Origin of the organic matter in the Late Quaternary sediments of the eastern margin of Japan Sea

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Received: November , ; Accepted: December ,

Journal of the Sedimentological Society of Japan

Vol. , No. , p. - ( )

Petroleo Brasileiro S/A (PETROBRAS/CENPES/GEOQ).

School of Frontier Sciences, the University of Tokyo; ,

Environmental Bldg. , Kashiwanoha Campus, Chiba

School of Science, the University of Tokyo; , Hongo

Petroleo Brasileiro S/A (PETROBRAS/E&P-EXP/GEO/

* Department of Natural Environmental Studies, Graduate

, Japan

** Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Graduate

Campus, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo , Japan

***

MSP). Av. Chile, / , Centro, Rio de Janeiro-RJ,

, Brasil

****

Av. Horacio Macedo, , Cidade Universitaria, Ilha do

Fundao, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, , Brasil

Corresponding author: A. Fernando, [email protected].

u-tokyo.ac.jp and [email protected]

This study was carried out on sediment samples collected by piston-coring in two areas of the eastern

margin of the Japan Sea. One area is located at open sea conditions in the Oki Trough, o shore Kanazawa city,

and the other is located in the enclosed bay conditions of the Joetsu Basin, o shore Joetsu city. Using these

samples it was possible to di erentiate the source of the organic matter in the sediments of Holocene and late

Pleistocene time on the basis of C and TOC/TN ratios coupled with palynofacies analysis. The Holocene

sediments are characterized by high TOC and TN contents, low TOC/TN ratio, and heavier C values,

which indicate a predominant marine organic matter production, probably due to warming and inflow of warm

ocean currents and coastal currents along the East China Sea. These currents carried abundant phytoplankton

from the Pacific Ocean as a result of the sea level rise. Occurrence of particulate organic matter shows

abundant primary productivity during the Holocene under marine conditions. On the other hand, the LGM

sediments are characterized by low TOC and TN contents, high TOC/TN ratio, and lighter C signatures,

which are characteristic of terrestrial organic matter, probably due to seaward migration of shorelines and

strong input of freshwater with terrestrial materials. This terrestrial influence decreased gradually from the

LGM to the Holocene because of the sea level rise and consequent increase in the marine organic matter.

: C Holocene sea level rise, Japan Sea, Last Glacial Maximum, organic matter, palynofacies,

TOC, TOC/TN ratio

Japan Sea is one of the typical back-arc basins of the

world. It was formed behind the island-arc system of

Japan Islands initiated by the rifting of the eastern margin

of the Eurasian Continent at around Ma (Otofuji et

al., ; Tamaki and Isezaki, ). The opening was

almost completed before Ma (Jolivet et al., ). At

around the Middle Pliocene, the tectonic style had

changed from the extensional to the compressive, and a

series of NE-SW trending structures were formed along

the eastern margin of Japan Sea (e.g., Okui et al., ).

Umitaka Spur and Joetsu Knoll are two of these anticlinal

structures, separated by the Joetsu-Umitaka Trough,

south of Sado Island (Fig. ).

According to Oba et al. ( ), significant inflow of

, ,

Introduction

Antonio Fernando Menezes Freire* ** ***, Taissa Rego Menezes****, Ryo Matsumoto**,

Toshihiko Sugai* and Dennis James Miller****

Origin of the organic matter in the Late Quaternary sediments

of the eastern margin of Japan Sea

Key words

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Antonio Fernando Menezes Freire

piston-core PC . Black arrows show the present Tsushima

(a) Index map of the study area, and the referenced

Current; (b) location map of PC and the study area of

Joetsu Basin. Dashed line indicates the probable LGM

shoreline due to the sea level drops of m below the

present; (c) piston-cores locations in Joetsu Basin.

fresh water occurred from ka B.P. to ka B.P.,

resulting in the development of density stratification and

in strong anoxic bottom conditions during the Last Gla-

cial Maximum (LGM), when the sea-level dropped by

m below the present sea level. The shoreline pro-

graded toward the shelf-break and the riverine discharge

was enhanced (Fig. ).

The Quaternary hemipelagic sediments of Japan Sea

consist mostly of clay to silty clay which is characterized

by centimeter- to meter-scale alternations of bioturbated

units and thinly laminated units (TL’s), representing

fluctuation between oxic and anoxic conditions (Tada et

al. ). TL units are considered to have deposited

under anoxic to euxinic conditions indicated by their dark

color, very low content of foraminiferal tests and consid-

erable amount of sulfur.

This study aims to discuss about the environmental

changes and the origin of the organic matter in the late

Quaternary sediments from the Joetsu Basin, eastern

margin of Japan Sea, using TOC, TOC/TN ratio, and

C measurements, in conjunction with palynofacies

analysis. To compare geochemical values between the

enclosure embayment conditions of Joetsu Basin with the

open sea conditions, one reference piston-core was col-

lected at the Oki Trough, far away approximately km

to the southwest.

Joetsu Basin is a potential oil/gas hydrate province,

and this study aims to contribute with the knowledge

about the geologic history of this area.

Piston corers of to m length were used to recover

the sediments from Joetsu Knoll, Umitaka Spur and

surrounding areas from to . Piston coring was

conducted by the R/V Umitaka Maru of the Tokyo

University of Marine Science and Technology, and the

R/V Kaiyo of the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Sci-

ence and Technology (JAMSTEC).

We used six representative piston-cores: PC at Oki

Trough as a reference; PC at the Joetsu-Umitaka

et al.

Fig.

Materials and Methods

. Sample Collection

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early Holocene sediments (TL- ); one from the sediments

Trough to infer geochemical trends at topographic de- phy Laboratory of the Petrobras Research and Develop-

pression conditions of the Joetsu Basin; PC and PC ment Center (CENPES) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, using

on Joetsu Knoll, and PC and PC on Umitaka an integration of both transmitted white light with fluore-

Spur to observe the geochemical trends in topographic scence techniques (Tyson, ). The relative percentage

high conditions (Fig. ). The sampling point in Oki of POM components was based on the counting more

Trough is located around km o shore Kanagawa than particles per slide, according to the method

City, where the water depth is m. Joetsu-Umitaka proposed by Mendonça Filho ( ).

Trough at Joetsu Basin is a trough between the two

anticlines of Joetsu Knoll ( m) and Umitaka Spur Two tephra layers were collected in PC core from

( m), and has a water depth at around m. Table Oki Trough and two samples in PC and PC cores

shows piston-core information and a summary of ana- from Joetsu Knoll and Umitaka Spur, respectively. The

lytical results. samples were washed in pure water in a m mesh to

wash out clay/silt size grains. After drying at for

A total number of sediment samples of approxi- days, samples were observed under binocular and around

mately cc were sub-sampled from these piston-cores on mg of volcanic ash grains were separated visually from

board. The sampling interval was about cm in the other grains. The samples were analyzed by a JEOL

upper part of the cores ( meters below seafloor), and JSM- LA Scanner Electronic Microscope-Energy

cm between and within the thin laminated layers Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) in the laboratory of

(TL’s), to characterize the di erence in the geochemical the Department of Natural Environmental Studies of the

signatures between the layers. University of Tokyo. Their glass shape and chemical

composition were compared with mineralogical features

Sediment samples were dried and powdered for TOC, of the marker tephras compiled by Machida and Arai

TN and C of TOC ( C ) measurements. Powdered ( ). The analytical error of chemical composition

samples were digested in a diluted HCl solution to was less than for major elements.

remove carbonates. Samples were dried on a hot plate at

for days, and later in an oven at the same tempera-

ture for additional days.

Approximately mg of samples were analyzed for

TOC and TN by a Thermo Finnigan Flash EA , a Five lithologic units (units to ) were identified on

CNS analyzer in the laboratory of the Department of board, and are hereby described from the bottom to the

Earth and Planetary Science, University of Tokyo, using top. Unit is composed of light gray bioturbated silty

a retention time of s. The analytical error was lower mud deposited during the early LGM. Unit is charac-

than . using standard sulfametazine. terized by thinly laminated dark gray mud, and it was

C was determined utilizing a Delta Plus mass described as TL- by Tada at al. ( ) and others. This

spectrometer equipped with CONFLO III and Thermo unit has been widely identified in the Late Quaternary

Finnigan Flash EA analyzer. The weight of meas- sediments of Japan Sea (Nakajima et al., ).

ured sample was around . mg but varied slightly with Unit is a slightly bioturbated, light gray silty mud,

the TOC content. The analytical error estimated from and it is considered to represent the transition from the

repeated analysis of standard IAEA-C sucrose was lower Pleistocene to the Holocene.

than . . Unit represents the TL- , and it is a cm thick

dark gray thinly laminated mud layer. TL- is also widely

Nine samples were collected from the piston-cores PC identified in Japan Sea (Nakajima et al., ).

(Oki Trough), PC (Joetsu Knoll) and PC Unit is composed of light gray bioturbated mud

(Umitaka Spur) and analyzed for palynofacies in order to deposited from the early Holocene to the present.

identify the origin of the particulate organic matter Two tephra layers were recognized in PC core from

(POM) in the sediments (Fig. ): one sample from the Oki Trough. An attempt was made to correlate the shape

of glass shards and the chemical composition of volcanic

of the Pleistocene/Holocene transition; and one from the glass (Table ) to the marker tephra by Machida and

LGM sediments (TL- ), from each piston-core. Arai (

The analyses were performed at the Organic Petrogra-

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. . Tephra analysis

. Sub-sampling and analytical methods

. . TOC, TN, and C analyses

Results

. Core descriptions and age control

. . Palynofacies analysis

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). The upper tephra layer is a pumice type,

and is located at . mbsf in Unit , about cm above

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Piston-core locations and geochemical results summary.

SEM-EDS analysis of tephras found in PC core from Oki Trough, and those observed in the upper

part of Unit in the Joetsu Basin. Geochemical values and ages of marker tephras are from Machida and Arai

( ). PC and PC ages are based on the correlation with PC .

et al.

Table

Table

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Organic matter in the Late Quaternary sediments of Japan Sea

light-gray bioturbated layers. Age control is based on the age model of PC . Numbers in parenthesis show water depths.

Piston-cores correlation between Oki Trough and the Joetsu Basin based on thin laminated layers (TL’s), and

cold water planktonic species which

the upper boundary of Unit (Fig. ). This tephra was ( ) described NJ- tephra (Northern Japan- ) in the

identified as the Ulreung-Oki (U-Oki) tephra ( . ka) similar stratigraphic level of our third tephra in a gravity-

(Fukusawa, ; Machida and Arai, ). core o Oga Peninsula. However it is not clear if these

The lower tephra is a typical bubble wall glass type and tephras are correlated or not, due to lack of data about

it is located at . mbsf in Unit , about cm below the both chemical composition and glass shape of NJ- .

basal boundary of the Unit (Fig. ). Both the glass Planktonic foraminiferal tests were collected at the

shape and chemical composition are well correlative with four horizons in PC core for C dating: one is a warm

those of Aira-Tanzawa (AT) tephra ( ka) (Ma- water planktonic foraminifera,

chida and Arai, ). collected at . mbsf in the Unit , and three are

The third one, also pumice type, was found in the upper

part of the Unit from PC , PC , PC and PC were collected at . mbsf in Unit , and at . mbsf

cores, but its chemical composition is not similar to any of and . mbsf, both in Unit . The C ages of these

the marker tephras of Machida and Arai ( ). Ikehara foraminifera samples were measured at the Beta Analytic

Globigerina umbilicata

Neogloboquadrina duter-

trei,

Fig.

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Age Calibration executable version . . were used (Talma

ages of sediments were first determinate in the PC core,

Kennett et al.,

). Unit is younger than . ka (Fig. ).

the boundaries of the units are synchronous over the study

Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory, ranging between . ka Joetsu Basin cores ( to ). TOC/TN ratios are

and . ka as shown in Table . For calibration, the mostly to throughout Unit .

MARINE database and the INTCAL Radiocarbon Generally speaking, Unit (TL- ) of the early Holocene

is characterized by high productivity of organic matter

and Vogel, ). Local correction of reservoir e ect was with heavier C signatures and low TOC/TN ratios

not applied. (Fig. ). In contrast, LGM sediments of Unit (TL- )

Lithologic sequence of the sediment cores, units to , are characterized by low organic matter content with

are very similar to each other even for the open sea and lighter C values and high TOC/TN ratio (Fig. ).

closed bay locations as shown in figure . Assuming that This geochemical contrast is useful to identify and sepa-

rate both layers, which are two important stratigraphic

area and the sedimentation rates are constant between the markers of Japan Sea.

respective datum plains, the depth (mbsf) of each sample

was converted to age (ka) for all the piston-cores. The The particulate organic matter (POM) was classified

into three main groups: amorphous organic (AOM), ter-

where a number of datum horizons were dated by tephro- restrial and marine matters, according classification pro-

chronology and C of foraminiferal tests, as mentioned posed by Tyson ( ) with further modification intro-

before. The top of Unit is older than . ka, while Unit duced by Mendonça Filho ( ) (Table ).

ranges between . and . ka, Unit between . The first is an AOM group that comprises organic

and . ka, Unit between . and . ka, just after components that appear poorly structured, including ma-

the Younger Dryas cooling event ( . ka; rine phytoplankton- or bacteria-derived amorphous or-

ganic matter, but also terrestrial material as resins-

derived from higher plants and amorphous products of

TOC, C , and TOC/TN ratios are all plotted the macrophyte tissues (Tyson, ). The AOM group

against the induced age (ka) in Figure . shows orange and dark orange fluorescence (Fig. ), and

Unit is characterized by the wide ranges in these it was apparently formed under marine conditions. How-

chemical signatures. TOC content varies from . to ever, some relict fragments indicate a terrestrial compo-

. , C from . to . and TOC/TN nent. For this reason this group can be defined as a mixed

from to , respectively. organic matter group.

Unit (TL- ) is slightly depleted in TOC ( . to The second is a terrestrial group derived from terres-

. ), while C value ( . to . .) is similar trial flora, including both a phytoclast subgroup domi-

to that in Unit . C in PC core of Oki Trough nated both by translucent biostructured and cuticles par-

(open sea site) is to heavier than that in the Joetsu ticles (Fig. ), and a palynomorph subgroup represented

Basin cores at the same stratigraphic unit. TOC/TN mainly by pollen grains, spores and freshwater algae

ratio in Unit is very much scattered between and . and

Sediments in Unit exhibit transitional signatures from The last one is the marine group consisting mainly of

units to ; TOC contents increase from . to . , and dinoflagellate cysts, acritarchs, prasinophytes and marine

C varies from lighter ( . ) in the older, to zoomorphs. Secondary it is represented by dinocysts,

heavier ( . ) in the younger, while TOC/TN ratio prasinophytes, foraminiferal test lining, copepod eggs,

decreases from to . Unit (TL- ) shows high TOC scolecodonts, and tintinnids (Fig. ).

content ( . to . ) at PC core (open sea site),

while this concentration is lower in the sediments from

Joetsu basin samples ( . to . ). C also show

di erence between the open sea site (PC ; ) and Burdige ( ) proposed a criterion to di erentiate the

Joetsu basin sites ( . ). TOC/TN ratio is between origin of organic matter based on C values. We

and . applied this criteria to classify into three groups: the first

Unit represents the whole Holocene sediments group is predominated by marine phytoplankton organ

younger than . cal ka B.P. TOC contents of PC

are around . , while those of the Joetsu Basin cores

are between and . . C also exhibits di erence

between the PC core at open sea site ( ) and

Botryococcus Pediastrum.

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. Palynofacies assemblage

. TOC, TN, and C signatures

Discussion

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ics

of C values between and ; the second

group is C values from to , and may

contains a mixing between terrestrial and marine organic

matters; the third group are of C values lighter than

et al.122

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Age control points and sedimentation rate in the

PC core from Oki Trough. C dating of foraminiferal

tests and marker tephras are used for age control.

Palynofacies assemblage photos: (a) bisaccate pollen from Unit (TL- ); (b) a not hatched Copepod egg from

Unit (TL- ); (c) well-preserved cuticles from Unit (TL- ); (d) algae from units (TL- ) and ; (e)

foraminiferal test lining from Unit ; (f) predominance of homogenous amorphous matters (AOM) from Unit (TL- ).

Unit and Unit samples are also included in the ter-

, implying predominant supply of terrestrial or- source for marine phytoplankton is seawater bicarbonate

ganic matters (Fig. a). (DIC) with a C of around . In contrast, land

This criterion is based on the fact that both photosyn- plants use atmospheric CO as their carbon source, with

thesis processes and source of carbon are di erent be- C of around (Lamb et al., ).

tween marine and terrestrial plants. Primary carbon This commonly observed di erence in C , approxi-

mately , between marine primary producers and land

plants has been successfully used to elucidate the origin of

recent organic matter in sediments (Hoefs, ). Re-

cent studies on C of organic matter revealed C-

depleted marine phytoplankton (Goni and Hedges, ;

Lamb et al. ). Therefore characterization of sedi-

ment organic matter only by its C values may yield

misleading results.

According to Prahl et al. ( ) and Lamb et al.

( ), terrestrial vegetation has relatively high TOC/

TN ratios of more than , because they are composed

predominantly of lignin and cellulose, in which nitrogen

is generally poor. On the other hand, marine organic

matter has lower TOC/TN ratios between and

depending on the type of organic matter: particulate or

dissolved organic matter, bacterial mass, etc (Bordovsky,

; Meyers, ; Tyson, ; Lamb et al., ).

Therefore, coupled C and TOC/TN ratio have been

used to assess the sources of organic matter in sediments

(Lamb et al., ; Denny, ).

Figure shows the cross-plots of C vs. TOC and

C vs. TOC/TN ratio, to illustrate the secular and

areal variation in the origin of organic matter. Samples of

Unit are widely distributed in the terrestrial area with

high TOC/TN and lighter C (Fig. b). Some of the

et al.

Pediastrum

Table

Fig.

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Organic matter in the Late Quaternary sediments of Japan Sea

Palynofacies assemblage and groups.

restrial and mixed source areas. Units and ( ka) ) (Fig. ). The eggs did not hatch, but sank and

correspond to the cold period in the LGM, when the sea were incorporated in the sediments, indicating rapid bur-

level was about m below the present level. Shorelines ial (Lana et al., ).

presumably migrated seaward to the present upper conti- Samples from Unit (TL- ) have high percentages of

nental slope (Fig. ), causing enhanced and strong river- bisaccate pollen grains indicating cold-dry conditions. In

ine flux with terrestrial organic matter and terrigenous general, the palynofacies analysis indicates a high per-

sediments directly to the basin floors (Oba et al., ). centage of well-preserved phytoclast that suggesting the

Narrow and shallow sills were completely closed during absence of physical degradation, indicating proximal

the glacial low-stand period and Japan Sea was capped by sources, rapid and e cient burial and low superficial

low-salinity water cover (Oba et al., ). Due to this diagenesis during the LGM.

low-salinity water cap, water mass of Japan Sea was Unit represents the onset of global warming and

stratified and vertical mixing was severely restricted, re- sea-level rise. Organic matter of Unit is characterized

sulting in anoxic/euxinic bottom conditions throughout by a transition from a predominant terrestrial fraction

the Unit (TL- ) depositional period (Oba et al., ; during the LGM to a predominant marine origin in the

Tada et al. ). Unit sediments are dark gray to Holocene, as represented by an increase in the TOC

black and variably laminated, instead TOC content is content with heavier C , and a decrease in TOC/TN

unexpectedly low ( ) with high TOC/TN ratio and ratio. A clear transition from terrestrial plants to marine

light C , indicating strong terrestrial influence. This organic matter is observed in this unit (Fig. b).

implies that marine primary production was very low Unit (TL- ) corresponds to the beginning of the

during this glacial period. Holocene, just after the Younger Dryas cooling event at

Part of the AOM is identified to be derived from higher around . ka (Kennett et al., ). The deposition of

plants, based on well-preserved phytoclast and cuticles Unit occurred during a period of warming and sea-level

longer than m. These terrestrial components can rise. This climate condition continued throughout the

suggest low transport energy and high preservation poten- Holocene, and it was registered in the Unit . High TOC

tial (Bustin, ). The formation process of amorphous content accompanied by heavy C values and low

components is caused by microbiologic reworking of TOC/TN ratios in this unit suggest high primary produc-

higher plant material. This indicates low oxygenation tivity in warmer surface waters, probably due to the

levels during the LGM, and is also supported both by the inflow of warm currents carrying in a great number of

AOM orange-dark orange homogeneous fluorescence col- phytoplankton species from the Pacific Ocean during the

oration and by the appearance of copepod eggs (Tyson, sea level rise. However, the occurrence of Pediastrum

Table

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tion, and units (TL- ) and


Pleistocene/Holocene transi-

represent LGM sediments.

et al. ( ). OM organic

ments; Unit represents the

after Burdige ( ). Back-

ground ranges of TOC/TN

ratio vs. C for organic

Geochemical cros-

splots from piston-cores:

(a) TOC vs. C ; (b)

TOC/TN ratio vs. C .

Units and (TL- ) re-

present the Holocene sedi-

Limits in C values are

matter sources on graph

b are modified from Lamb

matter.

et al.

Fig.

126

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Bordovsky, O.K., , Sources of organic matter in marine

basins. , .

Burdige, D., , Prince-

ton University Press, New Jersey. p.

Bustin, R.M., , Sedimentology and characteristics of

dispersed organic matter in Tertiary Niger Delta: origin

of source rocks in a deltaic environment.

, .

Denny, M., ,

Princeton University Press, New Jersey,

p.

Fukusawa, H., , Non-glacial varved lake sediment as a

natural timekeeper and detector on environmental

changes. (Tokyo) , . (in

Japanese with abstract in English).

Goni, M.A. and Hedges J.I., , Sources and reactivities

of marine-derived organic matter in coastal sediments as

determined by alkaline CuO oxidation.

, .

Hoefs, J., , Springer-Verlag

Berlin Heidelberg, New York, p.

Jolivet, L., Tamaki, K. and Fournier, M., , Japan Sea,

opening history and mechanism: a synthesis.

, B , , , .

Ikehara, K., , Late Quaternary seasonal history of the

North-Eastern Japan Sea. ,

.

Kennett, J.P., Cannariato, K.G., Hendy, I.L. and Behl, R.J.,

, Methane hydrates in Quaternary climate changes:

the clathrate gum hypothesis.

Washington DC, p

and associated with cuticles indicate a ter- during the initial stages of the research; to all the col-

restrial component caused by the input of freshwater leagues in both Department of Natural Environmental

ice-melt during the early Holocene in the Unit . Studies and Department of Earth and Planetary Science

The relative abundance of dinocysts and the occur- of the University of Tokyo; to the crews of R/V’s Umi-

rence of copepod eggs and tintinnids (zoomorphs) pre- taka Maru and Kaiyo. Special thanks to Akihiro Hiruta,

sent in the samples from units and are primarily Gilmar Bueno, Almerio França, Nilo Matsuda, Dimas

related to events of higher organic productivity, as there Coelho, Osvaldo Kawakami, and Adriano Viana for all

were changes in the environmental conditions as tempera- their valuable support.

ture variation, sea level changes, availability of nutrients, We appreciate Kohki Yoshida and two anonymous

etc. Those conditions continue to the present time reviewers for thoughtful comments.

throughout the Unit . This research has been supported by the Grant-in-Aid

from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports and

Technology (MEXT) (nos. and ).

Also, this research has been conducted in collaboration

Based on this investigation, it is possible to arrive at the with Petrobras Research and Development Center (CEN-

following conclusions: PES), by the Frontier Exploration Technological Project

) The upward increase of TOC indicates that primary (PROFEX).

productivity in the Holocene was higher than that of the

LGM. Also, the heavier signature of C and the

decrease in TOC/TN ratios from the Pleistocene to the

Holocene suggest that Holocene productivity consisted

predominantly of phytoplankton-derived marine organic

matter. Throughout the LGM period, the low TOC

contents, combined with light C values and high

TOC/TN ratios in the sediments, suggests a predomi-

nantly terrestrial source for the organic matter. The

transition between these two conditions is not sharp, but

gradual. Abundance and characteristics of organic mat-

ter were primarily controlled by eustatic sea level change.

) The occurrence of POM and its characteristics

strongly indicate the terrestrial influence for both sedi-

ments of LGM and for the early Holocene. Geochemical

signatures and palynofacies assemblages in samples from

Unit (TL- ) and Unit , as compared to the Unit (TL-

), showed greater primary productivity. Both geochemi-

cal and palynofacies signatures indicate a predominance

of marine organic matter during the Holocene, influenced

by terrestrial organic matter input. The transition from

the predominance of terrestrial organic matter during the

LGM to the predominance of marine organic matter in

the Holocene was gradual.

The authors thank Carlson Leite, Glen Snyder, Jay

Bolthouse, Tetsuro Urabe, and Hitoshi Tomaru for com-

ments and scientific discussions; to Yoshie Saegusa,

Yusuke Setsuda, Akinori Nagasaka, Maki Suzuki, Mineo

Hiromatsu, and Eijiro Iwasaki for their support during

geochemical analysis; to Lika Takeuchi for her support

Marine Geology,

Geochemistry of marine sediments.

American

Association of Petroleum Geologists Bull.,

How the ocean works: an introduction to

oceanography.

Quaternary Research

Geochimica et

Cosmochimica Acta.

Stable Isotope Geochemistry.

Journal of

Geophysical Research,

Journal of Oceanography,

American Geophysical Un-

ion,

Botryococcus

( )

Summary and Conclusions

References

Acknowledgments

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Origin of the organic matter in the Late Quaternary sediments of the eastern margin of Japan Sea

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Origin of the organic matter in the Late Quaternary sediments of the eastern margin of Japan Sea

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