera, Primo de]

dictator

Spain

1923 to 1930

He lived 1903 and 1936 and became dictator with king's complicity.

Plutarco Calles [Calles, Plutarco]

president

Mexico

1924 to 1928

He lived 1877 to 1945 and first was reformer but then conservative.

Joseph Stalin [Stalin, Joseph]

dictator

Russia

1924 to 1953

He lived 1879 to 1953 and got rid of Leon Trotsky [1927]. Trotsky wanted pure worldwide communism and fled to

Mexico. He started Five Year Plans to industrialize nation and collectivize farms [1927]. He purged enemies in 1930's.

197

Germany attacked Russia [1941]. He met with Allied leaders at Tehran, Yalta, and Potsdam. Molotov was Premier.

Beria was secret-police chief.

J. Edgar Hoover [Hoover, J. Edgar]

director

USA

1924 to 1972

He lived 1924 to 1972 and was first director of Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). He meddled in politics and

investigated suspected communists and leftists.

Paul von Hindenburg [Hindenburg, Paul von]

president

Germany

1925 to 1934

He lived 1847 to 1934. Junkers or wealthy industrialists controlled Weimar Republic. Stresemann was foreign

minister. Economy had recovered from World War I. At end, Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as chancellor.

Jozef Pilsudski [Pilsudski, Jozef]

dictator

Poland

1926


Antonio Oscar de Fragoso Carmona [Carmona, Antonio Oscar de Fragoso]

general/dictator

Portugal

1926 to 1951


Charles Lindbergh [Lindbergh, Charles]

pilot

USA

1927

He lived 1902 to 1974 and first flew alone across Atlantic Ocean nonstop.

Antonio de Oliveira Salazar [Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira]

dictator

Portugal

1928 to 1968

He lived 1889 to 1974 and controlled Portugal [1932 to 1968].

Herbert Hoover [Hoover, Herbert]

president

USA

1929 to 1933

He lived 1874 to 1964 and was Secretary of Commerce in 1920's. Great Depression started after 31st-president

election. He tried to balance budget, defended the gold standard, urged public works, provided loans, handled veterans

march on Washington, held ineffective disarmament talks, and had bank crisis [1932]. His Treasury Secretary was

Andrew Mellon.

Eamon De Valera [De Valera, Eamon] or Edward George de Valera [Valera, Edward George de]

president

Ireland

1932

He lived 1882 to 1975. Civil war ended in south Ireland. Sinn Fein or Irish Republican Army became outlaws.

198

Hermann Goering [Goering, Hermann]

leader

Germany

1932 to 1945

He lived 1893 to 1946, was Nazi president of Reichstag [1932], founded Gestapo secret police [1935], and

controlled economy. He planned German air war for World War II.

Joseph Goebbels [Goebbels, Joseph]

propagandist

Germany

1933 to 1945


Adolf Hitler [Hitler, Adolf] or Der Führer

chancellor

Germany

1933 to 1945

He lived 1889 to 1945 and was National Socialist (Nazi). Hindenburg named him chancellor [1932]. He gained

absolute power by outlawing Communists after blaming them for setting fire to Reichstag legislature [1934]. He

rearmed Germany and allied with Italy [1936]. Munich Pact gave Germany Czechoslovakia [1937]. He set up

totalitarian state that emphasized anti-Semitism. Concentration camps killed five million people. He started World War

II [1939] with blitzkrieg through Poland, Belgium, and France. He lost Battle of Britain in air [1940]. He bogged down

in Russia [1941]. He committed suicide [1945] in Berlin.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt [Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]

president

USA

1933 to 1945

New Deal [1933]

He lived 1882 to 1945. Before 1933, the 32nd president recovered from polio and became governor of New York. In

1933, he declared bank holiday, set up many public agencies to hire unemployed and use natural resources, and began

New Deal policies with many new laws. He had Brain Trust of economic advisors: Henry Wallace, Harry Hopkins, and

Henry Morgenthau. He tried to reorganize Supreme Court [1937]. He set up Lend-Lease plan to supply Britain [1940].

He attended Allied conferences. He declared four human rights or Four Freedoms [1941]: freedom of expression and

religion and freedom from want and fear.

His wife was the humanitarian Eleanor Roosevelt.

Everett Dirksen [Dirksen, Everett]

senator

USA

1933 to 1969

He lived 1896 to 1969 and was moderate Republican leader.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah [Jinnah, Muhammad Ali]

leader

India

1934

He lived 1876 to 1948 and led Moslem League.

Lazaro Cardenas [Cardenas, Lazaro]

president

Mexico

1934 to 1940

He lived 1895 to 1970 and started widespread reforms [1934 to 1940].

Fiorello La Guardia [La Guardia, Fiorello]

199

mayor

New York, New York

1934 to 1945

He lived 1882 to 1947 and led Fusion party {reform party}.

John L. Lewis [Lewis, John L.]

founder

USA

1935

He lived 1880 to 1969, was United Mine Workers of America president [1920 to 1960], and started Congress of

Industrial Organizations [1935] (CIO).

Manuel Luis Quezon [Quezon, Manuel Luis]

president

Philippines

1935

He lived 1878 to 1944. Philippines became commonwealth under USA.

Al Smith [Smith, Al]

candidate

USA

1936

He lived 1873 to 1944 and was Republican presidential candidate.

Ioannis Metazas [Metazas, Ioannis]

dictator

Greece

1936 to 1939


Francisco Franco [Franco, Francisco]

dictator

Spain

1936 to 1975

He lived 1892 to 1975 and abolished all parties except Falange fascist party. He declared monarchy, with himself as

head of state [1947].

Bernard Baruch [Baruch, Bernard]

advisor

USA

1937

He lived 1870 to 1965 and advised Roosevelt.

Amelia Earhart [Earhart, Amelia]

pilot

USA

1937

She lived 1897 to 1937 and disappeared in Pacific Ocean on her around-the-world trip in a two-passenger airplane.

Joachim von Ribbentrop [Ribbentrop, Joachim von]

general

Germany

1940


Wendell Wilkie [Wilkie, Wendell]

200

candidate

USA

1940

He lived 1892 to 1944. Republican candidate for president campaigned for peace.

Ion Antonescu [Antonescu, Ion]

dictator

Romania

1940 to 1946

He lived 1882 to 1946, took over Romania with Iron Guard's help, and fought Russia.

Tojo

premier

Japan

1941 to 1945

He lived 1884 to 1948 and started war with USA [1942].

Douglas MacArthur [MacArthur, Douglas]

general

Pacific Ocean

1942 to 1952

He lived 1880 to 1964 and commanded all Far East forces for USA in World War II. He led Japan occupation [1945

to 1952].

Dwight David Eisenhower [Eisenhower, Dwight David]

general

USA

1943

He lived 1890 to 1969 and led Allies in North Africa in World War II. Allies appointed him Supreme Commander in

Europe [1944].

Eddie Rickenbacker [Rickenbacker, Eddie]

pilot

USA

1943


Harry S. Truman [Truman, Harry S.]

president

USA

1945 to 1953

He lived 1884 to 1972. 33rd president became president when Roosevelt died in office. He went to Potsdam

Conference [1945], which divided Germany into four sectors and authorized war trials. He authorized the hydrogen

bomb [1945]. He stated Truman Doctrine [1947] to financially aid Greece and Turkey, which communism threatened,

and to provide support for all peoples threatened by communism. He presided over Marshall Plan [1947] to rebuild

Europe. He tried to enact Fair Deal of price controls and civil rights. He finalized North Atlantic Treaty [1948]. He sent

troops to Korea [1950]. He dismissed General MacArthur [1952]. He pressured steel industry.

J. Paul Getty [Getty, J. Paul]

businessman

USA

1945 to 1960

He lived 1892 to 1976 and was in oil business.

Achmad Sukarno [Sukarno, Achmad]

president

201

Indonesia

1945 to 1966


Josip Broz Tito [Tito, Josip Broz]

premier

Yugoslavia

1945 to 1970

He lived 1892 to 1980, deposed king, and defeated Mikhailovich in Yugoslav civil war between two Nazi resistors.

Yugoslavia became Communist but was independent of Russia.

Trygve Lie [Lie, Trygve]

secretary-general

New York, New York

1946 to 1953

He lived 1896 to 1968 and was United Nations Secretary-General.

Juan Peron [Peron, Juan]

dictator

Argentina

1946 to 1955


George C. Marshall [Marshall, George C.]

secretary of state

USA

1947

He lived 1880 to 1959 and developed Marshall Plan or European Recovery Program, which integrated all aid to

Europe. He was Army chief of staff in World War II.

Robert Taft [Taft, Robert]

senator

Ohio

1947

He lived 1889 to 1953. Taft-Hartley law [1947] was about labor.

Joe McCarthy [McCarthy, Joe]

senator

USA

1947 to 1954

He lived 1909 to 1957, investigated Communist party, and labeled many liberals traitors. Army-McCarthy hearings

exposed his methods and led to his defeat [1954].

Jawaharal Nehru [Nehru, Jawaharal]

prime minister

India

1947 to 1964

He lived 1889 to 1964. After British left India, he led Congress Party, favored industrialization and socialism, fought

Pakistan for Kashmir, fought Portugal for Goa, and fought China over border.

Chang Kai-Shek [Kai-Shek, Chang]

president

Taiwan

1948 to 1975

He lived 1887 to 1975 and led Republic of China.

202

Aly Khan or Ali Solomone Khan

prince

Pakistan

1949 to 1960

He lived 1911 to 1960 and was famous lover and celebrity, married to Rita Hayworth.

Konrad Adenauer [Adenauer, Konrad]

chancellor

Germany

1949 to 1963

He lived 1876 to 1967 and led Christian Democrats, centrist party of West Germany. Opposition was Social

Democrats, socialist party.

David Ben Gurion [Ben Gurion, David]

premier

Israel

1949 to 1963

He lived 1886 to 1973 and led Labor party.

Ralph Bunche [Bunche, Ralph]

diplomat

USA

1950

He lived 1904 to 1971 and worked at United Nations.

Mohammed Mossadegh [Mossadegh, Mohammed]

premier

Iran

1951

He lived 1882 to 1967. With Communist Tudeh party, he deposed king [1951].

John Foster Dulles [Dulles, John Foster]

secretary of state

USA

1953 to 1961

He lived 1888 to 1959 and advocated alliances against Communists and supported superior nuclear forces.

Dwight David Eisenhower [Eisenhower, Dwight David]

president

USA

1953 to 1961

He lived 1890 to 1969. 34th president got truce in Korea, set Eisenhower Doctrine for Middle East defense against

Communism, and sent troops to desegregate schools in Little Rock, Arkansas.

Dag Hammerskjöld [Hammerskjöld, Dag]

secretary-general

New York, New York

1953 to 1961

He lived 1905 to 1961 and was United Nations Secretary-General. He tried to make his office stronger through

personal action, especially in Congo, where he died in plane crash.

Nikita Khrushchev [Khrushchev, Nikita]

dictator

Russia

1953 to 1964

203

He lived 1894 to 1971 and was member of Politburo [1939], became first secretary when Stalin died [1953],

denounced Stalin [1956], and became Premier [1958]. His policy was "peaceful coexistence".

Hyman Rickover [Rickover, Hyman]

admiral

Poland/USA

1954


Getulio Vargas [Vargas, Getulio]

president

Brazil

1954

He lived 1882 to 1954. After ruling [1930 to 1954], power struggle began, he lost, and military took over.

George Meany [Meany, George]

president

USA

1955

He lived 1894 to 1980 and led AFL-CIO.

Imre Nagy [Nagy, Imre]

premier

Hungary

1955

He lived 1896 to 1958 and liberalized Communism in Hungary. Russia removed him.

Walter Reuther [Reuther, Walter]

labor leader

USA

1955

He lived 1907 to 1970 and led AFL/CIO.

Martin Luther King, Jr. [King, Jr., Martin Luther]

civil rights leader

USA

1955 to 1968

He lived 1929 to 1968 and led Southern Christian Leadership Organization and used passive resistance and boycotts

to force desegregation.

Gamal Abdel Nasser [Nasser, Gamal Abdel]

president

Egypt

1956 to 1969

He lived 1918 to 1970 and started coup that deposed King Farouk I. He nationalized Suez Canal and started land

reform. France, Britain, and Israel tried to take Suez Canal [1956] but failed.

Fidel Castro [Castro, Fidel]

premier

Cuba

1959

He lived 1926 to ?. The 26th of July revolutionary movement overthrew Juan Bautista, and Cuba became

Communist.

Che Guevara [Guevara, Che]

general

204

Cuba

1959


James Hoffa [Hoffa, James]

labor leader

USA

1960

He lived 1913 to 1975 and led Teamster's Union.

Yuri Gagarin [Gagarin, Yuri]

pilot

Russia

1961

He lived 1934 to 1968 and was first person to orbit Earth, once, in spacecraft and return.

Alan Shepard [Shepard, Alan]

pilot

USA

1961

He lived 1923 to 1998 and was first American in space.

John F. Kennedy [Kennedy, John F.]

president

USA

1961 to 1963

Profiles in Courage

He lived 1917 to 1963. 35th president tried to start New Frontier and Peace Corps, supported Bay of Pigs invasion of

Cuba by insurgents, won Cuban missile crisis, got nuclear test ban treaty, and Oswald assassinated him.

U Thant [Thant, U]

secretary-general

United Nations

1961 to 1969

He lived 1909 to 1974 and was United Nations Secretary-General. He dealt with Netherlands New Guinea

independence, trouble over Cuba, and Congo reunification.

Lyndon B. Johnson [Johnson, Lyndon B.]

president

USA

1963 to 1969

He lived 1908 to 1973. 36th president led nation into Vietnam War and Great Society.

Golda Meir [Meir, Golda]

premier

Israel

1963 to 1973


Barry Goldwater [Goldwater, Barry]

candidate

USA

1964

He lived 1909 to 1998 and was conservative Republican presidential candidate.

Aleksei Kosygin [Kosygin, Aleksei]

205

premier

Russia

1964

He lived 1904 to 1980 and led USSR.

Leonid Brezhnev [Brezhnev, Leonid]

dictator

Russia

1964 to 1982

He lived 1906 to 1982 and led USSR. He became Communist Party first secretary after he took power from

Krushchev.

Alexei Leonov [Leonov, Alexei]

pilot

Russia

1965

He lived 1934 to ? and first walked in space.

Indira Gandhi [Gandhi, Indira]

prime minister

India

1966


Richard M. Nixon [Nixon, Richard M.]

president

USA

1969 to 1974

He lived 1913 to 1994. 37th president opened China [1972], ended Vietnam War [1973], and fought inflation.

Watergate scandal forced him to resign [1974].

Kurt Waldheim [Waldheim, Kurt]

secretary-general

New York, New York

1969 to 1977

He lived 1918 to ? and was United Nations Secretary-General. He was from Austria.

Constantine Karamanlis [Karamanlis, Constantine]

ruler

Greece

1973

He lived 1907 to 1998 and led after military-junta failed.

Juan Peron [Peron, Juan]

leader

Argentina

1973

He lived 1895 to 1974 and led after military junta failed.

Augusto Pinochet [Pinochet, Augusto]

dictator

Chile

1973 to 1990

He lived 1915 to 2006 and used army to take rule from elected socialist president Salvador Allende and had many

people killed.

206

Gerald Ford [Ford, Gerald]

president

USA

1974 to 1977

He lived 1913 to 2006. 38th president pardoned Richard Nixon.

Deng Xiaoping [Xiaoping, Deng]

premier

China

1976 to 1989

He lived 1904 to 1997. After Mao died, China increased economic growth under Deng Xiaoping.

James E. Carter [Carter, James E.]

president

USA

1977 to 1981

He lived 1924 to ?. 39th president fought inflation and slow growth. Iran took Americans hostage in Tehran until day

after he left office.

Lech Walesa [Walesa, Lech]

union leader

Gdansk, Poland

1980 to 1980.12

He lived 1943 to ?. Shipyard workers strike led to Solidarity trade union, with repression in December.

Ronald Reagan [Reagan, Ronald]

president

USA

1981 to 1989

He lived 1911 to 2004. 40th president enacted large tax cuts, caused government debt, and built up military.

Russian leaders

leader

Russia

1982 to 1985

Leonid Brezhnev died, and Russia had old caretaker leaders.

Mikhail Gorbachev [Gorbachev, Mikhail]

general secretary

Russia

1985 to 1991

He lived 1931 to ? and stressed glasnost (openness) and perestroika (reorganization).

Lech Walesa [Walesa, Lech]

union leader

Gdansk, Poland

1989

He lived 1943 to ?. Elections became open to all parties, including Solidarity union. Solidarity won election and

formed coalition.

George H. W. Bush [Bush, George H. W.]

president

USA

1989 to 1993

He lived 1924 to ?. 41st president fought war with Iraq over Kuwait occupation [1991]. Economy was bad.

207

Vaclav Havel [Havel, Vaclav]

president


1989 to 2000

He lived 1936 to ? and became president of independent Czechoslovakia [1989].

William Clinton [Clinton, William] or Bill Clinton [Clinton, Bill]

president

USA

1993 to 2001

He lived 1946 to ?. 42nd president got balanced budget agreement. He escaped impeachment for sexual affair

coverup [1998]. He passed NAFTA trade agreement for Mexico and USA. He got Palestine and Israel to agree on

peace and Palestinian state. He presided over prosperity.

George W. Bush [Bush, George W.]

president

USA

2001 to 2009

He lived 1946 to ?. 43rd president attacked Afghanistan [2001] and Iraq [2003] and tried to end worldwide terrorism

by force and monetary measures. He lowered taxes and increased debt. Economy was bad.

Barack Obama [Obama, Barack]

president

USA

2009

He lived 1961 to ?. 44th president tried to stimulate economy and bailout big businesses.

SOCI>History>History>Life

organic molecules

life

Earth

-4300000000 to -3850000000

Organic molecules formed in seas.

one-celled organisms

life

Earth

-3850000000 to -3300000000

Life began as non-photosynthetic one-celled bacteria-like organisms.

methanogens

life

Earth

-3700000000 to -2800000000

Methane archaebacteria began.

stromatolite

life

Africa/Australia

-3500000000 to -2200000000

Ancient-rock calcium-carbonate or silica-sediment layers {stromatolite} contain blue-green-algae cyanobacteria

secretions.

photosynthesis

life

208

Earth

-3400000000

Photosynthetic bacteria used bacteriochlorophyll to absorb near-infrared light to make sulfur or sulfate molecules.

oxygen-producing bacteria

life

Earth

-3000000000

Photosynthetic bacteria oxygen production became significant.

photosynthesis

life

Earth

-2700000000 to -2200000000

Photosynthetic organisms became abundant, enabled energy storage, added oxygen to atmosphere, and removed

carbon dioxide from atmosphere.

cyanobacteria

life

Earth

-2300000000

Cyanobacteria blue-green algae formed abundant oxygen.

eukaryotes

life

Earth

-2150000000 to -1400000000

Eukaryotes began.

metazoa

life

Earth

-1200000000

Multicellular organisms appeared.

yeast and mold ancestor

life

Earth

-900000000

Vendian

life

Earth

-700000000 to -600000000

Metazoa flourished, as air oxygen concentration became high enough. Worms, jellyfish, mollusks, and other

invertebrates began.

insect and mammal ancestor

life

Earth

-600000000

Ediacara or Edicarian

life

Earth

-600000000 to -550000000

209

Worms up to one meter long and flatworms like planaria and tapeworms appeared, as air oxygen concentration

became high enough.

bilateral symmetry

life

Earth

-590000000

Organisms with front and back, and right and left, began. Body parts came in pairs.

prechordates

life

Earth

-570000000 to -500000000

Prechordates began.

Burgess Shale

life

Canadian Rockies, Canada

-530000000

Sediments trapped multicellular animals from many phyla.

chordates

life

Earth

-530000000

Pikaia gracilens was first chordate, with segmented notochord and zigzag muscle bands.

Roundish Flat Worm

life

Earth

-530000000

Roundish Flat Worm (Bilateria) had bilateral symmetry and was vertebrate and arthropod ancestor.

shelled animals

life

Earth

-510000000

Hard-shelled animals began.

moss

life

Earth

-475000000

From green algae came moss.

liverwort

life

Earth

-475000000

From green algae came liverworts.

vertebrates/jawless fish

life

Earth

-470000000

Jawless fish were first vertebrates.

210

jawed fish

life

Earth

-450000000

Head bones evolved to make muscled and bony jaw.

vascular plants

life

Earth

-423000000

Vascular plants began.

bony fish

life

Earth

-420000000

Bony fish have mouth at front end, fin rays that attach to muscles, and skin scales.

lobefin fish

life

Earth

-400000000

Rhipidistians had internal nares to lungs and had fins at ends of stumps, which allowed them to push onto shore.

fresh-water lobefin fish

life

Earth

-380000000

Lobefin fish had adults that survived in fresh water and on land, had rear lobefins, and had lungs.

Tiktaalik roseae

life

Ellesmere Island, Canada

-375000000

It had fish jaw, fins, and scales, but tetrapod skull, neck, ribs, and pectoral fins, with thin arm, wrist, and hand bones.

amphibians

life

Earth

-370000000 to -360000000

Amphibians evolved from Rhipidistians.

stem reptiles/anapsids

life

Earth

-340000000 to -280000000

Earliest reptiles were 20 centimeters long. First anapsid was cotylosaur.

bird and mammal ancestor

life

Earth

-300000000

Bird and mammal ancestors separated.

sphenodons

211

life

Earth

-300000000

Sphenodons were diapsids, were one meter long, had large beak-like snout, had spine down back, had third eye, and

had nictating membranes over regular eyes.

diapsids/synapsids

life

Earth

-300000000

Diapsid reptiles evolved from anapsids. Synapsids evolved from diapsids.

pelycosaurs

life

Earth

-300000000 to -230000000

Mammal-like synapsid finback synapsids were 60 centimeters long, had canine teeth, and chewed using jaw and jaw

muscles different than anapsids and diapsids.

archosaurs

life

Earth

-270000000

Archosaurs were diapsid sphenodons and had two large back limbs, two small front limbs, long tail, and teeth in

sockets.

thecodonts

life

Earth

-260000000 to -220000000

Thecodonts were archosaurs, had insulation, and had reptilian teeth.

nautilus

life

Earth

-250000000

Nautilus lived.

Pristerognathids

life

Earth

-248000000

Pristerognathid reptiles evolved from pelycosaurs, weighed 50 kilograms, were fast trotters, and were endotherms.

dinosaurs

life

Earth

-240000000

Dinosaurs were mostly diapsids and began in middle Triassic.

therapsids

life

Earth

-240000000 to -181000000

Therapsids descended from pristerognathids and were warm-blooded. They had larynx.

212

cynodonts

life

Earth

-240000000 to -230000000

Cynodonts evolved from therapsids, were dog-sized, had dentary bone, had big canine teeth, had hard palate, had

turbinals, and were nocturnal.

dicynodonts

life

Earth

-240000000 to -230000000

Dicynodonts began from separate therapsid branch and were herbivores.

Chiniquodontids or Probainognathians

life

Earth

-230000000

Cynodonts acquired meat-eating teeth.

Rhynchosaurs

life

Earth

-230000000

Small reptiles acquired beaks.

traversodontids

life

Earth

-230000000

Leopard-sized cynodont plant-eaters had incisors and cheek teeth.

prosauropods

life

Earth

-230000000 to -190000000

Small brachiosaur-like reptiles began.

mammals/monotremes

life

Earth

-220000000 to -70000000

Monotremes evolved from juvenile cynodonts by pedomorphism, are small, have mammary glands, are warm-

blooded, have red blood cells, have diaphragm, have bony palate, have voluntary muscle, and have neocortex.

birds

life

Earth

-220000000 to 120000000

Early birds were warm-blooded and had feathers.

Tribosphenida

life

Earth

-167000000 to -142000000

Tribosphenida had tribosphenic molars.

213

Archaeopteryx bird

life

Earth

-150000000 to -140000000

Archaeopteryx was first bird but did not fly.

Repenomamus

mammal

China

-130000000

13-kilogram one-meter mammals lived on ground in Miocene: Repenomamus giganticus and Repenomamus

robustus.

army ants

life

Gondwana

-100000000

Ant subfamily Dorylinae evolved in mid-Cretaceous.

Theria/marsupials

life

Earth

-100000000

Theria marsupials developed from monotremes.

Eutheria

life

Earth

-90000000

Eutheria placental mammals developed from Theria.

primitive insectivores

life

Earth

-80000000

Primitive insectivores evolved from placental mammals, looked like tree shrews, had forward vision, and had

grasping hand.

grass

life

Earth

-71000000 to -55000000

Grasses began 55 to 71 million years ago.

primates/prosimians

life

Earth

-70000000 to -30000000

First primates developed from primitive insectivores and were like galagos, lorises, and lemurs.

monkeys

life

South America/Central America/Africa

-55000000 to -50000000

Monkeys evolved from prosimians and were like New World monkeys: marmosets, tamarins, squirrel monkeys, and

spider monkeys.

214

caviomorph rodents

life

Africa/South America

-55000000 to -25000000

Capybara and chincilla ancestors {caviomorph rodents} {rodent, caviomorph} came from Africa to South America

on floating vegetation.

New World monkeys

life

Africa/South America

-55000000 to -25000000

New World monkeys came from Africa to South America on floating vegetation.

Parapithecus

life

Africa

-35000000 to -25000000

Parapithecus was ancestor of Old World monkeys.

Old World monkeys

life

Africa

-34000000 to -25000000

Old World monkeys differentiated from New World monkeys in Oligocene epoch. Old World monkeys are like

macaque, baboon, and mandrill.

carnivores

life

Earth

-30000000

Carnivores began.

lemurs

life

Earth

-30000000

Lemurs began.

Proconsul

life

Africa/Kenya

-22000000 to -17000000

Proconsul, a lesser ape, was ancestor of all hominids.

pongids

life

Africa

-22000000 to -14000000

Pongid lesser apes separated from Old World monkeys.

Ramapithecus

life

Kenya

-18000000 to -12000000

Lesser ape had flat teeth, ate fruit, was arboreal, had sexual dimorphism, and had flat face.

215

Griphopithecus

life

Germany/Turkey

-16500000

Lesser ape had long and strong jaws with large incisor teeth, flat-sided canine teeth, flat premolars, and flat molars.

Heliopithecus/Afropithecus

life

Arabia

-16000000

Great ape had teeth enamel and ate nuts and husked foods.

great apes

life

Europe/Asia

-16000000 to -13500000

Great apes evolved from Proconsul-like lesser apes.

Sivapithecus

life

Southeast Asia/Turkey/Pakistan/India/Nepal/China

-16000000 to -7000000

A great ape {Sivapithecus} was orangutan ancestor (Pongo pygmaeus). By Late Miocene, Sivapithecus lived only in

tropical Southeast Asia.

It had long and strong jaws with large incisor teeth, flat-sided canine teeth, flat premolars, and flat molars. It had

short snout. It had grasping hands and feet and extendable elbow for hanging and swinging in trees. It ate ripe fruit and

grew slowly.

Related species were Gigantopithecus in India and Lufengpithecus in southeast Asia.

Dryopithecus

life

Europe/Spain/Hungary/Georgia/Africa

-14000000 to -7000000

A great ape {Dryopithecus} {Ouranopithecus} was ancestor of African great apes. Dryopithecus had long and strong

jaws with large incisor teeth, flat-sided canine teeth, flat premolars, and flat molars. It had grasping hands and feet and

extendable elbow for hanging and swinging in trees. It ate ripe fruit and grew slowly. It had face that tilted down

{klinorhynchy, great ape}, unlike up {airorhynchy, great ape} as in orangutans, gibbons, and siamangs. It also had

larger lower face, lower and larger skull, and flatter nose than orangutans. By Late Miocene, Dryopithecus lived only in

tropical Africa. Related species are Griphopithecus in Germany and Turkey, Ankarapithecus in Turkey,

Ouranopithecus in Greece, Oreopithecus in Italy, and Heliopithecus in Arabia.

anthropoid apes

life

Africa/Asia

-13500000 to -9000000

Anthropoid apes, such as gorillas and chimpanzees, differentiated from early apes in hands, feet, arms, and legs.

Pan

life

Asia

-9000000 to -7000000

Genus Pan split from gorillas and was like chimpanzee and bonobo.

Oreopithecus

life

216

Italy/Tuscany

-7000000

Great ape ate leaves and had grasping hands and feet.

hominin

life

Asia

-7000000 to -5000000

Hominins differentiated from Pan.

Sahelanthropus tchadensis/Toumai

hominin

Toros-Menalia, Djurab Desert, Chad

-6900000 to -6600000

Hominin had small canine teeth, snouty face, large neck, sloping forehead, and small brain, with 2.3 encephalization

quotient [found by Michael Brunet]. It came from common primate ancestor and was ancestor of Ardipithecus kadabba.

Orrorin tugenensis

hominin

Tugen Hills, Kenya

-6000000

hominin.

Ardipithecus kadabba or Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba

hominin

Middle Awash, Ethiopia

-5800000 to -5300000

Hominin came from Sahelanthropus tchadensis and was ancestor of Ardipithecus ramidus. Ardi means fundamental.

Kadabba means beginning family ancestor.

Ardipithecus ramidus

hominin

Aramis, Ethiopia

-4500000 to -4300000

Hominin lived in woods and walked upright [found by Tim White]. It was in Afar Region. Hominin came from

Ardipithecus kadabba and was ancestor of Australopithecus anamensis. Ardi means fundamental. Ramidus means root.

Australopithecus anamensis

hominin

Kanapoi, Kenya/Allia Bay, Kenya

-4300000 to -3900000

Hominin lived in bushland and walked upright. It came from Ardipithecus ramidus and was ancestor of

Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus africanus.

Australopithecus

hominin

Africa

-4300000 to -1400000

Varied and separated habitats isolated four hominin species: Australopithecus afarensis, gracile Australopithecus

africanus, robust Australopithecus robustus, and robust Australopithecus boisei.

bipedalism

life

Africa

-3700000 to -1500000

217

Walking upright {bipedalism}| involves push with toes, swing, heel strike, and stance. It causes inline walking.

Extended knee joint locks knee for upright standing. Bipedalism is efficient walking and allows carrying and using

hand tools. It preceded tool use and meat eating by one million years and so preceded hunting or scavenging.

Laetolil footprints

hominin

Laetolil, Tanzania

-3600000 to -28000

Australopithecus afarensis left footprints [found by Mary Leakey].

C4 metabolic pathway plants

life

Turkana Basin, Kenya

-3500000 to -3200000

Bushy grasslands and grassy woodlands use a metabolic pathway {C4 metabolic pathway} {four-carbon metabolic

pathway}. Bushes, trees, and shrubs use a metabolic pathway {three-carbon metabolic pathway}. Bushy grasslands and

grassy woodlands replaced bushes, trees, and shrubs.

Kenyanthropus or Kenyanthropus platyops

hominin

Turkana Basin, Kenya

-3500000 to -3200000

Kenyanthropus platyops had flat face, small teeth, and head crest.

Australopithecus bahrelghazali

hominin

Bahr el Ghazal, Chad

-3500000 to -3000000

hominin.

Australopithecus afarensis

hominin

Hadar, Ethiopia/Great Rift Valley, Lake Rudolph/Omo River, Ethiopia

-3400000 to -3000000

Gracile Australopithecus afarensis came from Australopithecus anamensis.

Selam/Lucy's baby

hominin

Dikika, Ethiopia

-3300000

Australopithecus afarensis three-year old female lived in Afar region. It still has shoulder blades and hyoid bone.

Semicircular canals are like apes and A. africanus. Shoulder socket is like apes. Hyoid is like apes.

Lucy

hominin


-3200000

Australopithecus afarensis lived in East Africa [found by Leakey].

Taung child

hominin

Transvaal

-3000000

Taung child was Australopithecus africanus.

Australopithecus africanus

218

hominin

Africa

-3000000 to -2300000

Gracile Australopithecus africanus [first found in 1924] was at Swartkrans, Makapansgat, Olduvai, and Lake

Rudolph. It came from Australopithecus anamensis.

Paranthropus

hominin

South Africa

-2600000 to -1600000

Paranthropus aethiopicus, Paranthropus crassidens, Paranthropus robustus, and Paranthropus boisei were robust

australopithecines.

Australopithecus garhi

hominin

Ethiopia

-2500000

Hominin came from Australopithecus afarensis and was ancestor of Homo habilus.

Australopithecus

hominin

Sterkfontein, South Africa

-2500000

hominin.

Black Skull or Paranthropus aethiopicus or Australopithecus aethiopicus

hominin

Kenya

-2500000 to -2200000

Paranthropus aethiopicus or Australopithecus aethiopicus was robust australopithecine.

Homo habilis

hominin


-2500000 to -1200000

Homo habilis split from Australopithecus to make genus Homo and formed Lower Paleolithic Oldowan Culture.

Louis Leakey found Homo habilis.

Australopithecus boisei or Paranthropus boisei

hominin

Africa

-2300000 to -1300000

Australopithecus boisei or Paranthropus boisei was not on human line, was robust, and lived in east Africa.

Australopithecus robustus or Paranthropus robustus

hominin

Africa

-2200000 to -1400000

Australopithecus robustus or Paranthropus robustus was not on human line and came from Australopithecus

africanus.

Homo rudolfensis or Kenyanthropus rudolfensis

hominin

Lake Rudolph, Africa

-2100000 to -1900000

Homo rudolfensis or Kenyanthropus rudolfensis was like Homo habilis.

219

Homo erectus

hominin

Riwat, Pakistan

-2000000

hominin.

Australopithecus

hominin

Swartkrans, South Africa

-2000000 to -1500000

hominin.

Homo erectus

hominin

Swartkrans, South Africa

-1500000

hominin.

Homo ergaster

hominin

Tanzania/Transvaal/Ethiopia/Algeria/Morocco/Lake Turkana, Kenya

-1900000 to -1600000

Homo ergaster was early African Homo erectus and was first hominin with human body form. It came from Homo

habilis. Homo ergaster reached Dmanisi, Georgia [-1700000].

Homo erectus

hominin

Africa

-1900000 to -25000

Homo erectus was 1.65 meters tall and came from Homo habilis.

Ternifine had Homo erectus mauritanicus. Broken Hill, Rhodesia had Rhodesia man. Choskoutieh, China had

Sinanthropus, Homo erectus pekinensis, or Peking man [-500000]. Lantian, China, had Homo erectus lantianensis.

Longgupo, China, had Homo erectus [-1900000]. Donggutuo, China, had Homo erectus [-1000000]. Gongwangling,

China, had Homo erectus [-1100000]. Java, Indonesia had Homo erectus [-1800000 to -25000]. Orce, Spain had Homo

erectus [-1000000]. Ngandong, Indonesia had Homo erectus soleensis or Java man [-500000]. Trinil, Indonesia had

Pithecanthropus or Homo erectus. 'Ubeidiya, Israel, had Homo erectus [-1500000 to -1000000]. Olduvai had Homo

erectus.

Java man

hominin

Trinil, Java/Solo River, Java

-1800000 to -1000000

Homo ergaster or Homo erectus reached Java.

Homo georgicus

hominin

Dmanisi, Georgia

-1750000

Homo erectus, Homo ergaster, Homo georgicus, and Homo habilis had Oldowan culture.

Zinjanthropus

hominin

Africa

-1750000

Zinjanthropus was Homo erectus, used stone tools and clubs, was vegetarian, and had small brain.

220

Nariokoyome boy

hominin

Japan

-1600000

He was Homo erectus and was up to six feet tall. He had domed thick skull, smaller jaw, and bare skin. He used

stone tools, ate meat, and had longer development.

Homo erectus

hominin

Olorgesallie, Kenya

-970000 to -900000

Humans came from Java and had stone tools.

Homo antecessor

hominin

Gran Dolina Cave, Spain

-800000

Homo antecessor was in north Spain.

Homo heidelbergensis

hominin

Atapuerca, Spain/Nice, France/Ibernia/Italy/Mauer, Germany/Africa/China

-800000 to -200000

Homo heidelbergensis is Archaic Homo sapiens and came from Home erectus. Atapuerca, Spain, had Homo [-

780000]. Ceprano, Italy, had Homo [-800000].

Homo neanderthalensis

hominin

Europe

-230000 to -26000

Neanderthals evolved from non-human hominin line between -500000 and -700000. Heidelberg man, Solo man, and

Rhodesia man were Neanderthal. Solo man was ancestor of Australian aborigines. Homo neanderthalensis was at

Swanscombe, Europe; Neander Valley, near Düsseldorf, Germany [found 1856]; La-Chapelle-aux-Saints, France

[1895], called "Old Man"; Steinheim, Europe; and Carmel, Israel. By -200,000, Neanderthals were in China.

Homo sapiens

species

Omo, Ethiopia

-195000

Richard Leakey excavated Qafzeh and Skhul caves in Kibish rock formation beside Omo River and found Omo I

and Omo II skeletons.

Homo sapiens

life

Africa

-170000 to -152000

Homo sapiens came from Homo erectus. Homo sapiens lived in Africa and west Asia [-100000]: Eritrea [-125000];

Congo [-90000]; Blombos Cave, South Africa [-70000]; Klasies River mouth, South Africa [-70000]; Omo-Kibish,

Ethiopia; and Mount Carmel and Qafzeh, north Israel [-95000]. Liujiang, China, had Homo sapiens [-67000]. Lake

Muno, Australia, had Homo sapiens [-60000 to -40000]. Niah, Borneo, had Homo sapiens [-40000].

Perhaps, Homo sapiens migrated from Africa at -81000 or -50000. If -81000, they went across Red Sea to Yemen,

then India, then Australia [-72000], and then Europe [-44000]. If -50000, they went to the Levant, then Europe [-

44000].

Homo sapiens idaltu

221

life

Herto, Ethiopia/Middle Awash, Ethiopia

-160000

Homo sapiens idaltu had heavy browridge and round cranium [found by Tim D. White].

Homo sapiens

hominin

Oafzeh, Israel/Skûl, Israel

-120000 to -80000

hominin.

Homo floresiensis

hominin

Flores, Indonesia

-95000 to -11000

Humans {Homo floresiensis} were one meter tall and lived in Liang Bua cave [-16000]. It came from Homo erectus

and became extinct. Flores islanders speak of "grandmother who eats everything" {ebu gogo}. Sumatra islanders speak

of similar thing {orang pendek}.

South Asian/North Asian/Caucasoid

race

Asia

-85000 to -55000

South Asian peoples diverged from North Asian and Caucasoid peoples.

Southeast Asian languages

language

Earth

-60000 to -40000

Southeast Asian and Eurasian languages diverged.

South Asian/Australian/New Guinean

race

Asia

-60000 to -35000

New Guinean peoples diverged from South Asian peoples.

North Asian/Caucasoid

race

Asia

-60000 to -35000

North Asian peoples diverged from Caucasoid peoples.

Cro-Magnon

hominin

Europe

-38000 to -30000

Perhaps, Homo sapiens Cro-Magnon man is ancestor of Basques of Spain and France and/or South-Africa bushmen.

Amerindian/North East Asian

race

Asia

-35000

Amerindian peoples diverged from North East Asian peoples.

Pacific Islands/South East Asian

222

race

Asia

-35000

Pacific Island peoples diverged from South East Asian peoples.

Neanderthal

life

Zafarraya, Spain

-32000 to -28000

Culture began.

Neanderthal

life

Vindija, Croatia

-28000

Culture began.

Amerindian

race

North America

-26000 to -21000

People with type O blood migrated to North America.

wooly mammoth or mammoth

extinction

Earth

-20000

Humans did.

mastodon

extinction

Earth

-20000

Humans did.

saber-tooth tiger

extinction

Earth

-20000

Humans did.

Amerindian

race

Earth

-11200 to -10700

People with type A blood migrated across ice-free land bridge between Siberia and Alaska at Bering Straits and went

to all Americas.

wheat

life

Near East

-10000 to -8000

wheat

After last Ice Age, hybrid wheat evolved in Near East. Hybrid wheat crossed with goat grass to produce Emmer

wheat. Emmer wheat crossed with goat grass to produce bread wheat [-8000]. People, such as Natufian culture, helped

crosses by harvesting wild wheat with flint sickles.

223

Austronesian

race

Australia/Indonesia/Polynesia

-1600 to 1000

Southeast Asian peoples migrated east from Taiwan to Philippine islands [-3000], Java [-2000], Solomon Islands [-

1600], Samoa [-1200], Marquesas [1], Hawaii [500], Easter Island [500], Pitcairn Island [1000], New Zealand [1000],

and Madagascar [500].

smallpox

disease

Egypt

-1157

Variola virus, orthopoxvirus, causes it. The Ramses V mummy has skin lesions.

mumps

disease

Earth

-400

Epidemic began.

leprosy or Hansen's disease

disease

Earth

-200

Mycobacterium leprae bacteria cause it. It affects hand and feet skin and nerves. It is curable. If untreated, it deforms

and cripples people.

bubonic plague or plague

disease

Rome, Italy

166 to 167

One quarter of people in Roman Empire died.

bubonic plague or plague

disease

Rome, Italy

590

Tiber flood [589] preceded plague [590] during time of Pope Gregory the Great.

Black Death or plague or Great Plague

epidemic

China

1333

Bubonic plague killed thousands and went to Russia and Scandinavia.


plague

India/China/Europe

1347 to 1390

Bubonic plague began in Himalaya foothills in India [1280 to 1300] and spread along trade routes. It reached China

[1333] and Byzantine Empire [1347] {Great Dying}, until it reached most of Europe [1351] {Great Plague} {Black

Death}, where it killed one-third of people. Labor shortages led to lower food production, peasant revolts, many land

exchanges, and feudalism breakdown, as workers demanded pay.


224

epidemic

Europe

1720

Last bubonic-plague epidemic began in west Europe.

polio

disease

Earth

1840

First polio epidemic began.

influenza

epidemic

Europe

1919

Influenza killed 5,000,000 to 10,000,000 people.

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome or AIDS

disease

Earth

1959

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) damages immune system. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome or

acquired immunodeficiency is last stage.

SOCI>History>History>Migration

Homo erectus

migration

Flores, Indonesia

-840000

Humans came from Java and had stone tools.

Homo erectus

migration

Earth

-840000 to -420000

Homo erectus migrated out of Africa to Europe and Asia.

Homo erectus

migration

Africa/Asia/Europe

-500000 to -250000

Homo erectus migrated to Java, China, south Africa, and England.

Homo sapiens

migration

Earth

-150000 to -80000

Homo sapiens moved out of Africa.

Homo sapiens sapiens

migration

Africa/Near East

-100000 to -60000

Humans migrated from east Africa to northwest Africa, south Africa, Near East, and southeast Asia.

225

Homo sapiens

migration

Asia

-60000 to -50000

Humans migrated from southeast Asia to north China, Japan, Pacific Ocean islands, Russia, southwest Asia,

Australia, and New Zealand.

Homo sapiens

migration

Europe

-50000

Homo sapiens went to south Europe.

Homo sapiens

migration

Caucasia

-50000 to -35000

Humans migrated from Caucasia in southwest Asia to Europe and east Russia.

Homo sapiens

migration

Borneo

-38000

Humans lived in limestone caves in north Borneo.

Homo sapiens

migration

Europe

-35000

Homo sapiens came to central Europe.

Homo sapiens

migration

Asia

-35000 to -15000

Humans migrated from northwest Asia to Alaska, North America, and then South America.

Homo sapiens

migration

Alaska/Asia

-30000

Homo sapiens entered Alaska.

Homo sapiens

migration

Siberia

-20000

Homo sapiens entered Siberia.

Homo sapiens

migration

Chile

-11000

Began.

Homo sapiens

226

migration

Mediterranean Sea

-8500 to -4000

Mediterranean islands became populated.

Arctic Circle

migration

Arctic Circle

-2000

Arctic Circle became populated.

Southeast Asians

migration

Polynesia/Micronesia

-1200 to 1000

Polynesia and Micronesia became populated.

Semites

migration

Eritrea/Ethiopia

-500

Semitic people from south Arabia migrated to Eritrea and Ethiopia and traded ivory, spices, and incense.

Celts or Kelts

migration

Faeroe Islands

800

Faeroe Islands became populated.

Viking

migration

Iceland

874

Iceland became populated.

Cook Islanders

migration

South Island, New Zealand

900

Ancestors of Maoris reached New Zealand.

Viking

migration

Greenland, Denmark

986 to 1500

Greenland became populated [986], but Norse people died out by 1500.

Aborigine

migration

New Zealand

1000

New Zealand became populated.

Huguenots

migration

France

227

1685

200,000 people had to leave France.

Trail of Tears

migration

USA

1835

Cherokee received $5 million and moved to Oklahoma.

Gold Rush

migration

Sutter's Creek, California

1849 to 1850

Sutter's Creek is in east-central California. 300,000 people came.

Gold Rush

migration

Klondike River, Alaska

1896

During international economic depression, several thousand people came. Gold Rush towns were Dawson City and

Skagway. Klondike River is in Yukon Territory.

SOCI>History>History>Nation

Caroline Islands

nation

Portugal/Caroline Islands/Palau Islands

1525

Caroline Islands are northeast of New Guinea.

Hawaii

kingdom

Hawaiian Islands

1795 to 1894

British helped Kamehameha the Great [1795 to 1810]. Kingdom revised constitution four times, finally limiting

king's power to ceremony [1887]. Republic of Hawaii formed [1894].

steamship

trade

USA/Europe

1893

Steamships became more than half of all ships.

Hawaii

colony

Asia

1898

USA colonized it.

League of Nations

league

Europe

1920 to 1933

England, France, Italy, and Japan controlled it. USA did not join. Germany and Russia joined later. Germany

resigned in 1933, as did Japan and Italy later.

228

League of Nations

assembly

Geneva, Switzerland

1924

League of Nations Assembly ordered Council to appoint committee to codify international law, resulting in three

conventions, but nations did not ratify any.

League of Nations

league

Russia

1934

Russia joined.

Quebec Conference

conference

Canada

1943 to 1944

USA, Canada, and United Kingdom planned World War II strategy [1943]. USA and United Kingdom signed

Morgenthau plan, which planned how to occupy Germany and end Ruhr and Saar heavy industries.

United Nations

league

New York, New York

1945

United Nations began, with 51 charter members. It now has over 190. It has headquarters in New York City. It has

Security Council of six rotating members and five permanent members: United States, Russia, Britain, France, and

China. It has General Assembly of all nations, each with one representative. Secretariat is administration. Secretary-

Generals have been Trvgye Lie, Dag Hammersköld, U Thant, Kurt Waldheim, Juan Cuellar, Butros Ghali, and Kofi

Annan.

Main agencies are International Court of Justice, United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization

(UNESCO), Agricultural Organization (FAO), International Labor Organization (ILO), and World Health Organization

(WHO).

North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO

league

USA/Europe

1948

NATO began with USA, Canada, Britain, France, Norway, Denmark, Belgium, Netherlands, and Italy.

NATO

league

Europe

1949

Portugal, Netherlands, and Belgium joined.

SOCI>History>History>Nation>Africa

Kushite

civilization

Nubia

-1500 to -900

Egypt ruled.

Ethiopia

kingdom

Ethiopia

229

-1000 to 1930

Traditionally, a son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba founded it. Hamitic highland people used Amharic

language.

Cush or Kush or Kushite

kingdom

Nubia/Egypt/Sudan

-900 to -300

Egyptian culture reached Kushites, Hamitic people in south Egypt and north Sudan. They learned Assyrian iron

smelting. First, Napata in Sudan was capital, below Fourth Cataract of Nile. Kushites fought Egypt [-770 to -716].

Kushites moved south [-716 to -671]. New center was Meroë, which had iron ore and timber. Nation ended when

defeated by Ethiopians [-300].

Carthage

colony

Carthage, Tunisia

-814

Phoenician traders from Tyre founded a colony. It became independent from Phoenicia [-600]. It sent ships on

expeditions.

Hausa or Hausaland

region

Nigeria

-800 to 200

Hausa (Hausaland) was a fertile region on lower Niger River and had trade and industry.

Nubia

kingdom

Egypt

-730

Nubians and Kushites took Egypt.

Carthage

expedition

Carthage, Tunisia

-600

Nation explored West Africa by sea and possibly circumnavigated Africa.

Hamite or Hamitic

civilization

Egypt/Ethiopia

-600 to -500

Hamitic tribes live in west and south Ethiopia and north Kenya. Hamitic languages are in Sahara, Egypt, Ethiopia,

and Somalia.

Meroë

kingdom

Sudan

-600 to -300

Hamitic people were Nubians. Meroë was capital, below Fourth Cataract of Nile. Kushites traded east, south, and

west from Meroë, Sudan. It modified Egyptian hieroglyphics.

Nok

civilization

Nigeria

-600 to 300

230

Nok people formed arrowheads, knives, spearheads, ax, and hoe blades. They wore beads for jewelry. Axes had

wooden handles. They had iron mines.

Carthage

city-state

Carthage, Tunisia

-480 to -146

Nation started as city-state under oligarchy on Bay of Tunis and expanded through exploration and trade. Romans

destroyed Carthage to end third Punic War [-146].

Ethiopia

kingdom

Ethiopia

-300

Nation took Kingdom of Kush.

Aksum

kingdom

Eritrea/Ethiopia

100

Aksum was capital in Eritrea and north Ethiopia.

Nubia

kingdom

Ethiopia/Khartoum, Sudan

250 to 1366

Nation started when Nobatae settled near first cataract of Nile River and founded strong kingdom. It used iron. It

became Christian [500 to 600]. It ended when it fell to Muslims.

Ethiopia

kingdom

Ethiopia

300 to 400

Ethiopia held Arabian coast. It became Coptic Christian. Arabia at that time had irrigated land, not desert.

Ghana

kingdom

Ghana

300 to 800

Berber kingdom got gold from Ashanti and Senegal and had salt, slaves, and trade with Near East.

Madagascar

island

Madagascar

300 to 800

Nation became populated.

Aksum

kingdom

Ethiopia/Eritrea

330 to 340

Bishop Frumentius converted it to Christianity.

Aksum

kingdom

Sudan

231

350

Nation probably defeated Kushites at Meroë.

Aksum

empire

East Africa

400 to 600

Christianity became majority in Aksum Empire in northeast Africa.

Azanian

kingdom

Rhodesia

400 to 800

Nation had mines, canals, and wells.

Ethiopia

kingdom

Arabia

500 to 600

Ethiopia held Arabian coast, but Arabian interior was now desert.

Nubia

kingdom


500 to 600

Nation became Christian.

Ghana

kingdom

West Africa

500 to 1200

Nation was between Upper Niger and Senegal Rivers in West Africa. It mined gold in valleys. Capital was at Kumbi

Saleh. It had Mande speakers.

Nubian

civilization

Sudan

550 to 600

In northeast Africa, they become Christian.

Ethiopia

kingdom

Ethiopia

800 to 950

Nation was Christian and replaced Aksum.

Ghana

kingdom

Ghana

800 to 1100

Nation ran from Atlantic Ocean to upper Niger River, got gold from Ashanti and Senegal, had salt, used slaves, and

traded with Near East. Arab slavers took slaves [800].

Zimbabwe

kingdom

Zambesi River

232

800 to 1700

Nation had mines, canals, wells, and gold. Great Zimbabwe had stone buildings from 8th to 17th century.

Zimbabwe

kingdom

Zimbabwe

900 to 1600

In Zimbabwe plateau between Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers in south Africa, it mined gold [900]. Gold and copper

went to Asia from Sofala on Africa east coast [1200]. It built large stone enclosures {mazimbabwe}. Great Zimbabwe

was biggest [1450], had walls and tower, and was religious, political, and trading center.

Igbo-Ukwu

civilization

Igbo-Ukwu, Nigeria

950 to 1050

Nation was in east Nigeria. Igbo-Ukwu had bronze bowls cast by "lost wax" method. It elected ruler, judge, or army

commander.

Guere/Krahn/We/Wobe

civilization

Ivory Coast

1000

They are native peoples of Ivory Coast and Liberia. Guere live in midwest Ivory Coast. Wobe live nearby. We live

in southwest Ivory Coast. Krahn live in Liberia.

Hausa

civilization

Nigeria

1000

Nation was in north Nigeria.

Gao

kingdom

West Africa

1000 to 1100

Nation had gold trade.

Takrur

kingdom

West Africa

1000 to 1100

Nation had gold trade.

Timbuktu or Tombouctou

nation

Timbuktu, Mali

1000 to 1896

It started on trans-Saharan caravan route [1000] and is in north Mali. It has Djingareyber, Sankore, and Sidi Yahya

mosques. It belonged to Mali Empire and Songhai Empire [1330 to 1645]. Cheikhou Amadou conquered it [1845]. It

became French colony [1896].

Almoravid

kingdom

Morocco/Algeria/Spain/Ghana

1050 to 1146

233

Berber Muslims from west Sahara took Morocco, Algeria, and part of Spain. Capital was at Marrakech [1062]. Abu

Bakr invaded Ghana and took capital Kumbi [1076]. His cousin Yusuf ibn Tashfin took North Africa and part of Spain

[1100], defeating Christians.

Almoravid

caliphate

Spain

1086

Berber Almoravids helped Abbasid Dynasty stop Christians but then took all Spain.

Almoravid

kingdom

Ghana

1100

Nation ended Ghana Empire in West Africa.

Ghana

kingdom

Ghana

1100 to 1200

Islamic kingdom, ruled by dynasty from Maghreb, got gold from Ashanti and Senegal, had salt, had slaves, and

traded with Near East.

Almohad

kingdom

Morocco/Spain/Algeria/Tripoli

1120 to 1212

Berber Muslims, under Ibn Tumart, opposed Almoravids. Abd-al-Mumin, caliph, took Marrakech [1147] and

conquered Algeria, Tripoli, and part of Spain [1163]. It lost Spain to Alfonso VIII at Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa

[1212].

Ethiopia

kingdom

Ethiopia

1200 to 1300

New dynasty unified Ethiopia.

Ghana

empire

Ghana

1235

First Susa and then Keita took it.

Mali Empire or Manding Empire or Manden Kurufa

kingdom

Mali

1235 to 1645

Islamic kingdom ruled over Senegal, had gold, defeated Ghana, and traded with Near East. Mandinka lived there.

Ankole or Nkole

kingdom

Uganda

1300 to 1901

Nkole, one of Uganda's four ancient kingdoms, is in southwest Uganda, west of Lake Edward. At beginning,

Buganda or Ganda kingdom and Bunyoro were also strong. It became part of Uganda [1901].

234

Buganda or Baganda or Ganda

kingdom

Uganda

1300 to 1901

It is one of Uganda's four ancient kingdoms, is in south Uganda, and includes Kampala. Toro, Ankole, and Bunyoro

are other kingdoms.

Nubia

kingdom


1366

Nation ended when it fell to Moslem invaders.

Engaruka

civilization

Engaruka River, Tanzania

1400

Farmers were in north Tanzania, 160 km west of Mt. Kilimanjaro, on steep slopes. They built drystone platforms to

level land and terraced hillsides for crop irrigation.

Songhai

civilization

Mali

1420 to 1450

From Gao region of West Africa, it raided Mali Empire.

Kilwa

civilization

East Africa

1430

Sultans built on Africa east coast.

Songhai

kingdom

Nigeria

1450 to 1550

Nation defeated Kingdom of Mali in Senegal.

Congo River

nation

Portugal/Congo River

1482

Portugal explored Congo River.

Kongo

kingdom

Congo

1491

Kongo king became Christian under Portugal.

Hausa

region

West Africa

1500 to 1600

Nation traded.

235

Mozambique

colony

Mozambique

1505 to 1507

Portuguese explorers captured Sofala on Africa east coast and founded Mozambique.

West Africa slave trading

law

West Africa

1530

Portugal started sending slaves to Americas.

Ethiopia

nation

Portugal/Ethiopia

1543

Portugal defeated Muslims.

Kanem-Bornu

kingdom

West Africa

1570 to 1610

Nation was in west-central Africa, allied with Ottoman Empire, and had guns, military training, and camel troops.

Angola

nation

Portugal/Angola

1575 to 1700

Portugal tried to colonize Angola, causing war.

Morocco

kingdom

West Africa

1590 to 1591

Nation ended Songhai Empire.

Guinea

colony

Guinea

1598

Netherlands started trading post in West Africa.

Ibo

kingdom

Africa

1600

Nation had council of elders. People had personal gods. Other gods were spirits of important ancestors, earth

goddess, thunderbolt god, rain god, and sky god. Chukwu was chief god and was beyond physical world. Ibo used skin

pattern painting and played gong, pottery drum, and wood drum.

Merina or Andriana-Merina/Maroserana

kingdom

Madagascar

1600 to 1896

It was on Madagascar central plateau. Perhaps, they came from Indonesia and Malaysia. Madagascar became French

colony [1896]. Maroserana was in southwest, and Sakalava dynasties come from them.

236

Benin

kingdom

Nigeria

1600 to 1897

Portugal discovered Benin [1600] and exchanged metal and weapons for slaves and ivory. Benin grew African rice,

African yam, oil palm, and kola nut. Oba was king and god and still is a religious figure in some parts of Nigeria. After

Benin ambushed British forces, Britain retaliated, ending kingdom [1897].

Ethiopia

kingdom

Ethiopia

1650

It expelled foreigners.

Ashanti or Asante

civilization

Ghana

1650 to 1850

Ashanti traded gold, ivory, and slaves in central Ghana. It is matrilineal tribe, largest in Ghana.

South Africa

colony

South Africa

1652

Dutch East India Company colonized South Africa.

Algeria

colony

French West Africa

1800 to 1900

France colonized French West Africa and Algeria.

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

colony

Africa

1800 to 1900

Britain colonized it.

Basutoland

colony

Africa

1800 to 1900


Bechuanaland

colony

Africa

1800 to 1900


British East Africa

colony

Africa

1800 to 1900


237

British Somaliland

colony

Africa

1800 to 1900


Chad

colony

French West Africa

1800 to 1900

France colonized it.

Dahomey

colony

French West Africa

1800 to 1900


French Equatorial Africa

colony

Africa

1800 to 1900


French Guinea

colony

French West Africa

1800 to 1900


French Somaliland

colony

Africa

1800 to 1900


Gambia

colony

French West Africa

1800 to 1900


Gold Coast

colony

Africa

1800 to 1900


Ifni

colony

Africa

1800 to 1900

Spain colonized it.

Ivory Coast

238

colony

French West Africa

1800 to 1900


Madagascar

colony

Africa

1800 to 1900


Mauritania

colony

French West Africa

1800 to 1900


Morocco

colony

French West Africa

1800 to 1900


Niger

colony

French West Africa

1800 to 1900


Nigeria

colony

Africa

1800 to 1900


Orange Free State

colony

Africa

1800 to 1900


Northern and Southern Rhodesia [Rhodesia, Northern and Southern]

colony

Africa

1800 to 1900


Rio de Oro

colony

Africa

1800 to 1900

Spain colonized it.

Sierra Leone

colony

Africa

239

1800 to 1900


Spanish Morocco

colony

Africa

1800 to 1900

Spain colonized it.

Swaziland

colony

Africa

1800 to 1900


Union of South Africa

colony

Africa

1800 to 1900


Zulu

kingdom

Africa

1807

Nation was in southeast Africa.

South Africa

colony

South Africa

1815

Britain annexed south Africa and Cape of Good Hope.

Liberia

state

Liberia

1822

Freed USA slaves founded it.

Boer Republic

state

South Africa

1835

10,000 Dutch settlers {Boers} migrated north and founded a state in Transvaal, north of Vaal River.

South Africa

colony

South Africa

1841 to 1900

Britain took over South Africa from Netherlands. Dutch Boer settlers went north to found Transvaal and Orange

Free State. British settlers followed them to get diamonds and gold.

Liberia

republic

Liberia

1847

240

Liberia became independent.

Cameroon

colony

Africa

1850 to 1900

Germany colonized it.

German East Africa

colony

Africa

1850 to 1900


German Southwest Africa

colony

Africa

1850 to 1900


Italian Somaliland/Eritrea

colony

Africa

1850 to 1900

Italy colonized it.

Nyasaland

colony

Africa

1850 to 1900


South Africa

colony

South Africa

1850 to 1900

Britain warred with Zulu people.

South Africa

colony

South Africa

1850 to 1900

People discovered gold in Rand River in Transvaal and diamonds in Orange River.

Togoland

colony

Africa

1850 to 1900


Tripoli/Cyrenaica

colony

Libya

1850 to 1900

Italy colonized it.

241

Ethiopia

kingdom

Ethiopia

1896

Ethiopia defeated Italy invasion.

Abyssinia

republic

Ethiopia

1900

Nation became independent of Italy.

Angola

colony

Africa

1900

Portugal colonized it.

Belgian Congo

colony

Africa

1900

Belgium colonized it and claimed nearby regions.

Lesotho

kingdom

Africa

1900

Nation was in south Africa.

Mozambique

colony

Africa

1900


Portuguese Guinea

colony

Africa

1900


Swazi

kingdom

Africa

1900

Nation was in south Africa.

Algeria

state

Africa

1912

Nation became independent of France.

Angola

state

242

Africa

1912

Nation became independent of Portugal.

Congo Republic

state

Congo Republic

1912

Nation became independent of Belgium.

Ethiopia

state

Ethiopia

1912

Nation became independent of Italy after war.

French Equatorial Africa

state

Africa

1912


Liberia

state

Africa

1912

Nation stayed independent.

Rhodesia

commonwealth

Zimbabwe

1912

Nation became British Commonwealth. England still held central and south Africa.

Ethiopia

independence

Ethiopia

1941

Allies liberated Ethiopia from Italy.

Algeria

revolution

Algeria

1954 to 1962

Revolt in Algeria began against France. 1,000,000 French people lived in Algeria. Algeria became independent

[1962].

Morocco

independence

Morocco

1956

Nation became independent of France, as France left.

Tunisia

independence

Tunisia

243

1956

Nation became independent of France, as France left.

Ghana

independence

Ghana

1957

Nation became independent of Britain.

Spanish Morocco

independence

Morocco

1958

Spain left.

Congo Republic

independence

Congo Republic

1960

Nation became independent of Belgium. Katanga province, where minerals are, revolted.

South Africa

state

South Africa

1960

Nation withdrew from British Commonwealth and controlled Southwest Africa.

South Africa

republic

South Africa

1961

It began race segregation {apartheid, South Africa}.

Southern Rhodesia

independence

Rhodesia

1965


Angola

independence

Angola

1974


Ethiopia

state

Ethiopia

1974

Nation became Communist when Marxists deposed Haile Selassie.

Mozambique

independence

Mozambique

1974


244

Zimbabwe

independence

Zimbabwe

1980

Rhodesia became independent of Britain and renamed itself.

Sudan

theocracy

Sudan

1989

Islamic party took over Sudan.

Algeria

coup

Algeria

1990

Islamic party won election, but army took over.

SOCI>History>History>Nation>America

Preclassic

civilization

Mexico

-2000 to -200

Neolithic culture built Cuicuilco Pyramid near Mexico City -2000. Wood frame houses used wattle and daub.

Civilization used adobe bricks and formed coiled pottery. Civilization had fertility figures.

Olmec

civilization

San Lorenzo, Mexico

-1500

It built gravel platforms.

Lower Preclassic

civilization

Mexico

-1350 to -900

It was at El Arbolillo, Tlatilco, and Zacatenco in Valley of Mexico. Middle Preclassic [-900 to -500] was at same

places.

Olmec

civilization

Mexico

-1250 to -400

Planned cities were at San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan, La Venta, and Tres Zapotes. Large earth pyramids were for

ceremonies. They used slash-and-burn farming. They used decimal system for numbers and had calendar. The

feathered serpent and were-jaguar were gods. They had burial rites. Art works were Wrestler sculpture, large stone

heads, and jade carvings.

Olmec

civilization

La Venta, Mexico

-1200 to -325

Nation was on Gulf of Mexico. Ceremonial centers had public buildings, houses, and shops. It had salt, fishers,

farmers, traders, and skilled artists.

245

Olmec

civilization

San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, Mexico

-1150 to -900

It is in Veracruz.

Olmec

civilization

Cuicuilco, Mexico

-1000

Cuicuilco was west of San Lorenzo.

Tatonac

civilization

Veracruz, Jalapa, Mexico

-1000 to 1

Niche or Tajin pyramid has 365 steps. Tatonac civilization used cocoa, tropical fruits, woven and dyed cotton, and

picture writing. Civilization has same gods as Aztecs but with different names. Papantla dancers are from there.

Paracas Cavernas

civilization

Paracas Peninsula, Peru

-900

Chavin de Huantar in highlands was ceremonial center. It had woven cloth, organized religion, and commerce.

Cupisnique

city-state

Peru

-900 to -800

Nation was on Peru north coast.

Olmec

civilization

Mexico

-900 to -500

Nation reached to El Salvador by -800. La Venta was main city. It used hieroglyphs. It religion influenced later

Zapotecs.

First Monte Alban

civilization

Monte Alba, Mexico

-900 to -300

Nation was in south Mexico.

Chavin

civilization

Chavin de Huantar, Peru

-850 to -300

Stone temple with U shape has rooms connected by stairs or ramps. Central room has a large stone human body,

with cat face, called Lanzon or Smiling God. It was in Peruvian Andes.

Middle Preclassic

civilization

Mexico

-800 to -500

246

It was at El Arbolillo, Tlatilco, and Zacatenco in Valley of Mexico. Early Preclassic [-1350 to -900] was at same

places.

Oaxaca

civilization

Monte Albán, Mexico

-550

Oaxaca was in southeast Mexico.

Upper Preclassic

civilization

Mexico

-500 to -200

It has Teotihuacan, La Venta, and Middle Tres Zapotes.

Adena

civilization

Ohio

-500 to 1

Nation grew corn, beans, gourds, and sunflowers. It built large earthen mounds as communal graves that contained

copper bracelets, carved stone tablets, and tobacco pipes.

Paracas

civilization

Paracas Peninsula, Peru

-500 to 200

Nation cultivated corn, beans, peanuts, sweet potatoes, and yucca. It had embroidery and woven cloth, with more

than 100 colors. It had mummification and burial rituals.

Olmec

civilization

Mexico

-400

Nation ended in southeast Mexico when replaced by Toltecs.

Zapotec

civilization

Mexico

-350 to 1500

Los Danzantes or Dancing Men [-350 to 1500: stone reliefs]

Nation was in northwest Mexico.

Moche

civilization

Peru

-300

Nation was on Peru north coast.

Second Monte Alban

civilization


-300 to -100

Monte Albán is in Oaxaca State in southeast Mexico.

Teotihuacan

civilization

247

Teotihuacan, Mexico

-300 to -100

Nation was in Valley of Mexico.

Hopewell

civilization

Mississippi River

-300 to 700

The later burial mound period began on upper Mississippi River. It used Adena customs, buried dead, grew corn,

and had organized government with hereditary rulers.

Mayan

civilization

Mexico

-300 to 1500

Nation sacrificed prisoners and built pyramids. It grew corn, beans, and chili peppers.

Hopewell/Adema

civilization

Mississippi River/Ohio River

-200 to 400

Nation had coiled pottery, used raw copper, smoked tobacco, put buildings on serpent shaped mounds, and had

castes.

Nasca or Naxca

civilization

Peru

-200 to 600

On high plateau in Peru south coast, it wove tapestries, aligned stones with stars, and carved stone animal figures [-

200]. It carved lines and patterns in desert [50]. Tiahuanaco defeated it.

Teotihuacan

civilization

Mexico City, Mexico

-200 to 1000

Nation spread to Xochicalco. Pyramids of Sun and Moon were to the chief god Quetzalcoatl, the plumed serpent. It

built Temple of Wind and Rain and Street of the Dead. Rain god was Chalchiuhtlcue.

Zapotec

civilization

Mexico

-150 to 1500

Art emphasized the rain god, a plumed serpent.

Anasazi

civilization


-100

Nation began.

Mochica Confederation

state

Peru

-100 to 700

On Peru north coast, it had textiles, loincloths, tunics, and bronze war axes on thongs.

248

Mayan

civilization

El Mirador, Guatemala

1

El Mirador in north Guatemala was at height.

Teotihuacan

civilization

Teotihuacan, Mexico

1

Population was more than 40,000 people.

Tiahuanaco

civilization

Peru/Bolivia

1 to 700

Gateway of the Sun [1 to 700: about sun god and stars]

Nation settled in Altiplano tableland, 4000 meters high, and near Lake Titicaca. Art used angles and squares on

pottery, textiles, and stones, in epigonal style.

Zapotec

civilization

Mexico

1 to 1300

Nation faded into Old Mayan Empire and Toltecs. Mitla was religious center near Monte Alba. Jaguar was an Olmec

god before and was chief Zapotec god.

Hopewell

civilization

Mississippi River

100

Nation was on upper Mississippi River.

Moche

civilization

Sipan, Peru

100

Huaca del Sol [100: adobe brick temple]

Nation was on Peru coast. It had canals for irrigation and guano for fertilizer. It built pyramid-like structures

{huaca}. Largest was Huaca del Sol, at Sipan on coast. They used clay molds.

Mogollon

civilization

New Mexico

100

Houses were half underground, with stone and mud roofs. It had painted pottery, especially on Mimbres River in

New Mexico.

Oaxaca

civilization


100 to 200

Oaxaca was at greatest extent.

Teotihuacan

civilization

249

Mexico City, Mexico

200

Nation had more than 1,000,000 people.

Tiahuanaco

civilization

Tiahuanaco, Bolivia

200 to 375

Nation was near Lake Titicaca.

Casa Grande

civilization

Arizona/Chihuahua, Mexico

200 to 1450

Hohokam culture expanded to Snaketown, Casa Grande, Red Mountain, and Pueblo de los Muertos [550 to 900].

Hohokam

civilization

Snaketown, Arizona

200 to 1450

Hohokam culture expanded to Snaketown, Casa Grande, Red Mountain, and Pueblo de los Muertos [550 to 900].

Mayan

civilization

Mexico/Guatemala

200 to 1500

Temple towns had courtyards and stelae.

Teotihuacan

civilization

Mexico

250 to 650

Over 100,000 people lived on Mexico central plateau. It had painted walls, and temples had gold. It grew corn and

beans.

Early Classic Mayan

civilization

Mexico/Guatemala

292 to 593

It was at Copan and traded with Teotihuacan.

Mayan

civilization

Yucatan Peninsula/Guatemala/Honduras

317 to 987

Theocracy confederated [250] Peten, Tikal, Copan, Uaxactun, Quirigua, Bonampak, Palenque, Comacalco, and

Yaxchilan. 2,000,000 Mayans are alive today. Bonampak had murals.

Picture writing used syllabary of 700 symbols on bark paper. Mayans used zero, decimal numbering, sacred

calendar, solar calendar, time measurement, and astronomical predictions.

Wood frame houses had cane walls, clay plaster, and thatched roofs. Special architecture style {Chenes} {well style}

was in lowlands. Classic Mayan buildings used another style {Puuc} {hill style}. Mayans built massive pyramids.

Mayans grew maize and traded with Kaminaljuya and Teotihuacan in rubber, cocoa, vanilla, parrots, macaws, and

quetzal bird feathers.

Kukulcan was god of Venus as Evening Star and later became the plumed serpent and Quetzalcoatl. Choc was rain

god. Kinich Ahau was sun god.

250

Mayan

civilization

Tikal, Guatemala

360 to 378

Jaguar Claw I or Chak Toh Ich'ak I, ninth ruler, founded dynasty [360 to 378]. Tikal is in El Peten.

Tiahuanaco

civilization

Peru/Bolivia

400

Nation invaded neighbors.

Zapotec

state

Mexico

400

Capital was Monte Alban, in south Mexico.

Hopewell

civilization

Mississippi River

500 to 650

Nation built burial mounds, formed pottery, used iron weapons, and was in upper Mississippi River.

Mississippian

civilization

Mississippi River

500 to 1250

Nation started in Middle Woodland Period [500 to 600] and flourished by 900.

Third Monte Alban

civilization

Monte Alba, Mexico

550 to 650

It was Zapotec civilization capital in Oaxaca. It was next-to-last stage.

Mixtec or Cloud People

civilization

Monte Alba, Mexico

550 to 850

Nation is near Oaxaca. Toltecs influenced it.

Toltec

civilization

Mexico

550 to 1224

Nation started when Toltecs came from north and took Teotihuacan. Teotihuacan, Tollan or Tula, and Cholula were

cities. Tula had giant Atlantes sculptures. Toltec civilization had pyramids, irrigation systems, forced labor, and slaves.

It depended on Olmec culture. It had astronomy, used maguey plant juice, and had butterfly emblems. It had human

sacrifice and sun worship. Quetzalcoatl was chief god. Chac Mool was divine messenger between man and sun god,

and his statue was recumbent figure with offering bowl on stomach.

Teotihuacan

civilization

Mexico

600

251

Teotihuacan was at height. It built Pyramids of the Sun and Moon, to the chief god Quetzalcoatl, the plumed serpent.

Mississippian

civilization

Mississippi River

600 to 800

Nation continued in Late Woodland Period.

Huari

civilization

Peru

600 to 900

More than 100,000 people lived in Huari City [800 to 900].

Tiahuanaco or Tiwanaku

civilization

Tiahuanaco, Bolivia

600 to 900

It was Pre-Inca Civilization capital and is south of Lake Titicaca in Andes. It has Gateway of the Sun archway, with

Inca sun god Viracocha.

Teotihuacan

civilization

Teotihuacan, Mexico

650 to 800

Nation was trade center.

Fourth Monte Alban

civilization

Monte Alba, Mexico

650 to 850

It was Zapotec civilization capital in Oaxaca. Fourth Monte Alban was last stage.

Easter Islander

civilization

Easter Island

700

Nation built stone ceremonial platforms.

Great Fire

fire

Teotihuacan, Mexico

700

Teotihuacan burned, and all people left.

Mississippian

civilization

Mississippi River

700

Nation built flat-topped mounds as platforms for temples.

Tiahuanaco

civilization

Peru/Bolivia

700

Nation ended by raids from Amazon region, war with Huari, and pestilence.

252

Toltec

civilization

Mexico

700

Teotihuacan burned.

Pueblo

civilization

Arizona

700 to 900

Nation was in east Arizona and built houses above ground.

Anasazi

civilization


700 to 1100

Pueblos had interconnecting mud-brick rooms in layers. Cliff dwellings were at Mesa Verde, Chaco Canyon, and

Canyon de Chelly. Corn and other crops grew on cliff tops, using irrigation. It formed pottery and turquoise jewelry. It

had men's clubhouses and plazas. It used bow and arrow, basket weaving, and flutes. It grew beans and had dogs.

Anasazi means "ancient ones". By 1400, it became Hopi, Zuni, and Rio Grande Indians.

Second Toltec

civilization

Mexico

790 to 990

The first military state king was Quetzalcoatl I, who died at Tollan or Place of Reeds [790]. Tollen or Tula

(Hidalgo), near Mexico City, was capital and had Temple of Mother Earth. Cholula was ritual center in central Mexico

and has world's largest pyramid.

The god Tezcatlipoka took Earth out of primeval waters. Sun god was patron of warriors. Quetzalcoatl was spirit of

the planet Venus and god of winds, the breath of life. Ometecuhtli was male and female creative powers, was above

gods, had fire symbol, and had no temples, because it was not in the material world.

Mayan

civilization

Tikal, Guatemala/Honduras/Yucatan Peninsula

800

Tikal had 40,000 people.

Xochicalco Conference

conference

Xochicalco, Mexico

800

Teotihuacan, Maya, and other cultures gathered.

Hohokam

civilization

Snaketown, Arizona

800 to 1400

Nation was in south Arizona in Gila River valley. Hohokam means "those who have vanished". It invented etching

with acid, and it etched shells from American west coast.

Mayan

civilization

Mexico

850

253

Mayan civilization abandoned cities in south Mexico lowlands and ended.

Toltec

civilization

Mexico

850

Teotihuacan had 75,000 to 125,000 people at empire height.

Huari

empire

Peru

890

Nation faded.

Chichimeca

civilization

Tula, Mexico

900

Nation started after Toltecs left. It built Tenayuca pyramid.

Huastec

civilization

Mexico

900

Nation was in northeast Mexico, influenced Toltecs and Mexicans, and carved life-size statues.

Mayan

civilization

Mexico

900 to 1000

Toltecs ended Mayan civilization in north Mexico.

Toltec

civilization

Hidalgo, Mexico

900 to 1000

Tollan or Tula (Hidalgo) became capital.

Pueblo

civilization

New Mexico/Arizona

900 to 1100

Nation built circular rooms with wall benches.

Hohokam

civilization

Arizona/New Mexico

900 to 1150

Nation built platform mounds.

Cahokin

civilization

Missouri/Illinois

900 to 1250

Nation built layered burial mounds, built wood structures for solstices and equinoxes, used copper, had central

organization, had stratified society, and was near St. Louis.

254

Tairona

state

Colombia

900 to 1400

Nation had paved streets, grew cotton and cocoa, and traded on Colombia north coast.

Pueblo

civilization

Chaco Canyon, New Mexico

919 to 1130

Nation was at Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon.

Canyon de Chelly

cliff dwelling


950

Nation had Pueblo culture.

Second Toltec

civilization

Teotihuacan, Mexico

950 to 990

The ninth high chief, Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, ruled area as wide as later Aztec Empire.

Second Toltec

civilization

Tollan, Mexico

980 to 990

Nation ended when nobles attacked Tollan and ninth chief's son, and civil war followed.

Classic Mayan

civilization

Yucatan Peninsula/Guatemala/Honduras

987

Nation ended when Toltecs conquered it. 100,000 people lived nearby.

New Mayan Empire

civilization

Mexico

987 to 1697

Nation began when Itza clan of Toltecs conquered Mayans and built at Chichen. Pyramid was for Kukulean, Toltec

leader. Cities were Mayapan, Uxmal, Chichen Itza, Labna, Kabah, Tulum, and Sayil.

Teotihuacan

civilization

Mexico City, Mexico

1000

Nation ended when beaten by Niune culture from south.


civilization

Mexico

1000 to 1100

Mixtecs, under Eight Deer Ocelot Claw of Tilantongo, took Lycoba or Mitla from Zapotecs.

255

Pueblo

civilization

Southwest USA

1000 to 1300

Nation lived in caves and mesas, for protection against buffalo-hunting tribes, during droughts in southwest USA.

Chimu

civilization

Peru

1000 to 1470

Nation started when Chief Naymlap landed using balsa rafts [1000]. Chan Chan, near Trujillo, was capital.

Paramonga, north of Lima, was capital. It had metal work, roads, irrigation, large stepped pyramids, and stepped mud-

brick fortresses. It was on Peru north coast.

Muisca

civilization

Bogota, Colombia

1000 to 1500

The best young man became chief and had to jump into lake covered with gold dust, creating legend of El Dorado.

They spoke Chibcha language.

Inca

civilization

Altiplano, Peru

1000 to 1517

Nation began as tribe. Machu Picchu was first capital. Leader title was Sapa Inca or Only Inca. The creator god

Viracocha had only one temple, because he was in all hearts and minds, as leader.

Mayan

civilization

Mayapan, Mexico

1007 to 1300

Kukulkán founded it [1007]. It was leading city after Chichén Itzá faded. It is in Yucatán peninsula.

Chimor

civilization

Chan Chan, Peru

1100

Chimor culture was on Peru northwest coast. Perhaps, it descended from earlier Moche people. It had irrigated

farmland, but rain ruined the fields. Chimu conquered neighbors and built roads.

Inca

civilization

Altiplano, Peru

1100

Third generation Inca took Apurimac River valley. Chanca confederation killed Vahuarhuaccac, the leader. After

Vahuarhuaccac, nobles selected Viracocha to be king. He defeated Chanca and unified conquered lands.

He built food and clothing storehouses for use by army. He built storehouses for sun god, in case of catastrophe.

One-third of production went to sun god, one-third to army and state, and one-third was for farmer.

Towns had different clothes, had sundials, and had uncultivated areas to breed llamas and keep wild quanaco. Slopes

had terraces for growing pumpkin, beans, and maize. Irrigation diverted mountain streams.

They conscripted soldiers for up to five years. Army constructed buildings and carried supplies. Only Inca were

commanders.

Easter Islander

civilization

256

Easter Island

1100 to 1200

First statues were on previously built platforms.

Hopewell

civilization

USA

1150

Nation ended.

Chichimeca

civilization

Mexico

1170 to 1200

From north desert, it took Toltec capital at Tula.

Toltec

civilization

Mexico

1180

Nation lost of Chichen Itza.

Mississippian

civilization

Mississippi River

1190

Nation ended.

Inca

civilization

Altiplano, Peru

1200

Cuzco became capital.

Cliff Canyon

civilization

Cliff Canyon, Colorado

1200 to 1250

Apartment blocks and circular kivas were at Cliff Canyon and Fewkes Canyon.

Tepaneca

civilization

Colhuacan, Mexico

1200 to 1324

Nation ended in central Mexico when beaten by Aztecs.

Aztec

civilization

Tenochtitlan, Mexico

1200 to 1500

Aztecs settled on two marshy islands in south Lake Texoco in Valley of Mexico [1200 to 1300]. They floated large

baskets of earth into marshland to make raised fields {chinampas} and planted trees there. They built Tenochtitlan on

an island [1320 to 1330], with four quarters, one for each family group. First ruler was Tenoch [1330 to 1370].

Tenochitlan slowly grew to 250,000 people.

Mayan

257

civilization

Mexico

1224

Nation began when Mayans revolted from Toltecs. Cities were Mayapan, Chichen, and Uxmal. It had merchants and

long dugout canoes.

Toltec

civilization

Teotihuacan, Mexico

1224

Nation ended when Tepaneca defeated it.

Easter Islander

civilization

Easter Island

1300 to 1500

It built large stone statues. One platform was 45 meters wide and had fifteen statues. It built village of oval stone

houses.

Aztec Empire or Mexica

civilization

Mexico

1325 to 1520

Aztecs from north replaced Toltec civilization. Tenochtitlan was capital, near Mexico City, on a now dry island in

Lake Texcoco. Water supply was at Chapultepec, five miles away.

On the migration, main priest was Tenoch. They were to settle where they saw an eagle on a cactus eating a serpent.

Eagle was symbol of Huitzilopochtli, the war god.

Uetlatoani or Great Speaker was a priest-astrologer, led warriors, spoke for all, and set all laws. Tlaloc Tlamacazqui

or High Priest of Rains led ceremonies and consulted war god's oracle. Warrior class had rituals and human sacrifice.

They removed hearts from living people and burned them. A Supreme Justice led courts. A Lord of the Market Place

controlled commerce.

Aztecs had pictographs, calendar, caste system, universal education, cotton, and obsidian but no iron.

Aztecs built temple to the Aztec war god Huitzilopochtli at Tenochtitlan [1455].

In 1473, Tenochtitlan expanded to include Tlateloco.


civilization

Oaxaca, Mexico

1350

Codex Vindobonensis Mexicanus [painted deer skin book]

It was in Oaxaca Valley.


civilization


1400

The 6th chief allied with two other Lake Texcoco cities.

Pueblo

civilization

Arizona

1400

Nation left northern dwellings and built large towns.

Aztec

civilization

258

Mexico

1426 to 1440

Triple Alliance was Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan.


civilization


1429

Moctocuzomatzia Illhuicamina I defeated other lake cities.

Inca

civilization

Machu Picchu, Peru

1450

Nation was on ridge above Urubamba River.

Cara

civilization

Quito, Ecuador

1450 to 1500

Chief Scyri fought Inca.

Inca

civilization

Altiplano, Peru

1460 to 1500

Nation took Paramonga, and Chimu surrendered. Topa Inca Yupanqui ruled after conquest of Chimu. He tried to

subdue Calchaqui in Chile and sailed out to Taumotu or Marquessas Islands. Empire came to include parts of Chile,

Bolivia, and Ecuador. It had nobles, provincial governors, and officials. It controlled town building, natural resources,

art, and pottery.


civilization


1480 to 1489

Tizoc led and built pyramid [1489].

Inca

civilization

Altiplano, Peru

1493

Huyna Capac or Huayna Capac defeated Cara, codified laws, and led empire at greatest extent. Cuzco was capital.

Inca Empire went from north Ecuador to south Chile and was 3000 km long and 800 km wide with three north-south

roads.

Incas called empire Tahuantinsuyu (Place of the Four Directions or center of Earth).

It built roads with suspension bridges and rest houses for runners. It used only barter.

People had to stay in their villages. Ten households were unit. The state owned everything except houses and

personal items and was responsible for personal welfare. Taxes were labor, and state required labor in mines or on

roads.

Rope {quipu} color was for subject, rope knots were for numerals, and rope positions were for decimal positions.

Inca had storehouses, irrigation, gold mines, silver mines, and massive structures in mountains. They had llamas,

wild quanaco, pumpkin, beans, and maize. They had weaving, fertilizer, bronze hoes, cut stone with no mortar, surgery,

pottery wheel for rulers only, and lathe for rulers only.

Zapotec

civilization

259

Mexico

1500

Nation spread to Isthmus of Tehuantepec, invaded central Mexico, and contacted Aztecs.

Inca

civilization

Altiplano, Peru

1500 to 1532

Atahuallpa, son of the Cara chief's daughter, organized Cara and imprisoned Inca leader Huascar, Huayna Capac's

son.

slave trading

law

Brazil

1500 to 1600

Slaves from Africa worked in Brazil. Few slaves were in Central America and South America.

slave trading

law

Caribbean Sea

1500 to 1600

Slaves from Africa worked on sugar plantations and in Spanish households in Caribbean Sea islands.

Panama

colony

Panama

1508

Spanish colony started.

Mexico

colony

Mexico

1519

Spain under Cortes conquered Aztec Empire under Moctezuma II.


civilization

Mexico

1520

Moctezuma II or Montezuma was last emperor and lost to Spain under Cortes. 1,000,000 people were in

Tenochtitlan [1520].

Inca

civilization

Altiplano, Peru

1532

Spanish under Pizarro landed and captured Atahuallpa of Cara in trap at Cajamarca, to start end of Inca Empire.

Sao Vicente

city

Brazil

1532

Portugal settled it [1532]. Island is on south São Paulo coast, beside Santos.

Mexico

kingdom

260

Mexico

1535 to 1811

Viceroy of Spain began rule of Mexico. Two notable viceroys were Zumarraga and Luis de Valasco.

California

colony

California/Spain

1540 to 1550

Spain explored it.

Inca

civilization

Peru

1553

Nation ended when conquered by Pizarro of Spain.

St. Augustine

state

St. Augustine, Florida

1565

Spain settled St. Augustine.

Roanoke Colony

colony

Outer Banks, North Carolina

1585 to 1597

Sir Walter Raleigh started it, but it died out.

Jamestown Colony

colony

Jamestown, Virginia

1607

John Smith was army captain.

Plymouth Colony

colony

Massachusetts

1608 to 1620

Nation started when the ship Mayflower landed on Plymouth Rock. William Bradford was first governor. John

Alden married Priscilla Mullens, and Miles Standish loved her, too.

slave trading

law

USA

1619 to 1780

Traders imported slaves for tobacco plantations in Virginia. Later, they imported slaves for cotton and rice

plantations in Carolinas. Slave traders took 100,000 slaves a year from Africa.

Dutch Guiana or New Netherlands

nation

Dutch Guiana or New Netherlands

1621

Dutch West Indies Company founded New Netherlands.

Virginia Colony

colony

261

Virginia

1624

Virginia became colony of Britain.

New Amsterdam

colony

New York, New York

1625

Dutch West Indies Company of Holland purchased New Amsterdam (New York City) from American natives for

$24 in beads.

Massachusetts Bay

colony

Boston, Massachusetts/Salem, Massachusetts

1626

Nation was colony of England. Later, John Winthrop, Cotton Mather, and Increase Mather lead theocracy. Later,

Salem had witch trials.

Maryland

colony

Maryland

1631 to 1689

Maryland was under the Calverts as English colony.

Connecticut

colony

Connecticut

1633

Plymouth Colony settled Connecticut and built trading posts.

Massachusetts Bay

colony

Massachusetts

1635

Church attendance became compulsory. All paid tax for ministers.

Providence

colony

Providence, Rhode Island

1636

Roger Williams founded Providence as separate entity from Massachusetts Bay Colony. All people are equal before

the law, and people can change government at any time.

Providence

colony

Providence, Rhode Island

1640

People had religious freedom. Arbitration settled disputes.

Massachusetts Bay

colony

Boston, Massachusetts/Salem, Massachusetts

1640 to 1700

John Winthrop, Cotton Mather, and Increase Mather led theocracy.

Massachusetts Bay

262

colony

Massachusetts

1646

Cambridge Platform maintained Puritan control of Massachusetts Bay Colony and prohibited religious freedom.

Hudson Bay Company

company

Canada

1650 to 1700

Nation trapped animals for furs.

North Carolina

colony

North Carolina

1653

Virginia settlers came to North Carolina.

New Netherlands

colony

Brazil

1654

Holland left northeast Brazil.

Massachusetts Bay

colony

Massachusetts

1660

England regained control of Massachusetts Bay Colony and ended many Puritan restrictions.

Connecticut

colony

Connecticut

1662

Connecticut became chartered colony of England.

Rhode Island

colony

Portsmouth, Rhode Island

1663

Rhode Island Colony charter granted religious freedom. Hutchinson and Puritan exiles fled to Rhode Island from

Massachusetts.

New York

city

New York, New York

1664

Britain took New York City from Peter Stuyvesant of Dutch West Indies Company.

South Carolina

colony

South Carolina

1680

Settlers came to Charleston, South Carolina.

Pennsylvania

colony

263

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

1681

William Penn started colony for Quakers and treated American natives with respect.

Pennsylvania

state

Delaware

1682

Pennsylvania added Delaware.

Massachusetts Bay

colony

Massachusetts

1684

England put New England under one governor. It revoked Massachusetts Bay Colony charter.

Massachusetts Bay

colony

Massachusetts

1691

Massachusetts got new charter from England, with many regulations, and again became separate from rest of New

England. Only property owners voted.

Salem Witch

trial

Salem, Massachusetts

1692

Salem witch trials tried women that had supposedly gotten magic powers from devil.

American colonies

colony

USA/Canada

1700

400,000 Europeans were in colonies. 5000 people were in French Canada.

Iroquois Confederation

state

USA

1700 to 1800

Nation began when Hiawatha united six main American Indian tribes in northeast USA. Iroquois lived in lodges or

wigwams and had villages with palisades on river bluffs. They had organized hunting and fishing and used traps. They

used maize, apple orchards, and sugar maple syrup. They tanned leather by smoking shaved skin, rubbing it with ash,

lime, and fat and then scraping and smoking it again. They kept record of 400 years of history.

Wampum was tubular beads threaded on belts, to commemorate events. Keepers of the Wampum recited stories.

Iroquois Indians shaved hair into a broad line {Mohawk haircut}.

Georgia

colony

Georgia

1733

Oglethorpe from England settled at Savannah.

Stamp Act

law

England/USA

1750

264

Law passed by English Parliament imposed duties on English imports in American colonies.

Tea

law

England/USA

1750

Law passed by English Parliament gave tea monopoly to East India Company in American colonies.

Nova Scotia

province

Nova Scotia

1755

Britain exiled French from Nova Scotia, Canada. Some French went to Louisiana and became Cajuns.

Stamp Act

law

England/USA

1765

Stamp Act passed by English Parliament required stamp and tax on many items in American colonies. Virginia

House of Burgesses and Stamp Act Congress in Massachusetts condemned act as taxation without representation.

Later, Parliament repealed Stamp Act as unenforceable.

Quebec Act

law

England/Massachusetts

1773

Quebec Act passed by English Parliament reduced freedom in Massachusetts.

Canada

nation

USA/Canada

1775

Wanting to stay under the English king, United Empire Loyalists went from USA to Canada during American

Revolution.

Valley Forge

encampment

Valley Forge, New York

1777

Washington and USA army wintered at Valley Forge.

Chateau Clique

government

Canada

1781 to 1848

Chateau Clique ruled south Canada.

Family Compact

government

Canada

1781 to 1848

Family Compact ruled north Canada.

Spanish America Declaration of Independence

independence

South America

265

1808

Spanish America under Simon Bolivar and San Martin declared independence from Spain.

slave trading

law

USA

1808.0101

Slave importation stopped.

Argentina

state

South America

1810 to 1853

Nation became independent but stayed confederated with Spain until 1853.

Paraguay

state

South America

1811

Nation became independent.

Chile

state

South America

1818

Nation became independent of Spain.

Florida

state

Florida

1819

USA bought it from Spain.

Mexico Independence

independence

Mexico

1821

Mexico became independent of Spain.

Peru

state

South America

1821


Brazil

state

South America

1822 to 1889

Nation became independent empire, free from Portugal [1822]. Nation became republic in 1889.

Guiana

state

South America

1824

Nation had British, Dutch, and French colonies.

266

Latin America

kingdom

South America

1824

British Honduras, Jamaica, Trinidad, and West Indies belonged to Britain.

Bolivia

state

South America

1825


Central American Federation

federation

Central America

1825 to 1838

It included Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala and ended in civil war.

Spanish American

congress

Panama

1826

Simon Bolivar held meeting to unite Spanish America but it failed.

Uruguay

state

South America

1828


Ecuador

state

South America

1830


Venezuela

state

South America

1830


Colombia

state

South America

1831

Nation became independent of Spain [1831] and received name later [1861].

Costa Rica

state

South America

1838


El Salvador

267

state

South America

1838


Honduras

state

South America

1838


Nicaragua

state

South America

1838

Nation became independent of Spain [1838] and obtained Mosquito Coast [1860].

Reform Party

party

Canada

1848

Reform Party removed Family Compact in north Canada and Chateau Clique in south Canada.

Quebec Conference

conference

Quebec, Canada

1864

Quebec Conference [1864] led to confederation [1867].

North America Act

law

Canada/England

1867

English law formed Dominion of Canada. Provinces were Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Yukon

Territory, and Northwest Territory. Canada had 3,000,000 people.

Canada

commonwealth

Canada

1869

Nation acquired Rupert's Land from Britain's Hudson Bay Company.

Canada

commonwealth

Canada

1870

Manitoba province joined Canada.

Canada

commonwealth

Canada

1871

British Columbia province joined Canada.

Canada

commonwealth

268

Canada

1873

Prince Edward Island province joined Canada.

USA Centennial Exposition

exposition

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

1876

It showcased nation for Europeans.

Haymarket Square

riot

Chicago, Illinois

1886

It was labor riot.

Brazil

republic

Brazil

1888

Slavery ended.

First Pan American Conference

conference

Washington, DC

1889 to 1890

It established Pan-American Union, originated Pan-American railway, and encouraged arbitration treaties.

Pan-American Union

league

Americas

1890 to 1948

First Pan-American Conference started it [1890], and it reorganized as Organization of American States [1948].

Pullman

strike

USA

1894

A labor strike against railroad companies was violent. The lawyer Clarence Darrow defended union leader Eugene

Debs.

Drago Doctrine

law

Argentina

1902

Act, by Julio Roca of Argentina, allowed no foreign intervention in South America.

Panama

state

Panama

1903


Canada

commonwealth

Canada

269

1905

Saskatchewan and Alberta provinces joined Canada.

Panama Canal Zone

canal

Panama

1914

USA built and operated canal and controlled region.

Mexico

constitution

Mexico

1917

Nation nationalized all resources.

Boston police strike

strike


1919 to 1927

Calvin Coolidge put down police strike using militia.

Great Depression

recession

USA

1929 to 1938

After good years [1925 to 1928], New York stock market crashed [1929]. In 1930 and 1931, banks recalled loans,

and investment stopped.

Tennessee Valley Authority or TVA

utility

USA

1933

Nation built dams and electric power plants.

Canada

state

Canada

1949

Newfoundland province joined Canada.

Guatemala

revolution

Guatemala

1954

USA helped suppress communist takeover.

Surinam

independence

Surinam

1954

Nation became independent of Netherlands.

Dominican Republic

state

Dominican Republic/USA

1961

270

USA ended dictatorship.

Argentina

coup

Argentina

1962

Military junta ruled after coup.

Cuban Missile Crisis

crisis

Cuba

1962

Russia withdrew missiles from Cuba after confrontation with USA at United Nations.

March on Washington for Civil Rights

march

Washington, DC

1963

It featured the "I Have a Dream" speech by Martin Luther King, Jr.

Organization for African Unity or OAU

league

Africa

1963 to 2002

It was at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. African Union replaced it [2002].

Dominican Republic

state

Dominican Republic/USA

1965

USA helped military government.

SOCI>History>History>Nation>Asia

Harappa Ravi Phase

civilization

Ambala, India

-3300 to -2800

Neolithic culture was near Ravi River in south Punjab in northwest India, 400 miles up Indus River from Mohenjo-

Daro. It formed terracotta, used pictographs, herded, and grew wheat, barley, legumes, and sesame.

Lothal

civilization

Pakistan

-3000 to -1750

Neolithic culture was 400 miles south of Mohenjo-Daro and had docks and canals.

Mohenjo-Daro or Indus

civilization

Indus River

-3000 to -1750

Neolithic culture probably started when Dravidians entered Indus River valley. Mohenjo-Daro had 30,000 people in

four square miles, with sewers, irrigation from river, and wide streets in grid. It rained in summer but not winter.

Civilization had baked, not just sun-dried, brick houses, granaries, and public baths but no temples or palaces. It used

potter's wheels and had cotton spinning and weaving. It used pictograph writing on seals. Civilization influenced Sind,

Punjab, and Gujurat.

271

Shiva was god of creation. His consort was Parvathi.

Harappa Kot Dijian Phase

civilization

Ambala, India

-2800 to -2600

Neolithic culture had textiles, boats, ox carts, cubic weights, and religious symbols. Early Indus script was on square

clay seals or tags {bullae}. To make glazed pottery, steatite heated in kilns turned into cristobalite, enstatite, and

alumina. Ground quartz, ash, and copper-oxide or azurite coating can fuse to surface to make faience.

Harappa Harappa Phase

civilization

Ambala, India

-2600 to -1700

Neolithic culture had 30,000 to 80,000 people on 150 hectares, with well water, sewage system, walled streets, and

multistory houses. It had no army. It traded with Afghanistan and Central Asia.

Religion had Shiva-like god, mother-goddess, Nandi-like bull figure, and unicorn.

Indus script had 400 symbols.

Soapstone {steatite} inscriptions used stone drills of hard quartz, sillimanite, mullite from kilns, hematite, and

titanium oxide. Glass beads began [-1700].

Civilization ended when Ghaggar-Hakra River (Saraswati River) shifted course and dried out.

Harappa Painted Gray Ware Phase

civilization

Ambala, India

-2600 to -1700

Neolithic culture had glass bottles and iron items.

Indus River Valley or Indus Valley

civilization

Indus River/Pakistan/India

-2600 to -1700

Farmers from Pakistan settled by river. Writing began. City houses were in grid. Major towns among 1500 towns

were Mohenjo Daro (Mound of the Dead), Harappa, Rakhigarhi, Dholavira, Kot Diji, Ganweriwala, Chanhu Daro,

Shahr-i-Sokhta, and Lothal. They did not make large stone monuments but had local marketplaces and religious

festivals {sang, festival}. They did not bury the dead with luxury goods. The language is undeciphered. Earthquakes

and floods weakened it [-1700]. Later, Kassite people from northwest invaded [-1500], and cities decayed.

Shang or Yin

dynasty

China/Korea

-1766 to -1027

Anyang was capital. Panlung, Chengchow, Honan, Hupeh, and Shantung were fortified cities.

King owned all land, and leading clans were king's vassals. It had professional soldiers, chariots, coins, slaves,

burials, sacrifices, rituals, astronomy, and scribes.

Writing calligraphy used 5000 pictograph characters, each representing one syllable.

Ancestor worship began. Appointed people read oracles {shih}, turtle shells or bones inscribed with writing and then

cracked by heated pins.

Art had cast bronze statues and ceramics. They believed that the god of heaven anointed the king.

Perhaps, Shang and Olmec cultures met, because icons and architecture are similar.

Mohenjo-Daro or Indus

civilization

Indus River

-1750

Nation ended when river dried up or shifted by erosion or climate change.

272

Shang

civilization

Yellow River, China

-1500 to -1045

Nation used bronze for sacred vessels, chariots, and weapons. It ended when Zhou attacked [-1045].

Zhou or Chou

dynasty

Yellow River, China

-1045 to -256

Zhou kings replaced Shang. By tradition, Zhou period was happy period. They had to move capital [-771]. States

along Yellow River were T'si, Ts'in, and Ch'u. Wang Ch'eng was capital. It built earth-walled cities of nine square

kilometers.

Shang or Yin

dynasty

China/Korea

-1027

Nation ended when defeated by Chou or Zhou tribe from northwest China.

Latest Jomon or Final Jomon

civilization

Japan

-1000 to -300

It had rice in Kyushu.

Brahmana

civilization

India

-800 to -600

It is period in Vedic Sanskrit period or Vedic Age. Periods are Vedic period, Grhya period, and Puranic period.

Grhya period has Grhya Sutras.

Zhou

kingdom

China

-771

Capital moved east to near Luoyang in Honan or Hunan province.

China

kingdom

China

-771 to -481

Regional kings declared independence from Zhou.

Spring and Autumn Period

kingdom

China

-722 to -481

Spring and Autumn Annals [-600: possibly by Confucius, about Zhou Dynasty in Lu -722 to -481]

Kingdoms warred, and nobility weakened, resulting in more literacy and freedom of thought. Warring States Period

followed.

Warring States

state

273

China

-481 to -221

Seven kingdoms fought.

Dong Son

culture

Vietnam

-400 to -1

Dong Son iron culture lived in north center along Red River. It had bronze drums.

Champa

kingdom

Vietnam

-400 to 192

Cham culture lived in south center near Danang between Thua Thien and Dong Nai Rivers, used agate and jasper,

and had Hindu influences.

Oc Eo

culture

Vietnam

-400 to -1

Oc Eo culture was in south.

Maurya

kingdom

Punjab/Afghanistan

-322 to -184

Chandragupta defeated Nanda Dynasty of Magadha Kingdom and forced remains of Alexander the Great's army out

of India and Afghanistan. He subjugated Punjab and Kabul Valley. His minister was Canakya Kautilya. His capital was

Pataliputra, Patna, or Patma. Indo-European Aryan arts flourished.

Yayoi

civilization

Yayoi, Japan

-300

Merchants and settlers from Asia reached of Kyrushu Island in west Japan and spread to near Tokyo. It brought

bronze and iron metal tools, weapons, and vessels.

Van Lang

civilization

Vietnam

-300 to -200

Hung Vuong kings ruled north of Giang River to current China-Vietnam border.

Bactria

kingdom

Oxus River

-280

Greek soldiers set up kingdom.

Age of Confusion

state

China

-256 to -221

It existed from end of Chou dynasty until Ch'in dynasty unified China.

274

Au Lac

civilization

Vietnam

-250 to -179

An Duong Vuong founded it, in north center. It built Co Loa citadel. It ended when Nan Yue under emperor Zhao

Juo defeated it.

Vietnam

colony

Vietnam/China

-189 to 939

China ruled Vietnam.

Maurya

kingdom

Punjab/Afghanistan

-184 to -175

Brhadratha ended dynasty by assassination and started Sunya Dynasty.

Nan Yue

kingdom

Vietnam

-179 to -111

Emperor Zhao Juo took Au Lac. It ended when Han dynasty of China conquered.

Kushana or Kushan or Kusana or Indo-Scythian

kingdom

Mathura, India

-125 to 236

Buddhist tribe of Yueh-Chi, who had left China because Huns defeated Sunyas, entered India from China and

Central Asia and conquered down to Benares, India. Gandhara School of art flourished. Jaina and Buddhist art was at

Mathura. Nation revived [78 to 123].

Indus

civilization

India

-100

Bactrians, descendants of Alexander the Great's army, entered Indus River valley. Parthians and Scythians followed

later.

Southeast Asian

empire

Asia

1

City-states and empires began.

Fu Nan

culture

Vietnam

1 to 300

Fu Nan culture was in south in Mekong Delta and had Hindu and Buddhist influences.

Later Han [Han, Later] or Eastern Han or Han

kingdom

China

25 to 220

275

Nation defeated Thai Kingdom in Mekong River Valley. Annam became vassals, and Hsing-Nu (Huns) moved north

of Gobi Desert. Capital moved eastward from Chang'an to Luoyang. Guan Yu and two other Peach Garden Comrades

tried to save dynasty [200]. It used paper, stern rudder for ships, breast harness for horses for pulling loads, crossbow

with bronze lock, colored glazes, magnetic compass for temple construction, maps with grids, decimal calipers, and

earthquake recorders. Dynasty ended after civil war.

Yellow Turban

sect

China

184 to 205

Nation rebelled against Han dynasty.

Chola

kingdom

India

190

Nation was Hindu and was near Tanjore in south India.

Wei

kingdom

China

220 to 265

Nation was one of the Three Kingdoms. Hua Tuo was legendary doctor.

Three Kingdoms

kingdom

China

220 to 280

It came after Han Dynasty and had Wei [220 to 265], Shu [221 to 263], and Wu [222 to 280] kingdoms. It ended

when Wei dynasty began. It is part of Six Dynasties period.

Shu

kingdom

China

221 to 263

Nation was one of the Three Kingdoms.

Wu

kingdom

China

222 to 280

Nation was one of the Three Kingdoms.

Western Ch'in or Western Chin or Jin

dynasty

China

265 to 316

Nation began after the three Wei, Shu, and Wu kingdoms fell. Buddhism increased.

Sixteen Kingdoms or Shiliuguo

kingdom

China

304 to 439

They started at end of Jin Dynasty. Liu Yuan the Hun began Han kingdom [304] in north China. Five Barbarian

Peoples were Di, Jie, Qiang, Xianbei, and Xiongnu and were in north China.

276

Western Ch'in or Western Chin or Jin

dynasty

China

316

Nation ended in anarchy.

Eastern Ch'in or Eastern Chin

kingdom

China

317 to 420

It was one of Six Dynasties and was the first Southern Dynasty.

Northern Wei or Tuoba Wei or Yuan Wei

kingdom

China

386 to 581

It unified north China [440]. Xiaowen moved capital from Pingcheng or Shanxi to Luoyang [494]. It lost to Yang

Chien, who founded Sui dynasty.

north-south division

kingdom

China

386 to 589

Northern Dynasties and Southern Dynasties [420 to 589] came after Sixteen Kingdoms and before Sui Dynasty.

Liu Sung or Southern Song

kingdom

China

420 to 479

It was one of Southern Dynasties.

Southern Ch'i or Nan Ch'i

kingdom

China

479 to 502

It was one of Six Dynasties then one of Southern Dynasties. Hsiao Yen of Southern Ch'i dynasty [464 to 549] took

Nanking [501] started Liang Dynasty [502].

Liang

kingdom

China

502 to 557

Wu, Xiao Yan, Shuda, or Lian'er founded Liang Dynasty of Southern Dynasties. Jianwen and Yuzhang were later

emperors.

Eastern Wei

kingdom

China

534 to 550

Northern Wei, Eastern Wei, Western Wei, Northern Qi, and Northern Zhou were part of Northern Dynasty [386 to

581]. Toba Wei or Northern Wei dynasty [386 to 534] split into Eastern Wei [534 to 550] and Western Wei.

Western Wei

kingdom

China

535 to 557

277

Yuwen Tai killed Northern Wei emperor, but then Northern Zhou took throne.

Japan

civilization

Japan

538 to 800

Buddhist monks from China led Japanese court to adopt Buddhism as official religion. Slavery ended, universities

started, and civil service began.

Northern Ch'i

kingdom

China

550 to 577

Wen Hsuan Ti founded it. Capital was Yeh.

Caluyka

civilization

India

550 to 753

Caluykas flourished.

Khmer

kingdom

Cambodia/Laos

550 to 1450

Nation fought Siamese and other neighbor kingdoms. Angkor Thom was capital. Angkor Wat was temple,

influenced by Hinduism. Khmer Empire capital had two million people when it fell to attackers.

Northern Chou or Pei Chou

kingdom

China

557 to 581

It unified north China but lost to Yang Chien, who founded Sui dynasty.

Southern Ch'en or Nan Ch'en

kingdom

China

557 to 589

It was one of Six Dynasties and then Southern Dynasties, until Sui dynasty defeated it [589].

Indonesian Native Empires

empire

Indonesia

600 to 700

Hinduism and Buddhism flourished.

Tibet

kingdom

Tibet

600 to 700

Nation became independent kingdom.

Tang or T'ang

dynasty

China/Korea/Turkestan

618 to 907

278

Capital was at Ch'ang-an, in Shensi province in west China, with 2,000,000 people. Canton and Peking also had

2,000,000 people. Taitsung was main city. Korea was subject to China.

Tang dynasty revived Confucianism and reformed civil service. China banned all religions except Confucianism in

9th century, destroyed all monasteries, and taxed monks and nuns.

Small land available for peasants and more landless peasants caused peasant rebellions and military rebellions.

Paper money and printing began.

Pottery glazes had several colors. Poetry flowered. Imperial Academy of Letters started at Ch'ang-an [754].

Tang or T'ang

dynasty

China

626

Tang court became Buddhist.

Taika

reforms

Japan

646 to 784

Taika political and social reforms made government like that of China.

Rajput

kingdom

India

700

Rajputs, part of warrior caste, ruled northwest India.

Tang or T'ang

dynasty

Ch'ang-an, China

756

It defeated a rebellion.

Heian

kingdom

Japan

794 to 1185

Nation had increased independence from China.

Burma

kingdom

Burma

800 to 900

Settlers from Tibet came to Burma.

Tang or T'ang

dynasty

China/Korea/Turkestan

800 to 900

Nation started to decay.

samurai

warrior

Japan

800 to 1200

279

Warrior-class swordsmen and mounted archers {samurai}| helped local governments. However, they began to

control provinces [1000]. Minamoto and Taira were the most-powerful samurai families. Minamoto Yoritomo became

shogun [1192].

Chola

kingdom

India

880 to 1180

Cholas were a southeast-India Hindu people. They conquered south India, Sri Lanka, and up to Ganges River. They

used coins, had guilds, and allowed village assemblies.

Ten Kingdoms/Five Dynasties

kingdom

China

907 to 960

It started after Tang dynasty. Min was one kingdom. Sung dynasty ruled after.

Northern Han

dynasty

China

951 to 979

Nation was one of the Ten Kingdoms.

Sung

dynasty

China

960 to 1126

The general Taizu became first Sung emperor. Dynasty extended from Great Wall to Hainan and traded with India

and Persia along improved roads. Canton and Fuchow ports started. Dynasty had printing from wood blocks and started

printing from movable type. It used boat stern posts, had gunpowder, had water-driven spinning machines, and

produced iron. New rice type, allowing two crops a year, grew in hills after watering in spring.

Sung

dynasty

China

1126

Nation ended when Mongols overthrew it. Southern Sung Dynasty controlled south China.

Southern Sung

dynasty

China

1127 to 1279

Nation was in south China.

Chola

kingdom

India

1180 to 1200

Nation ended.

Kamakura

empire

Kamakura, Japan

1185 to 1333

280

Nation began when Minamoto Yorimoto of Minamoto clan defeated Tiara clan. He was first shogun and ruled from

army camp {bakufu}. Nobles ruled and emperor had little central authority. Samurai warriors became important.

Offices became hereditary.

Thailand

kingdom

Ayutthaya, Thailand

1200 to 1300

Thailand expelled native Khmers from Indochina.

Mongol Empire

empire

Mongolia

1206 to 1368

Nation started when Jenghiz Khan or Genghis Khan, Mongol-confederacy leader, conquered Mongolia. He took

most of north China [1215]. Population was 120,000,000 people in 1200, but 30,000,000 died in the conquest. He took

Turkestan, Transoxania, Persia, Afghanistan, and southeast Europe [1224]. Karakorum was first capital. Cambulac was

later capital. It had Buddhism, learning, art, and coal burning.

Authorities did not allow Chinese to marry Mongols, learn Mongol language, or have weapons.

Mongols were from Mongolia and Manchuria. Mongols had sky god.

Delhi Sultanate or Slave Sultanate

sultanate

Delhi, India

1206 to 1526

Nation began when Ghorids appointed Turkish slave, Qutb al-Din Aybak, after Turks conquered down to Ganges

River. Slave Kings ruled until 1287.

Mongol

empire

China

1211

Mongols, from central Asia, invaded China.

Mongol

empire

China

1215

Mongols took Beijing.

Mongol

empire

Iran

1219

Mongol invasions of Iran began.

Mongol

empire

Afghanistan/Iraq

1224

Mongols defeated Persia Kharazm-shahs, who were under Sultan Mohammad's protection, and ruled from Oxus

River to Euphrates River.

Mongol

empire

China

281

1234

Mongols defeated Chin in north China.

Mongol Empire

empire

Mongolia

1236 to 1255

Batu Khan took Kiev in Russia [1236] and then Moravia, Hungary, and Poland [1255].

Mongol

empire

Hungary

1241

Mongols took Hungary.

Mongol

empire

Tibet

1250

Nation overran Tibet.

Mongol

empire

Korea

1250 to 1354

Nation took Korea from China.

Mongol Empire

empire

Iraq

1255

Nation defeated Seljuk Turks and Abassid caliphs at Baghdad, killing last Abassid caliph and establishing Empire of

the Il-Khans.

Golden Horde or Khanate of the Golden Horde [Golden Horde, Khanate of the]

empire

Russia/Hungary/Poland

1255 to 1405

Nation started when Batu Khan, Genghis Khan's grandson, and Tatars took Russia, Poland, and Hungary. Sarai was

capital, near Volvograd. Sultaniyeh was in Persia [1304]. It was tributary to Mongols.

Mongol Empire

empire

Mongolia

1274 to 1292

Kublai Khan or Kubilai Khan defeated Sung Dynasty of China and took south China but not southeast Asia, though

he occupied it temporarily. He attacked Japan twice [1274] [1281], but typhoons {kamikaze} wrecked each of his fleets

in Japanese bays. He attacked Indonesia [1292].


empire

China

1279

Nation helped Batu Khan's brother Kublai Khan overthrow Sung Dynasty in south China.

Yuan

282

dynasty

China

1279 to 1368

Nation started when Kublai Khan, Mongol emperor, defeated Southern Sung Dynasty. It had postal system, roads,

canals, and trade. Civil service exams stopped until 1315.

Mongol

empire

Burma

1287

Kublai Khan took Burma.


empire


1300

Oljeitu Khan ruled.


empire


1314

Nation became Moslem.


sultanate

Delhi, India

1320 to 1412

Tughlak started Tughlakid rule. Tamerlane defeated Tughlakids [1398].

Vijayanagar

kingdom

India

1336 to 1550

Five Hindu brothers founded nation. Oldest was Harihara I. Vijayanagar was capital.

Ayutha or Siam

kingdom

Thailand

1350 to 1950

Nation was in south, grew to lowlands, and became Siam.

Mongol Empire

empire

Mongolia

1356 to 1368

Nation ended when member of Red Turbans secret society, Chu Yan-chang, took Nanking [1356] and Peking

[1368]. Mongols preceded Ming Dynasty.

Ming

dynasty

China

1366 to 1644

Nation started with Chu Yuanchang, former Buddhist monk, who defeated Mongols [1368]. It ruled from Korea to

Burma and discouraged trade and interactions with foreigners. It fired porcelain. 160,000,000 people were in China.

283

Yuan

dynasty

China

1368

Nation ended when beaten by Timurids in south China.


empire


1380 to 1405

War with Grand Duke of Moscow weakened it.

Ming

dynasty

China

1400 to 1500

Admiral Cheng Ho sailed to other lands.


empire

Crimea/Hungary/Poland/Siberia

1405

Nation split into Khanates of Astrakhan, Kazan, Crimea, and Sibir or Tartary or Siberia.

Ming

dynasty

China

1420 to 1421

Capital moved from Nanjing to Beijing.

Thailand

kingdom

Cambodia

1430 to 1450

Nation ended Khmer Empire in southeast Asia and sacked Angkor Wat [1431].

China eunuchs

party

China

1433

Eunuchs lost political fight to nobles. Boats were 100 meters long. However, it then forbid long voyages,

shipbuilding, and ships.

Ming

dynasty

Jingdezhen, China

1460

It exported Ming porcelain.

Ming

dynasty

China

1488

Nation rebuilt Great Wall.

Ming

284

dynasty

China

1500

European colonies were at Macao and Canton.

Uzbek

civilization

Asia

1512

Uzbeks defeated Timurids.

Ming

dynasty

China

1520

Ships did not go out of coastal areas, and people did not travel abroad.


sultanate

Delhi, India

1526

Nation ended when Mogul Dynasty took over Delhi Sultanate.

New Guinea

nation

Portugal/New Guinea/Papua New Guinea

1526

Don Jorge de Meneses of Portugal discovered it.

Mogul or Moghul

empire

India

1526 to 1857

Nation started when Baber or Babar, Moslem descended from Timur, took north India from Afghanistan.

Mogul or Moghul

empire

India

1530 to 1555

Humayun, Baber's son, fled but returned [1555].

Japan

nation

Portugal/Japan

1543

Portugal discovered Japan and brought guns.

Ming

dynasty

China

1544

Mongols attacked Peking.

Macao

colony

Macao, China

285

1557

Portugal settled at Macao.

Ming

dynasty

China

1580

China expelled Japan from Korea.

Burma

kingdom

Burma

1590 to 1605

Nation split into small kingdoms.

Korea

kingdom

Korea

1592 to 1598

Nation defeated invasions from Japan.

Philippines

nation

Philippines

1600 to 1700

As Spanish Empire waned, Catholic priests gained power.

Mogul or Moghul

empire

India

1605 to 1658

Shah Jehan or Shah Jahan took south India, built Taj Mahal, and expanded Agra and Delhi. He failed to push

Persians out of Kandahar.

Australia

continent

Australia

1616

Dutch explored it.

Indonesia

republic

Indonesia

1623

Dutch East India Company defeated Britain and controlled Indonesia.

Ming

dynasty

China

1627

It annexed Korea.

Ming

dynasty

China

1635

286

It took Inner Mongolia.

Mogul or Moghul

empire

India

1639 to 1700

British colonies started at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta. French colonies were at Pondicherry and Chandernagore.

Ceylon and East Indies were Dutch.

Indonesia

colony

Indonesia

1640

Portugal lost Indonesia to rebellions as Dutch East India Company helped push Portugal out of Indonesia.

Ming

dynasty

China

1644

Dynasty ended when Manchu peoples started Ch'ing Dynasty.

Manchu or Ching or Ch'ing

kingdom

China

1644 to 1912

North China (Manchuria) Manchu people took Shensi province [1644], Fukien province [1646], and Miao [1650].

Mogul or Moghul

empire

India

1658 to 1707

Aurungzebe or Aurangzeb ruled and tried to ban Hinduism.


dynasty

China

1662 to 1724

K'ang-hsi ruled. He took Annam [1666], Szechuan [1678], Yunnan [1681], Formosa [1683], Mongolia [1696], Outer

Mongolia [1697], Tibet [1720], and Sinkiang [1724]. Enameling began.

Mogul or Moghul

empire

India

1674

Maharattas became independent, under Shivagi, and allied with sultans of Deccan against Moguls.

Mogul or Moghul

empire

India

1707

Jahangir shared rule with British East India Company.


dynasty

China

1734

287

It took Lli region in west around Lake Baikal.


dynasty

China

1736 to 1796

Ch'ien Lung controlled north to Amur River and south to Indochina. He won Lli region in west around Lake Baikal

[1761], Burma [1769], and Nepal and Tibet [1792].

India

state

India

1751

France defeated England and held Madras, Carnatic, and Deccan.

Mogul or Moghul

empire

India

1756 to 1767

Robert Clive took Madras [1761], Northern Circars [1766], Calcutta and Bengal [1759] at Battle of Chinsura, and

Bihar [1757] at Battle of Plassy and Battle of Buxar [1764].

Mogul or Moghul

empire

India

1772 to 1785

Warren Hastings of England took Oudh [1801] from Mogul Empire.

Mogul or Moghul

empire

India

1784 to 1857

Moguls ruled India under system of Dual Control. East India Company ruled British north-central India {Raj} under

governors appointed by England.

Mogul or Moghul

empire

India

1786 to 1793

Cornwallis took Ceylon [1789], Salem [1792], and Malabar [1792] from Mogul Empire.

Australia

people

Australia

1788

England began to send prisoners to Australia.

Indonesia

republic

Indonesia

1798

Holland ruled Indonesia directly when Dutch East India Company ended.

Mogul or Moghul

empire

India

288

1798 to 1805

Wellesley took Fravancore [1795], Mysore [1799], Carnatic, Upper Doab [1803], Lower Doab [1801], Rohil Khand

[1801], Hyderabad or Nizam's Dominions [1800], Rajputana, Jaipur, and Lucknow. Wellesley fought Battle of Argaon

[1803] and Battle of Assaye [1803]. Maratha Confederacy held Gaikwar, Peishwa, Khandesh, Holkar, Orissa, and

Chota Nagpur.

Ceylon

colony

Asia

1800 to 1900


East Timor

colony

Asia

1800 to 1900


Goa

colony

Asia

1800 to 1900


Hong Kong

colony

Asia

1800 to 1900


Macao

colony

Asia

1800 to 1900


Singapore

colony

Asia

1800 to 1900


Thailand

kingdom

Thailand

1800 to 1900

Nation became independent but lost Cambodia and Laos.

Indonesia

state

Indonesia

1811

Britain took Indonesia from Holland.

Mogul or Moghul

empire

289

India

1813

East India Company lost trade monopoly in north-central India.

Mogul or Moghul

empire

India

1813

Missionaries first came to north-central India.

Indonesia

colony

Indonesia

1815

Netherlands regained Indonesia from Britain.

Mahratta

kingdom

India

1818

Mahrattas lost to Britain.

Tahiti

kingdom

Polynesia

1822 to 1842

It included Tahiti, Moorea, Meetia and Tetiaroa. It was French protectorate [1842 to 1880].

Australia

state

Australia

1829

Britain got all of Australia.

New Zealand

colony

New Zealand

1840

Treaty between Maori and Britain began New Zealand colony. Sheep wool was main export. Later, meat and milk

were exports.

Australia

colony

Australia

1850

Nation became self-governed.

Mogul or Moghul

empire

India

1850

Population was 200,000,000, with 70% Hindu, 20% Muslim, and the rest Buddhist or Christian.


dynasty

China

290

1851 to 1864

Taiping rebelled. 20,000,000 died as British General Gordon led Chinese soldiers against rebels.

Burma

colony

Asia

1852 to 1886

Britain colonized it in 1852 and 1886.

Mogul or Moghul

empire

India

1853

Nation built first railroad in India.


dynasty

China

1856 to 1858

Second Anglo-Chinese War ended with Treaty of Tientsin.

Andaman Islands

colony

Burma

1857


Mogul or Moghul

empire

India

1857

Saying grease on new cartridges used animal fat, Bengal soldiers revolted against the British. This preceded revolts

elsewhere {Indian Mutiny}. British suppressed revolts and deposed Mogul emperor. British government appointed

viceroy, and East India Company no longer ruled.

Vietnam

state

Vietnam

1857 to 1954

France began to conquer all of Vietnam and succeeded by 1890. Phan Boi Chau led Dong Du revolt. Phan Chu Trinh

and Dong Kinh Nghia Thuc were intellectual leaders. Nguyen Thai Hoc led revolt. Nguyen Ai Quoc (Ho Chi Minh)

started Indochinese Party [1930]. He led August 1945 Revolution, which proclaimed republic September 2, 1945. In

1946, France invaded, but later it lost at Dien Bien Phu [1954].


dynasty

China

1858 to 1860

Russia took back area around Lake Baikal [1858] and Amur and Ussuri [1860].

Cochin-China

colony

Asia

1859


291


dynasty

China

1859 to 1860

Third Anglo-Chinese War ended with French and British in control in Peking.

Cambodia

colony

Asia

1863


Indochina

kingdom

Indochina

1863 to 1893

France took it.

Australia

people

Australia

1867

Prisoners no longer went to Australia. Australia had 1,000,000 people.

Nicobar Islands

colony

Burma

1869


Australia

state

Australia

1870

British soldiers were withdrawn.

Malaya

colony

Asia

1874 to 1914

Britain colonized it in 1874, 1886, and 1914.

North Borneo

colony

Asia

1881


Tonkin

colony

Asia

1884


National Congress

party

292

India

1885

Nation wanted India to become dominion.

French Indochina

colony

Asia

1887


Sarawak

colony

Sarawak

1888


Guam

colony

Asia

1890 to 1900

USA colonized it.

Samoa

colony

Asia

1890 to 1900

USA colonized it.

Formosa/Pescadores Islands

colony

Asia

1895

Japan colonized it.

Kwang-Chow-Wan

colony

Asia

1898


Caroline Islands/Palau Islands

colony

Asia

1899


Philippines

colony

Asia

1899

USA colonized it.


dynasty

China

1900

293

Britain took Burma.


dynasty

China

1900

France took Annam.


dynasty

China

1900

Russia took back Manchuria by 1900.

Australia

independence

Australia

1901

Nation gained independence from England and formed federation.


commonwealth


1905

Australia got New Guinea (Papua).


dynasty

China

1905

Kuomintang, KMT, or National Peoples Party began.

Moslem League

party

India

1906

All-India Moslem League started with Aga Khan as leader.

New Zealand

independence

New Zealand/England

1907

Nation gained independence from England.


dynasty

China

1911

Nation ended when revolution overthrew last emperor, Pu Yi.

China

republic

China

1912

Nation formed under Sun-Yat-Sen when emperor abdicated.

294

Tibet

nation

Tibet/China

1912 to 1949

Nation became independent of China.

Twenty-one Demands

ultimatum

China

1915

Japan had Twenty-one Demands on China.

National Congress

party

India

1917

Gandhi and his supporters forced moderates out of National Congress party in India and started to work for full

independence from Britain.

May 4th Movement

boycott

China

1919

Nation boycotted Japanese goods.

National Congress

party

India

1919

Gandhi and National Congress party began passive resistance.

Mongolia

independence

Mongolia

1924 to 1946

Mongolian People's Republic started [1924] with Sino-Soviet treaty. China proclaimed Mongolia independent

[1946].

China

republic

Nanking, China

1928

Kuomintang set up government under Chang Kai-Shek after expelling Communists, who retreated north under Mao

Tse-Tung and Chu Teh.

Thailand

constitution

Thailand

1932

Nation became democracy but was still ruled by Chakkri Dynasty.

Burma

independence

Burma

1937


295

Thailand

state

Thailand

1938

Nation became dictatorship when military junta deposed king in coup.

Moslem League

party

India

1940

Moslem League stated that it wanted Moslem state.

North Vietnam

state

Vietnam

1945

Ho Chi Minh established North Vietnam and started war with France, which ended in 1954.

Vietnam

independence

Vietnam

1945

Nation became free of France.

Korea

partition

Korea

1945 to 1948

Nation had Russian and USA zones. Russian zone became Communist North Korea [1948], and USA zone became

democratic South Korea.

Indonesia

republic

Indonesia

1945 to 1949

Nationalists fought Netherlands and formed republic, which included Sumatra, Java, and Madura.

Philippines

independence

Philippines

1946

Nation became independent of USA. Ferdinand Marcos became president later.

Japan

occupation

Japan

1946 to 1951

Douglas MacArthur of USA ruled it.

India

independence

India

1947

Nation became independent of Britain and included mostly Hindu areas.

296

Pakistan

state

Pakistan

1947

Moslem state began. West Pakistan was in northwest India. East Pakistan was in east India.

Burma

republic

Burma

1948

Nation became republic.

Sri Lanka

independence

Ceylon

1948


Indonesia

independence

Indonesia

1949

Netherlands ended war against Indonesia republic.

Republic of China

occupation

Taiwan

1949

Nationalists under Chang Kai-Shek took over Formosa.

Tibet

occupation

Tibet

1949 to 1951

China took Tibet.

Burma

republic

Burma

1950

Karen native peoples revolted, followed by a military coup.

Japan

kingdom

Japan

1951

Nation became constitutional monarchy and signed peace treaty. Admiral Ridgway occupied it. Liberal Democratic

Party emphasized trade.

Cambodia

independence

Cambodia

1953

It became independent of France.

Laos

297

independence

Laos

1954

It became independent of France.

Netherlands West Indies

independence

Netherlands West Indies

1954

Nation became independent of Netherlands.

Indonesia nationalization

law

Indonesia

1956

Indonesia nationalized all Netherlands property, but economy faded.

Pakistan

republic

Pakistan

1956

It became republic but still was in British Commonwealth of Nations. Before, it was dominion.

Malaysia

independence

Malaysia

1957


Great Leap Forward

law

China

1958 to 1960

China collectivized all agriculture, but floods caused Great Leap Forward to fail [1960].

Singapore

independence

Singapore

1959

It became self-governing.

Geneva Conference

conference

Laos

1961

Conference diminished struggle of North Vietnam for control of Laos.

New Guinea

independence

New Guinea

1962

It became independent of Netherlands. Name became Papua New Guinea [1972 to 1975].

Singapore

independence

Singapore

298

1965

It became independent of Britain.

Cultural Revolution

law

China

1965 to 1969

Revolution followed Mao's ideas about philosophy, art, society, and revolution, led by Red Guards. Army restored

order [1969]. 500,000 people died.

Bangladesh

independence

Bangladesh

1971

East Pakistan broke from West Pakistan and renamed itself.

Vietnam

state

Vietnam

1973 to 1975

USA withdrew after signing Paris Agreements. Victory of Ho Chi Minh Campaign took Saigon [1975].

East Timor Annexation

annexation

East Timor

1976

Indonesia annexed East Timor.

SOCI>History>History>Nation>Asia>Middle East

Ur

civilization

Ur, Iraq

-3500

Bronze Age city-states had mud public buildings, priests, writing, agricultural organization, irrigation, pottery, and

metalworking.

Hamite or Hamitic

culture

Egypt

-3500 to -2000

Neolithic Semitic peoples lived there, followed by Hamitic peoples from northeast and north Africa.

Sumerian

civilization

Sumer

-3360 to -2350

Copper Age culture began when Eridu, Kish, Lagash, Uruk or Erech, and Ur city-states, each having tens of

thousands of people, united. Earthen banks, ditches, and canals drained water from marshes. Houses had reed and mud

platforms. Sun-dried mud bricks built fortified cities. It had government, contracts for marriages, divorce by men or

women, slaves, and trade to get copper and tin. Men shaved. People wore jewelry and furry skirts. People acquired

status. Advisers memorized and copied knowledge. Cylinder seals recorded transactions.

Egyptian

civilization

Nile River, Egypt

299

-3100

Nile is 1000 kilometers long and six to twenty kilometers wide and has regular flooding. Copper Age culture had

papyrus boats, flax textiles, plowing, raking, manuring, stone masonry, and copper hammering.

First Dynasty

kingdom

Egypt

-3100 to -2884

Old Kingdom dynasty included Menes.

Phoenician

civilization

Cornwall

-3000

Bronze Age culture reached west coast of England for tin trade. England is Tin Isles.

Semitic

civilization

Byblos, Lebanon/Ugarit, Syria

-3000 to -2500

Ugarit is now Ras Shamra, Syria.

Sumerian

civilization

Kish, Mesopotamia

-3000 to -2500

Bronze Age culture was east of Babylon.

Sumerian

civilization

Umma, Mesopotamia

-3000 to -2500

Bronze Age culture was east of Kish.

Sumerian

civilization

Abu Salabikh, Mesopotamia

-3000 to -2500

Bronze Age culture was southeast of Kish.

Sumerian

civilization

Lagash, Iraq

-3000 to -2500

Bronze Age culture was southeast of Umma in south Mesopotamia.

Semitic

civilization

Mari, Syria

-3000 to -2400

Bronze Age culture was near upper Euphrates River on trade route from Damascus to Babylon.

Second Kingdom

kingdom

Egypt

-2884 to -2686

300

Perhaps, 2nd Dynasty was from -2884 to -2664.

Sumer

kingdom

Sumer

-2800

Earliest dynasty began.

Semitic

civilization

Nabada, Syria/Tell Beydar, Syria

-2800 to -2350

Bronze Age Kranzhugel culture was near Khabur River and had fortifications around city, 600-meter-diameter wall

with four gates and 300-meter-diameter wall. It used Sumerian script and Old-Semitic language.

Old Kingdom or Upper Kingdom

civilization

Egypt

-2664 to -2155

In 3rd to 8th dynasties, Memphis was capital in Upper Egypt. Heliopolis was near Memphis. Saqqara was in Upper

Egypt, just south of Memphis. Hermopolis was much farther south, followed by Tel-el-Amarna. Thebes was much

farther south. Abu Simbel was far south.

Nubia is to west of Abu Simbel. Kush is to east of Abu Simbel.

Dams and canals regulated Nile River.

Upper class women wore nice clothes, had jewelry, had hairstyles, used cosmetics, were independent, and had good

treatment as wives and mothers.

Of two thousand gods, Horus was kings' god.

Ebla

civilization

Ebla, Syria

-2600 to -2300

Bronze Age culture was south of Aleppo, had 250,000 non-Semitic people, and used cuneiform writing with Semitic

language. Bronze Age culture used city planning. It traded with Mediterranean. King Ibrium was most-famous king.

Egyptian

civilization

Egypt

-2500

Cheops founded IV Dynasty. Other pharaohs built rest of pyramids and Sphinx.

Sumerian

civilization

Sumer

-2350

Nation ended when conquered by Sargon of Akkad.

Akkadian or Old Assyrian

empire

Akkad

-2350 to -2150

Nation began with Sargon I, as Semitic peoples conquered Sumer city-states in south Mesopotamia. 5000

professional soldiers used overlapping shields in front of protruding spears. Bows had horn and wood layers. Kings and

priests separated. Kings built palaces, commissioned art about war victories, and spread Semitic and Sumerian ideas.

Ebla

301

civilization

Ebla, Syria

-2300

Nation ended when conquered by King Naram-Sin of Akkad.

First Intermediate

civilization

Egypt

-2154 to -2052

In 9th to 11th dynasties, Thebes was capital. It settled Kush. It conquered Nubia for gold. Nubia is between first and

third cataracts of Nile. Copper came from Sinai.

Akkadian or Old Assyrian

empire

Akkad

-2150

Nation ended when Sargon I's grandson lost to Gutians from mountains.

Amorite/Gutian

civilization

Mesopotamia

-2150 to -2050

Semitic Amorites from Assyria and Caucasian Gutians ended Akkad Dynasty.

Middle Kingdom

civilization

Egypt

-2052 to -1786

In 12th Dynasty, Thebes was capital. Tombs in rock cliffs included King Tutankhamen.

Amorite/Gutian

civilization

Mesopotamia

-2050

Kings of Ur defeated Amorites and Gutians.

Third Dynasty of Ur or Sumer and Akkad

kingdom

Ur, Iraq

-2050 to -2000

Nation began when Akkadian kings of Ur conquered Gutians. It ruled area from Susa on lower Tigris, beside Elam,

to Byblos in Lebanon. It built large ziggurats.

Middle Kingdom

civilization

Egypt

-2000

Nation reached height.

Third Dynasty of Ur or Sumer and Akkad

kingdom

Ur, Iraq

-2000

Nation ended when conquered by Elam.

Hittite

302

civilization

Turkey/Syria/Babylon/Egypt

-2000 to -1200

Nation settled in Turkey with capital at Hattushash. First king, Hattusilas I, invaded Syria. Second king, Mursilis I,

destroyed Babylon [-1595] but someone killed him, and Hittites left Babylon. Suppiluliumas [-1380], king of Hittites,

invaded Syria and controlled to Canaan, Palestine. It ended when Aegean Sea peoples attacked from Asia Minor.

Hittite

civilization

Anatolia

-1800 to -1200

Iron-Age culture federated Cappadocia cities and had iron, horses, cavalry, cuneiform writing, and legal system.

First Babylonian

empire

Babylonia

-1792 to -1590

Iron-Age culture began when Hammurabi conquered Assyria Amorites and united Sumer and Akkad. It ruled

Nineveh and Nimrod on Tigris River, Mari on upper Euphrates River, and cities on Euphrates River up to Aleppo,

Syria. It was 700 miles long and 100 miles wide. It had commerce, learning, cuneiform writing, and monumental

buildings.

The goddess Ishtar was like the goddess Astarte. Bel-Marduk was chief god. People were gods' slaves.

Elam or Susiama

state

Persia

-1750 to -645

Nation started by revolt against Babylon. Susa, north of Persian Gulf, was capital.

Kassite

civilization

Mesopotamia

-1700 to -1500

Nation took horses from pastures north and east of Fertile Crescent, to pull two-wheel chariots with driver and

bowman.

Mitanni

kingdom

Urkesh, Syria

-1600 to -1400

Hurrian culture from east Anatolia settled near Khabur River.

First Babylonian

empire

Babylonia

-1590

Nation ended when reduced by Hittites and Kassites.

Hittite

civilization

Asia Minor/Syria

-1590

Nation conquered Babylon.

Kassite

civilization

303

Babylonia

-1590

Kassites from Zagros Mountains in Iran took Babylonia.

New Kingdom

civilization

Egypt

-1554 to -1075

In 18th to 20th dynasties, Thebes was capital. Abu-Simbel had temples and statues. School for scribes taught

honesty, respect for authority, discipline, application to study, and hieroglyphics. Food was emmer wheat, barley, and

vegetables. Common people used hieratic alphabet.

Kassite

civilization

Pakistan

-1500

Kassites took west Indus civilization, which had had floods and earthquakes.

Phoenician

civilization

Syria/Lebanon/Israel

-1500

People lived on east Mediterranean coast, grew cedar wood, corn, and olives and produced oil, wine, and cloth,

which they traded with Crete, Egypt, Cyprus, and Troy. It built Tyre and Sidon. Phoenicia had purple cloth, and

Phoenicia is Greek for "purple".

Hittite

civilization

Asia Minor/Syria

-1400 to -1350

Nation controlled from Levant to Persian Gulf.

Mitanni

kingdom

Mesopotamia

-1372 to -1340

Hittites drove Mitanni from west of Euphrates River.

Mitanni

kingdom

Mesopotamia

-1340

Nation ended when Hittites took whole kingdom.

Hittite

civilization

Asia Minor/Syria

-1290 to 1250

Nation conquered south to Egypt, fighting Ramses II.

Phoenician

civilization

Lebanon

-1250 to -331

304

Byblos, Baalbek or Heliopolis, Tyre, and Sidon were cities. Trade was among city-states around Mediterranean Sea

to Atlantic Ocean. They built ships, worked glass and metal, and wove and dyed cloth. Alphabet was basis for Greek

and Roman alphabets. Bel or Ba'al is Semitic Sun God. El is chief god.

Elam or Susiama

state

Persia

-1200

Nation peaked in west Iran.

Hittite

civilization

Asia Minor/Syria

-1200

Nation ended when Thracians, Phrygians from Thrace, and Assyrians broke it up.

Phrygian

state

Phrygia

-1200 to -700

Gordion was capital.

Old Assyrian

kingdom

Assyria

-1102 to -1000

Nation began when Tiglath Pileser I conquered most of Asia Minor. Nineveh was capital. Ashur was city. Hierapolis

was religious center on Euphrates River.

Phoenician

civilization

Utica, Italy

-1100

Phoenicians colonized Italy.

Lower Egypt

pharaoh

Egypt

-1085 to -945

Lower Egypt was separate from Upper Egypt.

Israel

kingdom

Israel

-1012 to 73

Nation began when King Saul conquered Canaan and King David defeated Philistines and others. Jerusalem was

capital. King Solomon followed David and built Temple in Jerusalem. Hebrews became monotheistic and began to

worship only their tribal god Yahweh. Other religions allowed worship of tribal god and other regional gods. Yahweh

was creator god, and people were highest creation. People can know good and evil and must have will to follow the law

of Yahweh.

Phoenician

civilization

Spain

-1000

Phoenicians colonized Spain.

305

Theban

kingdom

Thebes, Egypt

-1000

Priest-kings at Thebes became independent of pharaohs.

Old Assyrian

kingdom

Assyria

-1000 to -900

Nation ended by defeat by Babylon.

Sheba

kingdom

Arabia

-1000 to 500

Sabeans in south Arabia started it. It was wealthy and colonized Ethiopia.

Ma'in

kingdom

Arabia

-1000 to 525

Nation was in north Arabia.

Judah

kingdom

Judaea

-935 to -725

Kingdom of Judah, the Benjamin and Judah tribes in south at Jerusalem, fought Kingdom of Israel, the ten other

tribes in north at Samaria.

Hebrew

kingdom

Canaan

-926

Hebrew kingdom split into ten tribes of Israel in north at Samaria and Benjamin and Judah tribes in Judah in south

near Jerusalem.

Israel

kingdom

Samaria

-926

Ten tribes of Israel split from the Benjamin and Judah tribes, who stayed in Judah in south near Jerusalem.

Assyria

kingdom

Assyria

-911 to -612

Adadnirari II founded it. Main rulers were Sargon II, his son Sennacherib, his son Esarhaddon, and his son

Ashurbanipal. Esarhaddon had Sennacherib killed. It controlled trade routes, built palaces, and set stone tablets. Medes

and Babylonians conquered it [-612].

Phoenician

civilization

Cyprus

306

-900 to -800

Phoenicians colonized Cyprus.

Phoenician

civilization

Carthage, Tunisia

-900 to -800

Phoenicians colonized north Africa.

Phoenician

civilization

Cadiz, Spain

-900 to -800

Phoenicians colonized Straits of Gibraltar.

New Assyrian

empire

Mesopotamia

-860 to -612

Nation began when Ashurnasirpal III conquered to Mediterranean, using iron weapons, conscripted soldiers,

artillery, and cavalry with armor. Calah or Nimrud was capital on upper Tigris River. Khorsabad was capital. Nineveh

was capital. Harran in Assyria was another city. It used Aramaic language. Main god was Assur.

Phrygian

state

Phrygia

-800

Nation reached height.

Mede or Median

civilization

Media

-800 to -600

Indo-Europeans moved into west and northwest Iran.

Phoenician

civilization

Lebanon

-800 to -600

Nation had twenty-five colonies around Mediterranean.

Israel

kingdom

Samaria

-722

Nation ended when Assyrians destroyed Samaria and deported all Hebrews, resulting in dispersal of tribes {ten lost

tribes of Israel} {lost tribes of Israel}. However, Assyrians did not take Judah.

Phrygian

kingdom

Phrygia

-700

Nation ended when conquered by Lydia.

New Assyrian

empire

307

Egypt

-690

Assyrians conquered Egypt.

Lydia

kingdom

Lydia

-687 to -540

Gyges founded it. Sardis was capital. Gordium was city. It was first nation to use coins [-640].

Assyrian

civilization

Egypt

-671

Assyrians took Egypt.

Elam or Susiama

state

Persia

-645

Nation ended in west Iran when conquered by Assurbanipal.

Scythian

civilization

Crimea

-640 to -322

Nation started when warrior horsemen and nomads from central Asia invaded New Assyrian Empire and took

Palestine. Later, it fought Medes. It ended when it lost to Darius of Persia.

New Assyrian

empire

Mesopotamia

-625 to -620

Babylon, Chaldeans, Medes, and Egypt revolted.

Chaldean or Second Babylonian

empire

Babylonia

-625 to -538

Nation began with Babylonian revolt from New Assyrian Empire. It combined astronomy and mathematics. It ended

when defeated by Cyrus the Great of Persia.

Babylonia

kingdom

Babylonia

-612

Babylonians and Medes took the Assyrian capital, Nineveh.

New Assyrian

empire

Mesopotamia

-612

Nation ended when Medes destroyed Nineveh.

Mede or Median

empire

308

Iran

-612 to -538

In northwest Iran, Arbaces defeated Assyrians at Nineveh. Hamadana, then Ecbatana, then Nineveh became capital.

It used astronomy and magic. His successors fought against Babylonia to south, Scythians to north, and Lydians to

west. It ended when Cyrus the Great of Persia defeated it.

Phoenician

civilization

Lebanon

-600

Assyrians conquered Sidon and Tyre, so only Phoenician colonies remained.

Fars

kingdom

Persia

-600 to -550

Indo-Europeans moved to south of Iran, to Tigris River, and into Elam.

Babylonian Captivity

empire


-587

Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon destroyed Jerusalem and deported all people to Babylon {Babylonian Captivity}.

Magi

civilization

Persia

-549 to -331

Tribe of Medean priests became Persian Empire priests.

Persian

empire

Fars Region, Iran

-549 to -331

Nation began when Cyrus the Great conquered Media [-549], Lydia, Babylon, and Egypt [-525] and founded

Achaemenid Dynasty. Persepolis or Takht-e-Jamshid, Susa or Shush, Lorestan, Passargadae, and Ecbatana were

capitals. Persia used Assyrian-government structure, with independent satrapies under governor. It built road from Fars

to Aegean Sea and other roads. Aramaic was language. Persia had iron ore and hilly pastures for many horses.

Babylonian and Egyptian arts influenced Persian arts.

Lydia

kingdom

Lydia

-540

Nation ended when beaten by Cyrus the Great of Persia.

Chaldean or Second Babylonian

empire

Babylonia

-538

Nation ended when defeated by Cyrus the Great of Persia.

Mede or Median

empire

Media

-538

309

Nation ended when defeated by Cyrus the Great of Persia.

Phoenician

civilization

Lebanon

-400

Persians and Greeks ended Phoenician control of east Mediterranean.

Persian

empire

Fars Region, Iran

-331

Nation ended when Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeated Darius III at Gaugamela.

Phoenician

civilization

Lebanon

-331

Nation ended when conquered by Alexander the Great.

Seleucid

dynasty

Bablyon

-323 to -63

After Alexander the Great died, Seleucus I, general of Alexander, took Babylon and eastern lands conquered by

Alexander the Great. He took Anatolia and north Syria at Battle of Ipsus [-301] against Antigonus I of Macedon and

later defeated Lysimachus of Macedon. He conquered to Indus River. Greek became language of Near East. 200,000

people were in Antioch, Syria. 200,000 people were in Seleucia, new capital near Babylon.

Scythian

kingdom

Crimea

-322

Nation ended after being conquered by Alexander the Great.

Parthian or Arsacid

kingdom

Parthia

-250 to 224

Nation began when Pars under Arsaces revolted against Seleucids. Parthians were Indo-Europeans descended from

Scythians.

Seleucid

dynasty

Babylon

-246 to -241

Seleucus II lost to Ptolemy III of Egypt in Third Syrian War.

Seleucid

kingdom

Babylon/Anatolia/Syria

-223 to -187

Antiochus III the Great [-223 to -187] lost Battle of Raphia [-217], won Battle of Panium [-198] to control Coele-

Syria (Beqaa Valley of Lebanon), lost Battle of Thermopylae [-191], lost Battle of Magnesia [-190], and ceded much in

Treaty of Apamea [-188] with Rome. Galatia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus, Cappadocia, Armenia, Media, Mardia,

and Parthia became separate regions.

310

Galatian

civilization

Turkey

-200

Celts migrated to Turkey.

Seleucid

dynasty

Babylon

-175 to -164

Antiochus IV went to Egypt, but Roman threats forced him to withdraw. Maccabees revolted in Judea.

Judaea

kingdom

Judaea

-143 to -60

Nation became independent under Jewish rule. Jews had developed synagogues for reading and teaching law. Jews

developed the idea of Day of Judgment and salvation.

Judaea

kingdom

Judaea

-60 to -14

Rome took Judaea and set up overseer. Jews spread over Mediterranean in the Diaspora.

Parthian or Arsacid

empire

Parthia

-55

Parthians defeated Romans. Parthians approached on horseback, then turned around, and then shot arrow {Parthian

shot}|. Parthian horsemen and horses had chain-mail armor.

Parthian or Arsacid

kingdom

Parthia

-50

Nation extended into India.

Parthian or Arsacid

kingdom

Persia

-38 to 225

Nation lost to Rome and started decline.

Israel

kingdom

Palestine

73

Nation ended when Rome destroyed Jerusalem.

Judaea

people

Judaea

135

Hadrian ordered all Jews out of Judaea.

311

Parthian or Arsacid

kingdom

Persia

224 to 225

Nation ended when Ardashir I or Artaxerxes of Fars revolted, killed last Parthian king, and founded Sassanian

Empire.

Byzantine

empire

Constantinople, Turkey/Greece/Asia Minor/Balkan Peninsula

395 to 1453

Roman Empire divided into east and west for last time after Theodosius the Great's death, when he gave half to his

two sons, followed by religious struggles over doctrine.

Byzantine

empire


426

Law of Citations, of Theodosius II and Valentian III, allowed citations only from five famous jurists: Julian, Gaius,

Papinian, Paul, and Ulpian.

Sheba

kingdom

Arabia

500

Nation ended in south Arabia when conquered by Ethiopia.

Byzantine

empire

Italy

533

Belisarius, Byzantine general, controlled east and south Italy after defeating Vandals, who then merged into

population.

Byzantine

empire


552

Justinian I of Byzantine Empire defeated Ostrogoths.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire

empire

Arabia/Syria/Iraq/Egypt

632 to 1517

Nation started when Abu Bakr led theocracy as caliph and conquered all Arabia in two years [634]. He then attacked

Damascus and Sassanids in Persia.


empire

Syria/Egypt

635 to 642

Nation captured Damascus, Syria, and Egypt.


empire

312


638

Nation took Jerusalem.


empire

North Africa

640 to 711

Arabs conquered Berbers of North Africa.


empire

Egypt

642

al-Fustat was new capital of Egypt.


empire

Persia

642

Nation took Persia.


state

Middle East

644

Nation controlled whole Middle East, except Byzantine Empire.

Byzantine

empire


650 to 700

Nation lost Italy, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Africa, and Sicily to Moslem Conquest.


empire

Egypt

652

Nubians and Arabs agreed to Aswan on Nile River as boundary.


empire

Tunisia

670

Nation invaded Tunisia, which was part of Byzantine Empire.


empire


672

Nation attacked Constantinople.


empire

Byzantium

674 to 678

313

Nation besieged Constantinople by land and sea but failed. Byzantine army used Greek fire at sea.


empire

Tunis, Tunisia

697 to 698

It destroyed Byzantine city at Carthage and built new city of Tunis nearby.


empire

Africa

700

It took Carthage and north Africa. Moroccans {Moors} and Berbers became Moslem. It absorbed north-Africa

Maghreb Christians.


empire

India

711

Omayyads conquered Sind and founded Muslim state in India.


state

Damascus, Syria

715

Nation was at greatest extent, with Damascus as capital.


empire


717

Nation attacked Constantinople, which had 500,000 people.


empire

Toulouse, France

721

Nation took Toulouse.


empire

Iraq

740 to 750

Nation lost to Khazars in Caucasus.


empire

India

750

Nation defeated Maitraka Dynasty.


empire

Baghdad, Iraq

800

Senbad tried to avenge death of Abu Moslem.

314


empire

East Africa

800 to 900

Arabs and Persians explore East African coast and set up trading stations at Malindi, Mombasa, Kilwa, and

Mogadishu.

Byzantine

empire

Balkan Peninsula

800 to 900

Cyril and Methodius tried to convert Slavic peoples.


empire

Iran

822

Babak revolted against Moslems.

Byzantine

empire

Balkan Peninsula

900 to 1000

It enslaved Slavs.


empire

Sicily

902 to 1050

Arab Moslems from north Africa took Sicily.

Fatimid

caliphate

Cairo, Egypt

909 to 1171

Fatimite sect set up caliphate in Africa, which first conquered Libya and Cyrenaica [909], and then Sicily, west

Arabia, Palestine, and Syria. Fatimite sect of Islam believed that only direct descendants of Fatima, Mohammad's

daughter, were true caliphs.

Buyides

kingdom

Persia/Iraq

945 to 1055

All-e Buyeh took Baghdad [947].

Buyides

kingdom

Persia/Iraq

950 to 1000

The warrior Mardavij led.

Buyides

kingdom

Persia/Iraq

950 to 1050

315

The writer Ghabus-e-Voshmgir led.

Buyides

kingdom

Persia/Iraq

1000 to 1055

Kaykavoos Ebn Eskandar was leader.

Byzantine

empire

Bulgaria

1018 to 1186

Byzantine Empire took Bulgaria.

Seljuk Turk

empire

Afghanistan

1050 to 1100

Muslim Turks from central Asia defeated Ghaznavids, went to Persia, and reached Baghdad. Abbasid caliph named

leader Tughril Beg regent and sultan. Seljuk Turks invaded Asia Minor [1065] and Turkish language and people

followed.

Seljuk Turk or Sultanate of Rum

sultanate

Asia Minor/Syria/Palestine

1072 to 1130

Nation began when Toghrol defeated Byzantine Empire at Manzikert, after attacking Greece from both north and

east. It built Friday Mosque at Isfahan [1088]. Seljuk Turks are Mongoloid peoples from south Siberia and Turkestan.


sultanate


1080 to 1090

Alp Arsalan followed Toghrol. Nezam-ol Molk or Nezamiya was vizier of Alp and built many schools for Islam.


sultanate


1097

Nation defeated First Crusade under Peter the Hermit.

Seljuk Turk

empire

Middle East

1099

Nation took Palestine. It attacked Christians on pilgrimages. Byzantine emperor appealed for help, and the pope

[1095] called a crusade.


empire

Africa/Niger/Somalia

1100

West Africa, Niger, and Somalia became Islamic.


sultanate

316


1130

Nation ended when Baldwin I and Baldwin II of Byzantine Empire defeated Seljuk Turks in north Syria.

Fatimid or Fatimite

caliphate

Cairo, Egypt

1171

Nation ended when Saladin overthrew Fatimite caliph Nureddim and started Ayyubite Dynasty.

Ottoman

civilization

Bursa, Turkey

1200 to 1300

Ottoman Turks or Osmanli Turks settled in Turkey under Orkhan. Bursa was capital.

Latin Empire of Constantinople

state


1204 to 1261

Nation started when Fourth Crusade army defeated Byzantine Empire at Constantinople.

Ottoman

empire

Near East

1250 to 1453

Ottoman Turks tried to take Constantinople for 200 years.

Mameluke

sultanate

Cairo, Egypt

1250 to 1517

Nation started when Emir Eibek killed the Ayyubite sultan. Mamelukes were Turkish and Circassian soldier-slaves

of Fatimite caliphs and Ayyubite sultans. Bahrite Dynasty of Turks and Mongols ruled [1250 to 1382]. Burjite Dynasty

of Circassians ruled [1382 to 1517].

Byzantine

empire


1261

Greek Orthodox Church and Byzantine Empire separated entirely from west at end of Latin Empire of

Constantinople. Byzantine Empire got only part of Greece.

Latin Empire of Constantinople

state


1261

Nation ended when Byzantine Empire regained power with help from Osmanli Turks or Ottoman Turks.

Mameluke

sultanate

Palestine

1291

Nation ended Crusader States.

Osmani or Ottoman

317

principality

Turkey

1326

Principality was northeast of Turkey. Osman ruled it. Bursa was Ottoman capital.

Ottoman

empire

Bursa, Turkey

1326 to 1922

Osman I took Bursa, capital of Mongols in Asia Minor, to begin empire.

Ottoman

empire

Bursa, Turkey

1361 to 1389

Murad I or Amaruth I took Adrianople [1361], won at Skopje [1371], and fought at Larisa, Thessalonika, Seres,

Philippopolis, Sophia, Turnovo, and Nicopolis [1393], and fought at Widin [1389]. He got tribute from Byzantine

Empire. He defeated Serbs and Bulgarians at Kossovo or Nish [1389].

Timurid

empire

Samarkand, Kazakhstan/Persia/Afghanistan/India/Levant

1369 to 1450

Nation started when Tamerlane or Timur Lang, Mongol, became Khan and conquered Persia, India down to Delhi,

south Russia, and Levant. Samarkand was capital. Harat or Herat, Afghanistan, was main city.

Ottoman

empire

Asia Minor

1390

Nation conquered Asia Minor.

Ottoman

empire

Bursa, Turkey

1396 to 1423

Bajazet I or Bayazit I or Bayazid I took east Anatolia, defeated Christians at Nikopol [1396], and besieged

Constantinople [1402] but lost to Tamerlane at Ankara (Angora). Tamerlane sacked Bursa in northwest Turkey [1423].

Timurid

empire

India

1398

Tamerlane defeated Tughlakids of Delhi Sultanate.

Timurid

empire

Iraq

1410 to 1450

Turkomans captured Baghdad and western lands from Timurids. Turkomans and Uzbeks then raided deep into

empire [1450].

Byzantine

empire

Turkey

1450

318

Nation had only Constantinople and some land west. It had Romanus gate.

Ottoman

empire

Istanbul, Turkey

1453

Muhammed II or Mehmet II took Constantinople, which became the capital Istanbul.

Ottoman

empire

Greece

1456 to 1821

Ottoman Empire took all of Greece.

Ottoman

empire

Serbia/Macedonia

1459

It annexed Serbia and Macedonia, but Montenegro remained independent.

Ottoman

empire

Bosnia

1463

Ottoman Empire took Bosnia.

Ottoman

empire

Istanbul, Turkey

1481

Nation took Balkan Peninsula, Trebizond and Karamania in Asia, and part of Khanate of Crimea.

Ottoman

empire

Istanbul, Turkey

1500

Nation lost Belgrade, Albania, and Rhodes to Knights Hospitalers.

Ottoman

empire

Albania

1501

Ottoman Empire took Albania from Venice.

Ottoman

empire

Moldavia

1504

Ottoman Empire took Moldavia after King Stephen the Great of Moldavia died.

Ottoman

empire

Iran

1514

Safavids and Ottomans warred.

319

Mameluke

sultanate

Cairo, Egypt

1517

Nation ended when conquered by Ottoman Turks under Selim I.

Ottoman

empire

Istanbul, Turkey

1517

Selim I took Egypt and Syria from Mamelukes and assumed caliphate as Sunni. He also captured Kurdistan from

Persia and took Mecca and Medina.

Ottoman

empire

Croatia

1526 to 1699

Ottomans ruled Croatia.

Ottoman

empire

Istanbul, Turkey

1527

Suleiman I the Magnificent took Belgrade [1527], Rhodes, Arab north African coast [1528 to 1541], and Persia. He

defeated Magyars of Hungary at Mohacs [1526] and later took control of Hungary to Budapest and into Moldavia.

Barbarossa commanded his fleet, which controlled Mediterranean Sea. He did not take Malta. He besieged Vienna

[1529]. He lost Tunis to Charles V of Austria.

Ottoman

empire

Istanbul, Turkey

1571

Nation lost at sea at Lepanto, west Greece, to Spain and Venice.

Ottoman

empire

Istanbul, Turkey

1583

Nation besieged Vienna, but siege was broken.

Ottoman

empire

Istanbul, Turkey

1600 to 1826

Janizaries, abducted Christian soldiers, had harsh training and later gained power and controlled who became sultan.

Empire had bribery and corruption.

Ottoman

empire

Istanbul, Turkey

1673

Nation tried to take Venice.

Ottoman

empire

Istanbul, Turkey

320

1699

Treaty of Karlowitz gave Venice, Poland, and Holy Roman Empire most of Turkish Europe.

Ottoman

empire

Istanbul, Turkey

1730

Religious leaders {ulema} spread revolt.

Egypt

colony

Africa

1800 to 1900


Ottoman

empire

Istanbul, Turkey

1826

Janizaries all died.

Ottoman

empire

Istanbul, Turkey

1852

Crimean War stopped Russia slightly, but Bulgaria, Bosnia, Hercegovinia, Montenegro, and Serbia rebelled against

Ottomans.

Ottoman

empire

Istanbul, Turkey

1876

Midhat Pasha declared a constitution [1876], but Abdul-Hamid II ended it.

Ottoman

empire

Istanbul, Turkey

1878

Russia and Romania declared war against Ottomans, and Treaty of San Stefano gave more territory to Russia and

freed Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro.

Kuwait

state

Kuwait

1899

Nation became British protectorate.

Ottoman

empire

Istanbul, Turkey

1913

Nation lost all European lands after Balkan Wars. Enver Pasha of Young Turks became dictator.

Egypt

state

Egypt

321

1914

Nation became British protectorate.

Ottoman

empire

Istanbul, Turkey

1914

Turkey fought on side of Germany in World War I and succeeded in Gallipoli campaign.

Iraq

state

Iraq

1915

Britain occupied Iraq, helping it against Ottoman Empire.

Ottoman

empire

Turkey

1918.10

Ottoman Empire agreed to armistice.

Iraq

state

Iraq

1920

Britain gained mandate over Iraq.

Levant States

state

Syria/Lebanon

1920

France gained control over Levant States of Syria and Lebanon.

Egypt

independence

Egypt

1922

Under Wafd party, it became independent of Britain.

Ottoman

empire

Istanbul, Turkey

1922.06

Nation ended when Kemal Ataturk replaced Sultan and led Turkey.

Jordan

emirate

Jordan

1923

Nation became emirate under Abdullah.

Lebanon

republic

Lebanon

1926


322

Jordan

state

Jordan

1928

Britain gained mandate over Jordan.

Iraq

independence

Iraq

1932

Nation became independent of Britain. Later, Faisal II became king.

Syria

republic

Syria

1941

Nation united territories into republic.

Syria

independence

Syria

1944


Jordan

independence

Jordan

1946


Israel

state

Israel

1947

United Nations divided Palestine into Jewish state, Arab state, and international area around Jerusalem. Jewish state

was from Haifa to Sea of Galilee down to Gaza and Gulf of Aqaba and over to Dead Sea. Arab state was on west bank

of Jordan River and in Gaza Strip.

Egypt

republic

Egypt

1952

Naguib and Nasser led democracy after deposing King Farouk.

Iraq

junta

Iraq

1958

Military junta ruled after military coup.

United Arab Republic

state

Egypt/Syria

1958 to 1961

Egypt and Syria combined.

323

Egypt

law

Egypt

1962

Egypt nationalized most industries.

Iraq

coup

Iraq

1963

Military junta ruled after coup.

White Revolution

revolution

Iran

1963

Nation nationalized some industries.

Ba'ath Party

coup

Iraq

1970

Nation took over.

Islamic Republic

republic

Iran

1979 to 1989

Ayatollah Khomeini started Islamic Republic in Iran after shah left. He died in 1989.

Egypt

state

Sinai Peninsula

1981

Israel returned Sinai Peninsula to Egypt.

Iraq

war

Iraq

2003

USA invaded and deposed Saddam Hussein.

SOCI>History>History>Nation>Europe

Minoan or Cretan

civilization

Minos, Crete

-3000 to -1470

Bronze Age culture began when sea trade united Greek islands. Era of peace followed. Pictograph writing became

linear writing. Minos was legendary king of Crete. They used bronze, were rich traders, and built towns, ports, and

palaces. Pottery has bird and fish designs. Mycenaeans from Plain of Argos in east Greece invaded and settled Crete [-

1450], ending Minoan civilization.

Aegean

civilization

324

Crete/Mycenae, Greece/Pylos, Greece/Troy, Asia Minor/Cyclades Islands, Crete

-3000 to -900

Bronze Age culture included Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations.

Middle Minoan Period

civilization

Crete

-2000 to -1570

Bronze Age culture had palaces at Knossus, Phaistos, and Mallia. Cretan alphabet came from Semitic language

Phoenician alphabet.

Luvian

civilization

Crete

-1700 to -1600

Nation brought Linear A alphabet.

Mycenaean

civilization

Argos, Greece/Mycenae, Greece/Pylos, Greece

-1600 to -1120

Lion Gate [-1250: in Mycenae]

Mycenaeans lived on Plain of Argos in east Greece and built towns with defensive walls, as at Tiryns, Pylos, and

Mycenae. After Minoan civilization fell, they occupied Crete [-1450] and took over sea trade. It had warriors, fortress-

like palaces, and massive royal tombs, like Treasury of Atreus. It traded with Sicily and Italy. They founded colonies at

Rhodes and Cyprus. They changed Minoan script into Greek alphabet. Invaders destroyed Mycenae [-1120].

Middle to Late Minoan or Cretan

civilization

Crete

-1570 to -1425

Nation followed Early Minoan or Cretan civilization and had palaces at Knossus, Phaescus, and Hagia Triada. It had

sea trading and navy.

Druid

civilization

Britain

-1500 to -75

Celts, including Druids, came to Britain. Stone Age people built dolmen.

Middle to Late Minoan or Cretan

civilization

Minos, Crete

-1470 to -1425

Nation ended when volcano island Thera erupted, making tidal waves and ash.

Celt or Kelt

civilization

Europe

-1200 to -400

Nation was in west-central Europe. Lugh was greatest hero. Bel, Baal, or Beil was chief god. Holidays were Beltane

or May Day and Halloween.

Mycenaean

civilization

Mycenae, Greece

325

-1120

Greeks destroyed Mycenae.

Etruscan

civilization

Italy

-1000 to -900

Peoples from Asia Minor, probably Lydia, founded it in north and central Italy.

Aegean Sea Islands

colony

Greece

-1000 to -800

Greeks established colonies.

Mycenaean

state

Mycenae, Greece/Pylos, Greece

-900

Nation ended by movements of Dorians.

Sparta

city-state

Sparta

-900 to -600

Dorians founded it in south Greece.

Aeolian

civilization

Greece

-800

Nation was in Asia Minor east of Lesbos, including Phocaea on coast and Sardis inland.

Etruscan

civilization

Italy

-800

Nation was group of city-states in west-central Italy.

Greek

civilization

Cumae, Italy/Tarentum, Italy/Heraclea, Italy/Crotona, Italy

-800

Greeks colonized it. Crotona is also Croton.

Greek

civilization

Magna Graecia

-800

Greeks colonized north Greece.

Greek

civilization

Spain

-800

Greeks colonized Spain south coast.

326

Hallstatt

kingdom

Bohemia/Austria/Bavaria

-800 to -700

Nation was a warrior culture.

Greek or Hellenic

civilization

Greece

-800 to -338

Big city-states were Athens, Sparta, Thebes, Corinth, Samos, and Miletus. Athens is famous for pottery. Athens,

then Corinth, and then Thebes were dominant. Greeks traded at Caere in west-central Italy, Naucratis in Egypt on

Mediterranean, and Daphnae in Egypt at top of Red Sea.

Politicians began, along with rhetoric. Citizens met in assemblies to decide actions. Foreign traders and artisans were

not citizens. Women and slaves were not citizens. Women stayed at home, wore veil when they went out, did not speak

to anyone outside home, did not own property, and did not go to school. Schoolboys memorized literature, wrote, took

music, and did gymnastics. People consulted Delphic oracle. Gods were like humans, not animals.

Latin

civilization

Rome, Italy

-753 to -509

Traditionally, Romulus was first king, and Romulus and Remus founded it [-753]. It is on Tiber River. Etruscans and

Latins settled there. Kingdom ended, and Roman Republic began [-509], with two consuls, elected for one year.

Syracuse

colony

Syracuse, Sicily

-735

Greeks founded colony.

Etruscan

civilization

Italy

-700 to -396

Peoples from Balkans founded it. Etruria, Umbria, and Latium were cities. It used Greek alphabet. Elba Island and

Italy had iron ore. They had iron tools and pottery. People wore togas. Warriors fought contests. Oracles read animal

entrails. Wolf was totem.

Cyrene

colony

Cyrene, North Africa

-650

Greeks founded colony.

Greek or Hellenic

civilization

Greece

-650

Aristocrats or landholders, who bought horses and hoplite soldiers, ruled city-states. Soldiers had armor, helmets,

spears, shields, and formations.

Athens

city-state

Athens, Greece

327

-620

Nobles and priests {eupatrid} formed Council of Areopagus, which was chief criminal court and appointed

magistrates and officials. Middle classes included skilled workers and tradesmen {demiurgoi} and farmers {georgoi}

but had little power. Draco codified laws.

Athens

city-state

Athens, Greece

-600

Recession caused many free farmers to lose land. Because land had divided among heirs so often, plots were too

small for profit.

Greek or Hellenic

civilization

Byzantium/Olbia, Turkey/Chalcedon, Black Sea/Trapezios, Black Sea/Sinope, Greece

-600

Greeks colonized Asia Minor and Black Sea.

Greek or Hellenic

civilization

Massilia, France

-600

Greeks colonized France.

Greek or Hellenic

civilization

Paestum, Italy/Crotona, Italy/Catania, Italy

-600

Greeks colonized Italy.

Greek or Hellenic

civilization

Syracuse, Sicily

-600

Greeks colonized Sicily.

Greek or Hellenic

civilization

Tarshish, Spain

-600

Greeks colonized Spain. Current name of Tarshish is Cadiz, Spain.

Greek or Hellenic

civilization

Almina, Syria

-600

Greeks colonized Syria.

Sparta

state

Sparta, Greece

-600

Nation began when Lycurgus set up military state.

Assemblies held power. Smaller assembly, Gerousia, had 30 men, all older than 60, elected by ballot from among

propertied men {homoioi} that had finished military service. Larger assembly, Appella, had all free men over 30 and

only accepted or rejected Gerousia suggestions.

328

Sparta had five elected magistrates, two kings, and 1000 families of citizens. One king was for religion, and one king

was for war. The police {Krypteia} were under upper class {ephor} and policed lower classes {helot}.

Currency used iron. Rulers banned silver, gold, and arts. Workers manufactured only simple things. Rulers divided

all land equally.

Rulers encouraged having more children but killed infant boys if they were not healthy. At age 7, boys left home and

stayed in public school. Only men over age 30 stayed with their wives. All men ate together, in small groups. Families

raised women strictly.

Etruscan

civilization

Italy

-600 to -500

Nation confederated Tarquinii, Caere, Veii, and Clusiam. Caere had 25,000 people. Oligarchies ruled.

Athens

city-state

Athens, Greece

-510

Revolt deposed the tyrant Hippias.

Roman Republic

republic

Rome, Italy

-509 to -48

Nation started when Lucius Junius Brutus overthrew Tarquin Dynasty of Etruscan kings and started Roman

Republic. Brutus became consul. As tribute, local kings had to supply men for army. Property-owning citizens also had

to serve in army. Citizens faced conscription. Noble patrician families ruled at first. Later, Senate ruled. Senate elected

two Consuls to govern as magistrates for one year. Tribunes championed the people.

Greek or Hellenic

civilization

Greece

-500

Warrior class developed and tyrants ruled city-states {polis}.

Iberian

civilization

Spain

-500

Celts invaded Spain.

Roman Republic

republic

Rome, Italy

-500 to -400

Republic subdued nearby Samnite and Latin city-states.

Celt or Kelt

civilization

France/Spain

-500 to 1

Nation developed from west-Europe and central-Europe Altai and Hallstatt peoples. Celts invaded Spain -500. They

had Celt language and writing. They had hill-forts, used horses, and worked iron. Supreme sky god had many powers.

Cernunnos was Celtic fertility god. Taranic was sun god and thunder god. Dagda was the Good God.

Athens

329

city-state

Greece

-480

Xerxes burned Athens.

Delian League

league

Greece

-478 to -404

Athens was dominant city-state. Athens forced 150 other cities to pay for the fleet, eventually by treaty [-449].

Athens

city-state

Athens, Greece

-462

Council of Areopagus powers went to ekklesia and juries. Archons became powerless. Instead, ekklesia elected ten

generals {strategoi}.

Roman Republic

republic

Rome, Italy

-451

Senate appointed ten men {Decemviri} {Ten Men} to write laws. Decemviri published a law code {Code of the

Twelve Tables} that gave equality to all classes and depended on clan customs. After finishing, Decemviri refused to

resign, ruled tyrannically, and abused power. Senate soon regained power.

Roman Republic

republic

Rome, Italy

-449

Plebeians elected tribunes, who later vetoed laws. Veto {veto} means "I forbid it".

Etruscan

civilization

Italy

-400

Greeks took Campania and Elba.

Etruscan

civilization

Italy

-396

Nation ended when conquered by Romans.

Roman Republic

republic

Rome, Italy

-390

Gauls sacked Rome.

Macedonian

kingdom

Macedon

-358 to -146

Nation began when Philip II organized administration and armies, using gold taken from Thrace. Alexander the

Great was Philip II's son. Alexander's generals ruled after his death, until descendants lost to Romans.

330

Greek or Hellenic

civilization

Greece

-338

Nation ended when Macedonia defeated Greeks at Chaeronea.

Hellenistic

civilization

Greece/Alexandria, Egypt/Syracuse, Sicily/Pergamon, Asia Minor

-331 to -323

Greek trade, ideas, and art spread throughout Middle East. Wealthy enjoyed comforts, literature, and learning.

Alexandria, Syracuse, and Pergamon (Pergamum) were cultural centers. 200,000 people were in Alexandria.

Macedonian

kingdom

Macedon

-330 to -323

Alexander the Great took Babylon, Persepolis, Medea, Parthia, Bactria, and Samarkand from Scythians. He went

down Indus River Valley in west India, then went along Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf to Babylon, and died there.

Macedonian

kingdom

Macedon

-323 to -190

After Alexander died, Successors or Diadochi, Alexander's generals, fought each other, until Antigonus II conquered

Macedon and united Greece.

Roman Republic

republic

Rome, Italy

-281 to -275

Romans defeated King Pyrrhus of Epirus and controlled central and south Italy.

Roman Republic

republic

Rome, Italy

-253

First plebian became chief priest {pontifex maximus}. He offered public legis-actiones instruction, and lawyer

profession began.

Roman Republic

republic

Sardinia/Corsica

-238

Sardinia and Corsica became subject to Rome.

Syracuse

siege

Syracuse, Sicily

-212

Romans besieged and took Syracuse. Archimedes died during siege.

Warrior Society

state

Europe

331

-200

Celtic myths described Celtic heroes, heroines, kings, and druids. Vikings had warrior societies.

Roman Republic

state

Rome, Italy

-200 to -100

Small farmers had heavy military taxes. Landowners took small-farmer lands and formed large estates. Money

collected by Rome mostly went to landowners and businesses.

Roman Republic

republic

Egypt

-168

Egypt had to pay tribute.

Roman Republic

republic

Macedon/Greece

-147 to -146

Rome took over Macedon and Greece.

Macedonian

kingdom

Macedon

-146

Nation ended when Philip V lost twice to Rome, and Perseus lost to Rome in Macedonian Wars. Macedonia became

first Roman province.

Roman Republic

republic

Spain/France/Syria/Egypt/Greece/Asia Minor

-133

It controlled Pergamon (Pergamum) and Greece. Rome took north Spain and south France. Rome defeated Philip V

of Macedon, Antiochus III of Syria, and Egypt. Senate ruled. The plebians or people received more rights. Rome

became wealthy but not for plebians.

Roman Republic

republic

Gaul

-121

Rome took south Gaul and named it province of Narbonensis in southeast France.

Roman Republic

republic

Parthia

-92

Parthia stopped Roman soldiers at Euphrates River, where Parthians ruled.

Roman Republic

republic

Rome, Italy

-90 to -88

Marsic War or Social War forced Rome to give citizenship to all free Italians and ended with government-authority

reestablishment.

332

Roman Republic

republic

Rome, Italy/Numidia

-88

Caius Marius fought Jugurtha, king of Numidians, but Sulla got army command.

Roman Republic

republic

Judah

-63

Romans conquered Judah.

Roman Republic

republic

Rome, Italy

-60 to -55

Julius Caesar organized the First Triumvirate with Pompey and wealthy Crassus. Caesar championed the people

against Senate. He also divorced his second wife Pompeia after her scandal with Clodius.

Roman Republic

republic

Switzerland

-58

Rome took Helvetia and Rhaetia.

Roman Republic

republic

France

-51

Rome took all of Gaul.

Roman Republic

republic

Rome, Italy

-31

End of republic began when Octavian (Augustus) defeated Antony and Cleopatra at Actium.

Roman Republic

republic/empire

Austria/Hungary

-15 to 10

Rome defeated Celts and controlled Pannonia and Dacia.

Roman Principate

empire

Judaea

-14

Rome took direct control over Judaea.

Roman Principate

empire

Rome, Italy

-14 to 68

Julian-Claudian Dynasty of emperors ruled.

Roman Principate

333

empire

Rome, Italy

-14 to 284

From Augustus to before Diocletian {Principate}, emperor was Senate leader. The popular assembly had little

power. During Principate, old Roman law became consistent, refined, and practical. Legal scholarship began.

Papacy

state

Rome, Italy

29 to 2003

Nation began with St. Peter, first bishop of Rome. Today, pope rules Holy See from Vatican. College of Cardinals,

each of whom also has a See, selects pope. Church claims that he is representative of Christ, Vicar of Christ or

Vicegerent of Christ. In Catholicism, bishop of Rome is main bishop, because Jesus had designated St. Peter, who

became bishop of Rome, church leader {Petrine supremacy, Catholicism}.

Roman Principate

empire

Mauritania

40

Rome took it and controlled north Morocco and northwest Algeria.

Roman Principate

empire

Sudan

61 to 63

Roman force explored Nile River Valley.

Great Fire

fire

Rome, Italy

64

The people believed that Christians had angered Roman gods, blamed Christians, and persecuted them by burning

them or by exposing them to beasts in the arena. Perhaps, Peter and Paul died then.

Pax Romana

peace

Rome, Italy

69 to 180

Death of Emperor Marcus Aurelius ended Pax Romana.

Roman Principate

empire

Britain

85

Rome under Agricola conquered south Britain.

Roman Principate

empire

Rome, Italy/Near East

130 to 300

It persecuted Christians for failing to follow law and make sacrifices to emperor and Roman gods. By 300, one-tenth

of Roman Empire was Christian.

Roman Principate

empire

Rome, Italy

334

138 to 180

Antonines ruled. Rome had 1,000,000 people.

Roman Principate

empire

Rome, Italy

249

Christian persecution resumed.

Roman Principate

empire

Europe

250 to 300

Rome fortified towns, as Alemanni raided to Milan and Goths reached Greece.

Roman Dominate

empire

Rome, Italy

305 to 400

In empire after Diocletian {Dominate}, emperor was absolute ruler. Emperor had agencies for finance, legislation,

administration, and his household.

The imperial bureaucracy and treasury did not use old legal forms. Edicts set administrative law. Imperial legislation

replaced all other laws. Individual judicial decisions were not laws, except by imperial decree.

High taxes forced peasants into semi-slavery {colonate}, as tenants to large landholders. Empire had monopolies,

fixed peasantry, and closed job groups. Economic system resembled feudalism.

Roman Dominate

empire


324

Constantine the Great reunited eastern and western Roman Empires.

Roman Dominate

empire


330

Constantine the Great moved capital to Constantinople (formerly Byzantium).

Roman Dominate

empire

Britain

407

Romans left Britain.

Aquitaine

kingdom

France

500 to 600

Franks conquered west and central Europe and formed separate Kingdom of Aquitaine.

Austrasia

kingdom

France/Germany/Netherlands

500 to 600

Franks conquered west and central Europe and formed separate Kingdom of Austrasia.

335

Burgundy

kingdom

Burgundy

500 to 600

Franks conquered west and central Europe and formed separate Kingdom of Burgundy.

Essex

kingdom

Britain

500 to 600

Saxons and Angles settled in Britain.

Frankish

kingdom

France

500 to 600

Franks held area around Paris.

Neustria

kingdom

France

500 to 600

Franks conquered west and central Europe and formed separate Kingdom of Neustria.

Orleans

kingdom

France

500 to 600

Franks conquered west and central Europe and formed separate Kingdom of Orleans.

Sussex

kingdom

Britain

500 to 600

Saxons and Angles settled in south Britain.

Wessex

kingdom

Britain

500 to 600

Saxons and Angles settled in west Britain.

Frankish

kingdom

France

520

Franks defeated Ostrogoths north of Alps.

Lombard

kingdom

Lombardy

568 to 772

Nation began when Lombards under King Albion took north Italy. Pavia was capital.

Lombard

kingdom

336

Lombardy

600 to 700

Nation conquered north-central Italy. Liutprand led at height. They accepted Christianity and Latin culture.

Viking Age

civilization

Denmark/Sweden

600 to 1100

Scyld was first king of Denmark. Njord was father of Freyr and Freyja. Freyr is ancestor of the kings in Yngling

Saga of Iceland. Old Danish king tombs are at Leire or Roskilde in Denmark. Birka, Sweden, was another town.

Vikings had ship burials. Cult of Thor was strong. A three-way knot {Valknut} was in weaving and on stone carvings.

Northumbria

kingdom

England

664

Northumbrian king favored Roman Church over Celtic Church.

Spain

kingdom

Spain

672

Many kingdoms fought, causing anarchy.

Venice

city-state

Venice, Italy

697

Venice became a republic, with an elected doge (duke).

Celtic/Gaelic

kingdom

Tara, Ireland

700

Provinces were Ulster, Munster, Leinster, Connaught, and Meath. Cormac Mac Art was famous king.

Norse or Northmen or Norman or Dane or Viking

civilization

Ireland

700

Nation began raiding Ireland.

Viking

civilization

Scandinavia

700 to 800

Nation had trade and agriculture. It grew barley and oats and had cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and poultry. People lived

in longhouses near coasts. It built ships. It had a runic alphabet and carved messages on wood, metal, and stone. It had

assemblies {thing, assembly} {nation, thing} to decide laws and judge crimes. Criminals became slaves for

Scandinavian farms or farms abroad. As population increased, 800, Vikings raided coasts of Britain, Ireland, and

France.

Moorish Kingdom

kingdom

Toledo, Spain/Cordoba, Spain/Seville, Spain

711 to 740

337

Nation began when north African nomads, Moors, converted to Islam, invaded Spain under Berber King Tarik, and

defeated last Visigoth King Roderick [715]. Then Moors captured Lusitania (Portugal). They failed to take Kingdom of

Asturias in north Spain. There was no strong central government.

Bulgar

kingdom

Bulgaria

716

Bulgars moved into Balkans and north Greece.

Papal States or Patrimony of St. Peter

state

Ravenna, Italy

756

Papal States began when Pepin the Short gave Ravenna and Adriatic Coast of Italy to Pope. Patrimony of St. Peter

was land in Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia that Constantine I supposedly had given to Pope in the Donation.

Lombard

kingdom

Lombardy

772

Desiderius attacked Rome, but Charlemagne defeated Lombards.

Viking

civilization

Britain

787

Vikings raided British coast.


civilization

England

793

Vikings attacked England. English nobles paid raiders {Danegeld}.


civilization

Ireland

795

Nation attacked Ireland.

Moravia

kingdom

Moravia

800

Moravia took Bohemia, Silesia, south Poland, and north Hungary. Poland, Bohemia, and Moravia became Catholic

Christian.

Burgundy

kingdom

Switzerland

800 to 900

Nation took part of Switzerland.

Swabia

kingdom

338

Switzerland

800 to 900

Nation took part of Switzerland.

Pictish

kingdom

Scotland

830 to 843

Nation was in east and north.

Gwynedd

kingdom

Wales

830 to 850

Rhodri Mawr the Great, prince of Gwynedd, defeated Vikings and England, and ruled Wales.


civilization

France

842

Nation attacked Nantes.

Dalriada

kingdom

Scotland

843

King Kenneth Mac Alpin was in west. He forced Vikings out, defeated Pictish kingdom, and became Pict king

[843].


kingdom

Scandinavia/Normandy/England/Russia

843 to 1035

Nation overpopulation caused raids on Britain's coast and Europe's north coasts. Vikings had shipbuilding, sailing,

and pagan mythology. Norse are Danes in England, Varangians in Russia, and Norsemen, Northmen, or Normans in

rest of Europe.


civilization

Spain

844

Nation attacked Seville.


civilization

Iceland

850

Nation colonized Iceland.


civilization

Italy

859

Nation attacked Nimes and Pisa.

Flanders

339

county

Flanders

862

Flanders became county under France.

Varangian

kingdom

Novgorod, Russia

862

Nation founded Novgorod, first town in north Russia, on Ilmen River, and attacked Khazars and eastern Slavs.

Leader was Rurik. Varangians were Norsemen.

Dane

civilization

England

865

Danes took England.

Varangian

kingdom

Russia

900

Main Varangian town was Kiev or Kiev Rus, on Dnieper River. Varangians were Norsemen.


civilization

Germany

900 to 962

Nation attacked Germany and divided it into feudal domains.

Croatia

kingdom

Croatia

900 to 1000

Croatian kingdom began.

Western Caliphate or Caliphate of Cordoba

caliphate

Spain

900 to 1000

Nation started under Omayyeds when al-Mansur took almost all Spain.


caliphate

Spain

910

Nation reached peak under Abdu-r-Rahman III, with university at Cordoba.

Frankish

kingdom

Germany

911

Last Carolingian king died, and small kingdoms began. Other main kingdoms were Franconia, Saxony, Bavaria, and

Swabia. Smaller kingdoms were Frisia in northwest; Lower Lorraine in northwest; Upper Lorraine in west; Thuringia

in east; Carinthia, Carniola, and Styria in southeast; Austria in east; Moravia in east; Bohemia in east; and Pomerania in

northeast.

340


civilization

Iceland

930

Nation formed an assembly {Althing}.

Arles

kingdom

France

933 to 1378

Nation formed in Burgundy and Provence.

Holy Roman Empire

empire

Italy/Germany

962 to 1806

Otto I united France and Germany, and the pope crowned him emperor [962]. German princes at Aachen or Aix-la-

Chapelle chose emperor, and then the pope crowned him at Rome. Before preceding prince died, nobles elected heir.

Diet assembly met irregularly to control empire. Church became dominant, and crucifix became powerful symbol.

Bohemia

state

Bohemia

962 to 1918

Silesia and Moravia became part of Bohemia.

Luxembourg

duchy

Luxembourg

963 to 1437

Lucilinburhuc Castle [963] gives it its name. After 1437, Bourbons, Habsburgs, Hohenzollerns, and France ruled it.

Congress of Vienna associated it to Netherlands as Grand Duchy, as it is today.

Varangian

kingdom

Russia

986

Nation became Christian. Vladimir was king.

Norman

civilization

Greece

1000 to 1100

Normans attacked Greece.

Varangian

kingdom

Kiev, Russia

1000 to 1100

Russian Primary Chronicle

Iaroslav the Wise ruled Kiev Rus. Varangians merged with Slavs and raided Volga River area and Byzantine

Empire, entering Greece.

Holy Roman Empire

empire

341

Italy/Germany

1000 to 1200

Emperors absorbed feudal-lord duchies {stem duchies}. Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Lotharingia were

still under feudal lords, and Frankfurt, Regensburg, and Augsburg remained free cities, so Holy Roman Empire was

still confederation.

Sweden

kingdom

Sweden

1000 to 1658

Denmark controlled South Sweden.

Genoa

city-state

Genoa, Italy

1000 to 1815

Nation was sea power.


caliphate

Spain

1031

Nation ended when another caliphate took over.

Scotland

state

Scotland

1034

Nation became united at current size.


kingdom

Scandinavia/Normandy/England/Russia

1035

Nation ended when Canute died.

Normandy

kingdom

Normandy

1035 to 1166

Nation was in north France.

Castile and Leon

kingdom

Spain

1037

Spanish kingdoms united.

Normandy

kingdom

Sicily

1072 to 1091

Normans conquered Sicily.

Croatia

kingdom

342

Croatia

1091

Hungary ruled Croatia.

Norman

kingdom

Italy/Sicily

1091

Normans under Robert Guiscard and Roger I took south Italy and Sicily.

Lotharingia

kingdom

Belgium

1100

Belgium was part of Lotharingia.

Bosnia

kingdom

Bosnia

1100 to 1200

Nation became kingdom.

Venice

republic

Venice, Italy

1100 to 1200

Venice helped Byzantine Empire against Normans of Greece. Venetian traders were then like Byzantine citizens,

traded all over empire, and controlled all trade between Europe and East.

Holy Roman Empire

empire

Holy Roman Empire

1100 to 1300

It chartered the free cities.

Milan

republic

Milan, Italy

1163 to 1796

Nation started after Frederick I of Holy Roman Empire destroyed Milan.

Lombard League

league

Lombardy

1167

Lombard League of towns formed, led by Milan. It fought against Frederick I of Holy Roman Empire for Pope

Alexander III.

Brabant

duchy

Belgium

1183 to 1430

It was in Netherlands and Belgium and includes Brussels.

Bulgaria

kingdom

343

Bulgaria

1186

Bulgaria, under Ivan I, regained independence from Byzantine Empire.

Teutonic Order of Knights

society

Germany

1190 to 1286

Nation began to defend Christian lands in Palestine and Syria. Teutonic Knights conquered Poland, Silesia, and

Prussia: Lubeck, Brandenburg, Prague, Dresden [1216], Thorn [1231], Marienwerder [1233], Elbing [1237], Berlin

[1237], Stettin [1243], Danzig by 1250, Frankfurt [1253], and Königsberg [1286].

Lorraine

kingdom

France

1200

Belgium was part of lower Lorraine.

Urbino

republic

Urbino, Italy

1200 to 1508

Montefeltro family led Urbino.

Venice

republic

Venice, Italy

1204 to 1797

Nation began when Venice took Crete, Cyprus, Dalmatia, Venetia, Negroponte, and Greek islands. Venice built

strong navy and defeated Egyptian navy. Canals run between islands in lagoon. Beach is the Lido. Rialto Bridge and

Bridge of Sighs are famous, as are Palace of the Doge (duke) and St. Mark's cathedral.

Serbia

kingdom

Serbia

1217

Nation became kingdom.

Lombard League

league

Lombardy

1226

League formed again.

Cordoba

state

Cordoba, Spain

1236

Christians took Cordoba from Moslems.

Florence

republic

Florence, Italy

1237 to 1737

344

Nation became autonomous after Frederick II of Holy Roman Empire defeated second Lombard League. It was

Guelph city, supporting Papacy, but split into black and white Guelphs. It had silks, wools, and jewelry. It has Uffizi

Gallery and Florence Cathedral.

Hanseatic League

organization

Germany

1241

Lübeck and Hamburg formed an association (Hansa) for trade and mutual protection.

Holy Roman Empire

empire

Germany

1250 to 1273

Robber barons, nobles, and kings split Germany.

Norway

kingdom

Iceland/Greenland

1262

Nation gained Iceland and Greenland.

Naples

kingdom

Naples, Italy

1266 to 1435

The pope gave it to Angevins after Papacy defeated Hohenstaufens of Holy Roman Empire. Naples also controlled

Albania.

Holy Roman Empire

empire

Austria/Slovenia

1276

Ottocar II of Bohemia lost Austria to Rudolph I of Hapsburg. Slovenia was part of Austria.

Milan

republic

Milan, Italy

1277 to 1395

Visconti family ruled Milan.

Genoa

republic

Genoa, Italy/Pisa, Italy

1284 to 1815

Nation started after wars with Venice and Pisa that ruined navy. Ghibelline city Pisa lost to Guelph city Genoa.

Walachia

state

Walachia/Moldavia

1290

Nation became principality.

Switzerland

confederation

Switzerland

345

1291

Three provinces of Switzerland confederated to be independent of Hapsburgs of Holy Roman Empire.

Lithuania

duchy

Ukraine/Belorussia

1300 to 1386

Gedimin and Olgerd, grand dukes of Lithuania, took Ukraine and Belorussia. Lithuania had unified to stop Livonian

and Teutonic Knights.

Bosnia

state

Bosnia

1300 to 1400

Bosnia got Hercegovina from Serbia.

Venice

republic

Venice, Italy

1310

Council of Ten began rule.

Hanseatic League

league

Germany

1320 to 1330

League defeated Waldemar IV, king of Denmark, and Magnus VII, king of Norway and Sweden, to control trade in

north Europe. Albert of Mecklenburg replaced Magnus VII and his son Haakon VI in Norway and Sweden.

Genoa

duchy

Genoa, Italy

1339

Elected-for-life dukes {doge} ruled Genoa.

Burgundy

kingdom

Flanders

1384

Burgundy took Flanders.

Bohemia

kingdom

Hungary

1386

Bohemia ruled part of Hungary.

Poland

kingdom

Hungary

1386

Poland ruled part of Hungary.

Switzerland

confederation

Switzerland

346

1388

Switzerland confederation expelled Hapsburgs.

Walachia

kingdom

Walachia/Moldavia

1394

Nation became kingdom. Landowners {boyar} ruled serfs.

Milan

duchy

Milan, Italy

1395 to 1450

The pope declared Milan a duchy.

Kalmar Union

kingdom

Denmark/Sweden/Norway/Iceland

1397 to 1523

Nation started after Queen Margaret of Denmark defeated Sweden and put Eric of Pomerania on Swedish throne.

Sture family ruled behind throne, when Margaret of Denmark's son ruled all three kingdoms, including Iceland.

Florence

republic

Florence, Italy/Pisa, Italy

1406

Guelph city defeated Pisa, Ghibelline city, and smaller cities.

Genoa

duchy

Genoa, Italy

1408

Merchants formed bank to finance voyages and commerce.

West Africa

nation

Portugal/West Africa

1420 to 1450

Nation explored west coast of Africa.

Naples

kingdom

Naples, Italy

1442

King of Aragon got Kingdom of Naples.

slave trading

law

Lisbon, Portugal

1442 to 1500

First slave market for African slaves began. By 1500, Portugal had taken 150,000 slaves.

Moldavia

kingdom

Moldavia

1450

347

Nation became kingdom, including Bessarabia and Bukovina.

Genoa

duchy

Genoa, Italy

1450 to 1500

Nation fought with France and Milan, had civil strife, and lost all colonies by 1500.

Venice

republic

Venice, Italy

1450 to 1500

Nation declined after fighting Ottomans.

Austria

duchy

Austria

1453

Austria became grand duchy.

Bohemia

kingdom

Bohemia/Hungary

1471

Kings of Hungary began rule of Bohemia.

Moscovy

duchy

Moscow, Russia

1480

Ivan III freed it from Mongols or Tatars.

Florence

republic

Florence, Italy

1494

Savonarola was religious reformer, expelled Medici, and got Charles VIII of Spain to invade Italy. Florence hanged

him after riots.

Milan

duchy

Milan, Italy

1494 to 1535

Different leaders ruled during Italian Wars.

Switzerland

republic

Switzerland

1499

Switzerland provinces became free of Holy Roman Empire.

Finland

duchy

Finland

1500

Finland became grand duchy.

348

Genoa

duchy

Genoa, Italy

1500

Spain took over.

Portugal

discoverer

Portugal

1500 to 1600

Portugal discovered Indonesia and Indochina and ruled, because native empires were no longer powerful.

Portugal

kingdom

Ethiopia

1500 to 1600

Portugal took Ethiopia.

African colonies

colony

Africa

1500 to 1700

Portugal, Holland, Britain, and France colonized Africa.

Moscovy

duchy

Lithuania

1505 to 1550

Dukes of Muscovy defeated Lithuania.

Urbino

duchy

Urbino, Italy

1508 to 1626

Della Rovere dukes led Urbino.

Oceania

nation

Portugal/Oceania

1511

Portugal explored Pacific Ocean.

Field of the Cloth of Gold

conference

Flanders

1520

Henry VIII of England allied with France. Other kings were there.

Prussia

kingdom

Prussia

1525

Prussia became Protestant under Poland.

Silesia

349

kingdom

Silesia/Austria

1526

Silesia became Austrian province.

Milan

duchy

Milan, Italy

1535 to 1713

Spain took Milan [1535] in Italian Wars.

Spain

kingdom

Madrid, Spain

1559 to 1584

Palace of Escorial

Palace of Escorial built.

Sweden

kingdom

Estonia

1561

Sweden took Livonia (Estonia) from Livonian Knights.

Netherlands

kingdom

Netherlands

1568 to 1648

Nation fought for independence from Spain.

Florence

republic

Florence, Italy

1569

Cosimo I or Cosimo de Medici became Duke of Tuscany through pope's order. Florence was at wealthiest.

Polish-Lithuanian Kingdom

kingdom

Poland/Lithuania

1569

Polish and Lithuanian kingdoms merged.

Venice

republic

Venice, Italy

1571

Nation participated in Battle of Lepanto, stopping Ottoman Empire in Mediterranean.

Poland

kingdom

Poland

1572 to 1795

Jagiello Dynasty ended by election as diet got strong powers.

Catholic League

league

350

France

1576

Duke of Guise led League, which opposed Henry III.

Union of Utrecht

state

Netherlands

1579

Holland and northern provinces of Utrecht, Artois, Zeeland, and Friesland united.

United Provinces

state

Netherlands

1581

Holland and northern provinces declared independence from Spain, as they fought Spain.

Holy Roman Empire

empire

Germany/Austria

1592

Emperors received crown at Frankfurt, with no pope.

Holy Roman Empire

empire

Florence, Italy

1600

Hapsburgs controlled it.

potato

food

England

1600 to 1700

Americas exported potatoes to England.

standing army

army

England

1600 to 1700

United States established a standing army. Before that, armies assembled only in war.

United Provinces

state

Netherlands

1648

East and West Indies Companies of United Provinces built trade and colonial empire. Jews and Huguenots took

refuge. House of Orange was stadholder and alternated rule with republicans.

Genoa

duchy

Genoa, Italy

1650

Austria took over.

Protectorate

state

England

351

1653

Cromwell dissolved Rump Parliament, formed Barebones Parliament, and established Protectorate. He tried to form

league of Protestant nations. When he passed Navigation Act, first Dutch War started. The struggle for foreign trade led

to war with Spain.

Prussia

kingdom

Prussia/Poland

1660

Elector of Brandenburg freed Prussia from Poland.

Russia

kingdom

Ukraine

1667

Russia gained Ruthenia.

Hungary

kingdom

Hungary

1683

Hapsburgs of Austria and Holy Roman Empire got east Hungary from Ottoman Empire after Poland helped lift siege

of Vienna.

Croatia

kingdom

Croatia

1699

Hungary regained Croatia.

Genoa

duchy

Genoa, Italy

1700

France took over.

Moldavia

state

Moldavia

1700

Greek Phanariot governors {hospodar} ruled province of Ottoman Empire from Constantinople.

Walachia

state

Walachia

1700

Greek Phanariot governors from Constantinople ruled province of Ottoman Empire.

Prussia

kingdom

Prussia

1701 to 1871

Nation began when Hohenzollern Elector of Brandenburg crowned himself king, as Frederick I, and united

Brandenburg and Duchy of Prussia.

Russia

352

kingdom

Estonia

1710

Russia took Livonia.

Milan

duchy

Milan, Italy

1713 to 1796

Austria took Milan.

Venice

republic

Venice, Italy

1715

Nation lost Greek islands to Ottoman Empire.

Quadruple Alliance

league

Italy

1718

Quadruple Alliance of England, France, Austria, and Germany formed against Spain to prevent takeover of Italy.

Hats/Caps

party

Sweden

1721

Hats wanted to fight Russia. Caps wanted to negotiate with Russia. The factions struggled.

Holy Roman Empire

empire

Florence, Italy

1737

Hapsburgs became dukes of Tuscany.

Prussia

kingdom

Prussia

1740 to 1786

Frederick II fought War of the Austrian Succession and gained Silesia, fought Seven Years War, gained west Poland

and west Prussia in first Polish partition, and fought War of the Bavarian Succession.

Russia

kingdom

Moldavia/Wallachia

1768

Russia took Moldavia and Wallachia from Ottoman Empire.

Russia

kingdom

Moldavia/Wallachia

1770 to 1800

Russia defeated Ottoman fleet and controlled to Dniester River and Black Sea.

Paris Commune

government

353

Paris, France

1789

Paris Commune began governing Paris. National Guard formed under Marquis de Lafayette.

Estates General

legislature

France

1789.05

King Louis XV called Estates General, to change finances. Led by the people and merchants {third estate}, it

declared itself National Assembly and took Oath of the Tennis Court to write constitution. King agreed, then dismissed

the minister Necker, and then reinstated him.

National Assembly

legislature

France

1789.08 to 1789.12

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

Assembly ended rights of nobles. Mob went to Versailles and took king and National Assembly to Paris.

Legislative Assembly

legislature

France

1791

In Legislative Assembly, Girondists were moderate, Jacobins were moderates under Lafayette and Mirabeau, and

Cordeliers were radicals under Danton and Desmoulins.

First Republic

republic

France

1792

It executed Louis XVI and his queen Marie Antoinette. French Revolutionary calendar began. Vendée royalists and

provincials revolted. Reign of Terror began. Convention expelled Girondists. Jacobins became powerful and radical

under Robespierre and Saint-Just. They eliminated the radical Cordeliers Marat, Hébert, and Danton. Revolutionary

Tribunal and Committee of Public Safety used guillotine freely.

Directory

government

France

1794

New constitution founded Directory.

National Convention

conference

France

1794

National Convention stopped Robespierre.

Milan

duchy

Milan, Italy

1796

Napoleon and French took Milan in French Revolutionary Wars.

Prussia

kingdom

Prussia

354

1797

Prussia lost in French Revolutionary Wars.

Venice

republic

Venice, Italy

1797

Napoleon and French took Venice peacefully, ending independence.

Consulate

empire

France

1799

Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew Directory and started the Consulate, with himself as First Consul, to combat

inflation, bankruptcy, and corruption.

European

culture

Europe

1800

Individual plates, knives, spoons, and forks became common {table manners}.

Holy Roman Empire

empire

Austria

1806

French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleon's conquests created state of Austria, ending Holy Roman Empire.

Warsaw

duchy

Warsaw, Poland

1806

Napoleon created Duchy of Warsaw, ruled by Saxony.

Confederation of the Rhine

confederation

Germany

1806 to 1813

Napoleon started confederation after he defeated Prussia and Brandenburg, and it included Bavaria, Wurtemburg,

Saxony, Westphalia, and Baden. Legislature later consolidated smaller German states.

Portugal

kingdom

Portugal

1807

France occupied Portugal.

Prussia

kingdom

Prussia

1807

Prussia had to settle for Treaty of Tilsit and then reformed society and military.

Croatia

kingdom

Croatia

355

1809 to 1813

France took Croatia.

Netherlands

state

Netherlands

1810

Netherlands became part of France.

Russia

kingdom

Russia

1812

Napoleon and his Grande Armée of France lost in Russia. Russia got Bessarabia, which had been in Moravia and

Turkey.

Russia

kingdom

Russia

1812 to 1850

Russia and Rumania traded Bessarabia several more times.

Congress of Vienna

congress

Austria

1815

Francis II and Metternich presided. Bourbon Restoration restored Louis XVIII as king of France. Talleyrand was his

foreign minister. Austria got Lombardy, Venetia, and Galicia, so Austrian Empire was Austria, Bohemia, Moravia,

south Poland, Lombardy, Venetia, Dalmatia, Galicia, and Kingdom of Hungary. Kingdom of Hungary had Croatia and

Slovenia. Venetia is region near Venice.

German Confederation formed, with Prussia, Confederation of the Rhine states, German free cities, Austria,

Holstein, Hanover, and Luxembourg. Austria controlled legislature {diet, assembly}. Prussia got west Prussia and

Poznan.

Papal States stayed the same as before.

Bourbons ruled Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which included Sicily, Naples, and south Italy. Savoy, Genoa, and

Sardinia became kingdom under Savoy line.

United Provinces or Holland and Austrian Netherlands or Belgium and Luxembourg merged into one kingdom.

Kingdom of Poland or Congree-Poland was region around Warsaw. Cracow was republic. Denmark lost Norway. It

guaranteed Switzerland confederation neutrality.

Prussia

kingdom

Prussia

1818

Nation joined German Confederation and formed German customs union {Zollverein}. It got Rhine land,

Westphalia, part of Saxony, Pomerania, west Prussia, and west Poland at Congress of Vienna.

Conservative Party

party

England

1820

Conservative Party formed in Britain from former Tories.

Liberal Party

party

England

356

1820

Liberal Party formed in Britain from former Whigs.

Moldavia

kingdom

Moldavia

1822

Ottoman Empire put Moldavia under native ruler.

Walachia

kingdom

Walachia

1822

Ottoman Empire put Walachia under native ruler.

Serbia

state

Serbia

1828

Serbia became principality under Ottoman Empire. Karageorgevich and Obrenovich factions struggled.

Lunar Society

scientific group

Birmingham, England

1830

Society included Josiah Wedgwood, Matthew Boulton, and Erasmus Darwin.

Radical

party

Switzerland

1830

Nation brought democracy to most cantons.

Chartist

party

England

1830 to 1850

Chartist movement was to place People's Charter before Parliament.

Potato Blight

famine

Ireland

1840 to 1846

Potato blight killed 1,000,000 in Ireland, and 1,500,000 people emigrated.

Schleswig-Holstein

state

Denmark

1848

Germany and Austria fought Denmark over province of Schleswig-Holstein.

Switzerland

constitution

Switzerland

1848

Federal constitution made.

357

Naples

constitution

Naples, Italy

1848.02

Nation modified kingdom.

Second Republic

state

France

1848.02

Republic formed after deposing Louis Philippe.

Lombardy

state

Lombardy

1848.04

Nation became independent of Austria.

Hungarian Republic

republic

Hungary

1848.04 to 1849

Nation began under Kossuth, but Austria and Russia stopped it.

Venetian Republic

state

Venice, Italy

1848.04 to 1849.08

Nation became independent of Austria but lost to Austria in August 1849.

Frankfurt Parliament or German National Assembly

legislature

Frankfurt, Germany

1848.05 to 1849.06

Legislature was socialist.

Pan-Slav

congress


1848.06 to 1848.12

Congress preceded revolt in Prague, which Hapsburgs of Austria defeated.

Austria serfs

farmer

Austria

1848.09

It freed serfs.

Croatia

state

Croatia

1849 to 1868

Austria ruled Croatia.

German Union

358

confederation

Germany

1849 to 1950

Nation formed after Revolution of 1848.

Frankfurt Parliament or German National Assembly

legislature

Frankfurt, Germany

1849.01 to 1849.06

Legislature published a constitution for all of Germany and asked Frederick William IV to be king, but he said no.

Prussians broke up German National Assembly in June 1849.

Sardinia

kingdom

Sardinia, Italy

1849.02 to 1849.03

Nation had a constitution with Charles Albert as king. Sardinia under Garibaldi fought Austria. Austrian navy

defeated Sardinians [March 1849], at Novara. Victor Emmanuel II became king.

Roman Republic

state

Rome, Italy

1849.02 to 1849.07

Nation began, the pope left, and Rome under Garibaldi fought France until defeated by France in July 1849.

Hungary

state

Hungary

1849.04 to 1849.08

Nation seceded from Austria after new Austrian constitution, but Russia defeated Hungary in August 1849.

Congress of Paris

congress

Paris, France

1856

Danubian Principalities of Walachia and Moldavia (Romania) became independent, to settle conflict between

Ottoman Empire and Russia.

Fenian Movement

party

Ireland

1858

James Stephens started movement for Irish independence.

Denmark

kingdom

Denmark

1864

Denmark lost Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia in war with Prussia and Austria. Denmark's farmers started cooperatives

and became educated under Bishop Grundtvig.

Prussia

kingdom

Prussia

1866

359

Austro-Prussian War was for Schleswig-Holstein province. Prussia got Hanover, Nassau, Frankfurt, Hesse, and

Schleswig-Holstein and formed North German Confederation.

North German Confederation

confederation

Germany

1866 to 1869

Nation had 22 nations north of Main River.

Serbia

kingdom

Serbia

1867

Ottoman Empire left Serbia.

Austro-Hungary Monarchy or Dual Monarchy

kingdom

Austria/Hungary

1867 to 1918

Nation reorganized Austrian Empire. Francis Joseph II continued to rule Austria until 1916. Slovakia, Ruthenia,

Dalmatia, and Banat of Temesvar were under Austria-Hungary. Banat of Temesvar is between Yugoslavia and

Romania. Czech, Serbia, Poland, Italy, and Romania continually caused unrest. Magyars controlled Hungary. Croatia

had some freedom.

Croatia

kingdom

Croatia

1868

Hungary regained control of Croatia.

Italy

kingdom

Venice, Italy

1869

Italy gained Venetia from Austria at end of Austro-Prussian War.

Zollverein

league

Prussia

1869

League commercially joined the 22 North-German-Confederation nations plus Bavaria, Baden, Wurtemburg, and

Hesse.

Italy

kingdom

Rome, Italy

1870

King Victor Emmanuel II annexed Rome.

Third Republic of France

republic

France

1870

Nation began by deposing King Napoleon III. It rebuilt France quickly and began colonization. Factions were

royalists, military, republicans, and workers.

360

Prussia

kingdom

Prussia

1870 to 1871

After defeating France, Prussia formed German Empire (Germany) [1871], under Bismarck. German Empire

controlled German customs union (Zollverein).

Great Depression

depression

Europe

1870 to 1880

Trade cycle had deep recession.

Italy

kingdom

Italy

1870 to 1900

Italy colonized Libya, Somaliland, and Eritrea.

German Empire

empire

Germany

1871

Nation began under Bismarck and Hohenzollern Prussian emperor Wilhelm I or William I. It included North

German Confederation, Alsace and Lorraine, and Zollverien of Prussia. Legislature was Reichstag or diet.

Spain

republic

Spain

1873

Carlists revolted. King Amadeus abdicated. Republic formed.

Iceland

independence

Iceland

1874

Nation gained home rule from Norway.

Bosnia

kingdom

Bosnia

1875

Bosnia rebelled against Ottoman Empire.

Bulgaria

kingdom

Bulgaria

1875

Bulgaria, under Stanbulov, rebelled against Ottoman Empire.

Dual Alliance

alliance

Europe

1879

Austro-Hungary and Germany allied to stop Pan-Slavism of Serbia, which Russia had encouraged.

361

Milan

kingdom

Serbia

1882

Milan gained Serbia.

Triple Alliance

alliance

Austro-Hungary/Germany/Italy

1882

Austro-Hungary, Germany, and Italy allied against Pan-Slavism of Serbia. Cavour led Italy.

Luxembourg

duchy

Luxembourg

1890

Luxembourg, under Duke Adolph of Nassau, gained home rule from Netherlands.

Pale

region

Russia/Poland/Lithuania

1890

5,000,000 Jews were in Russia, Poland, and Lithuania, region called the Pale. World had 25,000,000 Jews in 1890.

Russia

kingdom

Finland

1890

Russia tightened rule of Finland.

Russia/France

alliance

Russia/France

1892 to 1914

Russia and France allied.

Germany

law

Germany

1896

German law became code.

First Peace Conference

conference

The Hague, Netherlands

1899

Conference established war conventions ratified by most nations.

Sinn Fein

party

Ireland

1899

Under Arthur Griffith, Sinn Fein replaced Home Rule party.

Labor Party

party

362

England

1906

Moderately democratic-socialist party elected first Parliament members.

kulaks

farmer

Russia

1908

Kulaks owned free farms and increased grain production, but Ottoman Empire controlled Bosphorus, blocking

Russian grain exports through Black Sea.

Italy

kingdom

Africa

1911

Italy attacked Ottoman Empire to take land in north Africa.

Albania

independence

Albania

1912

Nation left Ottoman Empire and became independent kingdom under William, prince of Wied.

Iceland

independence

Iceland

1918

It became independent of Denmark.

Czechoslovakia

independence

Check Republic/Slovakia

1918.06 to 1992

It became independent of Austria.

Bulgaria

armistice

Bulgaria

1918.09

War ended in Bulgaria.

Yugoslavia

independence

Yugoslavia

1918.10

Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes became independent of Austria [1918 to 1941] until invaded in World War

II.

Austria

republic

Austria

1918.11

Hapsburg rule ended.

Austro-Hungary Monarchy or Dual Monarchy

state

363

Austria/Hungary

1918.11

Nation signed armistice.

Germany

republic

Germany

1918.11

Social Democrats in Reichstag parliament deposed Kaiser William II of German Empire.

Hungary

independence

Hungary

1918.11

It became independent of Austria.

Poland

republic

Poland

1918.11

Nation formed under Pilsudski, with boundaries similar to those of 1772, including Polish Corridor along Vistula

River to Baltic Sea and Upper Silesia.

Comintern or Third Socialist International

conference

Moscow, Russia

1919

In other countries, some communists sided with Russia and others were against Russia.

Finland

independence

Finland

1919

Finland under Mannerheim became independent from Russia, after Civil War with Russia.

Germany

republic

Germany

1919

Hindenburg brought army back to Germany under control and prevented radical revolution.

Weimar Republic

republic

Germany

1919 to 1934

Junkers or wealthy industrialists controlled it. Stresemann was foreign minister. Economy had recovered from World

War I by 1925. At end, President Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as chancellor.

Bulgaria

state

Bulgaria

1919.11

Bulgaria lost territory. Stambuliski, then military dictatorships, led it.

Hungary

kingdom

364

Hungary

1920

Admiral Nagybanya was regent.

Little Entente

alliance

Czech Republic/Slovakia/Romania/Yugoslavia

1921

Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia opposed Hungary.

Ireland

independence

Ireland

1921.03

Ireland became free of England.

Irish Free State

state

England

1921.06

Irish Free State became dominion of England. England confiscated all land.

Soviet Union or USSR

state

Russia

1922 to 1991

Soviet government organized, under Lenin, into 15 republics. In west were Great Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,

Belorussia or White Russia, Ukraine, and Moldavia or Bessarabia. In south were Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan in

Transcaucasia. In east were Kazakh, Turkoman, Uzbek, Tadzhik, and Kirghiz. New Economic Policy started.

National Socialist German Workers' Party or Nazi Party

party

Bavaria

1923

Nazis believed that Germans should unite to take eastern lands back from other peoples, German peoples were

superior, and Marxists and Jews were bad.

Greece

republic

Greece

1924

Republic began after deposing George II.

First Five Year Plan

law

Russia

1928 to 1938

Act replaced Lenin's New Economic Policy, controlled churches, emphasized Russia, emphasized industrialization,

emphasized literacy and education, emphasized health, supported poor, and freed women. All farms were collective

{kolkhoz} or state {sovkhoz}. It did not allow free farmers {kulak}. By 1935, army and secret police had killed

5,000,000 peasants and kulaks. Nation had army and politician purges.

Yugoslavia

state

Yugoslavia

1929 to 1941

365

Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes became dictatorship under Alexander I.

Lithuania

state

Lithuania

1930

Nation became dictatorship.

Spain

republic

Spain

1931

King's son founded Falange or fascist and nationalist party.

Austria

state

Austria

1934 to 1940

Nation became dictatorship when National Socialists allied with some clergy and fascists to make one-party

corporate state under Chancellor Dollfuss, who suppressed Socialists. After Dollfuss, Schuschnigg became dictator.

Poland

state

Poland

1935

Nation became dictatorship when military junta ruled after Pilsudski died.

Eire

state

Ireland

1937

Eire formed in Ireland.

Albania

occupation

Albania

1939

Italy occupied Albania.

Bohemia

occupation

Bohemia/Moravia

1939

Germany occupied Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, leaving Slovakia free.

Greece

occupation

Greece

1939

Germany occupied Greece.

Spain

state

Spain

1939 to 1975

366

Nation became dictatorship when Franco created fascist state after Falange defeated Republic. Spain was neutral in

World War II.

Czechoslovakia

occupation


1939.03

Germany took rest of Czechoslovakia.

Free French

party

France

1940

Charles de Gaulle organized Free French resistance during World War II.

Vichy Government

state

France

1940 to 1942

Germany formed Vichy government under Henri Petain in south France, but Germany controlled north France itself.

Denmark

state

Denmark

1940.04

Nation became dictatorship after Germany invaded.

Norway

state

Norway

1940.04

Nation became dictatorship after Germany invaded and Quisling led puppet government.

Italy

republic

Italy

1943

Italy deposed Mussolini, lost Sicily and African colonies, and surrendered to Allies. It then helped Allies.

Iceland

republic

Iceland

1944


Yalta Conference

conference

Yalta, Ukraine

1944

Allies gave east Poland to Russia. United Nations charter advanced.

Potsdam Conference

conference

Potsdam, Germany

1945

Allies gave east Germany to Poland, divided Germany into four sectors, and authorized war trials.

367

Czechoslovakia

state


1945 to 1992

Czechoslovakia formed, but Russia got Ruthenia.

Albania

republic

Albania

1946

Nation became Communist under Enver Hoxha.

Bulgaria

republic

Bulgaria

1946

Nation became Communist.

Fourth Republic

state

France

1946

France entered NATO.

Hungary

republic

Hungary

1946

Nation became republic again.

Iron Curtain

speech

USA

1946

Winston Churchill spoke about Iron Curtain across Europe.

Germany

occupation

Germany

1946 to 1955

Allies occupied Germany.

Cominform/Comecon

league

Europe

1947

Russia set up Cominform and Comecon for eastern European Communist nations, to counter NATO.

Hungary

state

Hungary

1947


Poland

368

state

Poland

1947


Romania

state

Romania

1947


Yugoslavia

state

Yugoslavia

1948

Yugoslavia broke with Cominform and established market socialism.

Czechoslovakia

state


1948.02

Nation became Communist through coup.

Ireland

republic

Ireland

1949

Republic of Ireland formed.

West Germany

state

Germany

1949.05

West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany) began.

East Germany

state

Germany

1949.10

East Germany (German Democratic Republic) began.

Community of Six

league

Europe

1952

About coal and steel, it included Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Italy, and West Germany.

Greece

league

Greece

1952

Greece joined NATO.

Germany

league

USA

369

1955

After 10 years of occupation, Germany entered NATO.

European Economic Community or EEC

league

Europe

1957

Community included Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Italy, and West Germany.

Italy

league

Italy

1957

Italy joined NATO.

Fifth Republic

republic

France

1958 to 1969

Nation formed under Charles De Gaulle, with new constitution with strong President. He gave Algeria independence

and fixed finances.

Albania

state

Albania

1960

Albania allied with Communist China.

Communism

schism

Russia/China

1961

Communist China and Russia split, and Russia withdrew help to China.

European Common Market

league

Greece

1962

Greece joined.

Greece

junta

Greece

1967

Military junta ruled.

Portugal

democracy

Portugal

1974

Salazar died in Portugal, and democracy returned.

East Germans

people

Czech Republic/Slovakia/Hungary

1989

370

Borders opened to fleeing East Germans.

Romania

republic

Romania

1989

Romania killed dictator.

Bulgaria

republic

Bulgaria

1990

Nation reformed.

Estonia

independence

Estonia

1990

Nation became independent of Russia.

Germany

state

Germany

1990

Christian Democrats won election in East Germany, and East Germany unified with West Germany.

Latvia

independence

Latvia

1990


Lithuania

independence

Lithuania

1990


Russia

state

Russia

1990

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in Russia split, and republics acted independently.

Russia

republic

Russia

1991

Boris Yeltsin, Russian-Republic leader, thwarted army government-takeover attempt. USSR disbanded in favor of

Commonwealth of Independent States.

Ukraine

independence

Ukraine

1991


371

SOCI>History>History>Population

Homo erectus

population

Earth

-1000000

Homo erectus population was 100,000 to 400,000.

Homo erectus

population

Earth

-500000 to -200000

Homo erectus population was 1,000,000.

Neanderthal

population

Earth

-200000

Neanderthal population was 1000 to 100,000. Fire use began.

Homo sapiens

population

Earth

-40000

Population was 1,000,000 to 10,000,000 people.

Homo sapiens

population

Earth

-20000


Homo sapiens

population

Earth

-10000


Homo sapiens

population

Earth

-8000


Homo sapiens

population

Earth

-4000


Homo sapiens

population

Earth

-1500

Birth rate increased greatly.

372

Homo sapiens

population

India

-500

India had 25,000,000 people. Aryans were in north, above Deccan Peninsula. Dravidians were in south and in

Vindhya hills and jungles.

Homo sapiens

population

Earth

1

130,000,000 people were alive. 20,000,000 people were in Africa, which had no plow, few horses, and slash-and-

burn farming.

Homo sapiens

population

Earth

1500

Population was 425,000,000. China had 100,000,000. Europe had 80,000,000. France had 16,000,000. Mexico had

5,000,000. South America had 9,000,000. USA and Canada had 1,000,000.

Homo sapiens

population

Earth

1650

Population was 550,000,000.

Homo sapiens

population

Earth

1750

Population was 700,000,000. 2,000,000 people were in North America. 6,000,000 people were in England.

Homo sapiens

population

Earth

1800

Population was 900,000,000. Europe had 185,000,000. China had 300,000,000. Japan had 28,000,000. USA had

7,000,000, with 700,000 blacks. India had 175,000,000.

Homo sapiens

population

Earth

1900

Population was 1,600,000,000. China had 475,000,000. Japan had 45,000,000. India had 300,000,000. USA had

76,000,000. Canada had 6,000,000. Africa had 110,000,000. Latin America had 75,000,000. Europe had 400,000,000.

50,000,000 had emigrated already at 1,000,000 a year. London had 7,000,000. Berlin had 2,000,000. Vienna had

2,000,000.

Homo sapiens

population

Earth

1950

Population was 2,400,000,000. Central and South America had 100,000,000.

373

Homo sapiens

population

Earth

2000

Population was 6,500,000. Central and South America had 500,000,000. USA had 285,000,000. China had

1,200,000,000. India had 1,000,000,000. Africa had 700,000,000.

SOCI>History>History>Rulers

ruler

ruler

Earth

-4000 to 2007

Rulers are presidents, ministers, kings, and emperors.

SOCI>History>History>Rulers>Africa

Ezana of Axum

king

Eritrea

330 to 356

He lived 330 to 356, was ruler of Axum, and became Christian.

Idris ibn Abdallah or Moulay Idris

ruler

Morocco

788 to 793

He lived ? to 793, was Arab chief, took Morocco, and started Idrisid Dynasty [789 to 926]. He preceded Idris II

[809], who lived 793 to 828.

Sumanguru

king

Ghana

1230 to 1235

He lived 1190 to 1255, took Kumbi in Ghana, and then lost to Mali and Malinke under Sundiata Keita [1235]. He

was last Susu or Sosso king of Kante dynasty.

Sunjata or Sundiata Keita or Sun Diata

king/poet

Keita/Mali

1230 to 1235

Sunjata or Sundiata [1300: epic poem about Mande poet]

He lived 1217 to 1255, was king of Keita, revolted against Ghana [1230 to 1235], and founded new West African

kingdom in Mali [1235]. It was much larger then Ghana and controlled south-Sahara caravan-trade centers, such as

Timbuktu and Gao. He converted to Islam. Sunjata was a Mande poet.

Mansa Musa [Musa, Mansa]

king

Mali

1312 to 1337

He lived 1280 to 1337, was Muslim, and had a tolerant legal system.

Zera Yacub or Zar'a Ya'eqob

emperor

Ethiopia

1434 to 1468

374

He was Christian and built monasteries.

Sonni Ali

emperor

West Africa

1462 to 1492

He lived ? to 1492, ruled Songhai, and took east Mali to make Songhai Empire. He took trade centers Timbuktu and

Jenne in Mali. Capital was at Gao. Having overrun much of Mali, he aimed to preserve best features and develop them

under better management. His son succeeded him, but his general Askia Mohammed Turré soon took over.

Nzinga Nkuvu or João I

king

Bakongo/Lower Congo/Mbanza Kongo

1470 to 1507

He lived 1430 to 1506 and became Christian [1491] when Portuguese arrived.

Askia Mohammed Turre [Turre, Askia Mohammed]

emperor

West Africa

1500 to 1600

He ruled Songhai Empire as it expanded.

Nzinga Mbemba or Alfonso I

king

Bakongo/Lower Congo/Mbanza Kongo

1507 to 1543

He lived 1456 to 1542, ruled Kongo kingdom in central Africa, was Christian, and allied with Portugal.

Dingiswayo

chief

Africa

1807 to 1818

In southeast Africa, he united Zulu tribes to make a Zulu kingdom (Mtetwa Empire) and taught Shaka Zulu.

Menelik II

king

Ethiopia

1889 to 1913

He lived 1844 to 1913 and became king with Italy's help.

Haile Selassie [Selassie, Haile] or Lion of Judah

king

Ethiopia

1930 to 1974

He lived 1894 to 1975 and started reforms in 1930s but then retrenched. Italy forced him to leave [1936], but he

became king again [1941]. He united with Eritrea [1962]. Marxists deposed him [1974] and he died [1975].

SOCI>History>History>Rulers>America

Acamapichtli

king

Mexico City, Mexico/Tenochtitlán, Mexico

1376 to 1396

He lived 1356 to 1396 and was first Aztec emperor {tlatoani} (one who speaks) at Tenochtitlán. Aztecs used Nahuatl

language.

375

Hatun Tupac [Tupac, Hatun] or Viracocha Inca

emperor

Cuzco Valley, Peru

1390 to 1400

He lived 1347 to 1400 and was eighth Inca ruler. As previous rulers had done, he used the name Sapa Inca (the

unique Inca), but he also changed his name to supreme god's name, Viracocha Inca. He took neighboring lands and

allied with other rulers. He gave army, government, and religious jobs to his family or his associates. People entering

his presence bowed, wore no shoes, and carried packs on their backs. Inca myth said he traveled to Pacific and never

returned.

Itzcoatl

king

Mexico

1426 to 1440

Aztec king allied with Texcoco and Tlacopan, and they defeated Tapanecs. Aztecs had trade caravans controlled by

guild {pochteca}. They built pyramids, palaces, and temples. Main temple was at Tenochtitlan. It had up to 20,000

sacrifices a day.

Yupanqui or Pachacuti

emperor

Cuzco, Peru

1438 to 1470

Yupanqui was Viracocha Inca's son and choose the name Pachacuti. He defeated nearby state that invaded, reformed

government, and expanded north to Ecuador. Fortress was at Cuzco.

Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui or Pachacutec

king/architect

Cuzco, Peru/Machu Picchu, Peru/Ollantaytambo, Peru

1438 to 1471

Machu Picchu [1460 to 1470: mountain city]

He lived ? to 1471 and was Inca emperor [1438 to 1471]. Incas built roads and buildings using shaped and fitted

stone blocks. Machu Picchu is northwest of Cuzcoa and is high in mountains, with stepped streets and agricultural

terraces.

Moctezuma Ilhuicamina or Moctezuma I or Montezuma I

emperor

Mexico

1440 to 1469

He lived 1398 to 1469. Aztecs defeated other lake cities and took east Mexico.

Tupac Inca Yupanqui or Topa Inca

emperor

Peru

1471 to 1493

He was Inca emperor [1471 to 1493], was Pachacuti's son, and was Huayna Capac's father.

Topa Inca or Tupac Inca or Tupac Yupanqui

emperor

Peru

1471 to 1493

He lived 1440 to 1493 and took Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina as commander [1463 to 1471].

Tizoc

emperor

Mexico City, Mexico

1481 to 1486

376

He ruled Aztec Empire.

Ahuizotl

emperor

Mexico

1486 to 1502

He ruled at Aztec height.

Huayna Capac [Capac, Huayna] or Quechua Wayna Qhapaq [Qhapaq, Quechua Wayna]

emperor

Peru

1493 to 1527

Huayna Capac led Inca Empire at greatest extent.

Huayna Capac [Capac, Huayna] or Quechua Wayna Qhapaq

emperor

Peru

1493 to 1527

He was Inca emperor [1493 to 1527], was Tupac's son, and was father of Huascar, Atahualpa, Manco Inca

Yupanqui, and Pawllu Inca.

Moctezuma II or Montezuma II or Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin

emperor

Mexico

1502 to 1520

He lived 1466 to 1520 and lost to Cortez from Spain.

Manco Inca Yupanqui

emperor

Peru

1534 to 1537

He lived 1516 to 1544 and was last Inca emperor [1534 to 1537].

Hiawatha or Ayenwatha

chief

USA

1550

As Lone Pine tribe chief, he created Iroquois Confederation of Native American tribes in northeast USA and so

became Onondaga and Mohawk chief.

Pontiac or Obwandiyag

chief

USA

1763 to 1766

He lived 1720 to 1769, was Ottawa chief in north-central USA, and led Pontiac's Rebellion [1763 to 1766].

Tecumseh

chief

USA

1800 to 1810

He lived 1768 to 1813 and was Shawnee chief.

Sequoia or Sequoyah

chief

Southeast USA

1809 to 1821

377

He lived 1770 to 1843 and developed syllabic alphabet for Cherokee language.

Pedro I

king

Brazil

1821 to 1831

He lived 1798 to 1831, declared independence from Portugal, and was John VI of Portugal's son.

Agustin de Iturbide [Iturbide, Agustin de]

emperor

Mexico

1822 to 1823


Pedro II

king

Brazil

1831 to 1889

He lived 1825 to 1889 and became king after his father, Pedro I, abdicated. He later fought Argentina and Paraguay.

Maximilian

emperor

Mexico

1864 to 1867

He lived 1832 to 1867. Napoleon III sent him to aid Mexican conservatives against Juarez. Someone killed him after

French soldiers left. He was brother of Francis Joseph II of Austria.

Geronimo

chief

Arizona

1875 to 1886

He lived 1829 to 1909, led Bedonkohe band of Apache, was Apache chief, and fought USA army in Arizona until he

surrendered [1886], ending wars against Native Americans.

Chief Joseph

chief

USA

1877

Joseph lived 1840 to 1904, was Nez Perce chief, and surrendered to USA [1877].

SOCI>History>History>Rulers>Asia

An Duong [Duong, An]

king

Vietnam

-3000 to -2000

He founded Au Viet dynasty.

Jimmu Tenno or Kamuyamato Iwarebiko

emperor

Japan

-607

He founded Japan and explored Inland Sea [-607] from Hyuga to Yamato.

Chandragupta I or Chandragupta Maurya

king

378

Ganges Valley, India

-325 to -293

He lived -340 to -293, acquired Magadha kingdom [-325], defeated Nanda dynasty [-321], married clan princess to

form Gupta or Maurya dynasty [-321 to -293], and defeated Seleucus I [-305].

Chandragupta Maurya

king

India/Punjab/Afghanistan

-322 to -296

He lived -325 to -296 and founded Mauryan Empire when he conquered Magadha Kingdom, had strong central

government, and had strong army. He defeated invasion by Seleucus [-305]. Maurya Empire conquered part of south

India.

Bindusara

king

India

-296 to -272

He lived -320 to -272. Maurya Empire extended to Madras.

Asoka or Ashoka

king

India/Afghanistan

-273 to -232

He lived -290 to -232 and ruled Maurya Empire at greatest extent, because he conquered all India, Afghanistan,

Baluchistan, Ceylon, Nepal, and Kashmir. He defeated Kalinya Empire [-265] and then warred no more. He then

promoted religious tolerance, non-violence, and personal dignity.

He became Buddhist [-255] and established Buddhism as state religion. He built 80,000 stupas and many

monasteries. He tried to restore discipline to the monks. He emphasized charity, self-command, and self-control.

Buddhist missionaries went to Burma and Ceylon [-240]. He started the idea of heavenly salvation for good behavior

{svarga} in Buddhism. After he died, Buddhism died out in north India.

He increased trade, planted banyan trees, and built roads, reservoirs, wells, and inns.

Literature had Mahabharata, including Bhagavadgita, and Ramayana.

Zheng or Cheng or Shih Hwang-ti or Qin Shi Huang-di

king

China

-221 to -206

He founded Qin or Ch'in or Ts'in dynasty. As king of Ch'in in Senshi Province, he subdued six other kingdoms and

united China. Shih Hwang-ti or Shi Huang-di means first emperor. Hsien Yang was capital. He built first Great Wall of

China, 1500 miles long, in north and northwest. He centralized government, set up bureaucracy, forced nobles to live at

capital, and redistributed land to peasants. He stopped crime and enforced laws with strong army. He unified measures

and currency. He standardized Chinese characters. His tomb was near Lin Tung. His death started civil war.

Wu-ti or Liu Ch'e

emperor

China

-141 to -87

He lived -156 to -87, took Central Asia's Tarim Basin, south Manchuria, and southeast China, and founded Early

Han or Former Han or Western Han. Silk Road began.

Wang Mang

emperor

China

9 to 23

He lived -45 to -23, seized power in Han dynasty when regent, and started Hsin court.

379

Kaniska or Kanishka

king

India/Pakistan/Afghanistan

120 to 162

He was king of Kushan and ruled north India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and central Asia. He converted to Buddhism.

Kushana kingdom was in Gandhara, Punjab, and Sind.

Wu Ti or Shih Tsu or Ssu-ma Yen or Martial Emperor

emperor

China

265 to 290

He lived 236 to 290, united China after Han dynasty ended, and started Western Chin dynasty [265 to 317].

Meghavarna

king

Sri Lanka

352 to 379

He sent embassy to Gupta court [360], which built religious monument for them.

Chandragupta II or Vikramaditya or Chandragupta Vikramaditya

king

Ganges Valley, India

375 to 415

He was of Gupta dynasty. Gupta Empire covered north India.

Sui Wendi or Wen-di or Yang Jian

emperor

China

581 to 589

He united China and founded Sui Dynasty [581 to 604].

Harsha or Harshavardhana

king

India

606 to 647

He lived 590 to 647, defeated White Huns, and restored Hinduism.

Tai-tsung or Tai Tsung or Taitsung

emperor

China

627 to 649

He was of Tang Dynasty.

Jayavarma II

king

Cambodia

802 to 850

He lived 792 to 850 and declared independence of Java [802], founding Khmer Empire.

Seiwa

emperor

Japan

858 to 876

He became Japanese emperor at age nine or ten. He removed his opponents [866] and became regent {sessho}.

Rajaraja Chola I

380

king

India

985 to 1014

He became Chola Empire king and defeated Chera of Kerala in south India.

Rajendra Chola I

king

India

1014 to 1052

He became Chola Empire king. His merchant fleets traded, and his navy controlled trade between Arabia and China.

Anawrahta or Aniruddha

king

Pagan, Burma

1044 to 1077

He built large empire with strong army and unified Burma. Pagan was capital.

Suryavarman II or Paramavishnuloka

king

Cambodia

1113 to 1150

He started building temples at Angkor Wat.

Mohammad of Ghur or Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad ibn Sam [Muhammad ibn Sam, Mu'izz ad-Din]

king

India

1186 to 1206

He defeated last Ghaznavid and founded Muslim empire in north India.

Genghis or Jenghiz or Chinghis or Temuchin or Lord Absolute

khan

China

1206 to 1227

He lived 1163 to 1227. He became Mongol king {Great Khan} to begin Mongol Empire. He captured Zhongdu

(Peking or Beijing) and defeated Ch'in Empire of China [1215]. He conquered Transoxania, Turkestan, Afghanistan,

south Russia, and southeast Europe [1227]. He placed conquered peoples in army, used Turkish alphabet for Mongol

language, and used Chinese tax system to collect tribute.

Ogodei

khan

China

1227 to 1241

He was Genghis Khan's son and became khan at his death.

Kublai or Khubilai

khan

China

1260 to 1294

He lived 1215 to 1294. Nobles elected him Great Khan [1260]. He defeated Sung Dynasty [1279] and founded Yuan

Dynasty in China. He failed to conquer Japan, Indonesia, and southeast Asia.

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlug [Tughlug, Ghiyas-ud-din] or Ghiyasuddin Tughluk [Tughluk, Ghiyasuddin]

sultan

India

1321 to 1325

381

Nobles elected Tughlug, Turkish general, sultan, and he founded Tughluq dynasty. His son Mohammed murdered

him.

Mohammed bin Tughluq

sultan

India

1325 to 1351

He killed his father and expanded Tughluq Empire, but he caused provincial revolts.

Tamerlane or Timur Leng [Leng, Timur] or Timur Lang [Lang, Timur] or Timur the Lame

emperor

Persia/India/Samarkand, Kazakhstan/Levant

1369 to 1405

He lived 1336 to 1405. Descendant of Genghis Khan, he first ruled Samarkand. Using horsemen, he conquered

Persia [1379], Iraq, Syria, and Afghanistan and established Timurid Empire. He invaded south Russia [1395]. He

invaded India [1397] and Tughluq Empire, sacked Delhi [1398], and killed most people. He died on way to China

[1405].

Zafar Khan Muzaffar or Hassan Gangu

governor

India

1401 to 1411

He was governor [1391], became independent of Delhi Sultanate [1401], and founded Gujarat Dynasty.

Yong Le or Yongle or Yong-le or Zhu Di

emperor

China

1403 to 1424

He lived 1360 to 1424 and was first Ming emperor. Nanking was first Ming capital.

Ahmad Shah or Shah Ahmad

sultan

Ahmadabad, India

1411 to 1442

Of Gujarat Dynasty, he started Muzaffarid Dynasty, was Zafar Khan's grandson, and built Ahmadabad as capital.

His soldiers received half cash and half land plots.

Sejong

king

Korea

1419 to 1450

He lived 1397 to 1450, was relative of Yi Song-gye, and started official Korean script, Han'gul. He ended Japanese

piracy.

Trailok

king

Siam

1448 to 1488

He lived 1431 to 1488, and reformed laws. He had military and civilian divisions, with departments for local

government, finance, and law. Siamese society had classes, and all people had land. He fought wars with northern

states. He moved capital north to P'itsanulok. He appointed his son "second king".

Sikander Lodi [Lodi, Sikander]

sultan

India

1489 to 1517

382

He ruled Delhi, annexed Bihar [1492], moved capital to Agra, and invaded Rajastan.

Baber or Babar or Babur

emperor

Kabul, Afghanistan

1504 to 1530

Autobiography [1510 to 1530: Hindustan description]

He lived 1483 to 1530 and was descendant of Tamerlane and Chingis Khan. He founded Mogul or Moghul Empire

[1504] when he took Delhi and killed Sultan of Delhi Sultanate. He defeated Hindu kingdoms down to Bihar. He

invaded India [1525]. He brought grapes, melons, bananas, and sugar cane to Pakistan. He liked poetry.

Tabinshwehti

king

Burma

1531 to 1550

He lived 1512 to 1550, was of Toungoo dynasty [1531 to 1550], took Pegu from Mons [1546], and became king of

Burma.

Bayinnaung or Braginoco or Barinnaung

king

Burma/Thailand

1551 to 1581

From Burma, he took Thailand.

Akbar or Great Mogul

emperor

India

1556 to 1605

He lived 1542 to 1605. Mogul Empire took Afghanistan and rest of north India. Agra was capital. He reformed

government, allowed religious tolerance, and started land tax. He married the Rajputana Hindu king's daughter. Urdu

language started, which was Hindi language with Turkish and Persian words.

Oda Nobunaga [Nobunaga, Oda]

shogun

Japan

1568 to 1600

He lived 1534 to 1582. Ashikaga shogunate defeated all rival barons. He took Kyoto and unified Japan {National

Unification period}.

Wanli or Wan-li or Chu I-chun or Hsien Ti or Shen Tsung

emperor

China

1573 to 1620

He lived 1563 to 1620. Empire had painting and porcelain making.

Shivaji Bhonsle or Sijavi

king

India

1674 to 1680

He lived 1627 to 1680 and started Maratha kingdom [1674]. Mahrattas from west-central India established capital at

Poona and conquered part of Mogul Empire [1655 to 1674].

Mahmud

king

Afghanistan

1722 to 1725

383

With Afghans, he defeated Sultan Hossein, ending Safavid Dynasty in Persia and starting Ghilzay Afghan dynasty

[1722 to 1730].

Chi'en Lung or Chien Lung or Chi'en-lung

emperor

China

1736 to 1795

He was of Manchu family and controlled north to Amur River and south to Indochina.

Alaungpaya or Alaung Phra or Alompra or Aungzeya

king

Burma

1752 to 1760

He lived 1711 to 1760, defeated Mons of Burma, raided India, and started Alaungpaya dynasty or Konbaung

dynasty.

Mutsuhito or Meiji

emperor

Japan

1868 to 1912

Shogun had surrendered to Perry. In Meiji Restoration [1868], clans took capital, Kyoto, from shogun. Mutsuhito

lived 1852 to 1912 and ruled Japan [1873 to 1912]. Capital moved to Edo (Tokyo). Emperor owned all land.

Government had prefectures. Conscription built army. Clans industrialized and built ships, weapons, and cotton mills.

They studied navigation and other western techniques.

Kwang Hsu

emperor

China

1875 to 1908

He lived 1871 to 1908. Of Ch'ing dynasty, he tried to reform China with Hundred Days reform [1898], but Tz'u Hsi

blocked reform, forced his resignation [1908], and became empress.

Hirohito

emperor

Japan

1926 to 1989

He lived 1901 to 1989. Army controlled him until after World War II. Constitution [1947] took away all his powers,

except for symbolism.

SOCI>History>History>Rulers>Asia>Middle East

Menes

pharaoh

Egypt

-3100 to -3000

He was king in south Egypt and united north (Lower Egypt) and south (Upper Egypt), beginning the 1st Dynasty. He

founded Memphis as capital in Lower Egypt. The pharaoh became like god.

Gilgamesh

king

Uruk, Iraq

-2700

Uruk is in Iraq.

Cheops or Khufu

pharaoh

384

Egypt

-2500

He founded IV Dynasty and built Great Pyramid at Giza.

Sargon I

emperor

Akkad

-2400 to -2350

He began Akkadian or Old Assyrian Empire by conquering Sumer city-states in south Mesopotamia.

Gudea

king

Lagash, Iraq

-2100

He and his son ruled Amorites or Gutians.

Semiramis or Semiramide or Shamiram

queen

Babylonia/Assyria

-2000 to -800

In legends, she associated with king Ninus, legendary founder of Nineveh. Perhaps, she was Shammuramat of

Babylon, wife of Shamshi-Adad V [-811 to -808].

Hammurabi

king/lawgiver

Babylonia

-1792 to -1750

Code of Hammurabi [-1792: first law code]

He lived -1792 to -1750. He started First Babylonian Empire. He conquered Sumer and Akkad. His capital was at

Babylon. By myth, Sun god gave laws to Hammurabi. Code of Hammurabi first codified existing laws. 282 articles

were about wages, fees, divorces, slaves, and practical affairs. Code had first law of maximum retaliation, limiting

revenge to no more than original harm.

Mursilis I

king

Babylon

-1595

As Hittite king, he took Babylon.

Ahmose I

pharaoh

Thebes, Egypt

-1554

He defeated Hyskos and started New Kingdom. He took Nubia and Canaan, Palestine.

Hatsheput

queen

Egypt

-1490 to -1458

She lived ? to -1458 and was of XVIII dynasty. She was Thutmose I's eldest daughter. Her half-brother Thutmose II

married her and was pharaoh [-1495 to -1490], and then she was regent to Thutmose III. She became pharaoh [-1479 to

-1458]. She built temple at Deir el-Bahari in Thebes.

Thotmes III

king

Egypt

385

-1481 to -1446

After Queen Hatsheput had become pharaoh, Thotmes III conquered to Euphrates River and Levant, including south

Canaan, Syria, and Palestine, but not Mitanni in east Syria and north Mesopotamia.

Amenhotep III

pharaoh

Egypt

-1411 to -1375

In 18th Dynasty, empire was at maximum size. Thebes was capital. His statues are at Thebes and are Colossi of

Memnon. Memnon was an Ethiopian hero of the Greeks.

Suppiluliumas I

king

Mesopotamia

-1380

He became Hittite king.

Iknaton or Amenhotep IV or Akhnaton

pharaoh

el-Amarna, Egypt

-1375 to -1358

Hymn to the Sun

He tried to institute monotheism based on the god of the Sun {Aton}. Sun-god temple was at the new capital Amarna

or Tel-el-Amarna, 300 miles south of Thebes. He changed Egyptian life drastically. The priests of Amon opposed him.

He had bad economy and lost all foreign lands. His queen was Nefertiti or Nefretete.

Tutankhamon

pharaoh

Egypt

-1355

He restored polytheistic religion. Thebes became capital again.

Ramses II

pharaoh

Egypt

-1292 to -1225

In 19th Dynasty, he fought Hittites. Empire went from fourth cataract of Nile River to Syria. Temples were at

Karnak, Thebes, and Abu-Simbel.

Muwattalis

king

Syria

-1285

As Hittite king, he lost to Ramses II but kept north Syria.

Ramses III

pharaoh

Egypt

-1198 to -1167

In 20th Dynasty, he fought Syria and Libya, reunited kingdom, and lived in luxury with the nobles. Harem intrigue

killed him.

Saul

king

Israel

-1012 to -1006

386

He became first king of Israel, was first defeated by Philistines, and then defeated them.

David

king/poet

Israel

-1012 to -990

Psalms [-1012 to -990]

He defeated Philistines, conquered all of Canaan, and unified Hebrews. Jerusalem was capital. In the Bible, he

fought the giant Goliath for Saul, became king of Israel after Saul, loved Bathsheba, and wrote Psalms.

Solomon

king

Israel

-967 to -935

Aramaic Edomites became independent. He rebuilt Jerusalem.

Adadnirari II

king

Assyria

-911 to -891

He started late Assyrian civilization.

Omri

king

Israel

-878 to -871

Samaria was capital.

Ahab

king

Israel

-871 to -852

He married the Phoenician Jezebel, so Baal became worshiped, not Yahweh. The prophet Elijah was against him.

Jehu

king

Israel

-871 to -852

Elijah helped him, and he restored worship of Yahweh.

Ashurnasirpal III

emperor

Mesopotamia

-850

He began New Assyrian Empire by conquering to Mediterranean.

Athaliah

king

Judaea

-845 to -839

Kingdom of Judah worshiped Baal, not Yahweh. He killed descendants of former kings.

Shalmaneser III

emperor

Mesopotamia

-800

387

New Assyrian Empire took Syria and Palestine.

Tiglath Pileser III

emperor

Mesopotamia

-750

New Assyrian Empire took Babylonia, Media, and Syria.

Hezekiah

king

Judaea

-725 to -697

He was king of Judah.

Sargon II

emperor

Assyria

-722 to -705

New Assyrian Empire took Samaria [-722], Carcemish, Babylon, and west Kurdistan. He built Khorsabad as capital.

He conquered Israel [-720].

Sennacherib

emperor

Assyria

-705 to -681

New Assyrian Empire destroyed Babylon [-689]. He also defeated Egypt [-690], Cyprus, Cilicia, and Syria and

exacted tribute from Jerusalem. He built capital at Nineveh.

Necho I or Nekhao Memkheperre

king

Egypt

-690 to -664


Esar-Haddon

emperor

Mesopotamia/Egypt

-680 to -669

New Assyrian Empire defeated Chaldeans and took control in Egypt [-673 to -670].

Ashurbanipal or Sardanapalus or Asnapper

emperor

Assyria

-668 to -626

He took Elam [-646] and destroyed Thebes, Egypt. New Assyrian Empire was at height of learning, art, and power.

He had famous library.

Psamtik

king

Egypt

-663 to -609

He lived -684 to -610, started Saite Dynasty, and took Syrtis and Cyrene in Libya and Salamis in Cyprus.

Nitocris

queen

Egypt

388

-660 to -656

She lived -686 to -656.

Nabopolassar

king

Babylonia

-626 to -605

He was Chaldean, conquered Assyria at Nineveh [-612], and started New Babylonian Empire. His son,

Nebuchadnezzar II, defeated Egyptians at Carchemish, Syria [-605].

Necho II

king

Egypt

-609 to -561

He lived -630 to -561. Saite Dynasty rebuilt canal from Nile to Arabian Gulf. He defeated Assyrians [-609]. He lost

to Babylonians [-588].

Nebuchadnezzar or Nebuchadnezzar II

king

Babylonia

-605 to -562

He lived -630 to -562. Second Babylonian Empire defeated Egypt under Necho [-588]. It then defeated revolt in

Judah [-587 to -586] and took Jews into captivity in Babylon (Babylonian Captivity). It also conquered Elam and

Achaemenids. He rebuilt temple to Marduk and enlarged Tower of Babel.

Croesus

king

Lydia

-560 to -546

He lived -595 to -546. Lydia included Pisidia and Lycia in southwest Asia Minor and was at maximum power and

wealth. He resisted Medes. He ruled until overthrown by Persia under Cyrus the Great.

Cyrus II or Cyrus the Great

king

Persia

-557 to -529

He lived -600 to -529, founded Persian Empire, and captured Babylon [-539]. He freed Jews. His capital was at

Pasargadae. He established Achaemenid Dynasty and Persian Empire and conquered Medea [-549], Lydia, Babylonia,

and Egypt [-525]. He restored Jews to Palestine and rebuilt temple for third time. He respected local customs and

governments and only wanted tribute. He tried to take Hindu Kush but Scythians killed him [-529].

Cambyses

king

Persia

-529 to -521

He lived -558 to -521, was Cyrus's son, and took Egypt from Assyria [-525].

Darius I or Darius the Great

king

Persia

-521 to -486

He lived -550 to -486. Achaemenid Dynasty of Persian Empire built Persepolis, fought Scythians, and conquered to

northwest India and Danube River. Army, police, and satrap governors responsible only to king ruled the 20 provinces

{satrapy}. He improved government and communication and tried to build highway from Ephesus to Susa. Ionian cities

in Asia Minor revolted [-499] but lost. He attacked mainland Greece by navy but lost [-490], and then lost to Greek

army at Marathon [-490].

389

Xerxes I or Xerxes the Great

emperor

Persia

-485 to -465

He lived -519 to -465. Of Achaemenid Dynasty, he was Darius I's son. He defeated Egypt. He invaded Greece by

building bridge over Hellespont channel. He won at Thermopylae [-480], sacked Athens [-480], lost his fleet at Salamis

[-480], and went back to Persia. His army lost at Plataea and his fleet burned at Mycale on same day [-479].

Artaxerxes I

emperor

Persia

-464 to -424

He lived -483 to -424. Achaemenid Dynasty of Persian Empire became weak by wars with Greece, Egypt, and

Bactria.

Artaxerxes II

emperor

Persia

-404 to -358

He lived -456 to -358. Of Achaemenid Dynasty, he defeated Cyrus the Younger in civil war and ruled Persian

Empire. Persia and Sparta negotiated Treaty of Antalcidas [-386].

Artaxerxes III or Arses

emperor

Persia

-358 to -338

He lived ? to -338. Of Achaemenid Dynasty, he massacred his family to rule Persian Empire. He defeated Egypt.

Darius III

king

Persia

-334 to -330

He lived -380 to -330 and lost to Alexander the Great at Granicus, Issus, and Gaugamela, ending Achaemenid

Dynasty and Persian Empire.

Ptolemy I or Ptolemy Soter

king

Egypt

-323 to -285

He lived -367 to -282 and was general for Alexander the Great of Macedonia. He moved capital to Alexandria [-

305]. He built library [-305]. He ruled with his son [-285 to -282].

Seleucus I

king

Syria/Babylonia/Persia

-323 to -281

He lived -358 to -281, was one of Alexander's generals, and began Seleucid Dynasty. He received Babylonia after

Alexander the Great's death. He fought to Indus River in India. He won at Ipsus against Antigonus I of Macedon and

later defeated Lysimachus of Macedon in Wars of the Diadochi.

Ptolemy II

king

Egypt

-282 to -246

He lived -309 to -246. Ptolemaic, Macedonian, Lagid, or XXXI Dynasty built library at Alexandria and fought Syria.

390

Arsaces I

king

Persia

-247 to -211

From central Asia, he led Parni branch of Dahae and founded Parthian kingdom in east Persia, which became

Parthian Empire.

Ptolemy III

king

Egypt

-246 to -221

He lived -280 to -221. Ptolemaic, Macedonian, Lagid, or XXXI Dynasty fought Syria and controlled Asia Minor and

Greek coast.

Antiochus the Great

king

Syria/Israel

-223 to -187

He lived -242 to -187, was Seleucid, and took Judea [-198].

Ptolemy IV

king

Egypt

-221 to -205

He lived -243 to -205 and was of Ptolemaic, Macedonian, Lagid, or XXXI Dynasty.

Antiochus IV

king

Syria/Persia

-175 to -164

He lived -215 to -164. Seleucids tried to stop Maccabees in Judaea. Rome blocked Seleucid invasion of Egypt.

Mithradates I

emperor

Persia

-171 to -138

He lived -200 to -138 and was Parthian emperor. He conquered from Caspian Sea to Persian Gulf to border of India

[-160 to -140].

Hyrcanus I

king

Judea

-134 to -104

He lived ? to -104 and left Pharisees to become Sadducee [-120].

Hyrcanus II

king

Judea

-76 to -40

He lived ? to -30 and was Judea high priest [-76 to -40]. Rome took Judea, and Hyrcanus II, a Maccabee, was puppet

ruler [-63 to -40].

Cleopatra

queen

Egypt

391

-51 to -30

She lived -69 to -30. She was of Ptolemaic Dynasty. Julius Caesar and Marc Anthony loved her. After she and Marc

Anthony lost at Actium, she killed herself using asp.

Herod the Great

king

Judea

-37 to -4

He lived -73 to -4, was Hyrcanus's half-Jewish minister, and ruled for Rome. He built Masada [-30] by Dead Sea as

fortress towering 1300 feet. He murdered rabbis. According to the Bible, he massacred children [-4].

Herod Antipas or Herod Antipatros

tetrarch

Judaea

-4 to 40

He lived -20 to 40. According to the Bible, he executed John the Baptist and brought his head on a platter when

Salome asked for it. He was Herod the Great's son.

Ardashir I

king

Persia

224 to 241

He started Sassanid or Sassanian Dynasty when people of Fars revolted against Parthians. He, noble soldier, killed

last Parthian king [226]. He reunited Persia. Sasan was his ancestor.

Sapor I or Shapur I

king

Persia

241 to 272

He lived 224 to 272 and was Ardashir's son. He defeated and captured Roman Emperor Valerian [260], captured

Armenia, and invaded Syria and Cappadocia. He started to build at Ctesiphon.

Mithradates II

king

Persia

300

He lived 256 to 190 and was of Sassanid or Sassanian Dynasty.

Shapur II or Shapur the Great

king

Persia

309 to 379

He lived 309 to 379 and fought Roman Empire [337 to 363]. Sassanid or Sassanian Dynasty defeated Constantius II

and Julian the Apostate of east Roman Empire [363]. There was high prosperity.

Theodosius I or Theodosius the Great

emperor


379 to 395

He lived 346 to 395. East Roman Empire negotiated peace with Visigoths. He invaded Italy and reunited East and

West Roman Empires, for last time. People in west left cities for farms, army had mercenaries, and government raised

taxes. He put down rebellion in Salonica. He ended Trinity doctrine of Arius, by force and by first Council of

Constantinople, and forbade paganism.

Theodosius II

emperor/lawgiver

392

Byzantium

408 to 450

Codex Theodosianus [429 to 438: Legal code based on Roman law systematized all imperial laws since time of

Constantine, in 16 books]

He lived 401 to 450, was emperor [408 to 450], was Arcadius's and Aelia Eudoxia's son, and built protective walls

around Constantinople [412]. He issued Law of Citations [438]. Theodosius I lived 346 to 395 and was emperor [379 to

395].

Kaleb

king

Aksum/Yemen

520 to 570

As king of Aksum or Axum [520 to 570], he conquered Yemen [525] in south Arabia and built churches.

Justinian I

emperor/lawgiver


527 to 565

Code of Justinian [533: codified Roman law]; New Laws [534: statutes about administration and Church, with

private-law principles]; Digest or Pandects [529 to 565: excerpts from commentaries on Sabinus, Perpetual Edict, and

Responsa and Quaestiones of Papinian, in 50 books]

He lived 482 to 565, was Illyrian, and was emperor of Byzantine Empire [527 to 565]. His generals Belisarius and

Narses conquered Vandal Kingdom in Africa and Italy. Ravenna, Italy, became capital. They subdued Ostrogoths and

took south part, up to Cordoba, of Visigothic Kingdom in Spain. He fought Khosru I of Sassanid Empire in east and

controlled Egypt and Levant.

Burgundian Kingdom was in south France. Frankish Kingdom was in north France. Celts were in Britain. Lombards

were north of Greece. Slavs were north of Lombards.

He codified Roman law. He closed the Academy.

Emperor became spiritual leader of Orthodox Church, together with bishops. He supported Orthodox Christians. He

called second Council of Constantinople to unify church. He built Hagia Sophia or St. Sophia Church in

Constantinople. He persecuted Jews, Coptic Christians of Egypt, and Nestorian Christians in east Syria.

Theodora was empress. She ended Nika riot over taxes and church doctrine.

In art, Christ had a ring {nimbus, light ring} of light, like sun god, around his head.

He fixed interest at 8% for business loans and 4% to 12% for other loans with average interest of 6% and set

maximum interest equal to principal.

Hatim Tai

king

Arabia

550 to 600

He was famous for generosity.

Chosroes II or Khosrow II or Khosrow Parviz [Parviz, Khosrow]

king

Persia

590 to 628

Of Sassanid or Sassanian Dynasty, he was Khosrow I's grandson and succeeded his father Hormizd or Hormoz

[590], but Bahram Chubin forced him to flee to Byzantine Empire. Emperor Maurice of Byzantine Empire helped him

regain throne, but got Armenia in return for his help. After Phocas murdered Maurice, Chosroes II took Armenia,

Cappadocia, Syria, and Jerusalem [615]. He defeated White Huns. He took Egypt [616]. He next reached

Constantinople [617]. Heraclius I of Byzantine Empire entered Assyria and Mesopotamia [627] and then his son

murdered Chosroes II and became king as Kavadh II Shiruya.

Heraclius I

emperor


393

610 to 641

He lived 575 to 641, led Byzantine Empire, was Armenian, defended Constantinople by defeating Avars on west

[626], and took back Syria, Palestine, and Egypt from Persia [628].

Abu Bakr or Abu Bekr

caliph

Arabia

632 to 634

He lived 573 to 634, was uncle of Ali, was one of the first converts to Islam, became first caliph [632], and

subjugated all Arabia to start Moslem Empire [634].

Omar or Umar

caliph


634 to 644

Omar lived 581 to 644, was second caliph, set up administration, set up tax system, and started kadi office. Capital

was Medina. He conquered Syria, Palestine, Middle East, Mesopotamia, and Persia [637] but not Byzantine Empire. He

conquered Egypt [640 to 641]. He took north Africa [644]. He took Kabul [664].

Othman or Uthman

caliph


644 to 656

He lived 574 to 656 and was third caliph of Moslem Empire.

Ali or Ali ibn Abi Talib

caliph

Medina, Saudi Arabia

656 to 661

He lived 598 to 661, was cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed, was Abu Bakr's nephew and Mohammad's cousin,

was one of the first converts to Islam, and was fourth caliph. He married Fatima, Mohammad's daughter. In Sunni

Islam, he was fourth and last Khulafa-i-Rashidun or Rightly Guided Caliphs. In Shi'a Islam, he was the first imam and

true caliph. His sons did not become caliph.

Muawiya I or Mu'awiyya I

caliph


661 to 683

He lived 600 to 683 and started Omayyed Dynasty of caliphs. He assassinated Ali [661] and deposed Hassan and

Hussein, sons of Ali. He then united most of Islam using diplomacy. He moved capital from Medina to Damascus.

After he died, his son Muawiya II was caliph several months [683 to 684].

Abdul-Malik

caliph


684 to 705

He lived 646 to 705, was fifth Omayyed caliph, was Sunni, and united Islam.

Leo III or Leo the Isaurian

emperor

Anatolia

717 to 741

He was from Anatolia, allied Byzantine Empire with Khazars in south Russia, and controlled Anatolia.

Constantine V

emperor

394


741 to 775

He lived 718 to 775. Byzantine Empire controlled Balkans.

al-Mansur

caliph

Baghdad, Iraq

762 to 775

He lived 716 to 775 and was second Abbasid caliph of Moslem Empire. Abbasid family was at al-Humaymah.

Barmakids or Barmecides

vizier

Baghdad, Iraq

771 to 806

From Persia, they were viziers for Harun-al-Rashid until murdered.

Harun al-Rashid or Haroun al-Raschid

caliph

Baghdad, Iraq

786 to 809

He lived 764 to 809 and was fifth Abbasid caliph of Moslem Empire. He was in the Arabian Nights. Barmacides,

from Persia, were his viziers. After he died, his son al-Amin became caliph [809 to 813].

Irene of Athens

empress

Byzantium

797 to 802


Mamun or al-Mamun or al-Ma'mun

caliph

Baghdad, Iraq

813 to 833

He lived 786 to 833, was Harun-al-Rashid's son, and was Abbasid caliph of Moslem Empire, succeeding his brother

al-Amin [813]. He established Bayt al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom) library and academy. Baghdad had 500,000 people.

Empire was at height of art and science. Decimal system came from India.

Basil I

emperor


867 to 886

He lived 826 or 835 to 886 and started Macedonian Dynasty [867 to 1056]. Byzantine Empire fought Bulgars. He

repaired finances and codified law.

Ahmad ibn Tulun

prince

Egypt

868 to 884

He lived 835 to 884, was Egyptian noble from Turkey, rebelled from Abbasid caliphate, and started Tulunid dynasty

[868 to 905] in Egypt.

Basil II

emperor

Byzantium/Bulgaria

976 to 1025

395

He lived 957 to 1025 and became sole emperor [976]. He was Bulgaroctonus or Slayer of Bulgars. He confiscated

great landowner estates and gave jobs to his followers. He fought Bulgar kingdom in Bulgaria under Tsar Samuel [990

to 1014] and won Battle of Balathista [1014]. He defeated Italy and Normandy [1018]. Byzantium controlled from Italy

to Euphrates River in Iraq.

Sabuktagin

king


977 to 997

He started Ghaznavid dynasty, was son-in-law of Albtakin, and helped Samanians.

Mahmud or Ghazna or Mohammed of Ghazna

king

Persia/India

997 to 1030

He lived 971 to 1030 and was Sabuktagin's son. He took all Samanian lands [999] and conquered into India. After

his death 1030, Seljuk Turks threatened his empire and it gradually declined.

al-Zahir

caliph

Egypt

1021 to 1036

He was Fatimid.

Mas'ud

king


1031 to 1041

Of Ghaznavid Dynasty, he was Mahmud's son. He lost to Seljuk Turks, but family still ruled east Afghanistan and

west India.

Tughril Beg

sultan

Persia/Iraq

1038 to 1063

He lived 990 to 1063 and led Seljuk Turks from central Asia [1038] to Persia [1040 to 1044] and Baghdad [1055],

where he became sultan.

Alp Arslan

sultan

Iraq

1063 to 1072

He lived 1029 to 1072 and was nephew of Tughril Beg and Seljuk Turk. He invaded Asia Minor [1065] and

Armenia and defeated Byzantine army at Battle of Manzikert [1071].

Jallaluddin Malekshah [Malekshah, Jallaluddin]

sultan

Iraq

1072 to 1092

He followed Alp Arsalen as sultan. Nezam-ol Molk or Nezamiya was vizier of Malekshah. Seljuk Turks or Sultanate

of Rum controlled Middle East. Seljuk control of Holy Land was reason for Crusades.

Abd-al-Mumin

caliph

Morocco/Spain/Algeria/Tripoli

1147 to 1163

396

He lived 1094 to 1163, took Marrakech [1147], conquered Algeria, Tripoli, and part of Spain [1163], and started the

Almohads.

Saladin or Salah al-Din

ruler

Egypt/Syria

1173 to 1193

He lived 1138 to 1193, took Jerusalem [1173] and Damascus, and started Ayyubid dynasty [1173 to 1250]. With

Saracens, he conquered Tunisia, Yemen, and Syria. He defeated Crusade at Hattin [1187]. He held Jerusalem through

Third Crusade. He met Richard I of England.

Baybars al-Bunduqdari

sultan

Egypt

1250 to 1277

He lived 1223 to 1277, was Turkish slave, and started Mameluke dynasty [1250 to 1517].

Michael VIII

emperor


1261 to 1282

He lived 1225 to 1282, reunited Byzantine Empire as states of Nicaea, Trebizond, and Epirus, and started

Palaeologan Dynasty [1261 to 1453].

Osman I or Othman I

emperor

Turkey

1299 to 1326

He lived 1259 to 1326 and started Osmanli or Ottoman principality {beg} in northeast Turkey. He began Islamic law

and government. As leader of Ottoman Turks or Osmanli Turks, he founded Ottoman Empire by taking Bursa [1317 to

1326], capital of Mongols in Asia Minor, using artillery. Bursa became Ottoman capital.

Bajazet I or Bayazit I or Bayazid I

emperor

Anatolia

1389 to 1403

He lived 1360 to 1403. Ottoman Empire took east Anatolia [1396].

Mohammad II or Mehmed the Conqueror

sultan

Turkey

1451 to 1481

He lived 1429 to 1481, was sultan of Turkey, bombarded Constantinople for eight weeks, had 80,000 soldiers, and

started Ottoman Empire [1453]. Emperor Constantine XI of Byzantine Empire died fighting [1453].

Ismail I or Khata'i

shah/poet

Persia

1501 to 1524

He was first Safavid, was Shia, and took Persia [1502].

Selim I or Selim the Grim

sultan

Istanbul, Turkey

1512 to 1520

397

He lived 1467 to 1520 and led Ottoman Empire at height. He defeated Persia and got Kurdistan, defeated

Mamelukes in Syria and Egypt, killed many Shiite Moslems, and got Caliphate by taking over Mecca and Medina.

Tahmasp

shah

Iran

1524 to 1576

He lived 1514 to 1576. Safavids ruled Persia.

Abbas I or Abbas the Great or Shah Abbas [Abbas, Shah]

shah

Iran

1587 to 1629

He lived 1571 to 1629, was Safavid, and moved capital from Ghazvin to Isfahan. Mullahs were powerful. He

punished Sufis. He built the Medan town square in Isfahan and encouraged art. Shah means king.

Nader Shah

shah

Persia

1736 to 1747

He lived 1688 to 1747 and defeated Afghans [1729].

Agha Mohammad Khan Ghajar [Ghajar, Agha Mohammad Khan]

shah

Persia

1794 to 1797

He lived 1742 to 1797 and began Qajar or Ghajar Dynasty.

Fath-Ali

shah

Persia

1797 to 1834

He lived 1762 to 1834, was Qajar, lost Caucasia to Russia, and fought Afghans and Ottoman Empire. His son was

Abbas Mirza, who wanted to reform but never ruled.

Ibrahim Pasha

viceroy/khedive

Egypt

1805 to 1848

He lived 1789 to 1848 and was Muhammad 'Ali's son or adopted son. His father named him hereditary governor of

Egypt. He led his father's armies against Wahhabite sect in Arabia [1816 to 1818].

Muhammad Ali [Muhammad, Ali] or Muhammad 'Ali

pasha

Egypt

1805 to 1849

He lived 1769 to 1849, became pasha under Ottoman Empire [1805], and defeated Mamelukes [1811]. He took Syria

from Ottoman Empire [1833] and led revolts in Asia Minor [1838], which European armies suppressed.

Mohammad Shah

shah

Persia

1835 to 1848

He lived 1810 to 1848 and was Qajar.

Nasseroddin Shah

398

shah

Persia

1848 to 1896

He lived 1831 to 1896 and was Qajar. Amir Kabir was Premier [1848 to 1851].

Ismail Pasha or Ismail the Magnificent

pasha

Egypt

1863 to 1879

He lived 1830 to 1895 and was Ibrahim Pasha's son. Debt caused him to allow France and Britain to take over

Egyptian government. He sold Suez Canal [completed in 1869] to Britain [1876].

Midhat Pasha

grand vizier

Istanbul, Turkey

1876

He lived 1822 to 1883 and published a constitution for Ottoman Empire [1876].

Abbas II

pasha

Egypt

1892 to 1914


Mozzaffar-oddin Shah

shah

Persia

1895 to 1907

He lived 1853 to 1907, was Qajar, and signed new constitution [1906].

Mohammad-Ali Shah

shah

Persia

1907 to 1909

He lived 1872 to 1925, was Qajar, and cancelled new constitution.

Ahmad Shah

shah

Persia

1909 to 1924

He lived 1898 to 1930, was Qajar, and revolted and defeated Mohammad-Ali Shah.

Faisal I

king

Iraq

1921 to 1933


Tutankhamon tomb

pharaoh tomb

Egypt

1922

He lived -1336 to -1327. Tomb opened [1922].

Fuad I

king

399

Egypt

1923


Reza Shah Pahlavi

shah

Iran

1925 to 1941

He lived 1878 to 1944 and started Pahlavi Dynasty.

Ibn Saud

king

Saudi Arabia

1932 to 1953

He lived 1880 to 1953. As king of Nejd, he took Hejaz region of Arabia [1925] and created Saudi Arabia [1932 to

1953].

Farouk I

king

Egypt

1937 to 1952

He lived 1920 to 1965. Kingdom ended when Nasser began republic.

Faisal II

king

Iraq

1939 to 1958


Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi [Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza Shah]

shah

Iran

1941 to 1979

He lived 1919 to 1980 and began rule when his father Reza Shah Pahlavi abdicated [1941], after Britain and Russia

occupied Iran. He put down rival governments [1947]. He defeated Communists and overcame Premier Mossadegh

[1953], with help from USA CIA. He started land and other reforms in White Revolution [1962 to 1963]. He fled Iran

[1979], as Moslem clerics took power in peaceful revolution under Ayatollah Khomeini.

Hussein I

king

Jordan

1952 to 1999


Feisal

king

Saudi Arabia

1964 to 1975

He lived 1905 to 1975 and ended slavery and strong monarchy.

SOCI>History>History>Rulers>Europe

Minos

king

Knossos, Crete

-1500

400

Cretan civilization had boxing, bull leaping, hunting, musicians, dancers, and board games.

Romulus

founder

Rome, Italy

-753 to -716

By legend, he founded Rome.

Numa Pompilius

king

Rome, Italy

-715 to -673

He was legendary peaceful king.

Tarquin or Tarquinius Priscus or Tarquin the Elder or Tarquin I

king

Rome, Italy

-616 to -579

He was Etruscan.

Servius Tullius [Tullius, Servius]

king

Rome, Italy

-578 to -535

He built wall around city.

Brennus

king

Rome, Italy

-390

As chief of Senones, Adriatic coast Gauls, he defeated Rome in Battle of the Allia [-390] and took Rome.

Philip II

king

Macedon

-358 to -336

He lived -382 to -336 and took Thrace's gold. He invented phalanx infantry formation using ten rows, with long

pikes between preceding soldiers. He used armored cavalry charges and catapults. He conquered Athens at Chaeronea

[-338]. He took Thebes [-335] and enslaved the people after rebellion. He died while preparing to attack Persia. His son

was Alexander the Great.

Alexander the Great

king

Macedon

-336 to -323

He lived -356 to -323 and conquered whole Middle East. He died of typhoid fever in Babylon.

Antigonus II

king

Greece

-276 to -239

He lived -319 to -239, conquered Macedon [-276], and united Greece.

Augustus or Octavian

emperor

Rome, Italy

401

-27 to 14

He lived -63 to 14 and was Julius Caesar's great nephew. Octavian controlled Persia, Syria, Egypt, Asia Minor,

Greece, Italy, Gaul, Lusitania or Portugal, and Spain and so consolidated Roman Empire [-31]. He became first

emperor of Rome as Augustus [-27]. He imposed Pax Romana, had good administration, and encouraged arts.

Tiberius

emperor

Rome, Italy

14 to 37

He lived -42 to 37 and reformed finances of Roman Empire. Senate and Assembly lost all power.

Caligula or Caius Julius Caesar Germanicus

emperor

Rome, Italy

37 to 41

He lived 12 to 41 and led Roman Empire.

Claudius or Claudius Nero Germanicus

emperor

Britain

41 to 54

He lived -10 to 54 and invaded Britain [43].

Nero

emperor

Rome, Italy

54 to 68

He lived 37 to 68, killed his mother, wife, cousin, and many Christians, and defeated many revolts against Roman

Empire.

Boudicca

queen

Britain

60 to 61

She lived 26 to 62, was Iceni queen, and rebelled against Rome [60].

Vespasian or Titus Flavius Vespasianus [Vespasianus, Titus Flavius]

emperor

Rome, Italy

69 to 79

He lived 9 to 79 and began Flavian line of Roman Empire. He constructed Forum [75] and began Colosseum. His

son Titus finished Colosseum [80].

Trajan

emperor

Rome, Italy

98 to 117

He lived 53 to 117, took Parthia and Dacia for Roman Empire, and built Roman Forum and Column of Trajan.

Roman Empire was at greatest extent.

Hadrian

emperor/lawgiver

Rome, Italy

117 to 138

Perpetual Edict [131: codified Roman praetorian laws]

402

He lived 76 to 138 and was emperor [117 to 138]. Roman Empire was at greatest extent. He built walls in Germany

and Britain. He set Roman east boundary at Euphrates River. He ordered Perpetual Edict.

Antonius Pius

emperor

Rome, Italy

138 to 161

He lived 86 to 161 and began Antonine Dynasty of Roman Empire. He was Stoic and noted for good administration.

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus

emperor/writer

Rome, Italy

161 to 180

Meditations [167]

He lived 121 to 180 and was second Antonine ruler of Roman Empire. He was Stoic and noted for good

administration. People can try to understand universe order and goodness, accept consequences for themselves, and

sympathize with and live harmoniously with others.

Septimius Severus [Severus, Septimius]

emperor

Rome, Italy

193 to 211

He lived 146 to 211 and was Libyan general. He built chain of forts and long ditches in north Africa. He was

member of equestrian class, with army and administrative experience in Roman Empire. Emperor became absolute

master, without preserving legal forms. The prefect became head of civil administration and judges in Rome. He

devalued currency, gave power to army, set high taxes, and caused high inflation, which led to civil war, which he won,

and to foreign wars, which he won with some losses.

Caracella

emperor

Rome, Italy

211 to 217

All freeborn people in empire received Roman citizenship.

Cormac MacArt [MacArt, Cormac] or Cormac Ulfhada Mac Airt

king

Ireland

254 to 277

He codified many laws and led the five kings of Ulster, Leinster, Connaught, Meath, and Munster. His capital was at

Tara.

Aurelian or Restorer of the Roman Empire

emperor

Rome, Italy

270 to 275

He lived 214 to 275 and was from Illyria. He fought at Palmyra and defeated barbarians in Britain, Gaul, Spain,

Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia. He reestablished Roman rule throughout empire. Someone murdered him at invasion

of Persia.

Diocletian

emperor

Rome, Italy

284 to 305

He lived 245 to 305, was from Illyria, regained Britain, and defeated Persians and barbarians. He ruined Roman

Empire economy by heavier taxes.

He reorganized the army of 500,000 men and used conscription.

403

He created smaller dioceses to replace larger provinces. He created four prefectures [285], called the Tetrarchy. They

were Italy and Africa, Gaul and Spain, Greece and north, and Egypt and Asia. He divided empire along line from

Danube to Dalmatia, with himself in eastern half {Eastern Empire}, which was richer and more populous. Maximian,

general in Gaul, controlled west half [295]. Constantius and Galerius ruled subsections [292]. He persecuted Christians

[303] for failure to worship emperor. Senate became only honorary.

Constantine the Great

emperor

Rome, Italy

306 to 337

He lived 274 to 337 and was Constantius' son. Army proclaimed him emperor of West Roman Empire [306], and

civil war followed. Before battle [312], he added Christian symbol to shields. He became western emperor [312]. Later,

he judged disputes between churches and built churches. He removed sun god from coins [320]. Sunday became

holiday [321]. He reunited empire [324] and became emperor of east and west. He moved capital to Byzantium and

called it Constantinople [330]. He had himself baptized when he died.

Christian centers were in Rome, Africa, Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor.

Constantine II or Flavius Claudius Constantinus

emperor

Rome, Italy

337 to 340

He lived 317 to 340. Roman Empire stayed united.

Constantius II or Flavius Julius Constantius

emperor

Rome, Italy

337 to 361

Roman Empire stayed united.

Alaric I

king

Italy/Spain/Gaul

395 to 410

He lived 370 to 410 and conquered Italy, Spain, and south Gaul, as Visigoths fled from Huns to Roman lands.

Attila or Attila the Hun or Scourge of God

king

Hungary

433 to 453

He lived 406 to 453 and led Huns during conquests. Ostrogoths lost to Huns under Attila and went westward [433].

Huns got tribute from Byzantine Empire and from tribes in central and east Europe. After he died, Huns settled in

Hungary and Austria.

Aun

king

Uppsala, Sweden

450 to 480

He was buried at Old Uppsala in mounds. He is in Beowulf and Ynglinga Saga of Iceland.

Adils or Eadgils

king

Uppsala, Sweden

460 to 505

He lived 450 to 505, was Ottar Vendilkraka's son, and was buried at Old Uppsala in mounds. He is in Beowulf and

Ynglinga Saga of Iceland.

404

Gundobad

king

Lyon, Burgundy

473 to 516

Roman law of Burgundians [501 to 515]

He lived ? to 516, was king of Burgundy [473 to 516], was Patrician of Western Roman Empire [472 to 473], and

issued short, unsystematic set of Roman laws [501 to 515].

Theodoric the Great

king

Ravenna, Italy

474 to 526

Edict of Theodoric [508: short and unsystematic book of Roman laws]

He lived 454 to 526, was Ostrogoth king [474 to 526], and defeated Vandals under Odoacer several times in Italy

[481] [484], starting Ostrogoth kingdom [493]. He believed in Arianism, which was contrary to Catholic orthodoxy,

and had trouble with the pope.

Clovis I or Chlodowech or Chlodwig

king

Belgium/France/Germany

481 to 511

He lived 466 to 511, was Salian Frank king [465 to 511], and united Franks, founding Merovingian Dynasty and

Frankish Kingdom [481]. Capital was at Lutetia (Paris). Using stirrups for horses, he defeated Romans, Alemanni,

Burgundians, and Visigoths and ruled down to Loire River. Franks became Christian. He married Catholic princess of

Burgundy and became Christian later. At his death, his sons got parts of his lands.

Alaric II

king

Rome, Italy

484 to 507

Roman Law of Visigoths or Alaric's Breviary [506]

He lived ? to 507 and issued short, unsystematic set of Roman laws [506]. Clovis defeated Alaric II at Battle of

Campus Vogladenis [507].

Arthur

king

England

500

The legendary king lived at Camelot and founded Knights of the Round Table.

Egil or Ongentheow

king

Uppsala, Sweden

515 to 530

He was Aun's son and was buried at Old Uppsala in mounds. He is in Beowulf and Ynglinga Saga of Iceland.

Dagobert I

king

France

639

He lived 605 to 639, united Merovingian Frankish kingdoms, and controlled Bretons and Basques.

Recceswinth

king

Toledo, Spain

649 to 672

405

Visigothic Code [654]

He codified law, based on Alaric's code [654].

Charles Martel [Martel, Charles]

king

France

714 to 741

He lived 688 to 741, was Frankish king [714 to 741] from Austrasia east of Rhine River, united former Merovingian

kingdoms of Franks, won Battle of Tours [733], and founded Carolingian line. He helped Boniface convert Germany to

Christianity. He was grandfather of Charlemagne.

Abd-al-Rahman I

ruler

Spain

721 to 732

He was governor of Spain [721 to 732], fought Battle of Toulouse [721], and invaded France again, but lost at Tours

(Poitiers) to Charles Martel of Franks [732].

Leo the Isaurian or Leo the Syrian

king

Rome, Italy

730

Ecloga or Selections [730]

He lived 685 to 741 and issued short unsystematic law set in Greek [730] and new decrees in maritime law and

feudalism.

Pepin the Short

king

France

751 to 768

He lived 714 to 768 and started Carolingian Dynasty of Franks when he became Frank king by election [751]. He

deposed last Merovingian king, defended Rome from Lombards twice, and gave his acquisitions in Italy, including

Ravenna, to the pope, creating Papal States [756]. The pope gave him the title Patrician of Rome. He then fought

Saxons, who were pagan, and drove Moorish Kingdom behind Pyrenees. He was father of Charlemagne.

Abdu-r-Rahman I or Abdurrahman I or Abdur Rahman I

emir

Spain

756 to 788

He lived ? to 788, went to Spain after escaping from Abu Muslem, and became emir of Cordoba. North Spain also

contained Kingdoms of Leon, Castile, Navarre, Aragon, and Barcelona.

Cynewulf

king/poet

Northumbria, England/Mercia, England

757 to 786

Christ II [760 to 780: religious poem]; Elene [760 to 780: religious poem]; Fates of the Apostles [760 to 780:

religious poem]; Juliana [760 to 780: religious poem]

He was king of West Saxons or Wessex [757 to 786]. He wrote in Old English.

Charlemagne

king

France/Germany

771 to 813

He lived 742 to 813. Of Carolingian Dynasty of Franks, he united Franks again [771]. He defeated Spanish Moors

and set up Spanish March, from along Pyrenees down to Ebro River and Catalonia. He took Austria [788], defeated

406

Saxons, converted them, and restored Leo III to Holy See after defeating Lombards. He got Carinthia and Bohemia

from Avars, Wends, and Slavs. He set up the Dane Mark or Dane March at Elbe River in north Germany to stop Danes.

He became emperor of Western Empire of Rome [800], when Pope Leo III, who had regained Rome by Charlemagne's

conquests, crowned him. Western Empire of Rome had France, Germany, and Italy. Capital was at Aachen.

Charlemagne presided at synods and ruled the bishops.

Alcuin of York was his teacher, founded palace school at Aachen, ran library, and taught at Tours. Einhard wrote life

of Charlemagne. It used Carolingian alphabet to copy Bibles and books.

Charlemagne set weights and measures to one silver pound equal to 240 pennies {denarii}.

Charlemagne and Catholic Church developed new warfare rules. He established royal court {aula regis}, which was

superior to popular courts. He also issued decrees {capitulary} on the poor, general welfare, and education, with his

council's consent.

He sent envoys {missi, envoy} to all empire parts to force law obeyance and inspect. He contacted Byzantine and

Islamic Empires.

Art was for religious purposes, not just personal glory.

Offa

king

England/Wales

778 to 797

He was king of Mercia in central England, fought south Wales [778], and built dike [784] between England and

Wales.

Egbert or Ecgbehrt or Ecgbert

king

England

802 to 839

He lived 770 to 839, was king of Wessex [802 to 839], defeated Mercia at Battle of Ellendun [825], and united

England.

Louis I or Louis the Pious

emperor

France

814 to 840

He lived 778 to 840, was Charlemagne's son, and was Frank. He negotiated at Lugenfeld (Field of Lies) [833] and

faced incursions by Norse. His sons were Lothair I, Charles II the Bald, and Louis the German, who rebelled often.

Louis the German

king

Germany

817 to 876

He lived 804 to 876, was Louis I the Pious' son, got Germany [817], and was East Frank king [817 to 876].

Lothair I or Lothar I

king

Lotharingia, Germany/Italy

840 to 855

He lived 795 to 855, was Louis I the Pious' son, and got Lotharingia and Italy [817 to 855], and led Holy Roman

Empire [840 to 855].

Charles the Bald or Charles II

king

France

843 to 877

He lived 823 to 877, was Louis I the Pious' son, got south and west France [843 to 877], held Council of Pistes

[864], and led Holy Roman Empire [875 to 877].

407

Boris I

king

Bulgaria

852 to 889

He lived ? to 907 and was khan [852 to 889]. Bulgaria became Christian [865].

Harold I or Harold Luva

king

Norway

866 to 874

He was Viking in southeast Norway and became first king of Norway at Hafrs Fjord [872], uniting small kingdoms

and causing some losers to go to Iceland and other losers, under Rollo, to go to Normandy.

Alfred the Great

king

England

866 to 899

Doom Book or Code of Alfred or Legal Code of Aelfred the Great [890]; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle [890]

He lived 849 to 899 and was West Saxon king [866 to 889]. He defeated Danes [871], captured London, and limited

Danes to the Danelaw: East Anglia, Midlands, York, Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby, Leicester, and Stamford.

Northumbria in Scotland, Wales in west Britain, Mercia in middle-south Britain, and Wessex in southwest England

were free. He recaptured some of the Danelaw from Danes [886], becoming king of all England.

He codified laws, emphasized Christianity, and started navy, schools, and writing. He set up fortified sites {burgh}

and shires. He commissioned Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, history of England.

Basilius Macedo or Basilius the Macedonian or Basilius I

emperor

Constantinople

867 to 886

Imperial Law [888]

He lived ? to 886, was Byzantine emperor [867 to 886], started Macedonian dynasty [867 to 1081], and issued law

condensations [888] and new decrees in maritime law and feudalism.

Leo the Wise

king

Constantinople

886 to 912

Imperial Law [888]

He lived 862 to 912, was Basilius' son, and restated Roman law in 60 books, abridging all previous work and

eliminating obsolete law.

Simeon I

king

Bulgaria

888 to 927

He lived 864 to 927, was king of Bulgaria [888 to 927], took Serbia [925], and was first tsar of Bulgarian Empire

[925 to 927].

Edward the Elder

king

Wessex, England

899 to 925

Edward recaptured all the Danelaw from Danes.

Gorm the Old

king

408

Denmark

899 to 936

He lived 855 to 936 and regained independence from Sweden [899]. Jelling was capital. He was father of Harold I.

Wenceslaus

king/duke

Bohemia

907 to 929

He was Duke of Bohemia [907 to 929], promoted Christianity, and negotiated peace with Henry I of Saxony [929].

He is Roman Catholic patron saint of Bohemia.

Conrad of Franconia or Conrad I

king

Franconia, Germany

911 to 918

He lived 890 to 918 and was Duke of Franconia [906 to 918]. East Franks chose him leader against Magyars [911].

Charles III or Charles the Simple

king

France

911 to 922

He lived 879 to 929, was king [893 to 922], and gave Norsemen Duchy of Normandy [911] to keep peace and to

become Christians.

Rollo or Rolf or Rolph the Ganger

duke

Normandy

911 to 932

He lived 860 to 932. Charles III of France gave Viking Rollo Duchy of Normandy [911 to 932] to keep peace and

become Christians.

Abd-al-Rahman III

caliph

Cordoba, Spain

912 to 961

He lived 891 to 961, was Omayyad, started Cordova Caliphate, and supported arts and industry. Artisans invented

paper.

Henry I or Henry the Fowler

king

Saxony

919 to 936

He lived 876 to 936, was father of Otto I, and was first Saxon king [919]. He defeated Wends, took Lotharingia, and

defeated Magyars. Denmark became vassals.

Athelstan or Athelstan the Glorious

king

England

925 to 939

He lived 895 to 939, was Alfred the Great's grandson, was king of England [925 to 939], and defeated Scots, Irish,

and Danes at Battle of Brunanburg [937] in north England.

Boleslav I or Boleslaus the Cruel

king

Poland/Bohemia

929 to 967

409

He lived 915 to 967 or 972, killed Wenceslaus [929], and was duke of Bohemia [929 to 967].

Otto I or Otto the Great

king

Saxony

936 to 973

He lived 912 to 973. Of Brandenburg Dynasty or Ottonian Dynasty of Saxon emperors, he was Henry the Fowler's

son, became Saxon king [636], united France and Germany, and took Italy [951]. The pope crowned him Holy Roman

emperor [962]. He fought France, conquered Lombardy, and aided Pope John XII.

Hywel Dda or Howell Oda or Howell the Good

prince

Wales

942

Law of Hywel Dda [942]

He was king of Deheubarth, took Gwynedd, and ruled Wales [942]. He codified law in south Wales [942].

Mieszko I

king

Poland

963 to 992

He lived 935 to 992 and was Piast duke of Poland [963]. He preceded Boleslav I, who started independent kingdom.

Sviatoslav I

duke

Kiev, Ukraine

964 to 972

He lived 945 to 972, was Grand Prince of Kiev [964 to 972], defeated Khazars, and marched to Caucasus and

Balkans, taking Belorussia.

Harold Bluetooth

king

Denmark

985

He lived 911 to 986 and was Gorm the Old's son.

Svend I or Sweyn or Sweyn Forkbeard or Swegen or Swein

king

England/Norway/Denmark

986 to 1014

He lived 960 to 1014, was Harold Bluetooth's son, was king of Denmark [986 to 1014], took England [1013], allied

with Sweden, and defeated King Olaf I of Norway, dividing Norway [999 to 1014].

Hugh Capet [Capet, Hugh]

king

France

987 to 996

He lived 938 to 996, deposed Carolingian line, and became king of France [987], starting Capetian line.

Stephen I

king

Hungary

997 to 1038

He lived 969 to 1038, was first of Arpad dynasty, accepted Christianity, and was first king of Hungary. Magyars

became Christians. Nobles {magnate, Hungary} grew more powerful.

410

Otto III

king

Holy Roman Empire

998 to 1002

He lived 980 to 1002, was king in Germany [983 to 1002], was Holy Roman emperor [998 to 1002], deposed the

pope, set up German pope, and then set up French pope.

Brian Boru [Boru, Brian]

king

Ireland

1002 to 1014

He lived 941 to 1014, was king of Munster [997], and became High King of Ireland [1002]. He defeated Vikings and

dissident nobles at Battle of Clontarf [1014], but someone killed him afterward.

Olaf II Haraldsson

king

Norway

1015 to 1028

He lived 995 to 1030, established Christianity, and fled when King Canute's followers revolted [1028].

Canute I or Canute the Great or Cnut

king

Denmark/England/Norway/Sweden

1016 to 1035

He lived 994 to 1035, was Sweyn's son, was Viking king, and united Denmark, England, and Norway [1016]. He

codified laws and brought peace and Christianity.

Henry III or Henry the Black or Henry the Pious

emperor

Holy Roman Empire

1028 to 1056

He lived 1017 to 1056 and was of Salian dynasty. Holy Roman Empire was at greatest extent. He supported reform

by Benedictine Cluniac monastic order, which wanted a government-free church, and helped elect a German reform

pope. In 1046, he deposed three popes and nominated popes.

Magnus I

king

Norway

1035 to 1047

He lived 1024 to 1047 and became king when Canute died [1035]. He was king of Denmark [1042 to 1047].

Fernando I or Ferdinand I or Ferdinand the Great

king

Spain

1035 to 1065

He lived 1017 to 1065. King of Castile [1035 to 1065] and Leon [1037] subjugated Moors in Seville, Toledo,

Saragossa, and Badajoz [1065] and controlled Spain.

MacBeth

king

Scotland

1040 to 1057

He lived 1020 to 1057, defeated Duncan [1040], killed him to take over kingdom, and then lost part of kingdom to

Malcolm [1054].

Edward III or Edward the Confessor

411

king

England

1042 to 1066

He lived 1003 to 1066, reduced taxes, and struggled with Godwin. He chose Godwin's son as heir, leading to

Norman Conquest of England [1066].

Henry IV

emperor

Germany/Austria

1056 to 1105

He lived 1050 to 1106, was king of Germany [1056 to 1105], and established Holy Roman Empire rule over duchies

[1084]. He and Pope Gregory VIII clashed over bishop and abbot investiture [1075]. He appointed his own bishops in

defiance of Pope Gregory VII. Threatened with revolt, he humbled himself in the snow before the pope, but civil war

started anyway. He invaded Italy, forced Pope Gregory VII from Rome, and named Guibert of Ravenna pope. Guibert

crowned him emperor [1084]. His son Henry V forced him to abdicate [1105].

Harold

king

England

1066

He lived 1022 to 1066. Witan assembly elected him king [1066], with Pope's sanction. He lost and died at Battle of

Hastings [1066].

William I or William the Conqueror

king

London, England

1066 to 1087

Domesday Book [1086: census of England for taxation purposes, for William the Conqueror]

He lived 1027 to 1087, was Duke of Normandy, and conquered England, led by Harold, at Battle of Hastings [1066]

during Norman Conquest. He built many castles, brought in priests from France, started separate ecclesiastical courts,

surveyed England, and demanded loyalty first to king then to nobles. Norman kings followed. He sent representatives

to preside over county courts, rather than use clergy. He held all land parcels directly or indirectly.

Alfonso VI or Alfonso the Brave

king

Castile

1072 to 1109

He lived 1040 to 1109, was king of León [1065 to 1109], was king of Castile [1072 to 1109], and attacked Muslim

kingdoms in Spain.

Ladislaus I

king

Croatia/Hungary

1077 to 1095

He lived 1040 to 1095 and got Croatia and Hungary [1077] after Boleslaus III of Poland died.

Matilda of Tuscany

queen

Tuscany

1077 to 1115

She lived 1046 to 1115, was countess of Tuscany [1077 to 1115], and gave her land to the pope [1115].

Henry of Burgundy

king

Burgundy/Portugal/Coimbra, Spain

1093 to 1112

412

He lived 1066 to 1112, was duke of Burgundy, and became Count of Portugal [1093].

Henry V

emperor

Holy Roman Empire

1105 to 1125

He lived 1086 to 1125, deposed his father, was Germany king [1099 to 1125], was Holy Roman emperor [1111 to

1125], was of Salian Dynasty, captured the pope and cardinals, and forced them to allow him to appoint his own

bishops.

David I

king

Scotland

1124 to 1153

He lived 1082 to 1153 and started feudal system.

Lothair II or Lothar II

emperor

Holy Roman Empire

1125 to 1137

He lived 1070 to 1137, was king of Germany [1125 to 1137], and was Holy Roman emperor [1133 to 1137] after

election by nobles, who elected all later emperors.

Eleanor of Aquitaine

queen

France/England

1137 to 1204

She lived 1122 to 1204 and was queen to Louis VII of France [1137 to 1152]. Later, she got annulment, became

queen of Henry II of Burgundy and England [1152 to 1189], set up her court at Poitiers, helped her sons revolt against

Henry II, and got her son Richard I kingship of England [1189 to 1199], then her son John [1199 to 1216].

Alfonso I

king

Lisbon, Portugal

1139 to 1185

He lived 1110 to 1185, was Henry of Burgundy's son, and was first king of Portugal [1139 to 1185], becoming

independent of Castile. He took Lisbon [1147], Cadiz, and Murcia from Caliphate. He favored art and learning.

Conrad III

emperor

Germany

1148 to 1152

He lived 1093 to 1152, was king of Germany [1138 to 1152], and was first Hohenstaufen emperor of Holy Roman

Empire [1148]. In Second Crusade, he sailed to Antioch to establish Principality of Antioch and sailed to Tyre to hold

it. He struggled with papacy.

Eric IX or Erik the Lawgiver or Erik the Saint

king

Sweden

1150 to 1160

He lived 1120 to 1160, established Christianity in north Sweden, and conquered Finland [1157].

Frederick I or Frederick Barbarossa or Frederick Red Beard

emperor

Germany/Austria

1152 to 1190

413

He lived 1123 to 1190 and was duke of Swabia as Frederick III [1147 to 1190]. As Hohenstaufen emperor of Holy

Roman Empire [1152 to 1190], he elevated Henry the Lion in Saxony and Bavaria but then humiliated him and ended

last duchies of Germany [1152]. As king of Germany, he then proclaimed general peace. As emperor, he started calling

Germany Holy Roman Empire. He fought Pope Alexander III and Lombard League but lost at Legnano and accepted

Peace of Constance [1183], guaranteeing Lombard-city freedom. He led Third Crusade [1189] against Saladin, but he

drowned.

Henry II

king

England

1154 to 1189

He lived 1133 to 1189, was king [1154 to 1189], founded English jury and court system, and was first of Plantagenet

Dynasty. He was Duke of Burgundy and married Eleanor of Aquitaine. He invaded England and defeated barons.

He struggled with Thomas à Becket over whose courts tried clergymen. He convened Great Council [1164], which

proclaimed Constitutions of Clarendon, which gave more power to king's courts to try clergymen. His knights

murdered Thomas à Becket, and people's reaction forced him to do penance. After he had Thomas à Becket killed, he

rescinded Constitutions of Clarendon.

He took north England and Wales. Pope Adrian IV awarded him Ireland, and he invaded it [1167]. He struggled with

his son. He invaded Ireland again [1172]. Richard I, Eleanor's son, and Philip II of France defeated him [1185].

Waldemar I or Waldemar the Great

king

Denmark

1157 to 1182

He lived 1131 to 1182, defeated Sweyn [1157] at Viborg, and ruled north Scandinavia.

Philip II or Philip Augustus

king

France

1180 to 1223

He lived 1165 to 1223. Of Capetian Dynasty, he joined Third Crusade to take back Jerusalem [1191] but retreated to

Egypt. He conquered Angevins in west. He increased king's power over nobles, created law court and advisory council,

and warred on England to regain his lands. France became the greatest European power at Bouvines [1214], doubling

kingdom's size. He fought the Albigenses religious sect, which controlled south France. He ended serfdom, built

cathedrals and cities, and presided over prosperity.

Sverre

king

Norway

1184 to 1202

He lived 1151 to 1202 and established power over nobles [1201].

Richard I or Richard the Lionhearted

king

England

1189 to 1199

He lived 1157 to 1199 and fought his father Henry II to gain crown. He went on Third Crusade [1189] and his

brother John became king. Leopold II imprisoned him and then gave him to Henry VI. Ransom released him, and he

fought Philip of France. He returned to England and regained his crown.

Baldwin VI of Hainaut [Hainaut, Baldwin VI of] or Baldwin IX of Flanders

duchy

Flanders

1191 to 1195

He lived 1150 to 1195. The count of Hainaut took Flanders, but Ghent, Bruges, and Ypres remained independent.

414

Ottocar I

king

Bohemia

1198 to 1230

He lived ? to 1230, was duke [1197 to 1198], and was king [1198 to 1230].

John I

king

England

1199 to 1215

He lived 1167 to 1216 and became king while Richard I was on Third Crusade. He had Richard held captive abroad.

He lost Brittany to Philip II of France. Barons forced him to sign Magna Carta [1215]. He exiled all Catholic monks.

The pope interdicted and excommunicated all of England. England had war threats. King John became vassal to Pope.

Waldemar II

king

Denmark

1202 to 1241

He lived 1170 to 1241 and ruled north Scandinavia.

Frederick II

emperor

Germany/Austria

1215 to 1250

He lived 1194 to 1250. Of Hohenstaufen Dynasty of Holy Roman Empire, he became king {anti-king} in opposition

to Otto IV [1210]. He peacefully got Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem [1228] by treaty. He fought Pope Gregory

IX, Pope Innocent III, and Pope Innocent IV [1239 to 1250] and conquered Italy. His court was in Sicily. Law,

currency, and commerce reforms, and arts and science expansion, made his era the Proto-Renaissance. After he died

[1250], the pope became ruler of Italy.

Henry III

king

England

1216 to 1272

Provisions of Oxford [1258]

He lived 1207 to 1272, was John's son, and was king [1227 to 1272]. Regency [1216 to 1227] lost in invasions of

Gascony and Brittany and spent much money. As Plantagenet, he became king [1227]. Barons' War under Simon de

Montfort defeated him at Lewes [1263]. Barons called Parliament but then lost to Edward I.

Haakon IV

king

Norway

1217 to 1263

He lived 1204 to 1263 and reformed legal system and got Iceland and Greenland [1223].

Ivan Asen II

king

Bulgaria

1218 to 1241

Trnovo was capital.

Louis IX

king

France

1226 to 1270

415

He lived 1215 to 1270, was Capetian, stopped invasion by England, stopped warring nobles of France, led Seventh

Crusade to Egypt, was captive at El Mansura [1250], and crusaded against Tunis. He improved taxation, gave right of

appeal to all, streamlined administration, and built Gothic cathedrals. He became Roman Catholic saint.

Alexander Nevski [Nevski, Alexander]

grand duke

Russia

1236 to 1263

He lived 1220 to 1263, led Novgorod [1236], and was Grand Prince of Vladimir [1252].

John I of Avesnes

count

Holland/Belgium/Luxembourg

1246 to 1257

He lived 1218 to 1257 and ruled Holland, Belgium, and Luxembourg as count of Hainaut.

Ottocar II

king

Bohemia/Austria

1253 to 1278

He lived 1230 to 1278, was Premysl, was King of Bohemia [1253 to 1278], and was Duke of Austria [1253 to 1276].

As King of Bohemia, he took Austria from Brandenbergs of Saxony [1251].

Premysl or Otakar II or Ottokar II or Premysl Otakar [Otakar, Premysl]

duke

Bohemia

1253 to 1278

He lived 1230 to 1278 and was king of Bohemia [1253 to 1278]. Premysls or Przemysls were under Holy Roman

Empire, ruled Bohemia, and acquired Silesia and Moravia.

Charles I or Stephen d'Anjou

king

Naples, Italy

1262 to 1285

He lived 1226 to 1285, was king of Sicily [1262 to 1282] and king of Naples [1282 to 1285], was of Angevin family,

and led Guelphs to control of Italy by beating Ghibellines under Manfred [1266]. Sicilian Vespers revolt [1282],

instigated by Peter III of Aragon, ended his rule in Silicy.

Magnus VI

king

Norway

1263 to 1280

He lived 1238 to 1280 and settled with Scotland [1266] and codified law [1274].

Philip III

king

France

1270 to 1285

He lived 1245 to 1285 and was of Capetian Dynasty.

Edward I or English Justinian

king/lawmaker

England

1272 to 1307

416

Statute of Mortmain [1279: king controlled church land acquisitions]; Hundred Rolls [1279 to 1280: great

landholders had to prove title to land]; First and Second Statutes of Westminster [1285 and 1290: codified statutes of

England]

He lived 1239 to 1307, was king [1272 to 1307], won Baron's War for his father, conquered Wales [1282 to 1284],

and fought Scotland.

He reformed laws. He reduced private and church courts and limited Church courts to church matters, in

Circumspecte Agatis. He permitted attachments of feudal lands by merchants, in Statute of Merchants. He issued

Statute of Mortmain decree, which prohibited land transfer to Church without king's consent [1300].

He reproclaimed Magna Charta. He formed Model Parliament [1295] of barons, clergy, and merchants and promised

no taxes without its consent. Parliament had two knights from every shire and two burgesses from every town. He

granted Parliament right to present petitions to king.

He defeated Scottish armies and ruled Scotland directly [1296 to 1307] but died in 1307.

Near end of his reign, judicial scandal caused court reform, and thereafter judges were people trained in law, not

churchmen or courtiers.

Rudolf I

emperor

Austria

1273 to 1291

He lived 1218 to 1291. As duke of Austria, he became emperor and started Hapsburg dynasty. He was friendly with

the pope and tried to check the robber barons. He defeated Ottocar II of Bohemia, gained Austria, and united Germany.

Diniz or Dinis or Denis of Portugal

king

Portugal

1279 to 1325

He lived 1261 to 1325 and fought Knights Templar, founded university, and helped farmers.

Philip IV

king

France

1285 to 1314

He lived 1268 to 1314. Of Capetian Dynasty, he tried to extend clergy taxation and stop gold export, which angered

Pope Boniface VIII. He arrested Bishop Saisset for rebellion, called first States-General, and captured the pope. He had

Pope Clement V elected and moved him to Avignon, France. He got money by confiscating wealth of bankers in

Lombardy, Jews in France, and Knights Templar. He lost at Guienne to Edward I of England and failed to control

Flanders in Battle of the Spurs.

Edward II

king

England

1307 to 1327


John of Luxembourg

king

Bohemia

1310 to 1346

He lived 1310 to 1346, became Bohemia king, and became overlord of Silesia dukes [1335].

Robert Bruce [Bruce, Robert]

king

Scotland

1314 to 1329

He lived 1274 to 1329, defeated English at Bannockburn in central Scotland [1314], and became king of Scotland.

417

Louis IV or Ludwig the Bavarian

king

Bavaria

1314 to 1347

He lived 1282 to 1347 and defeated Frederick the Fair at Muhlberg [1322]. He struggled against Pope Clement VII.

Magnus VII or Magnus Ericsson

king

Norway/Sweden

1319 to 1363

He lived 1316 to 1377. Nobles elected him king. He united Sweden [1319 to 1363] and Norway [1319 to 1343] and

allied with Waldemar IV, king of Denmark, but Hanseatic League defeated him. His son was Haakon VI. Albert of

Mecklenburg replaced Magnus VII and Haakon VI.

Waldemar III

king

Denmark

1326 to 1329

He lived 1314 to 1364 and was Duke of Schleswig [1330 to 1364].

Philip VI

king

France

1328 to 1346

He lived 1293 to 1350, deposed Capetian kings of France, and became first Valois king by Salic law. He got control

of Flanders, began Hundred Years War, and ended its first phase with his defeat at Crecy.

Edward III

king

England

1330 to 1377

He lived 1327 to 1377 and was king [1327 to 1377]. He gained power [1330] but failed to subdue Scotland. He

entered Hundred Years War [1337 to 1359] with his son Edward the Black Prince, which ended with Treaty of London.

He had money troubles with Parliament. He caused economic crash by defaulting on payments to Bardi and Peruzzi

families of Florence [1339]. Through his mother, he claimed he was king of France. He agreed to get consent of

Parliament for all laws [1350]. Statute of Laborers [1351] tried to make all work have wage ceiling and set fixed prices.

Wat Taylor rebellion was series of revolts against it. Finally, king ended Statute and promised end to serfdom. He saw

Black Death cause demands for social change. He had trouble with church and John Wyclif. He ended Brehon Laws of

Ireland. He appointed judges {Justices of the Peace} to preside over national courts in shires [1361]. The Good

Parliament [1376] elected Speaker to represent Commons and spoke against high taxes.

Stephen Dushan [Dushan, Stephen] or Stefan Dusan [Dusan, Stefan]

king

Serbia

1331 to 1355

He lived 1308 to 1355, took Bulgaria, Macedonia, and Thessaly from Byzantine Empire, controlled Montenegro,

and attacked Constantinople.

Richard II

king

England

1337 to 1399

He lived 1312 to 1400, defeated peasants after revolt, and had to deal with barons under Earl of Gloucester. He

married Charles IV of France's daughter [1396]. He banished his cousin Henry of Bolingbroke for accusing Duke of

Norfolk of treason. Later, Henry of Bolingbroke, who became Henry IV, forced him to abdicate.

418

Waldemar IV

king

Denmark

1340 to 1375

He lived 1320 to 1375 and fought Hanseatic League but lost. He reunited Denmark and allied with Magnus VII, king

of Norway and Sweden, but he lost to Hanseatic League. He took Norway by beating Albert of Mecklenburg, Swedish

king.

Louis I or Louis the Great

king

Hungary

1342 to 1382

He lived 1326 to 1382, got Dalmatia, defeated Ottoman Empire, mastered nearby lands, and ruled Poland [1370 to

1382], displacing Piasts.

Charles IV

emperor

Holy Roman Empire

1355 to 1378

He lived 1316 to 1378, was king of Germany and Bohemia [1346 to 1378], and wrote Golden Bull [1356], which

lasted until 1806. It established seven prince-electors as diet legislative upper house. They elected emperor.

Brandenburg, Bohemia, and Saxony were the important electors. Other princes were in diet middle house. City

representatives were in diet lower assembly.

Edward the Black Prince

prince

France

1356

He lived 1330 to 1376 and defeated France at Poitiers [1356] and captured the French king, John II.

Charles V or Charles the Wise

king

France

1364 to 1380

He lived 1338 to 1380 and put down Jacquerie Revolt of peasants against nobles and army. He gave rights to

assembly {States-General} but revoked those rights to stop the power of Étienne Marcel and Charles the Bad. He

appointed Du Guesclin as constable of France, who drove England out of France [1734]. He increased taxes and

developed standing army. He favored learning under his ministers, Marmousets.

Ferdinand I

king

Portugal

1367 to 1383

He lived 1345 to 1383 and fought Castile [1369].

Margaret

queen

Denmark

1380

She lived 1353 to 1412 and was queen of Denmark [1388 to 1412], Sweden [1375 to 1412], and Norway [1389 to

1412].

Charles VI or Charles the Mad or Charles the Well-Beloved

king

France

1380 to 1411

419


John I or John the Great

king

Portugal

1385 to 1433

He lived 1357 to 1433. As master of Knights of Aviz, he cooperated in revolt against Spain and, with Pereira of

Portugal, defeated Castile at Aljubarota. He defeated Moors, allied with England, and began colonization and

exploration. He started Aviz Dynasty.

Ladislaus II or Jagiello

king

Poland/Lithuania

1386 to 1434

He lived 1350 to 1434, was grand duke of Lithuania [1378 to 1401], became Ladislaus II king of Poland [1386 to

1434], and founded Jagiello Dynasty and Polish-Lithuanian kingdom, strongest in east Europe.

Henry IV

king

England

1399 to 1413

He lived 1367 to 1413, invaded England in Richard II's absence, and then put down Scotland, Wales, and Percy

rebellions. He founded Lancaster Dynasty, whose symbol was the white rose. Lancaster Dynasty was Henry IV, Henry

V, and Henry VI.

Witowt

king

Lithuania

1401 to 1430

He lived 1350 to 1430 and ruled Lithuania at height.

Louis de France

duke

Orleans, France

1407

He lived 1372 to 1407. As Duke of Orleans, he caused civil war between south-France Armagnacs and east-France

Burgundians [1407]. He started Valois-Orleans kings [1411].

Henry V

king

England

1413 to 1422

He lived 1387 to 1422. Of Lancaster Dynasty, as Prince Hal, he defeated Glendower and army of Wales. He invaded

France [1415], restarting Hundred Years War. He defeated France at Agincourt, France [1415], and conquered

Normandy [1417 to 1419]. He put down Lollards [1417]. He married French king's daughter.

Philip the Good

duke/count

Burgundy/Flanders

1419 to 1467

He lived 1396 to 1467 and was duke of Burgundy and count of Flanders. He took Luxembourg, Netherlands, and

Belgium [1433]. He sponsored Treaty of Troyes, giving England rule of Normandy. He supported Pragueries nobles

against Charles VII. Then he allied with Charles VII of France in Treaty of Arras.

Charles VII or Charles the Victorious or Charles the Well-Served

king

420

France

1422 to 1461

He lived 1403 to 1461. Joan of Arc rallied him at Orleans [1429]. He allied with Burgundy [1435] and ended

Hundred Years War against England [1453]. He strengthened finances with Jacques Coeur, wealthy Orient trader.

Coeur left after someone poisoned Agnes Sorel, Charles' mistress. Charles VII put down Praguerie revolt of nobles.

Henry VI

king

England

1422 to 1471

He lived 1421 to 1471. During his regency, England lost to Joan of Arc and France in Hundred Years War. Queen

Margaret of Anjou and Duke of Somerset were Lancaster regents and leaders. Of Lancaster Dynasty, he became king

of France [1430] but lost Paris when Burgundians ended alliance [1436]. Richard, Duke of York, whose symbol was

the red rose, fought Queen Margaret of Anjou and Duke of Somerset for kingship in Wars of the Roses, captured Henry

VI, and killed Somerset at St. Albans [1455]. He lost kingship [1461] but got it back [1470 to 1471].

Henry the Navigator or Dom Henrique

king

Portugal

1434 to 1460

He lived 1394 to 1460 and was King John I of Portugal's son. Of Aviz Dynasty, he sent Vasco de Gama to discover

Africa at Angola. Portuguese reached Cape Bojaddor [1434], Cape Verde Islands [1444], Azores [1444], and Senegal

[1445]. He sent Cabral to discover Brazil. He sent Almeida and Albuquerque to discover East Indies. The pope gave

monopoly on Africa to Portugal by Pontifex Romanus [1455]. He started slave trade. He commissioned maps, scales,

and cartography.

Alfonso V

king

Portugal

1438 to 1481

He lived 1432 to 1481. Of Aviz Dynasty, he monopolized African trade by lease. Portuguese reached Equator [1473]

and Vongo [1482]. Fort was at Elmina, Guinea [1481]. Bartolomeu Diaz reached Cape of Good Hope [1487].

Portuguese reached Calicut, India [1498].

Frederick II

margrave

Brandenburg

1440 to 1470

He lived 1413 to 1471, was Elector of Brandenburg, and was Hapsburg.

John Hunyadi [Hunyadi, John]

general

Hungary

1441 to 1456

He lived 1385 to 1456, was governor of Transylvania [1441], and took Belgrade from Ottoman Empire [1456].

Casimir IV

king

Poland/Lithuania

1447 to 1492

He lived 1427 to 1492 and united Poland with Grand Duchy of Lithuania [1447].

Frederick III

emperor

Germany/Austria

1452 to 1493

421

He lived 1415 to 1493. Of Hapsburg Dynasty of Holy Roman Empire, he used marriages to try to make Austria rule

world.

Stephen the Great

prince

Moldavia

1457 to 1504


Matthias Corvinus [Corvinus, Matthias] or Messala Corvinus [Corvinus, Messala]

king

Hungary/Bohemia

1458 to 1490

He lived 1443 to 1490, was king of Hungary [1458 to 1490], conquered and became king of Bohemia [1478 to 1490]

and Austria, founded Corvina library at Buda or Budapest, and fought Ottoman Empire.

Edward IV

king

England

1461 to 1483

He lived 1442 to 1483, defeated Duke of Lancaster, and captured Henry VI. He lost later to Earl of Warwick and

Margaret of Anjou, queen to Henry VI [1470], but then he defeated them [1471]. He founded York kings. He was

Richard Duke of York's son. York kings were Edward IV, Edward V, and Richard III.

Louis XI

king

France

1461 to 1483

He lived 1423 to 1483 and was Valois. As dauphin, he conspired against his father Charles VII. He submitted to

League of the Public Weal, led by Charles the Bold of Burgundy and Francis II of Brittany, but then he reneged. He got

Peace of Ancenis from Francis II but then helped the captured Charles the Bold stop revolt of Liege. He took part of

Mary of Burgundy's lands at her death. He revoked Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges [1461], which had limited the

pope's authority and asserted French Roman Catholic Church's independence.

Ivan III or Ivan the Great

grand duke

Moscow, Russia

1462 to 1505

He lived 1440 to 1505, freed Moscow from Golden Horde or Tatar Empire [1480], expanded state, threw out

German merchants, and took Novgorod. He married last Byzantine Emperor's niece and called himself Tsar.

Charles the Bold

duke

Burgundy

1467 to 1477

He lived 1433 to 1477, controlled Low Countries, and fought Louis XI of France. He was Philip the Good's son.

Lorenzo de' Medici

leader

Florence, Italy

1469 to 1492

He lived 1449 to 1492, stopped Pazzi Conspiracy [1748], fought the pope [until 1481], and failed to check

Savonarola [1492 to 1494].

Isabella I

queen

422

Castile/Leon

1469 to 1504

She lived 1451 to 1504 and married Ferdinand V [1469], king of Aragon, to found Spanish monarchy.

Ladislaus II or Uladislaus II

king

Bohemia/Hungary

1471 to 1516

He lived 1456 to 1516, had a double marriage treaty, was king of Hungary [1490 to 1516], and was Ladislaus II king

of Bohemia [1471 to 1516].

Ferdinand V

king

Aragon/Castile

1474 to 1516

He lived 1452 to 1516, was king of Castile [1474 to 1504], was Ferdinand II of Aragon [1479 to 1516] and

Ferdinand II of Sicily [1468 to 1516], and married Isabella I of Castile and Leon to unite Spain [1469]. He took last

Moorish city in Spain at Granada [1474]. He expelled Moors and Jews from Spain. He started Spanish Inquisition

[1478]. He sent Columbus to America [1492]. He divided overseas colonies with Portugal at Treaty of Tordesillas. He

won Navarre in Italian Wars between Spain and France.

Isabella I and Ferdinand V are the "Catholic kings".

Mary of Burgundy

duchess

Flanders

1477 to 1482

She lived 1457 to 1482. When she died, rebellion spread in Flanders.

Maximilian I

emperor

Holy Roman Empire

1482 to 1519

He lived 1459 to 1519 and married Anne of Brittany to get part of France. Marriage caused war with France. He lost

part of France at Treaty of Arras [1482]. He regained it at Treaty of Senlis. He married Mary of Burgundy [1493] to get

Low Countries as king of Germany and Burgundy and Holy Roman emperor [1493 to 1519]. As king of Austria, he put

down rebellion in Flanders. He married niece of Ludovico Sforza to get Milan. He warred with Venice, leading to

fighting in Italian Wars and costing all his money. He reformed, tried to crusade against Turks, encouraged Swabian

League, helped merchants, patronized arts, and allowed Protestant Reformation.

Richard III

king

England

1483 to 1485

He lived 1452 to 1485. Of York Dynasty, he murdered the true king Edward V in Tower of London, put down

rebellion of Stafford, lost to Earl of Richmond (Henry VII) at Bosworth Field [1485], and was last of York kings,

ending Wars of the Roses.

Henry VII

king

England/Wales

1485 to 1509

He lived 1465 to 1509 and was first Tudor king of England and Wales. Of Lancaster Dynasty, he invaded England

and defeated Richard III of House of York at Bosworth Field [1485]. He married a York and founded Tudor line,

ending Wars of the Roses. Tudor line was Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I. He subdued

Ireland and negotiated peace with Scotland. He founded Star Chamber.

423

Manuel I

king

Portugal

1495 to 1521

He lived 1469 to 1521 and tried to convert Jews to Christianity, but they left.

Louis XII

king

France

1498 to 1515

He lived 1462 to 1515, was Valois, and resumed Italian Wars but lost to Holy Roman Empire.

Henry VIII

king

England

1509 to 1547

He lived 1491 to 1547 and married Katherine of Aragon, who bore Mary I. He allied with France at Field of the

Cloth of Gold. His minister was Cardinal Wolsey. Later, Charles V of Holy Roman Empire and he fought France. He

got rid of Wolsey when he failed to get divorce. He married Anne Boleyn. Thomas Cromwell became minister and

started anti-Catholic policy. He married Anne Boleyn [1530], who bore Elizabeth I. He took the pope's powers for

himself, established Church of England, and published the Bible in English. He married Jane Seymour, who bore

Edward VI, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr. He also took Wales, warred with Scotland, and lost

Ireland.

In 1534, he split with Roman Catholicism and became English church leader.

Christian II

king

Denmark

1513 to 1523

He lived 1481 to 1559 and was king of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden [1513 to 1523] and Denmark [1513 to 1523].

Of Oldenburg line, he took Stockholm, Sweden, after Sture family died out at Lake Asunde [1520].

Francis I

king

France

1515 to 1547

He lived 1494 to 1547. With Venice, he resumed Italian Wars and won at Marignano. He lost election to be emperor

of Holy Roman Empire to Charles V [1519]. He failed to ally with England at Field of the Cross of Gold. He attacked

Charles V and lost at Pavia [1525]. He signed Treaty of Madrid, giving up claims to Spanish territory. He formed

League of Cognac with the pope, Venice, and Florence, leading to another war with Charles V. War ended to League's

disadvantage at Treaty of Cambrai [1529]. He allied with Suleiman I of Ottoman Empire and fought Charles V of Holy

Roman Empire and Henry VIII of England [1542]. He had to sign Treaty of Crepy, in which France lost Naples and

Flanders and Charles V lost Burgundy.

Charles I

king

Spain

1516 to 1558

He lived 1500 to 1558, was Charles I of Spain [1516 to 1556] and was Charles V of Holy Roman Empire [1519 to

1558]. He fought France under Francis I in Italian Wars, sacked Rome, and got Italy. He then succeeded Ferdinand V

and Isabella I as Charles I of Spain. He defeated Schmalkaldic League but compromised his anti-Protestant position by

Peace of Augsburg [1555]. He promoted Catholic Reformation. He conquered Mexico and Peru. Silver mined at Potosi,

Peru, helped cause inflation in Europe.

Charles V

emperor

424

Germany/Austria

1519 to 1554

He lived 1500 to 1558. As Archduke of Austria and king of Spain, nobles elected him Holy Roman Emperor [1519].

Hapsburg Dynasty of Holy Roman Empire included Spain, Latin America, Naples, Sicily, Low Countries, and Austria.

He defeated the peasants in Peasants' War [1524 to 1526] and in other uprisings.

This preserved feudalism [until 1806].

He had to give power to German princes. He abdicated in favor of his brothers and son [1554] to become Charles I

of Spain [until 1556]. As Holy Roman Empire emperor and Austria king, he added territory in Flanders and Holland

[1490]. He took Rome and captured Pope Clement VII [1527].

John III

king

Portugal

1521 to 1557

He lived 1502 to 1557, was Manuel I's son, started Inquisition, and increased slavery. Kingdom was at height.

Gustavus I

king

Sweden

1523 to 1560

He lived 1496 to 1560. Nobles elected him king after he led peasants revolt against Denmark and dissolved Kalmar

Union. He established Lutheran Church [1527]. He ended economic dependence on Hanseatic League by defeating it

[1537]. He founded Vasa Dynasty: Gustavus I, Eric XIV, Charles IX, Gustavus II, Christina, Charles X, and Charles

XI.

Cosimo I de Medici

duke

Florence, Italy

1537 to 1574

He lived 1519 to 1574, had absolute power, and led Florence at height. He became grand duke of Tuscany [1569 to

1574] through the pope's order. He was Giovanni de' Medici or Giovanni delle Bande Nere's son [1498 to 1526]. He

gained a banking fortune, patronized arts, and started Medici rule.

Mary Stuart or Mary Queen of Scots

queen

Scotland

1542 to 1587

She lived 1542 to 1587, was queen of Scotland [1542 to 1567], and was queen consort of France [1559 to 1560]. She

escaped to England after her husband's murder and her remarriage. She engaged in several attempts to get throne from

Queen Elizabeth I, with Catholic support, because she was Catholic. England beheaded her [1587].

Edward VI

king

England

1547 to 1553

He lived 1537 to 1553 and was under regency of Duke of Somerset, Edward Seymour, who eased heresy and treason

laws, favored Protestants, and helped yeomen. Duke of Northumberland engineered Somerset's downfall and caused

struggle for throne by opposing Mary I.

Mary I

queen

England

1553 to 1558

She lived 1516 to 1558. Staunch Catholic, she married Philip II of Spain, allied with Spain, and restored England to

Catholic Church. Her religious persecutions made her Bloody Mary.

425

Philip II

king

Spain

1556 to 1598

He lived 1527 to 1598 and ascended when his father, Charles I, abdicated. He got Netherlands, Belgium, and

Luxembourg at Treaty of Augsburg between Spain and Holy Roman Empire. Belgium had Flanders, Hainaut, Limburg,

Antwerp, and Brabant. He married Mary I of England but left when he did not become king of England. He fought

France. By Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis [1559], Spain became leading European power, holding America, Naples,

Sicily, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Portugal, Milan, and Franche-Comte in France. He was strong Catholic

and emphasized Spanish Inquisition. When he imposed the Inquisition in the Netherlands, William the Silent led

rebellion against Duke of Alba. Philip II took Portugal when Henry I died, with support of legislature {Cortes} of

Portugal. Because Francis Drake had raided Cadiz and England's navy had helped Netherlands, he built Spanish

Armada, but it lost [1588]. He helped Catholic League in Wars of Religion in France. He gained Philippines.

Sebastian

king

Portugal

1557 to 1578

He lived 1554 to 1578 and lost Africa.

Ferdinand I

emperor

Austria/Germany/Hungary/Bohemia

1558 to 1564

He lived 1503 to 1564. Of Hapsburg Dynasty of Holy Roman Empire, he fought Suleiman I in Hungary, pushed

Protestant Reformation, abolished liberty, fought Peasants' War, and got Peace of Augsburg [1555].

Elizabeth I

queen

England

1558 to 1603

She lived 1533 to 1603, was Tudor, and built navy, colonies, and trade under her ministers Burghly and Cecil. She

favored Anglicans against Protestants and first sheltered then imprisoned Mary, Queen of Scots. She had romances

with Earl of Essex and Earl of Leicester.

John of Austria or Don John or Juan of Austria

captain

Spain/Austria

1571

He lived 1547 to 1578 and defeated Ottoman Empire navy at naval Battle of Lepanto [1571].

Henry III

king

France

1574 to 1589

He lived 1551 to 1589. Henry of Navarre led Huguenots, a French Protestant party, and married Margaret of Valois,

leading to St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of Protestants in Paris, followed by Wars of Religion. Henry of Navarre

defeated Henry III and Catholic League. Because Henry III was last of Valois line, Henry III designated Henry of

Navarre (later Henry IV) to be king. Duke of Guise, head of Catholic League, opposed this designation, and War of the

Three Henries followed, in which Henry III murdered Guise and Catholic League rebels.

Stephen Batory [Batory, Stephen]

king

Transylvania/Romania/Poland

1575 to 1586

426

He lived 1533 to 1586 and was Prince of Transylvania [1576 to 1586] in Romania. Nobles elected him King of

Poland [1575].

Feodor I

czar

Russia

1584 to 1598

He lived 1557 to 1598, was Ivan IV's son, and was Rurikid. Oleg followed and moved to Kiev.

Boris Godunov [Godunov, Boris]

czar

Russia

1584 to 1605

He lived 1551 to 1605 and was Feodor I's son.

Sigismund III Vasa

king

Poland/Sweden

1587 to 1632

He lived 1566 to 1632 and was king of Poland [1587 to 1632] and Sweden [1592 to 1599]. Vasa kings of Poland

fought Sweden and Russia.

Bourbon

dynasty

France

1589

Bourbon line in France had Louis XIII, Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI. Later, it had kings of Spain and Sicily

and branched into Bourbon-Vendôme line in France and Bourbon-Parma line in Italy.

Henry IV or Henry of Navarre

king

France

1589 to 1610

He lived 1553 to 1610, was of Bourbon family, was Huguenot leader, and defeated army sent by Henry III of France

and Catholic League, ending Wars of Religion. He gave up Protestantism to enter Paris. He fought Spain until Treaty of

Vervins. He published Edict of Nantes, giving religious tolerance. His minister Sully worked for trade and order and

helped peasants. In 1598, he granted toleration to Protestants. He started Bourbon line. Bourbons were Louis XIII,

Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI.

Philip III

king

Spain

1598 to 1621

He lived 1578 to 1621. Lerma ran government, negotiated peace with England and United Provinces (the

Netherlands), and entered Thirty Years War. Philip III expelled Moriscos, who were Christian Moors that had rebelled.

James I

king

England

1603 to 1625

He lived 1566 to 1625, was Stuart, and was Mary Queen of Scots' son. He was king of Scotland before 1603 and

allied with Elizabeth I of England. As king of England, he favored Catholicism, dissolved Parliament [1611], and

allowed war on Spain. Stuarts were James I, Charles I, Charles II, and James II.

Louis XIII

king

427

France

1610 to 1643

He lived 1601 to 1643, was of Bourbon family, and married Anne of Austria. In 1610, Marie de Medici held

regency. His ministers were Cardinal Richelieu and Mazarin.

Gustavus II

king

Sweden

1611 to 1632

He lived 1594 to 1632 and ended Kalmar War with Denmark [1613] by payment. He gained concessions from

nobles. He gained Livonia from Poland. He allied with France and Denmark to aid Protestants. He defeated all

opponents in Germany as he swept through [1630 to 1632] in Thirty Years War.

Ferdinand II

emperor

Germany/Austria

1619 to 1637

He lived 1578 to 1637. Holy Roman Empire leader was strong Catholic and controlled Austria, Bohemia, and

Hungary. Bohemian nobles rebelled, beginning Thirty Years War [1618]. He murdered his commander Wallenstein.

Philip IV

king

Spain/Portugal

1621 to 1665

He lived 1605 to 1665 and was king of Spain [1621 to 1665] and Portugal [1621 to 1640]. Olivares was his chief

minister.

Charles I

king

England

1625 to 1647

He lived 1600 to 1647, was Stuart, and was king of England, Scotland, and Ireland. To get money, he had to sign

Petition of Right [1628], which stated that taxes, imprisonment, and quartering of soldiers in homes needed due cause

or consent of Parliament. Later, he dissolved Parliament. He tried to impose Catholicism in Scotland, leading to

Bishop's Wars [1640]. Long Parliament convened, which was Protestant and middle class, while king and nobles were

Catholic or Anglican. Duke of Buckingham, George Villiers, married him to French Catholic, leading to Puritan

Revolution. In the civil war, Oliver Cromwell defeated him [1647]. Pride's Purge of Parliament rid the parliament of

opposition to Protestant army. Rump Parliament beheaded Charles I.

Frederick Henry

king

Holland

1625 to 1647

He lived 1584 to 1647, defeated Spain in Thirty Years War, and presided over era of artists, scientists, commerce,

and prosperity.

Uladislas VII Vasa or Ladislaus IV

king

Poland

1632 to 1648


John IV or John of Braganza

king

Portugal

1640 to 1656

428

He lived 1603 to 1656, was of Braganza family, and allied with England.

Frederick William or Frederick the Great Elector

king

Brandenburg

1640 to 1688

He lived 1620 to 1688, ended Thirty Years War, received territory at Peace of Westphalia [1648], got control of

Prussia at Peace of Oliva [1660], and defeated Sweden in third Dutch War.

Anne of Austria

regent

Austria/France

1643 to 1661

She lived 1601 to 1666, was consort to Louis XIII [1615], and held regency for Louis XIV [1643 to 1661]. Mazarin

controlled her.

Louis XIV or Sun King

king

France

1643 to 1715

He lived 1638 to 1715. Anne of Austria was regent at first. During regency [1643 to 1661], Mazarin dominated, won

Thirty Years War, ended Fronde rebellion, got Peace of the Pyrenees with Spain, and married Louis to Marie Therese

of Austria.

From 1661 to 1691, the Bourbon Louis and his minister Colbert reformed economy. He pursued colonialism

{mercantilism, Louis XIV}, added import taxes, and got gold from exports and manufacturing.

He emphasized control by state. He changed administration for civil servants and nobles.

He started War of Devolution, started third Dutch War with England and France against Holland, got Franche-

Comte, got part of Flanders, and took Strasbourg. He fought League of Augsburg or Grand Alliance, which had Holy

Roman Empire, Sweden, Spain, German states, England, and Holland, in War of the Grand Alliance. He fought War of

the Spanish Succession against England, Holland, Austria, and most German states over whether Hapsburgs or

Bourbons ruled Spain. French generals Villars and Vendôme matched English Duke of Marlborough and Eugene of

Savoy in Holland, but then Blenheim, Gibraltar, and Malplaquet were battle victories for Grand Alliance. War of the

Spanish Succession ended in Peace of Utrecht and Treaty of Utrecht, Treaty of Rastatt, and Treaty of Baden. War

ruined economy of France.

He revoked Edict of Nantes and persecuted Huguenots. He struggled with the pope over Gallicanism, which he

supported, and Jansenism, which he suppressed.

His mistresses were La Valliere, Montespan, and Maintenon.

He built Versailles Palace.

Alexis

czar

Russia

1645 to 1676

He lived 1629 to 1676 and was Romanov.

Johann II Kazimierz Vasa or John II Casimir

king

Poland

1648 to 1669


Frederick III

king

Denmark/Norway

1648 to 1670

He lived 1609 to 1670, lost to Charles XI of Sweden, and lost in Thirty Years War.

429

Leopold I

emperor

Holy Roman Empire

1655 to 1705

He lived 1640 to 1705, was king of Hungary [1655 to 1705] and Bohemia [1658 to 1705], and Holy Roman emperor

[1658 to 1705]. Holy Roman Empire warred with Louis XIV of France. He put down rebellion of Thokoly in Hungary

and ended resulting siege of Vienna by Ottoman Empire, with aid from Poland. He got Hungary, Slovenia, and Croatia

at Treaty of Karlowitz.

Charles II

king

England

1660 to 1685

He lived 1630 to 1685 and was Stuart. General Monck ended rule of Cromwell and organized Stuart Restoration

[1660]. Prime Minister was first Earl of Clarendon and then Cabal. London had plague and fire [1666]. He began

second Dutch War against William of Orange. He intervened in Titus Oates affair, rumor that Jesuits were plotting to

assassinate king. He dissolved Parliament [1681]. Political parties, parliamentary power, sea trade, and arts grew.

Charles XI

king

Sweden

1660 to 1697

He lived 1655 to 1697, helped win Thirty Years War, and conquered St. Petersburg, Livonia in Estonia, Latvia,

Karelia in east Finland, Denmark, south Sweden, and Pomerania in north Poland and northeast Germany.

Charles II

king

Spain

1665 to 1700

He lived 1661 to 1700, was king of Spain, Naples, and Sicily [1665 to 1700], and fought with Louis XIV of France

but lost.

Feodor III

czar

Russia

1676 to 1682


Mary II

queen

England/Scotland/Ireland

1677 to 1694

She lived 1662 to 1694 and married William III [1677].

Ivan V

czar

Russia

1682 to 1696


Peter I or Peter the Great

czar

Russia

1682 to 1725

430

He lived 1672 to 1725, was Romanov, overthrew his sister, and took the title emperor. He shifted capital to St.

Petersburg from Moscow. He expanded Russia to Black and Baltic Seas. He took Livonia, Estonia, and Karellas from

Sweden [1721] and won Northern War. He took Azov on Black Sea from Ottoman Empire and built navy but later lost

it. He defeated Persia.

He westernized and industrialized. He started universal taxation, reformed army and government, and built schools

and hospitals. He freed women from serf status and crushed serf revolts. Serfs became even more subject to nobles.

Russia had lumber and iron. He formed Russian Orthodox Church with himself as head.

James II

king

England

1685 to 1688

He lived 1633 to 1701 and was Stuart. After Puritan Revolution [1649], he escaped to France and married Catholic.

After Charles II became king, James II returned to England as Lord Admiral but later resigned. England exiled him

after Titus Oates affair. He became king when Charles II died [1685]. He presided over the Bloody Assizes, bishop

trials, and hostile parliaments. Glorious Revolution deposed him.

William III or William of Orange

king

England/Scotland/Ireland

1688 to 1702

He lived 1650 to 1702. Before 1688, as William of Orange of United Provinces, he negotiated peace with England

after Dutch Wars and fought against Louis XIV of France in War of the Grand Alliance. He helped remove James II of

England and became king in Glorious Revolution. As king, he accepted Bill of Rights and Act of Settlement, gave land

in Ireland to nobles, raised taxes, and started Bank of England. He fought Louis XIV of France in War of the Spanish

Succession. Whigs, landowners and merchants, gained control of Parliament.

Charles XII

king

Sweden

1697 to 1718

He lived 1682 to 1718, fought Northern War, and won at first but then lost to Russia and Poland [1721], ending

Swedish power.

Augustus II

king

Poland

1697 to 1733

He lived 1670 to 1733. Elector of Saxony became king of Poland [1697].

Frederick I

king

Brandenburg/Prussia

1701 to 1713

He lived 1657 to 1713. Hohenzollern Elector of Brandenburg united Brandenburg and Duchy of Prussia.

Anne

queen

England

1702 to 1714

She lived 1665 to 1714, was Stuart, and fought War of the Spanish Succession. Great Britain began [1707].

Parliament became strong. Because she had no children, she preceded Hanover kings: George I, George II, George III,

George IV, and Victoria.

John V

king

431

Portugal

1706 to 1750


Charles VI

emperor

Germany/Austria

1711 to 1740

He lived 1685 to 1740. Holy Roman Empire claimed Spain against Charles II of Spain, in War of the Spanish

Succession. He involved Austria in War of the Polish Succession. His Pragmatic Sanction gave Hapsburg lands to

Maria Theresa of Austria, which later led to War of the Austrian Succession.

Frederick William I

king

Prussia

1713 to 1740

He lived 1688 to 1740, created efficient army and government, and gained treasury surplus by avoiding war.

Philip V

king

Spain

1713 to 1746

He lived 1683 to 1746 and was of Bourbon family. His accession led to War of the Spanish Succession, which Peace

of Utrecht settled [1713]. Spain lost all outside territory to Austria and Britain, and he became king of Spain. Cardinal

Alberoni tried to get back Italian lands, leading to Quadruple Alliance [1718] to block the move. Quadruple Alliance

was France, England, Holy Roman Empire, and Germany. He also took part in War of the Polish Succession and War

of the Austrian Succession.

George I

king

Great Britain

1714 to 1727

He lived 1660 to 1727, was of Hanover family, and became king under Act of Settlement [1701]. Quadruple

Alliance [1718] assured his succession. Whig party began to have real power.

Danilo I

king

Montenegro

1715 to 1735

He lived 1670 to 1735 and allied with Russia.

Louis XV

king

France

1715 to 1774

He lived 1710 to 1774 and was of Bourbon family. First, he was under regency of Philippe II or Philippe d'Orleans

[1715 to 1723]. He fought War of the Polish Succession, War of the Austrian Succession, and Seven Years War, which

resulted, together with costly court and official corruption, in loss of colonies and financial ruin. Cardinal Fleury was

minister [1726 to 1743]. Madame de Pompadour was mistress [1743 to 1764].

Catherine I

queen

Russia

1725 to 1727


432

Peter II

czar

Russia

1727 to 1730


George II

king

England

1727 to 1760

He lived 1683 to 1760, was of Hanover family, and fought War of the Austrian Succession. Walpole was Tory Prime

Minister [until 1741] and fought Seven Years War. William Pitt the Elder was Whig Prime Minister [from 1741].

Anna Ivanovna or Anna of Russia

queen

Russia

1730 to 1740

She lived 1693 to 1740, was in War of the Polish Succession [1733 to 1735], and attacked Turkey [1736].

Augustus III

king

Poland

1735 to 1763

He lived 1696 to 1763. Elector of Saxony was king of Poland [1735].

Ivan VI

czar

Russia

1740 to 1741


Frederick II or Frederick the Great

king

Prussia

1740 to 1786

He lived 1712 to 1786, engaged in War of the Austrian Succession against Maria Theresa of Austria, and gained

Silesia. He fought Seven Years War [1756 to 1763] against Holy Roman Empire. He partitioned Poland. He fought

War of the Bavarian Succession, after creating Furstenbund League of princes [1785]. Bavaria is in south Germany. He

established Prussian military strength and reformed society and law.

Elizabeth

queen

Russia

1741 to 1762

She lived 1709 to 1762, ended German influence, fought in Seven Years War, and founded Moscow University.

Maria Theresa

queen

Austria/Hungary/Bohemia

1748 to 1780

She lived 1717 to 1780 and was queen of Hungary and Bohemia [1740 to 1780]. Austria controlled Milan, Mantua,

Tuscany, and Modena in Italy, after end of War of Austrian Succession [1740 to 1748].

Joseph I

king

Portugal

433

1750 to 1777

He lived 1714 to 1777. Pombal was his minister, and economy became good.

Charles III

king

Spain

1759 to 1788

He lived 1716 to 1788 and was of Bourbon family. He joined Seven Years War through Family Compact between

France and Spain, which ended with Treaty of Paris [1763]. He then controlled Naples, Parma, and Sicily. He helped

American Revolution and gained territory in America at Treaty of Paris [1783]. Floridablanca was his minister, with

increasing power and prosperity.

George III

king

England

1760 to 1820

He lived 1738 to 1820, was of Hanover family, and blocked Whigs by forcing the older William Pitt's resignation.

Lord North was his minister. Both forced American Revolution. Tories, who were aristocrats, controlled Parliament.

Walpole, Burke, and the younger William Pitt were Tory ministers. Pitt ended king's power. George III became insane.

Peter III

czar

Russia

1762


Catherine II or Catherine the Great

queen

Russia

1762 to 1785

She lived 1729 to 1796, partitioned Poland, got Crimea, fought Ottoman Empire, and colonized Alaska. After

Pugachev Rebellion, she chartered nobles to make serfs slaves [1785].

Joseph II

emperor

Europe

1765 to 1790

He lived 1741 to 1790, abolished serfdom in Holy Roman Empire [1781], ended dues to feudal lords, allowed

peasants to buy land cheaply, ordered religious tolerance, eliminated torture, liberalized penal code, and abolished

monastic orders and clergy rights. Opposition by Furstenbund League of princes, under Frederick II of Prussia, caused

him to fail to annex Bavaria in War of the Bavarian Succession. He allied with Russia and Catherine II against Ottoman

Empire. He controlled Hungary, Bohemia, Austria, and part of Netherlands [1780].

Gustavus III

king

Sweden

1771 to 1792

He lived 1746 to 1792 and restored king's authority in Sweden, over Caps and Hats.

Louis XVI

king

France

1774 to 1793

He lived 1754 to 1793 and was of Bourbon family. Helping American Revolution resulted in near bankruptcy. His

ministers, first Turgot, and then Necker, tried to correct finances. He summoned States-General, leading to French

Revolution [1789]. Ministers negotiated with Austria and French Revolution leaders, but he dismissed them after court

434

politics involving Marie Antoinette. When French Revolutionary War started badly, king and queen tried to flee, and

revolutionaries captured and guillotined them.

His queen was Marie Antoinette, who said, "Let them eat cake" when told the people had no bread.

Louis Bonaparte [Bonaparte, Louis]

king

Netherlands/Batavia

1778 to 1846

He lived 1778 to 1846. France created Batavian kingdom in Netherlands [1778 to 1846].

Charles IV

king

Spain

1788 to 1808

He lived 1748 to 1819 and was of Bourbon family. His minister Godoy quit Spanish side of French Revolutionary

Wars and allied with France. Iberian peoples of Spain and Portugal revolted against France in Peninsular War but lost

to France, who captured his son. His queen was Maria Luisa.

Francis II

emperor

Holy Roman Empire

1792 to 1806

He lived 1768 to 1835 and was Francis I king of Bohemia [1804 to 1835] and Hungary [1792 to 1835]. Holy Roman

Empire lost to France in French Revolutionary Wars [1792]. He lost again to Napoleon [1806], dissolved Holy Roman

Empire [1806], and gave his daughter Josephine to Napoleon. With Metternich, he joined coalition against Napoleon

[1813].

Gustavus IV

king

Sweden

1792 to 1809

He lived 1778 to 1837 and fought Napoleon with the Austrian, Prussian, and Russian coalition. He lost Finland to

Russia. Revolution deposed him [1809].

Paul I

czar

Russia

1796 to 1801


Frederick William III

king

Prussia

1797 to 1840

He lived 1770 to 1840, lost to Napoleon at Jena [1806], and signed Treaty of Tilsit, giving west Prussia to France.

He gave Poland to Duke of Warsaw. He joined Continental System. Then his ministers revitalized Prussia and fought

War of Liberation from France. He joined Holy Alliance.

Alexander I

czar

Russia

1801 to 1825

He lived 1777-1825, was Romanov, and promoted Holy Alliance of Russia, Austria, and Prussia [1815].

Joseph Bonaparte [Bonaparte, Joseph]

king

435

Spain

1806 to 1813

He lived 1768 to 1844 and was king of Naples [1806 to 1808] and Spain [1808 to 1813].

John VI

king

Portugal

1807 to 1826

He lived 1767 to 1826 and went back to Portugal from Brazil.

Ferdinand VII

king

Spain

1808 to 1833

He lived 1784 to 1833, was of Bourbon family, and was king of Spain [1808 to 1833]. Napoleon captured him, but

he later regained throne. He set aside new constitution twice. He lost mainland South and Central America [1825]. He

caused Carlist Wars [1839] by giving his kingdom to his daughter instead of Don Carlos, as required by Salid law.

Charles XIII

king

Sweden/Norway

1809 to 1818

He lived 1748 to 1818, accepted constitution, settled with Russia, fought Napoleon at Leipzig [1814], and united

Norway [1814 to 1818] with Sweden when Denmark gave up rule of Norway.

Louis XVIII

king

France

1815 to 1824

He lived 1755 to 1824. In Bourbon Restoration, he became king through Talleyrand at Congress of Vienna and

Talleyrand was his foreign minister. He tried to reconcile French factions with new constitution. Someone assassinated

his nephew. Royalists gained control through Villele [1820].

William I

king

Netherlands

1815 to 1840


Charles XIV

king

Sweden/Norway

1818 to 1844


Charles X

king

France

1824 to 1830

He lived 1757 to 1836. Talleyrand was his foreign minister.

Nicholas I

czar

Russia

1825 to 1855

436

He lived 1796 to 1855, was Romanov, crushed Decembrist Conspiracy, defeated Polish uprising, helped Austria

defeat Hungarian Republic [1849], and lost Crimean War to Britain.

Louis Philippe or Citizen King

king

France

1830.07 to 1848.02

He lived 1773 to 1850. As Duke of Orleans, Lafayette helped him and he replaced Charles X in July Revolution

[1830]. He allowed business freedom and Algeria colonization. His reactionary cabinet and slight electoral reforms led

to February Revolution [1848].

Leopold I

king

Belgium

1831 to 1865

He lived 1790 to 1865. Belgium became independent of Holland [1830].

Otto I

king

Greece

1833 to 1862

He lived 1815 to 1867 and was from Bavaria.

Maria II

queen

Portugal

1834 to 1853

She lived 1819 to 1853 and defeated Miguel in Miguelist Wars.

Ferdinand

emperor

Austria

1835 to 1848.12

He lived 1793 to 1875 and abdicated to Francis Joseph I, who soon gained absolute power. Metternich was Council

of State leader but resigned.

Ferdinand II

king

Portugal

1837 to 1853

He lived 1816 to 1885 married Maria II [1836].

Victoria

queen

England

1837 to 1901

She lived 1819 to 1901 and was Hanover. Lord Melbourne and Palmerston were Prime Ministers in first half of her

reign, before her husband Prince Albert died. Disraeli and Gladstone were Prime Ministers during last half of her reign.

Her children married to ally with most of Europe. She had diamond jubilee [1897]. Her reign is Victorian Era.

Isabella

queen

Spain

1839 to 1868

437

She lived 1830 to 1904 and became queen at end of Carlist War [1839]. Carlists had revolted because her father

Ferdinand VII did not follow Salid Law of succession, which allowed male heirs only, but Carlists under Don Carlos

lost. She abdicated [1868].

William II

king

Netherlands

1840 to 1849


Frederick William IV

king

Prussia

1840 to 1861

He lived 1795 to 1861 and put down 1848 Revolution. Treaty of Olmutz [1850] blocked his plan for German Union

with Austria by forming German Confederation, with Austria as leader.

Louis Napoleon or Napoleon III

president/emperor

France

1848.12 to 1870

He lived 1808 to 1873. After trying to become emperor in 1836 and 1840, he returned to France, and assembly

elected him president of Republic [1848], promising democracy and order. He dissolved legislature, crushed worker

revolt, and ended Second Republic. He founded Second Empire of France [1852]. He granted more power to legislature

and reigned in prosperity. He built Suez Canal [1859 to 1869], adventured in Mexico, got China Lands, fought Crimean

War, restored the pope, and controlled Papal States. He fought Franco-Prussian War [1869 to 1870], but Prussia

captured and deposed him.

Francis Joseph I or Franz Joseph I

emperor

Austria

1848.12 to 1916

He lived 1830 to 1916 and reorganized Austrian Empire [1867] as Austro-Hungary. He lost Lombardy and Venetia

in Austro-Prussian War or Seven Weeks War, which Peace of Prague settled.

William III

king

Netherlands

1849 to 1890


Danilo II

king

Montenegro

1851 to 1860

He lived 1826 to 1860 and became archbishop [1851].

Alexander II

czar

Russia

1855 to 1881

The Tsar liberator lived 1818 to 1881, was Romanov, and freed serfs [1861] but did not allow them to leave their

villages without permission. He started local assembly {zemstvo} and new judicial system. He fought Crimean War

over Russian influence in southeast Europe. Someone assassinated him.

Alexander John Cusa [Cusa, Alexander John]

438

prince

Walachia/Moldavia

1859 to 1866

He lived 1820 to 1873, was prince of Romania [1859 to 1866], and led Danubian Principalities of Walachia and

Moldavia [1859].

Nicholas I

king

Montenegro

1860 to 1910

He lived 1841 to 1921 and helped Montenegro gain independence from Bulgaria and Ottomans [1878].

Victor Emmanuel II

king

Italy

1861 to 1878

He lived 1820 to 1878 and led wars of Risorgimento as Sardinia king, with Garibaldi as general. After victory over

Papal States, Florence was capital. He ruled as constitutional monarch.

William I

king

Prussia

1861 to 1888

He lived 1797 to 1888 and was emperor of Germany [1871 to 1888] and king of Prussia [1861 to 1888]. His minister

was Bismarck. Prussia and Austria fought Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein [1864]. German Empire began [1871].

George I

king

Greece

1863 to 1913


Leopold II

king

Belgium

1865 to 1909


Carol I

prince

Romania

1866 to 1881

He lived 1839 to 1914. Romania gained independence from Ottoman Empire [1881]. Romania had pogroms and

laws against Jews.

Miguel II

king

Portugal

1866 to 1920

He lived 1853 to 1927 and abdicated [1920] when republic formed.

Alphonso XII

king

Spain

1875 to 1885

He lived 1857 to 1885 and became king after Carlists revolted and lost.

439

Humbert I

king

Italy

1878 to 1900


Alexander III

czar

Russia

1881 to 1894

He lived 1845 to 1894, was Romanov, and promoted peace and industry. The Black Hundred beat people and robbed

Jewish homes and shops.

Alphonso XIII

king

Spain

1886 to 1931


Ferdinand

king

Bulgaria

1887 to 1918

He lived 1861 to 1948 and was Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Bulgaria became independent [1908].

Wilhelm II or William II

kaiser

Germany

1888 to 1918

He lived 1859 to 1941, led German Empire, dismissed Bismarck [1890], built commerce, took colonies, and built up

navy. He had Entente Cordiale with Britain and France. He formed Triple Entente of Britain, France, and Russia. He

formed Triple Alliance of Germany, Italy, and Austro-Hungary. He had to abdicate after World War I.

Charles I

king

Portugal

1889 to 1908


Wilhelmina

queen

Netherlands

1890 to 1948


Nicholas II

czar

Russia

1894 to 1917

He lived 1868 to 1917, was Romanov, and tried to keep the peace at Hague Conference. He lost Russo-Japanese War

[1905] and then faced Revolution of 1905, which established legislature or Duma. He blocked Duma with his premier

Stolypin but allowed some land reform. He led army in World War I. Rasputin came to control his family.

Revolutionaries killed him after Russian Revolution [1917].

Victor Emmanuel III

440

king

Italy

1900 to 1946

He lived 1869 to 1947 and appointed Mussolini [1922]. He dismissed Mussolini [1943] to make peace.

Edward VII

king

England

1901 to 1910

He lived 1841 to 1910, was Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and cooperated with Asquith in limiting House of Lords veto

power. His era is Edwardian Era. The next rulers in the family changed house name to Windsor: George V, Edward

VIII, George VI, and Elizabeth II.

Haakon VII

king

Norway

1905 to 1957

He lived 1872 to 1957 and became king after Norway and Sweden split [1905].

Manuel II

king

Portugal

1908 to 1910


Charles I

king

Austria

1916 to 1918


Alexander

king

Greece

1916 to 1920

He lived 1893 to 1920 and became king after Venizelos forced his father Constantine to abdicate, because

Constantine had kept Greece neutral in World War I.

Boris III

king/dictator

Bulgaria

1918 to 1943

He lived 1894 to 1943, was dictator [1938 to 1943], and allied with Hitler.

Peter I

king

Serbia/Croatia/Slovenia

1918.10 to 1921

He lived 1844 to 1921 and became king of Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia.

George II

king

Greece

1922 to 1924

He lived 1890 to 1947 and became king by Treaty of Lausanne [1922]. Republic formed [1924]. He became king

again as republic failed [1935 to 1947].

441

Zog I or Ahmed Bey Zogu [Zogu, Ahmed Bey]

king

Albania

1928 to 1946

He lived 1895 to 1961 and was president [1925 to 1928] then king of Albania [1928 to 1939].

Alexander

king

Yugoslavia

1929 to 1934

He lived 1888 to 1934. Someone killed him.

Carol II

king

Romania

1930 to 1940


Edward VIII

king

England

1935 to 1936

He lived 1894 to 1972, abdicated to marry an American, and became Duke of Windsor [1936].

Michael

king

Romania

1944

He lived 1921 to ?.

Baudouin or Boudewijn

king

Belgium

1951

He lived 1930 to 1993 and ruled when Leopold III abdicated.

Elizabeth II

queen

England

1952 to 2003

She lived 1926 to ?.

Juan Carlos I

king

Spain

1975 to 2007

He lived 1938 to ? and ruled after Franco died.

SOCI>History>History>Town

Jericho

town

Jericho, Palestine

-9000 to -8000

442

Jericho began around a spring. New Stone Age people built wood and stone houses with plaster floors. Town walls

had stacked brick masonry. It grew to eight acres [-8000] [Bronowski, 1974].

Göbekli

town

Göbekli, Turkey

-8000

Town was in east Turkey.

Jericho

town

Jericho, Palestine

-7000

Jericho had population 300, tower, and walls.

Catalhoyuk or Catal Huyuk

town

Catal Huyuk, Turkey

-7000 to -5800

South-central Turkey sites {forked mound} had population 8000, with 2000 houses. They had men and animal

paintings and sculptures. Catal Huyuk traded obsidian, salt, sulfur, and bitumen. It had one-story mudbrick houses with

plaster, wood frames, and reed and mud roofs. Houses were clean. Houses connected, with no streets. People did

activities on roofs. Wooden stairs went into houses through roof openings. It used obsidian tools. It was a trading center

by a river on a fertile plain. It grew cereal grains and had sheep. Continuous cultivation used irrigation and animal

manure, not slash-and-burn methods. It had fertility cults. Burials were under houses. For yearly ceremonies, they used

men and women's heads. People abandoned town [-5800], for unknown reasons.

Jericho

town

Jericho, Palestine

-6000 to -5000

Jericho had population 3000, had watchtowers and ditches, and was obsidian, salt, sulfur, and bitumen trading

center. Continuous cultivation used irrigation and animal manure, not slash-and-burn methods. Jericho had fertility

cults.

Karanova

town

Bulgaria

-5000

Culture began.

Babylon

town

Sumer

-4000

Site that later became Babylon was first inhabited.

Eridu

town

Eridu, Sumer

-4000

Culture began.

Ugarit

town

Ras Shamra, Syria

443

-4000

Town is on east Mediterranean coast. Ugarit is now Ras Shamra.

Byblos

town

Byblos, Asia Minor

-3100

Town is on east Mediterranean coast.

Skara Brae

town

Orkney Island, Scotland

-3000

Neolithic village was off coast of Scotland. It had ten small houses with flat stone for walls, large slabs for floors,

and stone furniture. Orkney has no trees.

Valdivia

town

Valdivia, Ecuador

-3000 to -2200

Neolithic planned town with plaza and wooden multifamily dwellings had 1000 people. People planted corn and

domesticated dogs.

Troy

town

Troy, Asia Minor

-2700 to -1200

Disaster or invasion destroyed it nine times.

Caral

town

Caral, Peru

-2627 to -1977

Neolithic culture was near Supe River, north of Lima. Town had 160 acres, plazas, reed-and-mud homes, irrigation

system, and 500-feet wide and 60-feet tall rock pyramid. Buildings used reed sacks filled with stones {shicra}. Town

traded with coast, 14 miles away, which supplied fish and shellfish. It used squash, cotton, sweet potatoes, and fruits

but no maize. It had no gold or pottery but used bone flutes.

El Paraiso

town

Lima, Peru

-1800

Town was ceremonial center with pyramid. There was fishing, cotton, corn, and jewelry.

Kotosh

town

Kotosh, Peru

-1800

It had ceremonial platforms.

Casma

town

Peru

-1500

Copan

444

town

Copan, Honduras

-1400

It is in west Honduras.

San Jose Mogote

town

San Jose Mogote, Mexico

-1350

Town was in south Mexico.

Chang-an

town

China

-1200

Town was early Chinese civilization.

Rome

town

Rome, Italy

-800 to -500

Town started after Celts invaded Italy and pushed Etruscans south into central Italy, where native Samnites, Sabines,

and Latins lived. Rome was first trading center and assembly place for Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans.

Tiahuanaco

town

Tiahuanaco, Bolivia

-400

Town was near Lake Titicaca.

Cyrenaica

town

Cyrenaica, Libya

115

Jewish community in northeast Libya revolted against Rome.

London

town

London, United Kingdom

200 to 250

London became main town of Britain.

Nara

capital

Nara, Japan

710 to 784

Town was south of Kyoto.

Heian-kyo

capital

Heian-kyo, Japan

794

Town is Kyoto.

Cahokia

city

445

Cahokia, Illinois

1050 to 1200

City, in south Illinois, had rectangular flat-topped temple mounds (Cahokia Mounds) around squares or beside wide

streets. Largest was Monk's Mound, over 30 meters high.

Katanga

town

Zaire

1100

Town began in central Africa.

Great Zimbabwe

town

Zimbabwe

1450

Town was in south Africa.

Antwerp

town

Belgium

1500 to 1600

Town became prominent through salted and pickled fish, shipping, manufacturing, imported wool from England,

imported wood and grain from Baltic, and exported textiles from Flanders and Picardy.

Holland

town

Holland

1500 to 1600

Cities of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Leiden, and Delft became prominent.

Nagasaki

town

Nagasaki, Japan

1570

Nagasaki, under Christian king, invited Portuguese.

Amsterdam

town

Holland

1600 to 1688

Town had shipping, manufacturing, letters of credit, and stock exchange. Letters of credit are discounted bills for

loans. It had shipping in flutes or flyboats used for cargo. It had wool from England, salted and pickled fish, wood and

grain from Baltic, and textiles in Flanders and Picardy.

Memphis

fort

Memphis, Tennessee

1682

France built fort.

St. Louis

fort

St. Louis, Missouri

1682

France built fort on Mississippi River.

446

Detroit

fort

Detroit, Michigan

1701

France built fort on Lake Erie.

New Orleans

fort


1718

France built fort on Mississippi River.

SOCI>History>History>Treaty

Treaty of Kadesh

treaty

Anatolia

-1284

Treaty was between Ramses II of Egypt and Hattusilis III of Hittite Empire.

Treaty of Verdun

treaty

France/Germany

843

Treaty partitioned Frank lands into France as west Frankish kingdom, under Charles II the Bald, and Germany as

east Frankish kingdom, under Louis the German.

Treaty of Mersen

treaty

Lotharingia, Germany

870

After Louis the German fought Charles the Bald, treaty gave Lotharingia to Germany, which Louis the German

ruled. After that, feudalism and manorial system began, and kings declined in power.

Concordant of Worms

treaty

Worms, Germany

1122

Treaty gave power to elect bishops to pope, with veto power by emperor of Holy Roman Empire.

Peace of Constance

treaty

Lombardy

1183

Treaty gave freedom to Lombard League towns and independence from the pope to Holy Roman Empire.

Magna Charta

treaty

Runnymede, England

1215

Barons and prelates forced King John to sign Magna Charta. Magna Charta gave more rights to freemen, including

barons, lesser knights, and burgesses. It guaranteed trial by jury, alleviated some taxing powers of king, and protected

baron property. Magna Charta did not give rights to serfs. Committee of 25 barons enforced it. Magna Charta is part of

British Constitution, which includes many other documents.

Treaty of London

447

treaty

London, United Kingdom

1359

Treaty ended England's involvement in Hundred Years War.

Bretigny

treaty

France

1360

England got Aquitaine.

Treaty of Anglo-Portuguese friendship

treaty

Portugal/England

1373

King Edward III of England and King Ferdinand and Queen Eleanor of Portugal established alliance. It is oldest

treaty still in effect.

Treaty of Troyes

treaty

France

1420

Treaty gave Normandy to England from France. Henry V became heir to French throne. He married Katherine,

Charles VI of France's daughter. War resumed when Henry V died [1422].

Tours

treaty

Poitiers, France

1444 to 1449

France got Duchy of Maine. England broke treaty but lost.

Treaty of Tordesillas

treaty

Spain

1494

Spain got West Indies, Central America, and South America, and Portugal got Brazil and Africa.

Peace of Augsburg

treaty

Augsburg, Germany

1555

Princes in empire chose Lutheran or Catholic Church for state.

Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis

treaty

Italy

1559

Treaty gave Sicily, Naples, and Milan to Spain.

Spain/Portugal

treaty

Spain/Portugal

1580 to 1640

Spain united with Portugal.

Treaty of Vienna

448

treaty

Vienna, Austria

1606

Treaty of Vienna between Hungary and Ottoman Empire gave religious freedom to southeast Europe.

Peace of the Pyrenees

treaty

Portugal

1640

Spain lost Portugal.

Peace of Westphalia or Treaty of Westphalia

treaty

Europe

1648

Treaty ended Thirty Years War and ended authority of Holy Roman Empire, so 300 princes freely held lands in

Germany and Italy. Holy Roman Empire then was mainly Austria, still ruled by Hapsburgs. Duchy of Prussia was in

north Germany. Elector of Brandenburg gained. Switzerland became fully independent, with 13 cantons ruled by

oligarchies. United Provinces in Netherlands became independent.

Peace of Westphalia established modern international law, by recognizing absolute jurisdiction of nations in their

territories.

Peace of the Pyrenees

treaty

Spain

1659

France took part of Spain.

Treaty of Oliva

treaty

Oliva, Poland

1660

Poland lost land to Sweden.

Treaty of Andrusov

treaty

Andrusov, Russia

1667

Poland lost land to Russia.

Treaty of Ryswick

treaty

Ryswick, Netherlands

1697

Treaty ended Dutch Wars among France, Netherlands, and England, with Netherlands free and Protestant.

Peace of Karlowitz

treaty

Karlowitz, Poland

1699

Venice got Dalmatia. Poland got Bosnia, Bulgaria, Wallachia, Moldavia, Bessarabia, and Jedisan. Holy Roman

Empire got Hungary. Ottoman Empire lost.

Act of Union

treaty

England/Scotland

449

1707

Treaty joined England, including Wales and Ireland, and Scotland as Great Britain.

Peace of Utrecht

treaty

Utrecht, Netherlands

1713 to 1714

Treaty ended War of the Spanish Succession, which started after death of Charles II of Spain. Spain and Austria

were against Britain and France. It gave Milan to Austria and Sicily to Savoy. Philip V became Bourbon king of Spain,

not Holy Roman Empire emperor. Hapsburgs of Austria got Spanish Netherlands from Spain. Spanish Netherlands had

Belgium and Luxembourg.

Treaty of Passarowitz

treaty

Hungary

1718

Holy Roman Empire gained Hungary and Transylvania from Ottoman Empire, to end Austro-Turkish War.

Savoy-Austria Trade

treaty

Sicily/Sardinia, Italy

1720

Savoy traded Sicily to Austria for Sardinia.

Belgrade

treaty

Romania

1739

Treaty set border between Ottoman Empire and Austria, keeping Hungary for Austria. Ottoman Empire got back

Bulgaria, Bosnia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and Bessarabia. Russia did not build Black-Sea navy.

Treaty of Paris

treaty

Paris, France

1763

Treaty gave England all USA and Canada, except New Orleans for France. It gave Florida to Spain.

First Polish Partition

treaty

Poland

1772

Stanislaus II, king of Poland, accepted Russian aid against Prussia and Austria and had to accept Poland partition.

Russia got all of Latvia, Belorussia, Lithuania, and Ukraine.

Treaty of Kutchuk Kalnarji

treaty

Crimea

1774

Russia won control of Tatars of Crimea.

Treaty of Paris

treaty

Paris, France

1783

Treaty ended American Revolution. Benjamin Franklin, for USA, negotiated with Britain.

450

Sistova

treaty

Bosnia/Romania

1791

Ottoman Empire got Belgrade. Austria got Bosnia.

Jassy

treaty

Ukraine

1792

Russians got up to Dniester River from Ottoman Empire.

Second Polish Partition

treaty

Poland

1793

Russia, Prussia, and Austria divided it.

Third Polish Partition

treaty

Poland

1795

Poland was split among Russia, Prussia, and Austria.

Treaty of Campo Formio

treaty

Campo Formio, Italy

1797

Treaty ended French Revolutionary War in Italy. Austria got Venice and Dalmatia. Cisalpine Republic in north Italy

began, with Milan as capital.

Concordat

treaty

France

1801

Napoleon negotiated peace with Catholic Church.

Treaty of Luneville

treaty

Luneville, France

1801

Treaty ended war of Austria and France.

Treaty of Amiens

treaty

Amiens, France

1802

Treaty ended war of France and England.

Act of Mediation

treaty

Switzerland

1803

Treaty restored Switzerland confederation.

Treaty of Tilsit

451

treaty

Prussia

1807

France negotiated peace with Russia and Prussia.

Treaty between Sikhs and British

treaty

India

1809

Treaty set Sikh boundaries in India.

Treaty of Paris

treaty

Paris, France

1814

Talleyrand worked for mild terms and Bourbon-king restoration.

Treaty of Adrianople

treaty

Adrianople, Greece

1829

Treaty ended war between Ottoman Empire and Russia. Moldavia and Walachia became Russian protectorates.

Greece became independent of Turkey.

Treaty of Olmutz

treaty

Olmutz, Germany

1850

Treaty blocked German Union and restored German Federation, which included Prussia and Austria. Austria

dominated it.

Burlingame Treaty

treaty

USA

1868

Treaty gave Chinese right to come to USA.

Fort Laramie Treaty

treaty

USA

1868

Great Sioux Reservation created in South Dakota, North Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, and Nebraska.

Treaty of Versailles

treaty

Versailles, France

1871

Treaty formally ended Franco-Prussian War between France and Prussia.

Congress of Berlin/Treaty of Berlin

conference/treaty

Berlin, Germany

1878

Act ended Russo-Turkish War [1876 to 1878]. Ottoman Empire got Macedonia again. Montenegro and Serbia

became independent. Greater Bulgaria divided into north Bulgaria, Rumelia in east Bulgaria, and Macedonia under

Ottoman Empire. Bosnia went to Austro-Hungary.

452

Treaty of San Stefano

treaty

San Stefano, Italy

1878

Treaty ended first Balkan War. It gave Montenegro and Macedonia to Bulgaria. Greater Bulgaria included Bulgaria,

Rumelia, and Macedonia, as it had earlier.

Treaty of Shimonoseki

treaty

China

1895

Treaty ended Sino-Japanese War.

Treaty of Paris

treaty

Paris, France

1898

Treaty ended Spanish-American War. USA got Philippines, east tip of Cuba, and Puerto Rico.

South Africa Act

treaty

South Africa

1910

Union of South Africa became independent as British commonwealth and established apartheid laws separating

whites, blacks, and mixed.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

treaty

Brest-Litovsk, Russia

1918.03

Treaty ended Russian participation in World War I. Bolsheviks controlled European Russia.

Treaty of Bucharest

treaty

Romania

1918.05 to 1918.11

Treaty ended war on Eastern Front between Germany and Romania. Romania annexed Bessarabia. However, in

November, Romania warred again.

Armistice

treaty

Paris, France

1918.1111

Treaty ended World War I on Western Front on November 11 at 11 am.

Treaty of Versailles

treaty

Versailles, France

1919.06

Paris Peace Conference started in January 1919. Treaty created Weimar Republic in Germany, which faced

unemployment, inflation, and extremism. Italy gained Trieste and Tyrol. Greece got west Thrace and European Turkey.

Japan got German islands in Pacific Ocean.

Treaty of Saint-Germain

treaty

453

Austria

1919.09

Treaty established current Austria and Romania.

Treaty of Neuilly

treaty

Bulgaria

1919.11

Bulgaria lost territory.

Treaty of Riga

treaty

Poland

1920

Treaty negotiated peace between Russia and Poland, after Poland went to war to get more eastern territory. Finland,

Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania became independent. Russia lost Bessarabia. Vilma went from Lithuania to Poland.

Treaty of Trianon

treaty

Hungary

1920.06

Austria and Hungary became republics. Czechoslovakia became republic, and Tomas Masaryk and Eduard Benes

were first two presidents. Upper Silesia went to Poland. Romania got Transylvania, Banat, and Bukovina.

Treaty of Sevres

treaty

Turkey

1920.08

Ottoman Empire was left with only Istanbul and Anatolia.

Turkey/Russia

treaty

Turkey/Russia

1921.03

Treaty between Turkey and Russia allowed Turkish Republic under Kemal Ataturk.

Washington Conference/Nine-Power Treaty

treaty

China

1922

Treaty assured borders of China and kept Open Door Policy.

Treaty of Lausanne

treaty

Switzerland

1923.07

Treaty ended war between Greece and Turkey, and Allies signed it. Thrace went to Turkey. Several million Greeks,

Turks, and Bulgarians moved.

Treaty of Rome

treaty

Rome, Italy

1924

Treaty transferred port of Susak from Italy to Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia kingdom.

Treaty of Locarno

454

treaty

Italy

1925

Treaty required fewer reparations from Germany.

Kellogg-Briand Pact or Pact of Paris

treaty

Paris, France

1929

Treaty agreed to negotiate differences among France, Britain, USA, and Germany and so removed most restrictions

on Germany. Weimar Republic had evacuated Ruhr and paid reparations.

Lateran Treaty

treaty

Italy

1929

Treaty gave control of Vatican City to the pope. Roman Curia was papal court.

Locarno Pact

treaty

Italy

1929

Treaty set Germany's west boundary and put Germany in League of Nations, with approval of France, Britain, and

USA.

Munich Pact

treaty

Munich, Germany

1938

Treaty partitioned Czechoslovakia. Germany got Bohemia and Moravia and demanded Danzig and Polish Corridor.

Adolf Hitler signed for Germany. Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister of England, said he wanted "peace in our time"

{peace in our time} from Axis powers. Others accused him of appeasement.

Nonaggression Pact

treaty

Germany/Russia

1939.08

Hitler gave Russia, under Stalin, east Poland, Baltic republics, north Bokovina, and Bessarabia.

Atlantic Charter

treaty

Britain/USA

1941 to 1948

Treaty began NATO or North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

Tehran Declaration

treaty

Tehran, Iran

1943

Allies agreed on European territory.

Dumbarton Oaks Conference/Treaty at Dumbarton Oaks

treaty

Dumbarton Oaks, California

1944

Treaty established United Nations charter.

455

Act of Chapultepec

treaty

Chapultepec, Mexico

1945

Treaty furthered Pan-Americanism.

Arab League

league

Egypt

1945

League led by Egypt included most Arab and Moslem states.

Treaty of Paris

treaty

Paris, France

1947

Allies finalized peace with Italy, which became a republic. Italian parties were Catholics, Communists, and

Socialists.

Benelux

league

Belgium/Netherlands/Luxembourg

1947 to 2007

Countries signed Benelux Customs Union treaty [1944]. Benelux Economic Union replaced it [1960].

Rio Treaty

treaty

Americas

1948

Treaty formed Organization of American States (OAS). It settled war between Nicaragua and Costa Rica and

Dominican-Republic question.

Warsaw Pact

treaty/league

Europe

1949

Treaty grouped communist East European nations. League included Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary,

Czechoslovakia, Poland, East Germany, and Russia. Kaliningrad or Königsberg was in Russia. Oder-Niesse line

divided East Germany from Poland.

Sino-Soviet Treaty

treaty

Russia/China

1950

Russian and Chinese Communist parties negotiated the border.

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization or SEATO

treaty

Asia

1954 to 1977

Southeastern Asia Treaty Organization started as Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty or Manila Pact

(SEATO).

Paris Pacts

treaty

456

Paris, France

1955

West Germany became sovereign and joined NATO. East Germany became free and joined Warsaw Pact of east

European nations.

Central Treaty Organization or CENTO

treaty

Asia

1955 to 1979

First, it was Middle East Treaty Organization (METO) or Baghdad Pact.

Alliance for Progress

league

Americas

1962

Alliance involved all nations in Western Hemisphere, except Cuba.

Treaty between East and West Germany

treaty

Germany

1970 to 1972

Willy Brandt had policy of Ostpolitik, leading to Treaty of Moscow [1970], Treaty of Warsaw [1970], Four Power

Agreement on Berlin [1971], Transit Agreement [1972], and Basic Treaty [1972]. Both nations then joined United

Nations. The nations unified [1990].

Alliance for Progress

league

Cuba

1975

Cuba reentered.

Helsinki Agreements on Human Rights

treaty

Helsinki, Finland

1975

Laws established procedures for reporting on human rights and opened East Europe to communications from

outside.

Camp David Accords

treaty

Egypt/Israel

1979

Anwar Sadat of Egypt [assassinated 1981] and Moshe Dayan of Israel signed peace treaty.

Convention on the Law of the Sea

treaty

United Nations

1982

Treaty established 200-mile territorial waters.

missile

treaty

USA/Russia

1987

USA and Russia reached agreement on intermediate range missile reductions in Europe.

457

Nuclear Weapons

treaty

USA/Russia

1991

USA and Russia agreed on weapons and missiles.

SOCI>History>History>War

Trojan

war

Troy, Asia Minor

-1200

Greeks destroyed Troy after ten-year war. Legendarily began when Paris took the Greek queen Helen (Helen of

Troy) by force to Troy and ended when Greeks sacked Troy after hiding in Trojan Horse.

Persian Wars

war

Persia/Greece

-499 to -479

Greek city-states, led by Athens, united against Persia.

Syracuse-Carthage

war

Syracuse, Sicily

-480

Carthage tried to take Sicily and Syracuse but did not.

Persian Wars

war

Greece

-449

Greece defeated Persia under Xerxes to end Persian Wars.

Peloponnesian War

war

Greece

-431 to -404

In some city-states, rich oligarchs ruled. In democratic city-states, citizens ruled. Sparta and Corinth led

Peloponnesian cities, favoring oligarchies, against wealthy Athens, favoring democratic cities. First, Corcyra (Corfu)

rebelled against Corinth and then Athens, led by Pericles, helped it. Corinth asked Sparta for help. Peace came [-421]

but failed as Athens moved against Syracuse, which allied with Sparta. They besieged Athens, which surrendered.

Sparta then asked for Persian aid and won Peloponnesian War. It used mercenaries. Alcibiades was Athenian general

and friend of Socrates. Merchants grew rich. Oligarchies took over democracies. It ruined Athenian farmland.

Revolt of Egypt

war

Egypt

-405

Egypt revolted against Persia.

Period of Warring States

war

Yellow River, China/Yangtze River, China

-403 to -221

Spring and Autumn Period ended [-475], and later Jin dynasty lands became three kingdoms [-403]. It ended when

Qin dynasty unified China.

458

Italian War

war

Italy

-396

Rome completed conquest of Italy and ruled it until end of Roman Empire.

Wars of the Diadochi

war

Greece

-304 to -301

Ptolemy I, ruler of Egypt as former general of Alexander, defeated Antigonus I of Macedon.

First Punic War

war

Sicily

-264 to -241

Sicily was at first ruled by Carthage. Rome defeated Carthage and took most of Sicily. Hamilcar Barca led Carthage,

and Scipio led Rome. Rome controlled Italy south of Arno River.

Second Punic War

war

Italy

-218 to -202

Hannibal, Hamilcar Barca's son, led Carthage army from New Carthage in Spain [-218]. He led cavalry and

elephants over Alps and won in Po River valley at Trasimende [-217], in south Italy at Capua, and at Cannae [-216] but

did not take Rome. Carthage lost New Carthage [-209]. He withdrew to aid his brother and then to defend Carthage

against Scipio but lost at Zama [-202]. Rome then controlled west Mediterranean.

Liu

war

China

-210 to -202

Liu family ended civil war and started Han dynasty.

First Macedonian War

war

Macedon

-194

Philip V of Macedon lost to Rome, which had helped Athens against Macedon.

Second Macedonian War

war

Macedon

-190

Antiochus III of Seleucids in Persia and Philip V of Macedon lost to Rome.

Third Macedonian War

war

Macedon

-168

Perseus of Macedon lost to Rome.

Third Punic War

war

Carthage, Tunisia/Rome, Italy

459

-160 to -146

Cato the Elder or Cato the Censor helped start war. He believed in the old virtues and was miser. It ended when

Rome under Scipio Africanus Minor (the Younger) sacked Carthage. After Punic Wars, Romans created large estates

that used slaves from poor-peasant lands. Peasants came to cities. Soldiers became paid professionals.

Roman Civil War

war

Rome, Italy

-76

After Caius Marius and Cinna, for the people, took Rome while Sulla, for Senate, was in Greece, Sulla won civil

war.

Gallic Wars

war

Gaul

-60 to -49

Julius Caesar of Roman Republic fought Gauls in France and gained power.

Jewish Revolt

revolution

Judaea

66 to 73

Palestinian Jews revolted against Romans led by Vespasian. After starving Jerusalem and destroying temple, Rome

subdued Jews at Masada.

Roman civil war

war

Rome, Italy

68 to 69

After Emperor Nero died, there was war.

Hadrian's Wall

wall

Britain

122 to 138

Hadrian built wall to defend province of Britain. Scots and Picts breached wall twice.

Roman civil war

war

Rome, Italy

235 to 284

Roman Empire had civil war.

North Africans

region

North Africa

238 to 300

People revolted against Rome.

Aurelian Walls

wall

Rome, Italy

271 to 276

Aurelian Walls surrounded Rome.

Genji and Haiki War

460

war

Japan

700 to 950

Buddhist priests and Fujiwara family were powerful. Capital was at Heian (Kyoto).

First Crusade

war

Clermont, France

1095

War began under Pope Urban II and Peter the Hermit at Council of Clermont and encouraged pilgrimages to Holy

Land. Knights Templar and Knights Hospitaler began during Crusades.

Second Crusade

war

Rome, Italy

1145 to 1147

Bernard of Clairvaux preached for it because Zangi captured County of Edessa. Louis VII of France led it.

Damascus

siege

Asia Minor

1147 to 1149

Christian armies of Second Crusade lost to Turks in Asia Minor.

Minamoto

clan

Kamakura, Japan

1185

Minamoto Yorimoto of Minamoto clan defeated Tiara clan.

Third Crusade

war

Rome, Italy

1189 to 1192

Richard I of England and Philip II of France led Christian forces [1189]. Richard I of England and Saladin

negotiated a truce [1192].

Fourth Crusade

war

Rome, Italy

1202

Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople and set up state, until Osmanli Turks defeated Christian soldiers and

restored Byzantine Empire.

Sixth Crusade

war


1228

Frederick II of Holy Roman Empire peacefully got Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem by treaty.

gunpowder

war

Europe

1230

Gunpowder came to Europe.

461

Barons' War

war

Lewes, France

1263

Barons under Simon de Montfort defeated Henry III of France.

Sicilian Vespers

war

Sicily

1282

Sicilian Vespers revolt sent Sicily to King of Aragon.

Hundred Years War

war

France

1337 to 1453

Edward III, king of England, claimed France and began the 100 Years War. Joan of Arc and De Guesclin led France.

Byzantine civil war

war

Byzantium

1341 to 1354

Empire had civil war.

Jacquerie

revolt

Paris, France

1358

Peasants revolted north of Paris.

Spain

rebellion

Spain

1360

Rebellion was against Peter I of Castile, who also fought Charles V of France. Edward the Black Prince, Duke of

Cornwall, helped him.

Hundred Years War

war

France

1374

Bertrand du Guesclin, constable of France, drove England out of France.

Peasants' Revolt

revolt

England

1381

Peasants led by Wat Tyler marched to London to protest tax to King Richard II. They committed crimes on way,

ruined king's house, and murdered Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Treasurer. Someone killed Wat Tyler, but

Parliament cancelled tax and pardoned rebels. However, soon situation became as it was before.

Hussite Wars

war

Czech Republic

1419 to 1436

462

Protestant Czechs under John Huss and fundamentalist peasant Taborites of Moravian Church fought against

Catholic Germans and Ultraquists. Ultraquist nobles backed some Church rites. Sigismund, a Catholic, was nominally

king. It ended when George of Podebad negotiated peace.

Hundred Years War

war

Europe

1453

War ended as England lost at Castillon.

Venice-Ottoman

war

Turkey

1463 to 1479

Ottoman Empire defeated Venice.

Onin

war

Japan

1467 to 1477

Hosokawa and Yamana clans fought civil war.

Ikko-ikki

revolt

Japan

1488

Ikko Buddhists revolted.

Italian Wars

war

Lombardy

1494 to 1495

France and Spain fought over Italy [1494]. Switzerland defeated Charles the Bold of Burgundy [1495].

Japan peasant revolt

revolution

Japan

1500 to 1600

Peasants, under renegade samurai warriors, joined against lords.

Hungary Peasants Revolt

revolution

Hungary

1514

Peasants revolted in Hungary, lost, and became serfs.

Inca

rebellion

Peru

1536 to 1572

Manko Inka, Huayna Capac's grandson, and other Inca rebelled against Spanish. Tupaq Amaru I was last Inca

emperor.

Transylvania Revolt

revolution

Hungary

463

1541

Transylvania princes, mainly Bocskay, revolted against Rudolf II of Hapsburg and Catholics and got west Hungary.

Ottoman Empire got central Hungary. Hapsburgs of Austria got part of west Hungary.

Swiss Civil War

war

Switzerland

1550

Protestant Reformation caused war.

French Wars of Religion

war

France

1560 to 1590

Protestant minority fought with Catholic majority as nobles fought weak Valois kings.

Wars of Religion

war

France

1562

Catholics and Protestants fought.

Sea Beggars

revolt

Brill, Netherlands

1572

Privateers, some anti-Catholic noblemen, opposed Spanish during Revolt of the Netherlands but terrorized

everybody. They captured Brielle [1572]. Rebel army was Geuzen or Beggars. William I of Orange first encouraged

them [1568] but later jailed some leaders.

St. Bartholomew

massacre

Paris, France

1572

8,000 Protestants died.

Guise Revolt

revolution

France

1588

Duke of Guise led revolt against Henry III of France.

Gunpowder Plot or Guy Fawkes Day

war

England

1605

Guy Fawkes tried to blow up Parliament and King James I, to arouse the people.

Time of Troubles

war

Russia

1605

After nobles deposed Boris Godunov, Poland invaded and aided man pretending to be Dimitri, Ivan IV's son. More

pretenders appeared and ruled.

Holland-Spain

464

war

Holland/Spain

1609 to 1621

Truce held.

Thirty Years War

war

Bohemia/Austria/Spain

1618 to 1621

Protestant Bohemian princes, acting as Bohemian diet, deposed Catholic Hapsburg emperor Ferdinand II of Holy

Roman Empire and Austria and elected Frederick the Winter King, starting Thirty Years War [1618]. Protestant

Reformation had already divided Holy Roman Empire. Emperor won at first, but France then assisted rebels. England

fought Holy Roman Empire, too. Spain joined Thirty Years War on side of Holy Roman Empire and Hapsburgs [1620].

War between Holland and Spain merged into Thirty Years War [1621]. Holland was on side of France and England.

Puritan Revolution

war

England

1647

Cromwell and Puritans defeated Charles I of England.

Cossack Rebellion

rebellion

Russia

1648

Rebellion was against Poland.

England Civil War

war

England

1649 to 1651

Oliver Cromwell and Puritans defeated Charles II and Scots at Dunbar [1649]. Oliver Cromwell won at Worcester

[1651], to end civil war, and established Commonwealth.

Bacon's Rebellion

rebellion

Virginia

1676

Farmers revolted against colony.

Glorious Revolution

revolution

England

1688

Revolution ended rule of James II, Catholic, in favor of Protestant William of Orange.

King William's War

war

USA/Canada

1689 to 1697

First French and Indian War started when France attacked British colonies.

French and Indian Wars

war

USA

1689 to 1763

465

Britain pushed France northward and then out of east USA and Canada.

Russo-Turkish Wars

war

Russia/Turkey

1696 to 1878

Russia and Ottoman Empire warred intermittently and slowly gave Russia Crimea, Ukraine, Bessarabia, and

Caucasus [1829].

War of the Grand Alliance

war

Europe

1697

War ended with defeat of Louis XIV of France by Holy Roman Empire, Holland, England, Spain, and German

states. Austria got Hungary from Ottoman Empire.

Queen Anne's War

war

USA/Canada

1701 to 1703

Second French and Indian War lost France more territory to England.

Dutch-Xhosa

war

Africa

1702 to 1877

Southeast Africa had nine wars.

Mazeppa Rebellion

rebellion

Russia

1709

Cossacks rebelled against Peter I of Russia, who then took away their freedom.

Transylvania Prince Rebellion

rebellion

Hungary

1711

Francis II Rakoczy and Transylvania princes rebelled against Hapsburgs of Holy Roman Empire and Austria, who

stopped rebellion and took Transylvania and Hungary.

Austro-Turkish War

war

Romania

1716 to 1717

Austria took Belgrade from Ottoman Empire [1717].

War of Polish Succession

war

Sicily/Naples, Italy/Parma, Italy

1735

War gave Sicily, Naples, and Parma to Spain under Bourbons. France lost, Holy Roman Empire lost, and Poland

won.

War of Jenkin's Ear

war

466

Spain

1739

War was about English right to trade at Portobello. Austria and Britain were against Spain, France, and Prussia.

Silesian War or War of the Austrian Succession

war

Silesia

1745 to 1748

Frederick II of Prussia claimed Silesia from Maria Theresa of Austria [1745]. Philip V of Spain fought on side of

Austria. It ended [1748] with Maria Theresa as queen of Austria. Austria controlled Milan, Mantua, Tuscany, and

Modena in Italy. Savoy controlled Papal States and Sardinia. Venice, Genoa, and Lucca were independent. Silesia went

to Prussia.

King George's War

war

USA/Canada

1745 to 1748

Third French and Indian War removed France from Canada and northeast USA after defeat by England.

French and Indian Wars

war

Canada

1754 to 1763

Last French and Indian War, in which Britain won Quebec and western French forts. George Washington lost at Fort

Necessity and then aided General Braddock.

Seven Years War

war

Germany/Austria

1756 to 1763

Prussia and Holy Roman Empire fought. England, France, Spain, Poland, and Russia participated.

Boston Massacre

revolution


1770

British soldiers fired at crowd of colonists and were later tried in court.

Gaspee Burning

revolution

USA

1772

Rhode Island men torched HMS Gaspee, sent by Britain to enforce trade laws and prevent smuggling, exploding its

powder magazine.

Boston Tea Party

revolution


1773

Colonists threw tea that was subject to British tax from ships into Boston harbor.

Quebec Campaign

war

Canada

1776

USA failed to arouse Canada against British. USA took Montreal, lost Quebec, and went back to USA.

467

Ohio

campaign

Ohio

1779

General Clark of USA defeated American natives.

Carolina

campaign

North Carolina

1781

USA under Nathaniel Greene defeated Britain under Cornwallis.

Revolt of the Netherlands

war

Netherlands

1789

Netherlands fought against Joseph II of Holy Roman Empire (Austria) and his reforms.

French Revolution

revolution

France

1789.0714

Revolution began on July 14, which is now Bastille Day, with storming of Bastille prison. Causes were liberal trends

of Enlightenment, France bankruptcy, subsequent taxes, mercantile system, and disparity between rich and poor.

French Revolutionary Wars

war

France/Netherlands/Switzerland

1792 to 1798

French Assembly declared war on Austria [1792]. Early French defeats led to taking Tuileries Palaces, murdering

Swiss Guards, giving more power to Paris Commune, and electing National Convention. French Revolutionary Army

took Netherlands and formed Batavian Republic [1795]. France took Switzerland and created Helvetic Republic

[1798].

Vendemaire Revolt

revolution

France

1794

Napoleon put down noble's Vendemaire Revolt against Directory and gained fame.

Mamelukes Rebellion

rebellion

Egypt

1798 to 1811

Mohammed Ali, pasha of Egypt, defeated Ottoman Empire.

Peninsular War

war

Spain

1808 to 1814

Napoleon of France captured the Bourbon King Charles IV of Spain and his son Ferdinand VII [1808].

South America

war

South America

468

1810 to 1824

Simon Bolivar, the Liberator, led South America in war against Spain. He eventually won at Ayacucho [1824].

Revolt of Mexico

war

Mexico

1811

Hidalgo y Costilla led revolt of Mexico against Spain.

War of 1812

war

USA

1812

William Henry Harrison won Battle of Thames in Ontario, Canada, giving USA control of Northwest. Francis Scott

Key wrote National Anthem.

Croatia

war

Croatia

1813

Hungary regained Croatia from France.

Serbia Rebellion

rebellion

Serbia

1817

Serbs led by Milosh Obrenovich rebelled against Ottoman Empire.

Musket Wars

war

New Zealand

1818 to 1833

Maori tribes fought with muskets.

Greek Revolution

war

Greece

1821

Greece under Ypsilantis fought Ottoman Empire and Egypt and won at Navarino or Pylos.

Mexico Civil War

war

Mexico

1823

Santa Anna and others fought for leadership of Mexico after Iturbide left.

Anglo-Burmese Wars

war

Burma

1824 to 1885

Wars added Burma to British India.

Miguelist Wars

war

Portugal

1826

469

John VI of Portugal died, starting Miguelist Wars over his successor.

Belgium Secession

secession

Belgium

1830

Belgium, including most of Luxembourg, seceded from Netherlands.

Poland Insurrection

war

Poland

1830

King suspended constitution after insurrection.

Canada Rebellion

rebellion

Canada

1837 to 1838

MacKenzie rebelled against Britain in north Canada, and Papineau rebelled against Britain in south Canada.

Opium War

war

China/Britain

1839 to 1842

Britain sold opium from India in south China, but Manchu or Ch'ing Dynasty banned it and burned shipment [1839].

Britain won Opium War with Ch'ing Dynasty of China [1842]. Opium War gave Hong Kong to Britain and allowed

free trade in China. Missionaries came to China.

First Sikh War

war

India

1845

Ranjit Singh of Sikhs took Punjab and Kashmir from Britain.

Mexican War

war

San Jacinto, Texas

1845

Sam Houston of USA defeated Santa Anna of Mexico and USA gained Texas.

Sonderbund War

war

Switzerland

1847

Protestant diet in Switzerland dissolved Sonderbund union of Catholic cantons, causing Sonderbund War, which

Catholics quickly lost.

Greek Revolt

revolution

Greece

1848

Greece revolted against Austria.

Sicily

revolution

Sicily

470

1848.01

Sicily revolted against Kingdom of Naples.

February Revolution

revolution

France

1848.02

Revolution deposed Louis Philippe. Second Republic formed.

Revolution of 1848

revolution

Prussia

1848.04 to 1848.11

Revolution started in Berlin, but Frederick William IV ended it in November. Other German kingdoms wrote

constitutions during this time.

June Days

revolution

France

1848.06

Revolution lost to Second Republic.

Second Sikh War

war

India

1849

Sikhs lost all land to Britain.

Crimean War

war

Crimea

1853

England defeated Russia and prevented Russian access to Black Sea.

Sepoy Rebellion or Indian Mutiny

war

India

1857

Brahmin Bengal soldiers in England's army rebelled and ended puppet rule of Mogul Dynasty and British East India

Company. Britain began direct rule of India.

Italian War

war

Lombardy

1859

Francis Joseph II of Austria lost Lombardy to Italy.

Carlist Revolt

revolution

Spain

1860

Carlists revolted in Spain but lost.

Risorgimento

war

Italy

471

1860 to 1861

Risorgimento was period of Italy unification [1815 to 1870]. Papal States lost Bologna, Romagna, Marches, and

Umbria to Sardinia under Garibaldi [1860]. Garibaldi, from Sardinia, took Lombardy, Parma, Modena, and Two

Sicilies from Papal States and gave them to Victor Immanuel II [1861].

War between the States or USA Civil War

war

South USA

1861 to 1865

North was states above Mason-Dixon line separating Pennsylvania and Maryland. South was states below. 600,000

died. USA population was 30,000,000 people.

Poland Insurrection

war

Poland

1863

Insurrection led to more Russian influence.

Sand Creek

massacre or Chivington massacre or Battle of Sand Creek

Colorado

1864

John Chivington and Colorado Volunteers attacked Black Kettle, Cheyenne, and Arapaho.

Austro-Prussian War

war

Austria/Prussia

1866 to 1869

Bismarck of Prussia started it, and Prussia defeated Austria.

Carlist Revolt

revolution

Spain

1869

Don Carlos lost revolt.

Franco-Prussian War

war

France/Prussia

1869 to 1870

Prussia quickly defeated France.

Carlist Revolt

revolution

Spain

1872

Don Carlos lost revolt.

Satsuma Revolt

revolution

Japan

1877

Clans revolted against emperor, who wanted westernization, industrialization, and reform, but they lost. Emperor got

all clan lands. Feudalism ended.

First Balkan War

472

war

Balkan Peninsula

1885

Bulgaria, under Alexander of Battenberg, got Rumelia from Serbia.

Wounded Knee

massacre

Wounded Knee, South Dakota

1890

USA 7th Cavalry massacred Minniconjou Sioux under Big Foot.

Sino-Japanese War

war

China

1894 to 1895

Japan defeated China.

South African War or Second Boer War

war

South Africa

1899 to 1902

Britain defeated Boers.

Boxer Rebellion

revolt

China

1900

Society of Harmonious Fists secret society attacked Christians in China, and British retaliated. China lost

government control to British. Japan also took land.

Philippine Revolt

revolution

Philippines

1901

USA put down revolt led by Aguinaldo of Philippines.

Russo-Japanese War

war

Russia/Japan

1904 to 1905

Russia did not withdraw from Manchuria after Boxer Rebellion, and Japan forced Russia to leave Manchuria.

Revolution of 1905 or First Russian Revolution

war

Russia

1905 to 1906

Strikes and mutinies, especially on the ship Potemkin, led to Duma parliament [1906] and to land reform, but

Stolypin [assassinated 1917] blocked Duma.

Bosnia and Hercegovina Annexation

annexation

Bosnia/Hercegovina

1908

Austro-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Hercegovina and agitated Russia and Serbia, which was trying to unify region's

Slavs.

473

HMS Dreadnaught

battleship

England

1910

New battleship type countered German navy buildup.

Korea Annexation

annexation

Korea

1910

Japan annexed Korea.

Mexican Revolution

war

Mexico

1910 to 1915

Madero led revolt against Diaz, causing civil war. Madero, Emil Zapata, Huerta, Carranza, and Obregon fought for

revolt.

Chinese Revolution

war

China

1911

Sun Yat-sen led overthrow of Ch'ing Dynasty.

Balkan Wars

war

Balkan Peninsula

1913

Ottoman Empire lost Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, and Greece.

Second Balkan War

war

Balkan Peninsula

1913

Bulgaria started it to gain Macedonia, but Serbia won. Greece got Crete and southeast Macedonia.

World War I or Great War

war

Europe

1914.06 to 1918

War began when Gavrilo Princip, member of plot by Serbian secret society, assassinated the Hapsburg Archduke

Franz Ferdinand of Austria at Sarajevo, Bosnia, in June 1914. Austria-Hungary gave ultimatum to Serbia in July, which

accepted it, but then Austro-Hungary declared war on Serbia a week later. Russia mobilized. In August, Germany

declared war on Russia, declared war on France, and invaded neutral Belgium. England declared war on Germany.

Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia in August.

It had tanks and poison gas.

Allies or Entente were England, France, Czech, Serbia, Montenegro, Russia, Japan, China, Italy [1915], Romania

[1916], USA [1917], Greece [1918], and Portugal [1918]. Central Powers were Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria

[1915], and Ottoman Empire. Neutral countries were Albania, Spain, Belgium, Switzerland, Holland, Sweden, Norway,

Denmark, Persia, and Arabia.


war

Belgium

1914.08

474

Although Belgium was neutral under King Albert I, Germany invaded Belgium.


war

Germany

1914.08 to 1918

British navy blockaded German ports on North Sea.

Easter Rebellion

rebellion

Ireland

1916

Ireland under Patrick Pearse rebelled against England. Sinn Fein Party under Eamon De Valera started Irish

Assembly (Dail Eireann) and declared independence. English Black and Tans defeated Irish nationalists and Britain

occupied Ireland after rebellion.


war

Albania

1916

Austria defeated Albania under dictator Essad Pasha.


war

Austria

1916

Russia defeated Austria.

U-boat blockade

war

Atlantic Ocean

1916

U-boat submarines blockaded Britain and sank all vessels.


war

Arabia

1917

Arabia revolted against Ottoman Empire.


war

Russia

1917.03

Russian Revolution {February Revolution} ended Eastern Front.

February Revolution/Bolshevik Revolution

war

Russia

1917.03 to 1917.11

War and economy caused revolution. St. Petersburg strikers and food rioters took capital, and soldiers refused to

stop them. They forced Nicholas-II abdication. Provisional government formed under Lvov. Lvov resigned when

parliament {Duma} voted for peace in World War I. Kerensky then led Socialist Revolutionary government.

Bolsheviks and Mensheviks fought civil war, with Bolsheviks taking St. Petersburg in November {October

Revolution} {Bolshevik Revolution}. Bolsheviks declared end to private land ownership and began terror campaign.

Bolsheviks also fought with Poland. Lenin became government head.

475


war

France

1918

Germany attacked Western Front.

Bessarabia Annexation

annexation

Bessarabia

1918.05

Romania annexed Bessarabia by Bucharest Treaty between Germany and Romania.


war

Austria

1918.09

Revolt in Austria and Germany led to abdication by Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany.

China Civil War

war

China

1919

War began after Sun-Yat-Sen left presidency. Kuomintang was in south. Warlords backed government in north.

Communist Revolt

revolution

Hungary

1919

Bela Kun tried Communist takeover of Hungary, but Romania ended it.

Kronstadt Revolt

revolution

Kronstadt, Russia

1921

Sailors revolted and demanded human rights.

Greece

war

Asia Minor

1922.03

Greece invaded Asia Minor but lost to Ataturk of Turkey.

Beer Hall Putsch

revolution

Bavaria

1923

Adolf Hitler tried to take over Munich but went to jail, where he wrote his book Mein Kampf or My Struggle.

Romania Civil War

war

Romania

1927

Ferdinand died, and Carol II and Michael fought.

Iron Guard

476

war

Romania

1930

Anti-Semitic terrorists gained power.

Sino-Japanese War

war

Manchuria

1931 to 1945

War started when Japan took Manchuria and set up state of Manchukuo, restoring last emperor of China. Japan

occupied north China to Great Wall [1933], uniting communists and nationalists of China in opposition. Japan attacked

again [1937] and took north China, south China ports, and part of Indochina [1940]. By 1943, Japan took Burma, Siam,

Indochina, Malaya, Indonesia (Dutch East Indies), and Philippines.

Japan already had Korea, Formosa, and Marianas, Marshall, and Caroline Islands, by Treaty of Versailles [1919].

Ethiopia

war

Ethiopia/Italy

1935 to 1936

Italy invaded and took Ethiopia [1936].

Rhineland

occupation

Germany

1936

Germany occupied Rhineland and built forts, violating treaties.

Spanish Civil War

war

Spain

1936

The people elected radical and Communist republicans to Spanish legislature. Falange forces joined Insurgent forces

to fight republic. Italy helped Falange.

Trade War

war

England/Ireland

1938

Trade war between England and Ireland ended.

Austria Occupation

annexation

Austria

1938.03 to 1940

Germany occupied Austria in March 1938, when Mussolini withdrew his opposition. Union {Anschluss} with

Germany began [1940].

Russia-Finland

war

Finland

1939 to 1940

Russia invaded Finland and soon took part of Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia.

World War II

war

Europe

477

1939 to 1945

Axis Powers were Germany, Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Romania. Japan allied with Axis. Allies were

England and France, and later Russia and USA. China allied with Allies. Spain, Switzerland, Sweden, Arabia, Eire, and

Turkey were neutral. 35,000,000 Europeans died, including 20,000,000 in Russia. Hitler altered war rules, using

overwhelming and indiscriminate force {total war}. He annexed territory, moved people, exterminated people, took

booty, used reprisals, and enslaved war prisoners.

World War II

war

Poland

1939.0901

War began as Germany under Hitler invaded Poland, ostensibly because it had refused him Danzig. Russia soon

invaded Poland from east.

World War II

war

Belgium/Netherlands

1940.03

Germany invaded Belgium, ruled by King Leopold III, and Netherlands, though both were neutral. Germany forced

British evacuation at Dunkirk. Germany signed armistice with France in June 1940, taking north France and leaving

fascist French government at Vichy in south France.

Battle of Britain

war

England

1940.09

Britain won victory in air over English Channel, preventing invasion by Germany.

World War II

war

Africa

1941

Rommel (the Desert Fox) of Germany took north Africa from British and French.

Yugoslavia

war

Yugoslavia

1941.03

Axis attacked Yugoslavia after Yugoslav military removed pro-Axis government. Peter II of Yugoslavia fled. Italy

and Germany took Yugoslavia and Greece.

Russia

war

Russia

1941.06 to 1941.11

Finland joined Germany in attacking Russia. Germany moved close to Moscow before winter, besieged Stalingrad

and Petrograd, and took Ukraine.

Germany

war

Germany

1941.1211 to 1945

Germany declared war on USA.

France

war

478

France

1942

Germany took over south France.

Germany

war

Germany

1942

Allied bombing of Germany began.

Poland

war

Poland/Russia/Germany

1942 to 1944

Germany invaded Russia and took all Poland [1942]. Russia conquered Poland and set up provisional government in

Lublin [1944].

Finland

war

Finland

1944

Finland gave up fighting Russia and fought Germany.

Hungary

war

Hungary/Russia

1944

Russia conquered Hungary.

Japan

war

Japan

1944.06

USA bombing of Japan began.

Philippines

war

Philippines

1944.08

USA fought Japan.

Austria

war

Austria

1945 to 1955

Allies occupied Austria, and they signed peace treaty later [1955].

Burma

war

Burma

1945.04

Britain recovered Burma from Japan.

Okinawa

war

Okinawa, Japan

479

1945.06

USA captured Okinawa from Japan.

Manchuria

war

Manchuria

1945.0808

Russia invaded against Japan.

Japan

war

Japan

1945.0912

Japan surrendered to USA, ending World War II in Pacific, and MacArthur occupied Japan. China got all territory it

had before, except Hong Kong and Macao.

Greece civil war

war

Greece

1946 to 1950

Royalists and communists fought. Plebiscite [1950] voted against George II, whom his son Paul replaced.

China Civil War

war

China

1947 to 1948

USA soldiers withdrew [1947]. Nationalists started a constitution and elected Chiang Kai-Shek president. Mao Tse-

Tung led Communists to victory in civil war [1948]. Chang Kai-Shek led Nationalists to Formosa.

Berlin Blockade

blockade

Berlin, Germany

1948 to 1949

Russia started blockade. Berlin Airlift of Allies broke it.

Arab-Israeli War

war

Egypt

1948.05 to 1949

King Farouk I of Egypt and Arab League attacked new state of Israel after Britain left. 700,000 Palestinians became

refugees. Oil pipeline ran from Iraq through Jordan and Syria to Haifa.

Korean War

war

Korea

1950.06 to 1953

North Korea invaded South Korea. United Nations sent USA troops to fight. China intervened against United

Nations when Americans approached Manchuria. Douglas MacArthur led United Nations forces in Korean War until

dismissed by Truman over how to fight war [1952].

Korean War Truce

war

Korea

1953

North Korea, China, and United Nations signed at Panmunjeom.

480

Hungarian Revolution

revolution

Hungary

1956

Russia crushed revolution and selected Kadar to lead government.

Poznan Riots

war

Poznan, Poland

1956

Russia controlled riots, and Gomulka became premier of Poland.

Suez Canal

war

Egypt

1956

After Egypt nationalized Suez Canal, short occupation by Israel, Britain, and France followed.

Sumatra

revolution

Sumatra, Indonesia

1957

Sumatra revolted against Indonesia.

Lebanon civil war

war

Lebanon

1958

Moslem and Christians fought.

Indonesia Revolt

revolution

Indonesia

1959

Sukarno won and assumed broad powers.

Ireland Religious War

war

Ireland

1960 to 1998

Catholics and Protestants fought.

India

war

Goa

1961

India took Goa, Damao, and Diu from Portugal.

Syria Revolt

revolution

Syria

1961

Syria revolted from Egypt, ending United Arab Republic.

Berlin Wall

building

481

Berlin, Germany

1961 to 1990

Wall split east and west Berlin.

China-India

war

China/India

1962

Border disputes between China and India erupted into war. China took land.

Tibet Revolt

revolution

Tibet

1962

Tibet revolted against China but failed.

Indonesia

war

Malaysia

1963

Indonesia attacked Malaysia but failed, weakening Sukarno.

Vietnam War

war

USA/Vietnam

1963 to 1973

USA sent advisors [1963] and then soldiers [1965]. North Vietnamese launched a Lunar New Year {Tet} offensive

[1968]. Secret negotiations started [1970]. Countries signed cease-fire in Paris [1973]. 50,000 Americans died.

Nigeria civil war or Biafran War

war

Nigeria

1966 to 1970

It was between Hausa and Igbo in south Nigeria.

East Pakistan

rebellion

Bangladesh

1967

Neglect caused East Pakistan to rebel against West Pakistan, and India and West Pakistan warred over border.

Second Arab-Israeli War

war

Israel/Egypt/Jordan/Syria

1967

Israel took Sinai Peninsula up to Suez Canal from Egypt, West Bank of Jordan River from Jordan, and Golan

Heights at border with Syria from Syria.

Russia-Czechoslovakia

war


1968

Russia invaded Czechoslovakia to end reforms of Alexander Dubcek.

Syria civil war

war

482

Syria

1970

Socialist Ba'ath Party defeated Moslem Brotherhood.

Turkey-Cyprus

war

Cyprus

1972

Turkey invaded Cyprus against Greece and took north Cyprus.

Third Arab-Israeli War

war

Israel/Palestine

1972 to 1973

Arabs won back territory.

Kurdish Rebellion

rebellion

Iraq

1975

Kurds rebelled against Iraq, who stopped rebellion.

Afghan War

war

Afghanistan/Russia

1979 to 1988

Russian soldiers supported puppet government against Islamic rebels.

Iraq-Iran

war

Iraq/Iran

1980 to 1988

Iraq attacked Iran. 1,000,000 people died in war.

infitada

rebellion

Palestine

1987 to 1997

Palestinians rebelled against Israeli rule {infitada}.

Angola-South Africa

war

Angola/South Africa

1988

Angola and South Africa halted war.

China student

rebellion

China

1989

Army put down protests by Student Union in Tiananmen Square. Goddess of Democracy stood there.

Bosnia

secession

Yugoslavia

1991

483

Bosnia seceded from Yugoslavia.

Croatia

rebellion

Yugoslavia

1991

Rebellion was against Serbia. Later, Croatia became independent.

Gulf War

war

Kuwait

1991

Iraq lost after it occupied Kuwait [1990] and faced economic controls and weapons inspections.

SOCI>History>Historians

Herodotus

historian

Greece

-449 to -430

Researches [-449]; Persian Wars [-430: about wars between 499 to 479]


Thucydides

historian

Greece

-431

History of the Peloponnesian Wars [-431]

He lived -460 to -410 and explained Peloponnesian Wars.

Xenophon

historian

Greece

-401

Retreat of the Ten Thousand or Anabasis [-401]


Livy or Titus Livius [Livius, Titus]

historian

Padua, Italy/Rome, Italy

-29 to -9

From the Founding of the City [-29 to -9: history of Rome from -753 to -9]

He lived -59 to 17.

Lucan or Marcus Annaeus Lucanus [Lucanus, Marcus Annaeus]

historian

Rome, Italy

65

Pharsalia or Civil War [65]

He lived 39 to 65.

Mestrius Plutarch [Plutarch, Mestrius]

historian/biographer

Greece

80 to 110

484

Parallel Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans [100 to 110]; Morals [80 to 90: including On Eating Flesh, On the

Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great, On the Worship of Isis and Osiris, On the Malice of Herodotus, On the

Decline of the Oracles, On the Delays of the Divine Vengeance, On Peace of Mind]

He lived 46 to 120.

Suetonius or Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus [Tranquillus, Gaius Suetonius]

historian

Rome, Italy

98 to 117

Lives of the Caesars or The Twelve Caesars [98 to 117]

He lived 75 to 160 and wrote about Roman Empire.

Ssu-ma Ch'ien

historian

Chang'an (Xian), China

100

Historical Records [100]

He lived -145 to -90 and wrote dynasty histories.

Pausanias

historian

Greece

100 to 200

Description of Greece [100 to 200]

He studied legends, customs, and arts.

Tacitus or Publius Tacitus [Tacitus, Publius] or Gaius Cornelius Tacitus [Tacitus, Gaius Cornelius]

historian

Rome, Italy/Germany

105 to 115

Histories [105: Roman Empire from Tiberius to Domitian]; Annals [115: Roman Empire from Tiberius to Domitian]

He lived 56 to 117.

Appian of Alexandria

historian

Alexandria, Egypt

130 to 150

Punic Wars [130 to 150]; Roman Civil Wars [130 to 150]

He lived 95 to 165.

Pseudo-Plutarch


Greece

200 to 400

Lives of the Ten Orators [100: about ancient Athens and based on Caecilius of Calacte's works]; Doctrines of the

Philosophers [100]; On Music [100]

Later Plutarch-of-Delphi Moralia editions included unknown authors, called Pseudo-Plutarch.

Fa-hien

historian

Qingzhou, Shandong, China

399

Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms [399 to 414]

He was Chinese Buddhist historian who traveled through India and Ceylon [399 to 414].

Tabari or Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari [al-Tabari, Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Jarir]

485

historian

Persia/Baghdad, Iraq

914

Annals of Apostles and Kings [914]


Balami or Abu-Ali Mohammad Balami [Balami, Abu-Ali Mohammad]

historian

Bokhara

946 to 973

Annals [966: translated and shortened version of Tabari plus fables]

He was vizier at Bokhara [946 to 973].

Mas'udi or Abu al-Husayn 'ali Ibn al-Husayn al-Mas'udi [al-Mas'udi, Abu al-Husayn 'ali Ibn al-Husayn]

historian

Baghdad, Iraq

956

Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems [956]

He lived ? to 957 and wrote world history.

Jacopo de Voragine [Voragine, Jacopo de] or Jacobus de Voragine [Voragine, Jacobus de]


Rome, Italy

1260 to 1275

Golden Legend [1260 to 1275]

He lived 1229 to 1298 and wrote about saints.

Ibn Khaldun

historian/sociologist/economist

Tunis, Tunisia

1370

Prolegomenon or Introduction or Muqaddima[1370]

He lived 1332 to 1406, was Sufi and politician, and was "father of science of history". History analyzes development

of culture through social, political, and economic patterns and causes {unran}.

Samuel Pepys [Pepys, Samuel]


London, England

1669

Diary [1669]


Samuel Johnson [Johnson, Samuel]

historian

London, England

1750 to 1779

Dictionary [1750]; Lives of the Poets [1779]


James Boswell [Boswell, James]


Scotland/London, England

1762

Biography of Samuel Johnson [1762]


486

Edward Gibbon [Gibbon, Edward]

historian

England

1783

Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire [1783]


Louis Saint-Simon [Saint-Simon, Louis]

historian

Paris, France

1788

Memoirs on the Court of Louis XIV [1788]


Thomas Carlyle [Carlyle, Thomas]

historian

London, England

1837

French Revolution [1837]

He lived 1795 to 1881. Heroes make history {great man theory}, not social forces.

Richard F. Burton [Burton, Richard F.]

historian

England

1853

Pilgrimage to Mecca [1853]

He lived 1821 to 1890 and translated Kama Sutra and Arabian Nights.

Leo Frobenius [Frobenius, Leo]

historian

Halle, Germany

1898 to 1913

African Masks and Secret Societies [1898]; Voice of Africa [1913]


Van Wyck Brooks [Brooks, Van Wyck]

historian/critic

USA

1909 to 1947

Finders and Makers series [1909 to 1947: history]


Thomas Edward Lawrence [Lawrence, Thomas Edward] or Lawrence of Arabia

historian

England/Arabia

1916 to 1923

Seven Pillars of Wisdom [1923]

He lived 1888 to 1935 and helped King Faisal I of Egypt defeat Ottoman Empire in the Arab revolt.

Leon Trotsky [Trotsky, Leon] or Lev Bronstein [Bronstein, Lev]

historian

Moscow, Russia

1920

Defense of Marxism [1920]

He lived 1879 to 1940 and was Bolshevik leader. Stalin exiled him to Mexico and murdered him there.

487

Will Durant [Durant, Will]

historian

USA

1926 to 1967

Story of Philosophy [1926 and 1961: with Ariel Durant]; Story of Civilization [1967]


Edith Hamilton [Hamilton, Edith]

historian

USA

1930 to 1955

Greek Way [1930]; Roman Way; Mythology [1955]


Arnold Joseph Toynbee [Toynbee, Arnold Joseph]

historian

England

1934 to 1961

Study of History [1934 to 1961: 12 volumes]


Robin G. Collingwood [Collingwood, Robin G.]

historian

England

1936 to 1940

Idea of History [1936]; Principles of Art [1938]; Essay on Metaphysics [1940]

He lived 1889 to 1943, was positivist, and wrote about Roman Britain.

Epistemology

Philosophy, history, and all thinking depend on fundamental assumptions {absolute presupposition}, which form

perspective. Absolute presuppositions are neither true nor false. People need to imagine previous-epoch thoughts and

actions to understand their practical problems. The idea of agency is basis of the idea of causality.

Jacques Barzun [Barzun, Jacques]

historian

USA

1961

Classic, Romantic, and Modern [1961]

He lived 1907 to ?.

Barbara Tuchman [Tuchman, Barbara]

historian

USA

1962

Guns of August [1962]


Kenneth B. Clark [Clark, Kenneth B.]

historian

England

1969

Civilisation [1969: Harper and Row, New York, about art]


Antonia Fraser [Fraser, Antonia]

historian

England

488

1969

Mary Queen of Scots [1969]

She lived 1932 to ?.

John M. Roberts [Roberts, John M.]

historian

England

1994 to 1997

History of the World [1994]; Concise History of the World [1997]


SOCI>History>Historians>USA History

Alexis de Tocqueville [Tocqueville, Alexis de]

historian

Paris, France/USA

1835

Democracy in America [1835]


Francis Parkman [Parkman, Francis]

historian

USA

1847 to 1885

Oregon Trail [1847]; History of the Conspiracy of Pontiac [1851]; Montcalm and Wolfe [1885]


James Truslow Adams [Adams, James Truslow]

historian

USA

1921

Founding of New England [1921]


Allan Nevins [Nevins, Allan]

historian

USA

1932 to 1971

Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage [1932]; Hamilton Fish: The Inner History of the Grant Administration

[1936]; Ordeal of the Union [1947 to 1971]


Carl Sandburg [Sandburg, Carl]

historian

USA

1939

Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years [1939]; Abraham Lincoln: The War Years


Henry Steele Commager [Commager, Henry Steele]

historian

USA

1943 to 1950

Majority Rule and Minority Rights [1943]; American Mind [1950]


489

Arthur Schlesinger [Schlesinger, Arthur]

historian

USA

1945 to 1965

Age of Roosevelt [1957 to 1960]; Age of Jackson [1945]; 1000 Days [1965]

He lived 1917 to ?.

George F. Kennan [Kennan, George F.]

historian

USA

1946

Long Telegram [1946]


Bruce Catton [Catton, Bruce]

historian

USA

1953

Stillness at Appomattox [1953]

He lived 1899 to 1978 and wrote about USA civil war.

MacKinlay Kantor [Kantor, MacKinlay]

historian

USA

1955

Andersonville [1955: USA civil war]


Theodore White [White, Theodore]

historian

USA

1960 to 1972

Making of the President [1960 and 1968 and 1972]


Samuel Eliot Morison [Morison, Samuel Eliot]

historian

USA

1971 to 1974

European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages [1971]; European Discovery of America: The Southern

Voyages [1974]


Peter Novick [Novick, Peter]

historian

USA

1988

That Noble Dream [1988]

Outline of Knowledge Database - Outline of Knowledge Website

Documents

Transcript of Outline of Knowledge Database - Outline of Knowledge Website