UNIT-1

MBA 2 nd SEM.

Overview of organizationeffectiveness, change and

development

ABSTRACT According to “Richard” organization effectiveness

captures organizational performance out comes normally associated with more efficient or effusive operation and other external measures that relate to considerations that are broader than those simply associated with economic valuation.

Since the organization has as its goal the delivery of those meals to house bound people it measures its organization effectiveness by trying to determining what actual activities, the people in the organization do in order to generate the outcomes the organization wants to create.

Meaning of organization effectiveness:

Organization effectiveness is the concept of how effective on organization in achieving the outcome the organization intends to produce. The idea of organization effectiveness is especially important for nonprofit organization as most people who donate money to nonprofit organization and charities are interested in knowing whether the organizationis effective in alomplishing it’s goals.

Organizations are social units with a purpose. Normally there should be a purpose for The birth of an organization. Each organization comes into existence with a purpose Specific to its genesis. For example we have a galaxy of organizations such as Governments, government agencies, corporations, business organizations, universities,’ Trade associations, trade unions, hospitals, schools, theatres; municipal corporations, Prisons, slaughter houses, professional societies and a host of several other bodies. Each has its own purpose to live in the society. Organizational Effectiveness (OE) Refers to how well the purposes of an organization are achieved. Thus, effectiveness Refers to the achievement of organizational purpose.

DEFINITION:1. Tames Price defines organizational effectiveness as the

degree of goal achievement. The determination of an organization’s goal(s) is crucial in evaluating effectiveness, The

First step in the determination of goals is to distinguish between official and operative goals. Official goals are those which are published in the key documentsof the organizations Such as charters, laws and regulations and other official documents, mentioned in the Speeches and messages of key decision makers, and circulated in the public relations.

2. Paul Mott gives emphasis to an organization’s ability to adapt itself to the changes in the environment. Accordingly,there are two important factors in organizational

Effectiveness, viz., capacity and capability in getting resourcesrequired for the Organizational purl-Jose; and capacity 2nd capability to change according to the Circumstances while participating in the process of resource mobilization to achieve the Organizational purpose.

3. Chester Barnard made a distinction between effectiveness as an achievement of group

Piques and efficierrcy as the extent to which the group provides satisfaction to the Members of the group, in the context of organizational effectiveness.

4. According to Chapman, effectiveness refers to achievement of lower level goals in an organization.

Johnson, on the contrary, opines that effectiveness refers to achievement of higher Level goals in an organization.

5. Others define effectiveness as the achievement of goals, Which countrified to the overall objectives of the organization t11ro~lgl-1 optimum

Utilization of resources. Thus, organizational effectiveness, as seen from the above Definitions are a function of achieving organizational goals. An effective organization is The one which achieves the goals continuously over an indefinitely long time in future.

APPROACHES TO ORGANISATIONAL EFFECTICVENESS:

Mulford and his associates have enlisted three approaches to the study of organizationalEffectiveness, viz., (1) formal goal approach, (2)'system resource approach and (3) Systems: impeach. Organizational effectiveness is seen as an accomplishment of Purposes and goals in the formal goal approach. Though, this is an accepted approach, It has a number of limitations. Organizations have more than one goal and it is difficult To identify and measure all the goals of an organization. It is also difficult to measure Goal accomplishment, in view of the intangibility of some of the goals. The Administrators or the people running the organization usually view effectiveness in termOf goal accomplishment. Outsider's view organizational effectiveness in terms of Contribution to the society. Thus resource mobilization and social contribution Constitute two yard sticks. Ultimately, measurement of organizational effectiveness Depends upon the judgment of various stake holders in an organization such as its Promoters, government, employees, input suppliers, customers; andthe society in General. Perron has identified five such groups of stake holdersand their expectationsFrom the organization. They are given below:

1. Social goals: Society as the larger social system has certain expectations from the Organizations. For example, society expects better production anddistribution of Goods and services, social responsibility, and maintenance of norms and values, etc from the organizations.

2. Output goals: Different consumer groups in the society expectdifferent goods and Services as outputs from the organization. Each group has its owninterest in Particular goods and services. Hence each group presses for production of particular Goods and services, from the organization.

3. System goals: This refer to the way in which an organizationis working, irrespective Of its relationships with various other organizations and stake holders. The emphasis Of the systems' goals are on growth, stability and productivity. 4. Product goals: Product goals refer to characteristics such as the quality, quantity, Range, variety, price, etc., of the goods and services;

5. Derived goals: Derived goals refer to the use of power and other resources of the Organization while accomplishing purposes other than its own goals. For example, an Organization has other goals such as service to the country through rural Development, health and nutrition programmes, etc.

Factors effecting organizational change: According to the analysis of the research data, there are seven factors effecting Organizational effectiveness: (1) personal characteristics, (2) leadership styles, (3) Organizational culture, (4) working environment, (5) model of organizational Operation, (6) flexibility, (7) organizational commitment.

Introduction

The complexity and competitiveness of today's business environment requires Those companies continuously raise the bar on their effectiveness. Top performance Increasingly demands excellence in all areas, including leadership, productivity, and Adaptation to change, process improvement, and capability enhancement (knowledge, Skills, abilities, and competencies). It is no doubt, that improve organizational effectiveness (OE) is only way to lead business success. But how to improve OE and what are key factors affect OE is still no certain answer. According to research, there are some directions to improve organizational effectiveness. Typical organizational effectiveness projects include: Process mapping and measurement; Process improvement; Expert facilitation of Internal interventions; Productivity improvement; Monitoring and evaluation; Measuring and assessing climate and culture; improving communication processes; Team building and team effectiveness improvement; cohering management teams And rationalizing the complexities of organizational structure.

There are many factors effecting O.E. which are as follows:- Organizational characteristics are two types they are:o organizational structureo Organizational technology Environmental characteristics Employee characteristics Managerial policy and practices.

Besides this according to Renislikert there is following variables which influencing the organizations effectiveness is asfollows:

Independent/casual variables: it is those factors that influence the course of developments within an organization and results. These independent variables can be altered by the organization & its mgt.; they are not beyond the control

of the org., like general business conditions. For ex-leadership strategies, managements decisions & skills etc.

Intervening variables:

It reflects the internal state and health of the org. for ex: the loyalties, attitudes, motivations, perception of all members, communication & decision making. it divided into 2 broad categories:-1. The intervening attitudinal, motivational and perceptual

cluster.2. The intervening behavioral cluster

Intervening variables are concerned with building & developing the organization & they tend to be long-term goals. Output/end product variables: these are the dependent that reflects the achievement of the organization. 90% managers in organization look at measures of output alone. Many researchers talk about effectiveness by emphasizing similar output variables.

Fred E.Fieldler for ex: in his studies evaluated: “leader effectiveness in term of group performance on the groups primary assigned task “.

Interrelationship among variables: The interrelationship maybe visualized as psychological process where stimuli (casualv) acting upon the organism (intervening v) & creating certain responses end result v). These 3 variables comprisesa complex network with many interdependent relationships-

1: It helps to explain the difficulty when an attempt is made to classify difference org. variables into 3 categories. 2: It helps to understand the deviation in the functioning of variables in accordance with the way they have been classifiedin the overall scheme.

There are also some other factors effecting organizational effectiveness, they are:

Strategic FactorsMarketProductTechnologyCustomersSuppliersVisionValue Creation Strategy

Organizational FactorsStrategic DeploymentEffective LeadershipPoliciesProceduresProcessesContinuous Improvement CultureProblem-solvingCommitmentCultureMeasures of PerformanceTrust, Honesty, & Ethical Behavior

People FactorsEmployee InvolvementEducationTrainingInternal Supplier-Customer RelationsMotivationTeamworkCommunicationSafety

Environmental Factors Social Economic

Competitive Technology

Effectiveness through adapting coping style:Coping:Coping is a process that we as individuals employ every day. We engage in coping when We feel under stress or want to manage a taxing situation. The process of coping involves Two components, appraisal and coping (Lazarus, 1966). Appraisal is the act of perceiving aStressor and analyzing one's own ability to deal with the stressor. Appraisal can be made in Three different conditions: when we have experienced a stressor, when we anticipate a Stressor and when we experience a chance for mastery or gain (Lazarus, 1966). Once we Appraise a stressful situation we must decide how we will respondor ‘cope’ with the Stressor, either choosing to master it, reduces it or tolerates it. The coping style we engage in Is ultimately determined by whether we believe we have the resources to resolve the Stressor (Lazarus, 1966).

Coping Styles There appear to be three main coping styles that people employ when attempting to resolve Or remove a stressor: problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping and avoidant Coping. Problem-focused coping involves altering or managing the problem that is causing

The stress and is highly action focused. Individuals engaging in problem-focused coping Focus their attention on gathering the required resources (i.e. skills, tools and knowledge) Necessary to deal with the stressor. This involves a number of strategies such as gathering Information, resolving conflict, planning and making decisions (Lazarus & Folk man, 1984). Emotion-focused coping can take a range of forms such as seeking social support, Acceptance and venting of emotions etc (Carver et al., 1989). Although emotion-focused Coping styles are quite varied they all seek to lessen the negative emotions associated with The stressor, thus emotion-focused coping is action-orientated (Admiral, Korthagen, & Wobbles, 2000; Folk man & Lazarus, 1980). The third main coping style is avoidant Coping. Avoidant coping can be described as cognitive and behavioral efforts directed Towards minimizing, denying or ignoring dealing with a stressful situation (Holahan, Holahan, Moos, Brennan, & Schutte, 2005). Although some researchers group avoidant Coping with emotion-focused coping the styles are conceptually distinct. Avoidant coping Is focused on ignoring a stressor and is therefore passive, whereas emotion-focused coping Is active (Admiral et al., 2000, Holahan et al., 2005).

Coping Style and Psychological DistressAlthough many factors are involved in the development of psychological distress, coping Styles have been shown to be a significant contributor. Problem-focused coping appears toBe the most adaptive coping style as it is associated with reduced psychological distress. Alternatively, avoidant coping appears the most maladaptive as itis associated with

Increased distress.

Avoidant Coping and Psychological Distress Avoidant coping has been shown to be associated with greater distress than other coping Styles. In general, clinically depressed participants experience less improvement and Greater dysfunction when they engage in avoidant coping (Billings& Moos, 1984). Holahan et al. (2005) showed that avoidant coping is positively associated with depressive Symptoms in a ten year longitudinal study. Their study examined the coping styles, life Stressors and depressive symptoms of 1,211 participants over a ten year period. Participants were measured for baseline depression levels at the initial testing period, four Years later and ten years later. Holahan et al. found that individuals that engaged in Avoidant coping at baseline were more likely to experience chronic and acute stressors When measured four years later and to exhibit depressive symptomsten years later.

Problem-Focused Coping and Psychological Distress

Problem-focused coping is the most adaptive coping style as it appears to reduce Symptoms of stress, anxiety and depression. A number of differentpopulations have Demonstrated that problem-focused coping is associated with reduced distress. Wijndaele et al. (2007) recently showed that problem-focused coping is the most effective at reducing psychological distress in the general population. Their study analysed the coping styles and psychological distress levels of 2,616 Belgian adults. Wijndaele et al. found that

Participants that engaged in problem-focused coping had reduced symptoms of stress, anxiety and depression, compared to participants that engaged in other coping styles. Although a significant association was shown between problem-focused coping and Psychological distress it is important to note that Wijndaele ET all’s study had a low Response rate (28%), which may have affected the generality of the study.

Emotion-Focused Coping and Psychological Distress

Emotion-focused coping incorporates a number of diverse coping styles that have been Shown to be both adaptive and maladaptive (Billings & Moos, 1984;Penland, 2000; Wijndaele et al., 2007; Crockett, 2007; Bouteyre, 2007). In general, the coping strategies That focus on negative emotions and thoughts appear to increase psychological distress (E.g. venting of emotions and rumination), whereas coping strategies that regulate emotion (E.g. seeking social support, affect regulation and acceptance) appear to reduce distress. The mixed findings regarding emotion-focused coping has been clearly demonstrated in Billings and Moos’s (1984) clinical study. Their study analyzed the relationship between Coping styles and depressive symptoms in 424 men and women entering treatment for Depression. Depressed patients experienced less severe symptoms when they engaged in affect-regulation. However, participants that used the coping style venting of emotions experienced greater dysfunction.

Major Types of Organizational Change: Typically, the phrase “organizational change” is about a significant change in the organization, such as reorganization oradding a major new product or service. This is in contrast to smaller changes, such as adopting a new computer procedure. Organizational change can seem like such a vague phenomena that it is helpful if you can think of change in terms of various dimensions as described Below.

Organization-wide Versus Subsystem Change Examples of organization-wide change might be a major restructuring, collaboration or “right-Sizing.” Usually, organizations must undertake organization-widechange to evolve to a different level in their life cycle, for example, going from a highly reactive, entrepreneurial organization tone that has a more stable and planned development.Experts assert that successful organizational change requires a change in culture – cultural change is another example of organization-wide Change. Examples of a change in a subsystem might include addition or removal of a product or service, Reorganization of a certain department, or implementation of a new process to deliver products or services.

Transformational Versus Incremental Change

An example of transformational (or radical, fundamental) change might be changing an organization’s structure and culture from the traditional top-down, hierarchical structure to a large amount of self-directing teams. Another example might be Business Process Re-engineering,which tries to take apart (at least on paper, at first) the majorparts and processes of the organization and then put them back

together in a more optimal fashion. Transformational change is sometimes referred to as quantum change.

Remedial Versus Developmental Change Change can be intended to remedy current situations, for example,to improve the poor performance of a product or the entire organization, reduce burnout in the workplace, and help the organization to become much more proactive and less reactive, or address large budget deficits. Remedial projects often seem morefocused and urgent because they are addressing a current, major problem. It is often easier to determine the success of these projects because the problem is solved or not. Change can also be developmental – to make a successful situation even more successful, for example, expand the amount of customers served, or duplicate successful products or services.

Unplanned Versus Planned Change Unplanned change usually occurs because of a major, sudden surprise to the organization, which causes its members to respondin a highly reactive and disorganized fashion. Unplanned change might occur when the Chief Executive Officer suddenly leaves the organization, significant public relations problems occur, poor product performance quickly results in loss of customers, or other disruptive situations arise. Planned change occurs when leaders in the organization recognize the need for a major change and proactively organize a plan to accomplish the change. Planned change occurs with successful implementation of a Strategic Plan, plan for reorganization, or other implementation of a change of this magnitude.

Note that planned change, even though based on a proactive and well-done plan, often does not occur in a highly organized fashion. Instead, planned change tends to occur in more of a chaotic and disruptive fashion than expected by participants.

Consultant DAVID A.NADLER and management professor MICHAEL L.TUSHMAN recently developed an instructivetypology of organizational change.

On the vertical axis of their model, change is characterized as anticipatory or reactive. Anticipatory changes are any systematically planned changes intended to take advantages of expected situations. Oppositely, reactivechanges are those necessitated by unexpected environment events or pressures. The horizontal axis deals with the scope of a particular change, either incremental or strategic. Incremental changes involve subsystem adjustmentsneed to keep the organization on its chosen path. Strategic changes alter the overall shape or direction of the organization.

There are four type of organizational change. That are:-1) Tuning2) Adaptation3) Reorientation4) Recreation

1. TUNING- This is the most common, least intense and least risky type of change. Other names for it include preventive maintenance and the Japanese concept of Kaizen. The key to effective tuning is to actively anticipate and avoid problems rather than passively waiting for things to go wrong before taking action.

EXAMPLE- Du pont tuned its marketing efforts by developing an Adopt-Customer program. The program” encourages blue-collar workers to visit a customer once a month, learn his needs, andbe his representative on the factory floor.” This is a refreshing alternative to the traditional practice of waiting for customer complaints and only then trying to figure out howto fix them.

2. . ADAPTATION- Like tuning, adaptation involves incremental changes. But this time, the changes are in reaction to external problems, or pressures.EXAMPLE-After ford had great success with its aerodynamic styling, General motors and Chrysler followed suit. In turn

and GM broadened their product lines to complete with Chrysler’s trendsetting minivans.

3. REORIANTATION- NADLER and TUSHMAN call reorientation “framebending” because the organization is significantly redirected. Importantly, there is not a complete break with the organization’s past.

4. RE-CREATION-Competitive pressures mainly trigger this most intense and risky type of organizational change. From a manufacturer of costly luxury cars, he wants it to become an “exclusive, full- line manufacturer” offering high-quality vehicles of all shapes and size.EXAMPLE-WERNE is pushing Mercedes to expand into two fast-growing segments classified in the U.S as light trucks: minivans and four-wheel-drive spot-utility vehicles. He also wants Mercedes to have an entry by the mid-1990s in super small city cars, a category that scarcely exists today outside Japan.

ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE: Change refers to making things different or the alteration of

status quo. (Status quo – The condition or situation existing before a particular change.) From that faithful moment of creation to that fatal final moment when each of us expel our last breath our lives are govern by an overriding general principle that is known as “Change”.

Definition:

To quote a definition , “When an organization system is distorted by some internal or externalforce change frequently occurs – change as a process , is simply modification of the structure or process of a system.

It may be good or bad, the concept is descriptive only.Or, in simple word organizational change denotes to plan or upland transformation in on organization structure, technology & people.

Characteristics of change:

According to the definition the characteristics of change are as follows :

1: Change results from the pressure of both internal as well as external forces.

2: Change in any part of the organization affects the whole part of the organization.

Change will affect the varies parts of organization in varying speeds & degree of significance.

4: Change may affect people structure, technology & other element in organization.

5: Change may pro-active & reactive.

Organizational structure in some extent is responsible for resistance to change. Organizations by their very nature are conservative. They actively resist change. The factors of organizational resistance are:

Organizational structure - Organization needs stability continuityin order to function effectively. The term organization implies individual, group and team and their activities must have certainstructure. For efficient working of organization, individuals must have assigned roles, established procedures for getting the job done. However this legitimate need for structure may lead to resistance to change. Organization may have narrowly defined jobs, clearly spelled-out lines of authority, responsibilities and accountability limited flow of information from top to bottom. The use of rigid designs causes employees to use only specific channels of communication. This leads to organizational resistance to change.

History

Linda Ackerman Anderson, co-author of Beyond Change Management, described how in the late 1980s and early 1990s top leaders were growing dissatisfied with the failures of creating and implementing changes in a top-down fashion. They created the role

of the change leader to take responsibility for the people side of the change. February 1994 is the unofficial beginning of the Change Management Industry, with the publication of the first "State of the Change Management Industry" report in the ConsultantsNews.

McKinsey consultant Julian Phillips first published a change management model in 1982 in the journal Human Resource Management; though it took a decade for his change management peers to catch up with him.

Marsha credits the big 6 accounting firms and management consulting firms with creating the change management industry when they branded their reengineering services groups as change management services in the late 1980s.

Examples of organizational change

1. Mission changes,2. Strategic changes,3. Operational changes (including Structural changes),4. Technological changes,5. Changing the attitudes and behaviors of personnel,

As a multidisciplinary practice that has evolved as a result of scholarly research, Organizational Change Management should beginwith a systematic diagnosis of the current situation in order to determine both the need for change and the capability to change. The objectives, content, and process of change should all be specified as part of a Change Management plan.

Change Management processes may include creative marketing to enable communication between change audiences, but also deep social understanding about leadership’s styles and group dynamics. As a visible track on transformation projects, Organizational Change Management aligns groups’ expectations, communicates, integrates teams and manages people training. It makes use of performance metrics, such as financial results, operational efficiency, leadership commitment, communication effectiveness, and the perceived need for change to design

appropriate strategies, in order to avoid change failures or solve troubled change projects.

Successful change management is more likely to occur if the following are included: [citation needed]

1. Benefits management and realization to define measurable stakeholder aims, create a business case for their achievement (which should be continuously updated), and monitor assumptions, risks, dependencies, costs, return on investment, dis-benefits and cultural issues affecting the progress of the associated work.

2. Effective Communications that informs various stakeholders of thereasons for the change (why?), the benefits of successful implementation (what is in it for us, and you) as well as the details of the change (when? where? who is involved? how much will it cost? etc.).

3. Devise an effective education, training and/or skills upgrading scheme for the organization.

4. Counter resistance from the employees of companies and align themto overall strategic direction of the organization.

5. Provide personal counseling (if required) to alleviate any changerelated fears.

6. Monitoring of the implementation and fine-tuning as required.

PROCESS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE- Once, the need for the change and the goals of change are recognized and accepted, the management must introduce the change process. To make the change more lasting, KURT LEWIN proposed three phases of the change process for moving the organization from the present to the future. Three stages are-

1. Unfreezing2. Changing3. Refreezing

01:UNFREEZING-The process of unfreezing simply makes the individuals or organizations aware and prepares them for the change.

LEWINS believes that the change should not come as a surpriseto members of the organization .sudden, unannounced change would be socially destructive. The management must have the way by” unfreezing the situation”, so that members would be willing and ready to accept the change. According to SCHEIN, unfreezing is the process of breaking down the old attitudes and behaviors, customs traditions so that they start with a clean state. This can be achieved by making announcements, holding meeting and promoting the ideas throughout the organization via bulletin boards, personal contacts and group conferences.

2. CHANGING H.C KELLMAN has proposed three methods of reassigning new patterns of behavior. These are:- A) COMPIANCE- Compliance is achieved by strictly enforcing the reward and punishment strategy for good or bad behavior. Fear of punishment or actual reward seems to change behavior for the batter.B) IDENTIFICATION- Identification occurs when members are psychologically impressed upon to identify themselves with some given role models whose behavior they would like to adoptand try to become like them.

C) INTERNALISATION- Internalization involves some internal changing of the individual’s through processes in order to adjust to a new environment. Members are left alone to look within themselves andthey are given freedom to learn and adopt new behavior in order to succeed in the new set of circumstances.

3. REFREEZING- Refreezing occurs when the new behavior becomes a normal way of life. The new behavior must replace the former behavior completely for successful change to take place. Also, it must be continuously so that this new acquired behavior does not diminish or extinguish. The change process is not a onetime application but a continuous process due to dynamism and changing environment. Accordingly, the process of unfreezing, changing and refreezing is a cyclical one and remains continuously in process.

Another methodology to induce, implement and manage change was also introduced by KURT LEWIN, who called it “forced-field analysis”. The analysis is based upon the assumption that is we in a stable of equilibrium when there is balance between forces that induced change and forces that resist change. To achieve change, we must overcome this status quo. The change forces are known as driving forces and the forces that resist change are known as restraining forces as shown below:-DRIVING FORCES - EQUILIBRIUM - RESTRAINING FORCESManagers who are trying to implement change must analysis this balance of driving and restraining forces and then strengthen the driving forces or weaken the restraining forces sufficiently so that change can take places.

Change agent:Any planned change needs change agents. There are the persons whoinitiate change in the organization though management as a whole is involved with innovation as a continuing process, its rule is somewhat limited to regular change. In a plant change, however the type of requirements may be different and internal managementhas to take the help of external change agents. Thus there may betwo type of change agent: external & internal. External change agents are in the form of consultants for change. These are the persons who are normally export in the specific area of organizational change. The internal change agent is from the existing organizational personnel from any level of department, depending upon the needs of the change.

* A change agent lives in the future, not the present. Regardlessof what is going on today, a change agent has a vision of what could or should be and uses that as the governing sense of action. To a certain extent, a change agent is dissatisfied with what they see around them, in favor of a much better vision of the future. Without this future drive, the change agent can lose their way.

* A change agent is fueled by passion, and inspires passion in others, Change is hard work. It takes a lot of energy. Don't

underestimate this. For ex- the amount of energy it takes to boilwater. From 212 degree water to 212 degree steam takes a lot more energy than heating water from 211 degrees to 212 degrees. In my experience, without passion, it is very difficult indeed to muster up enough energy to assault the fortress of status quo that seems to otherwise carry the day.

* A change agent has a strong ability to self-motivate. There will be many days where everyone around does not understand and will not offerprops. The change agent needs to find it within themselves to get up every day and come to work and risk being misunderstood and misappreciated, knowing that the real validation may be far in the future and may be claimed by someone else.

* A change agent must understand people. At the end of the day, changeis about people. If you change everything but the people, you’ll be effective as a change agent. Change will really "stick" when people embrace it. Therefore, change is part sales, part counseling and part encouragement. It's all about people.

At the end of the day, it is entrusted with a very powerful lever for change - technology. With that lever, we can bring very powerful change to our organizations. But in order to do so, we need to embracethe "way of the Change Agent" and not lock ourselves in Ivory Towers of Technology.

9 Tips for Change Agents 1. be open to data at the start. "Even if you think you know whatyou're doing, chances are you don't know what you could be doing.Open up your mind to as much new thinking as you can absorb. You may find different and better ideas than the ones your organization started with."

2. Network like crazy. "There is a network of people who are thinking about learning organizations. I've found you can get in touch with them easily. People say to me, `I can't believe you talked with so-and-so! How'd you do it?' The answer is, I called him."

3. Document your own learning. "People in the organization need to see documentation for their own comfort. The smartest thing I did was to create a matrix of ideas from leading thinkers. I documented two categories of thinking -- the elements of a learning organization, and the pitfalls to avoid."

4. Take senior management along. Turner's own education included benchmarking trips to Saturn, Texas Instruments, Motorola, General Electric, and other companies known for their innovative approaches to learning. "Some of the people in the senior group were very skeptical," Turner says. "It helped to take them on these benchmarking trips to show them other companies that were actually doing some of the same learning practices."

5. No fear! "You've got to be fearless and not worry about keeping your job."

6. be a learning person yourself. "Change agents have to be in love with learning and constantly learning new things themselves.Then they find new ways to communicate those things to the organization as a whole."

7. Laugh when it hurts. "This can be very discouraging work. You need a good sense of humor. It also helps if you've got a mantra you can say to yourself when things aren't going too well."

8. Know the business before you try to change anything. "I don't think you can do this work if you're just a theorist. I've been asales rep; I've been in a marketing job where I worked with the operations side. So when I go about the work of creating a changestrategy, I already have an understanding of the people in our organization and what they do."

9. Finish what you start. "I made a list of change projects we'd started and never finished in the past. We called it 'the black hole.' I determined early on I didn't want to be part of a second-rate movie."

Change Agent Role:

The label “change agent” is often accompanied by misunderstanding, cynicism and Stereotyping. Managers, employees and HR professionals alike have questioned the value Of this role in their organization. However, as organizations of all kinds face unrelenting changes in their environment, the Need for individuals who are capable of turning strategy into reality has created a new Legitimacy for the change agent role – which is often located within the Human Resource Function. There are several reasons for this trend: • Human resource professionals have made significant strides over the past decade in Becoming business partners; demonstrating the value they can add to the business • Executives are looking for where the change process can best be managed • Most business strategies require major changes in people-related issues; Human Resource professionals develop and manage the key “people” systems needed to support organizational change.

Broadly speaking the most important contributions to be made through the change age

Role is those that sustain the organization’s current performance and assure its futurePerformance i.e. • Enabling people to work effectively as they plan, implement and experience change• Increasing people’s ability to manage future change Competencies Required for Effectiveness Despite the multi-faceted and ever changing demands on HR professionals as change Agents, there are definable competencies that can be understood and learned.

The Hay/McBer group an international consulting firm specializing in the competencyField have identified change management as increasingly important for organizations oThe future. Dave Ulrich has completed extensive research in this area aswell. His research, validated By HR professionals and their line manager “clients”, showed that successful change Agents had the ability to: • Diagnose problems – Understanding both the business drivers and the organization Well enough to identify performance issues and analyze their impact on short and Long term business results • Build relationships with clients – Forming partnerships with mutual responsibility For the outcomes of the change effort. Because the risk is higher than with most other HR roles the level of trust required is much higher. Management consultant Ric Richard uses a simple formula to describe the issues which areusually at play TRUST = perceived competence + relationship RISK Often the client and the change agent over emphasize one or the other (competency or Relationship) especially when the risk increases while the challenge is to balance both To achieve the necessary level of trust.

Ensure that the Vision is articulated – Interpreting the hopes and motivations of

The workforce through the Vision statement. Set a Leadership Agenda – Defining the ongoing role for leaders, such as Communications, role modeling, reinforcement of desired behaviors etc. This

Requires the HR executive to understand intimately the dynamics, history and Competencies of the leadership team and to have the tenacity to insist on the agenda’s Accomplishment. Solve Problems – Recommending solutions, a common expectation of HR Professionals are not the same as solving problems. When it comes to the change agent Role, the problems encountered are often loaded with emotionaland political Dynamics. The change agent must possess the insight to recognize the problem, the Sensitivity to see its importance to those involved, the courage to take honest and Often difficult measures to resolve it and the credibility to be heard. Implement Plans to Achieve Change Goals - Successful organizational change on Any significant scale can be attributed to the right strategy and appropriate change in Organization culture. Culture change, in turn, relies heavily on aligned and supportive People policies, systems and processes. In short, the implementation plan is an HR Plan for both the HR function and for management.

Complementing the competencies identified above, we would add the following as Essential for effectiveness as a change agent: • Superb communications ability – in all directions • Knowledge of the business; products/services and core work processes • keeping a business perspective – both macro (mission/vision)and micro (what line Managers cope with) • planning and project management skills • Ability to tolerate ambiguity • Managing resistance

• Risk taking • Managing conflict It is apparent that these are a blend of personal attributes and developed skill sets. A Change agent working at the strategic level cannot be effective without them. Having a clearly articulated competency model for the change agent role is one thing; Acquiring the knowledge and skills to function effectively in this role is another. Effectiveness in any role is a combination of competence and confidence Following are Four elements that is essential in developing both: Education and Training Formal education and training that is comprehensive enough to really equip an HR Professional for the change agent role is quite limited in this country. However, several Universities, such as University of Toronto and Queen’s University are now offering Change management programs within their Executive Development divisions. These Range from 3 days to 15 days of professional development sometimes with a practicum component.

Practice Opportunities Five years ago we would have encouraged HR professionals to find some “neutral” Territory for practicing their new skills. Today this is clearly impractical as organizations Demand that the skills be put to use immediately. The change agent is not exempt from This reality but the “practicing” is often more visible and the risk higher than in other Aspects of the HR role. This is where the next two elements come into play.

Feedback & Reflection “Good judgment comes from experience, experience comes from bad judgment” – the Simple (however painful) truth in that expression is familiar to everyone the most Important thing you can experience as a change agent is not success. Nor is it failure. It is Honest feedback about your performance and impact and the timeto reflect on and learn From it. Support System For HR executives functioning as change agents, there is oftenno one inside the Organization to talk to. The issues are often too strategic ortoo sensitive to discuss Openly. A support system should include people who know the nature of your work and The satisfactions, stresses and risks associated with it. One of the most important people in Your support system will be the colleague whom you can count on to challenge you, help You see your shortcomings and follow-up on what specifically you are doing about them.

Chief executive : The chief executive sponsors the change program provides support and leadership for its success usually people don’t treat a chiefexecutive as a change agent in the plant agent. However the change program has a greater chance of success if it is a sponsored by the chief executive when the change process proceedssmoothly, the role of the chief executive may gradually reduce and other key members of the organization.

Change advisers:

Apart from the chief executives, the change advisors have important role to play in change process. They are trained by the consultant for implementing the change. A change advisors role concerns primarily with the organization to accept the change programme and is essentially educational. The advisors communicate to the managers the knowledge of the concepts and methods of various change technique which he has learned through various training programmes, with thehelp of consultant.

ORGANISATIONL CULTURE - Organizational culture plays an important role in change. Cultures are not easy to change and may become a principal source of resistance. An ineffective organizational culture may rigidly socialize employees into old culture. This leads to resistance to change.

LIMITATIONS OF RESOURCES - - Change require capital, time, and skilled people. Sometimes changes may not happen as it should be due to limitations of resources of organization.

Inter- organizational agreements- Agreements between organizations impose obligations on people. That can restrain their behavior. In this situation organizational change cannotbe made in agreement because certain rules are to be followed which would be suitable for both the party. In this situation one party cannot introduce change to its organization easily. This problem leads to resistance to organizational change.

Organizational culture is the collective behavior of people that are part of an organization, it is also formed by the organization values, visions, norms, working language, systems, and symbols, and it includes beliefs and habits. It is also the pattern of such collective behaviors and assumptions that are taught to new organizational members as a way of perceiving, and even thinking and feeling. Organizational culture affects the way

people and groups interact with each other, with clients, and with stakeholders Raves and Schultz (2006) state that organizational culture is a set of shared mental assumptions thatguide interpretation and action in organizations by defining appropriate behavior for various situations. At the same time although a company may have "own unique culture", in larger organizations, there is a diverse and sometimes conflicting cultures that co-exist due to different characteristics of the management team. The organizational culture may also have negative and positive aspects.

Part of or equivalent to

As a part of organization

Culture as a variable takes on the perspective that culture is something that an organization has. Culture is just one entity that adds to the organization as a whole. Culture can be manipulated and altered depending on leadership and members. Thisperspective believes in a strong culture where everyone buys intoit.

The same as the organization

Culture as Root Metaphor takes the perspective that culture is something the organization is. Culture is basic, but with personal experiences people can view it a little differently. This view of an organization is created through communication andsymbols, or competing metaphors.[13]

The organizational communication perspective on culture views culture in three different ways:

Traditionalism: Views culture through objective things such as stories, rituals, and symbols

Interpretive: Views culture through a network of shared meanings (organization members sharing subjective meanings)

Critical-Interpretive: Views culture through a network of shared meanings as well as the power struggles created by a similar network of competing meanings

Types of organizational cultures

Several methods have been used to classify organizational culture. While there is no single “type” of organizational culture and organizational cultures vary widely from one organization to the next, commonalities do exist and some researchers have developed models to describe different indicators of organizational cultures. Some are described below:

Hosted O'Reilly, Chatman, and Caldwell Deal and Kennedy Edgar Schein Factors and elements Communicative Indicators

o Schema Strong/weak cultures Healthy organizational cultures Charles Handy Kim Cameron and Robert Quinn Robert A. Cooke

o Constructive cultureso Passive/defensive cultureso Aggressive/defensive cultures

Entrepreneurial organizational culture o Elements

Personal and organizational cultureOrganizational culture is taught to the person as culture is taught byhis/her parents thus changing and modeling his/her personal culture. Indeed employees and people applying for a job are advised to match their "personality to a company’s culture" and fit to it. Some researchers even suggested and have made case studies research on personality changing.

National and organizational culture

Corporate culture is used to control, coordinate, and integrate of company subsidiaries. However differences in national culturesexist contributing to differences in the views on the management.[28] Differences between national cultures are deep rooted values of the respective cultures, and these cultural values can shape how people expect companies to be run, and how relationships between leaders and followers should be resulting to differences between the employer and the employee on expectations.

6. With it. The organization turns into a sort of clan.

Mergers, organizational culture, and cultural leadership

One of the biggest obstacles in the way of the merging of two organizations is organizational culture. Each organization has its own unique culture and most often, when brought together, these cultures clash. When mergers fail employees point to issuessuch as identity, communication problems, human resources problems, ego clashes, and inter-group conflicts, which all fall under the category of “cultural differences”.

One way to combat such difficulties is through cultural leadership. Organizational leaders must also be cultural leaders and help facilitate the change from the two old cultures into theone new culture. This is done through cultural innovation followed by cultural maintenance.

Cultural innovation includes: o Creating a new culture: recognizing past cultural

differences and setting realistic expectations for changeo Changing the culture: weakening and replacing the old

cultures Cultural maintenance includes:

o Integrating the new culture: reconciling the differences between the old cultures and the new one

o Embodying the new culture: Establishing, affirming, and keeping the new culture

Corporate subcultures

Corporate culture is the total sum of the values, customs, traditions, and meanings that make a company unique. Corporate culture is often called "the character of an organization", sinceit embodies the vision of the company's founders. The values of acorporate culture influence the ethical standards within a corporation, as well as managerial behavior.

Senior management may try to determine a corporate culture. They may wish to impose corporate values and standards of behavior that specifically reflect the objectives of the organization. In addition, there will also be an extant internal culture within the workforce. Work-groups within the organization have their ownbehavioral quirks and interactions which, to an extent, affect the whole system. Roger Harrison's four-culture typology, and adapted by Charles Handy, suggests that unlike organizational culture, corporate culture can be 'imported'. For example, computer technicians will have expertise, language and behaviors gained independently of the organization, but their presence can influence the culture of the organization as a whole.

RESISTANCE TO CHANGE Change in organizations may be resisted due to some factors. Covert resistance may be expressed by absenteeism, request fortransfer, resignation, loss of morale, loss of motivation, andhigher error rate. The sources of resistance can be divided into two types. They are:1: Individual resistance to change2: Organizational resistance to change INDIVIDUAL RESISTANCE TO CHANGE: Individual resistance to

change is one of the sources of resistance of change. The individual resistance includes the following factors:

HABIT- As human beings we are creatures of habit.

A habit may be source of satisfaction for individuals because it allows them to adjust and cope with their world. A habit also provides comfort and security. Resistance to change

depends upon to a certain extent on habit. For example , when department is moved to a new office building across town, thatmeans a person is likely to have change many habits such as routine of work, time table, adjusting to new office layout.Security : - People with a high need for security are likely toresist the change because it threatens their feeling of safety. When general dynamics announces personal cut backs or ford introduces new robotic equipment many employees in these firms may fear that their jobs are in jeopardy.Economic factor: Changes will lower one’s income. Changes in job tasks may threaten their economic security. Employees may fear that after changes are made, they will not be able to perform up to their previous standards and subsequently will not be as valuable to the organization, their superior or their co-workers.

FEAR OF UNKNOWN - Each major change in a work situation carries with it an element of uncertainty. The persons fear to work whichthey don’t know about the equipments to be used in that work. Lots of questions arise in their mind regarding work. As a resultof which a negative attitudes develops about work, ability, etc.Selective information processing: Individuals shape their world through their perceptions. Once they have created the world, it resists change. They hear what they want to hear. They ignore information that challenges to world that they have created.

People resist change:

When the reason for the change is unclear.  Ambiguity--whether it is about costs, equipment, jobs--can trigger negative reactions among users.

When the proposed users have not been consulted about the change, and it is offered to them as an accomplished fact.  People like to know what's going on, especially if their jobs may be affected.  Informed workers tend to have higher levels of job satisfaction than uninformed workers.

When the change threatens to modify established patterns of working relationships between people.

When communication about the change--timetables, personnel, monies, etc.--has not been sufficient.

When the benefits and rewards for making the change are not seen as adequate for the trouble involved.

When the change threatens jobs, power or status in an organization.

(An unwilling user can always make an idea fail, no matter how good it is.)

Decision makers will be more responsive to change:

If the information presented coincides with their current values, beliefs, and attitudes:

If they perceive that the change will benefit them more thanit will cost them:

If the innovation requires marginal rather than major changes in their views or lives:

If they have a demonstrated need for the innovation: and If the innovation is introduced gradually so that people can

adjust to the resulting change.

CHANGE WORKSHEETA way to understand resistance to change is to use the following worksheet.  This should be filled out separately by people in an organization, and then discussed.  What are the consensus reasons why people in your organization resist change???

The following factors affect how an individual or an organizationreacts to change.  Pick the five you think are most important.  When you have chosen the top five, then rank these on a scale of 1 (most important) to 5.  Think of examples to back up your opinions.

Personal Factors:  ______  Age  ______  Sex  ______  Education  ______  Marital status

 ______  Experience  ______  Time in the same job  ______  Occupation  ______  Other (Explain)

Job Related Factors: ______ Number of Subordinates ______ Breadth of Activity ______ Degree of Autonomy ______ Amount of Job Security ______ Availability of Slack Time ______ Prestige of Position ______ Variety of Work  ______ Other (Explain) 

Organizational Factors: ______  Size ______  Structure (Degree of Centralization) ______  Autonomy from Outside Political Pressure ______  Funding/Budget ______  Recognition ______  Reward System ______  Age of the Organization ______  Prestige  ______  Other (Explain)  _______

Overcoming resistance to change:In the mgt of change effectively, the managers face the problem of resistance to change. People tend to resist many types of change because new habits or sacrifices are required. One of the basic problems is overcome properly; the effect of the change maynot be as functional as envisaged by the management. In many cases, even the impact of a change may be dysfunctional if changeis imposing upon the people by the use of formal authority. Therefore, the role of formal authority in implementing a change may not be effective all the times; it can be made effective by managing resistance effectively.Problem of overcoming resistance to change can be handled at two levels: at the level of individual and at the level of group,

that is, through group dynamics. Both these attempts are complementary and sometimes these efforts may be overlapping because every individual is a member of some of the groups, both at the formal and informal levels.

Efforts at individual level: a change is likely to affect somepeople in some way. It may affect only a few while others may not be affected when the resistance comes from the people at the individual level, the problem can be solved at the same level. For this purpose, the following efforts can be made:-

1. Involvement: involvement is a process through which those who are affected by the change are brought to understand thechange.

2. Obtaining commitment: commitment is an agreement to take anactive part in the actual mechanics of the change. Commitment to take part in the change program can be obtain in private from each individual.

3. Leadership: the role of leadership in getting acceptance fora change is very important as a capable leader reinforces a climate of psychological support for change

. Training and psychological counseling: the management can be changing the basic values of people by training and psychological counseling. People should be educated to become familiar with change, its process, and working.

Efforts at group level: although agreement to change can be obtained individually, it is more meaningful if it is done through group. Usually more than one person can be involved inthe change. Based on these characteristics of groups as a means of change, the managers can form strategies for overcoming resistance in the following manner:1. Group contact: any effort to change is likely to succeed if

the group accepts that change. For this purpose, the group itself should be the point of contact. The group contact offers some specific advantages:

i. Through group, one can communicate with more people per unitof time.

ii. In group there may be some person who may support the idea for change even if it is resisted by others if the change agent belongs to the same group.

iii. Group can get at the basic problem very rapidly as compared to the single individual.

Top Ten Reasons for Change Resistance1. THE RISK OF CHANGE IS SEEN AS GREATER THAN THE RISK OF

STANDING STILL2. PEOPLE FEEL CONNECTED TO OTHER PEOPLE WHO ARE IDENTIFIED

WITH THE OLD WAY3. PEOPLE HAVE NO ROLE MODELS FOR THE NEW ACTIVITY4. PEOPLE FEAR THEY LACK THE COMPETENCE TO CHANGE5. PEOPLE FEEL OVERLOADED AND OVERWHELME.6. PEOPLE HAVE A HEALTHY SKEPTICISM AND WANT TO BE SURE NEW

IDEAS ARE SOUND7. PEOPLE FEAR HIDDEN AGENDAS AMONG WOULD-BE REFORMERS8. PEOPLE FEEL THE PROPOSED CHANGE THREATENS THEIR NOTIONS OF

THEMSELVES9. PEOPLE ANTICIPATE A LOSS OF STATUS OR QUALITY OF LIFE10.   PEOPLE GENUINELY BELIEVE THAT THE PROPOSED CHANGE IS

A BAD IDEA

Organizational development:Organizational development is a planned, ongoing effort by organizations to change in order to become more effective. Organizational development processes include using knowledge of behavioral science to encourage an organizational culture of continual examination and readiness for change.

NEED FOR ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT:-

It is used to solve problems within the organization or as a way to analyze a process and find a more efficient way of doing it.

It identifies areas of company operations where change is needed.

It is it is critical to product, because it can help analyzeeach element of product development.

It is implemented to raise profit, increase market share andraise the value of stock.

To make organization a good place to work. An important tool in managing and planning corporate growth.

Sponsoring organization

The initiative for OD programs comes from an organization that has a problem. This means that top management or someone authorized by top management is aware that a problem exists and has decided to seek help in solving it. There is a direct analogyhere to the practice of psychotherapy: The client or patient mustactively seek help in finding a solution to his problems. This indicates a willingness on the part of the client organization toaccept help and assures the organization that management is actively concerned.

Applied behavioral science

One of the outstanding characteristics of OD that distinguishes it from most other improvement programs is that it is based on a "helping relationship." Some believe that the change agent is nota physician to the organization's ills; that s/he does not examine the "patient," make a diagnosis, and write a prescription. Nor does she try to teach organizational members a new inventory of knowledge which they then transfer to the job situation. Using theory and methods drawn from such behavioral sciences as industrial/organizational psychology, industrial sociology, communication, cultural anthropology, administrative theory, organizational behavior, economics, and political science, the change agent's main function is to help the organization define and solve its own problems. The basic method used is known as action research. This approach, which is described in detail later, consists of a preliminary diagnosis, collecting data, feedback of the data to the client, data

exploration by the client group, action planning based on the data, and taking action.

Systems context

OD deals with a total system — the organization as a whole, including its relevant environment — or with a subsystem or systems — departments or work groups — in the context of the total system. Parts of systems, for example, individuals, cliques, structures, norms, values, and products are not considered in isolation; the principle of interdependency, that is, that change in one part of a system affects the other parts, is fully recognized. Thus, OD interventions focus on the total culture and cultural processes of organizations. The focus is also on groups, since the relevant behavior of individuals in organizations and groups is generally a product of group influences rather than personality.

Improved organizational performance

The objective of OD is to improve the organization's capacity to handle its internal and external functioning and relationships. This would include such things as improved interpersonal and group processes, more effective communication, enhanced ability to cope with organizational problems of all kinds, more effectivedecision processes, more appropriate leadership style, improved skill in dealing with destructive conflict, and higher levels of trust and cooperation among organizational members. These objectives stem from a value system based on an optimistic view of the nature of man — that man in a supportive environment is capable of achieving higher levels of development and accomplishment. Essential to organization development and effectiveness is the scientific method — inquiry, a rigorous search for causes, experimental testing of hypotheses, and reviewof results.

Organizational self-renewal

The ultimate aim of OD practitioners is to "work themselves out of a job" by leaving the client organization with a set of tools,

behaviors, attitudes, and an action plan with which to monitor its own state of health and to take corrective steps toward its own renewal and development. This is consistent with the systems concept of feedback as a regulatory and corrective mechanism.

Understanding organizations

Weisberg presents a six-box model for understanding organization:

1. Purposes: The organization members are clear about the organization’s mission and purpose and goal agreements, whether people support the organization’ purpose.

2. Structure: How is the organization’s work divided up? The question is whether there is an adequate fit between the purpose and the internal structure.

3. Relationship: Between individuals, between units or departments that perform different tasks, and between the people and requirements of their jobs.

4. Rewards: The consultant should diagnose the similarities between what the organization formally rewarded and punished members for.

5. Leadership: Is to watch for blips among the other boxes and maintain balance among them.

6. Helpful mechanism: Is a helpful organization that must attend to in order to survive which as planning, control, budgeting, and other information systems that help organization member accomplish.

Modern development

In recent years, serious questioning has emerged about the relevance of OD to managing change in modern organizations. The need for "reinventing" the field has become a topic that even some of its "founding fathers" are discussing critically.

With this call for reinvention and change, scholars have begun toexamine organizational development from an emotion-based standpoint. For example, deKlerk (2007) writes about how emotional trauma can negatively affect performance. Due to downsizing, outsourcing, mergers, restructuring, continual changes, invasions of privacy, harassment, and abuses of power, many employees experience the emotions of aggression, anxiety,

apprehension, cynicism, and fear, which can lead to performance decreases. deKlerk (2007) suggests that in order to heal the trauma and increase performance, O.D. practitioners must acknowledge the existence of the trauma, provide a safe place foremployees to discuss their feelings, symbolize the trauma and putit into perspective, and then allow for and deal with the emotional responses. One method of achieving this is by having employees draw pictures of what they feel about the situation, and then having them explain their drawings with each other. Drawing pictures is beneficial because it allows employees to express emotions they normally would not be able to put into words. Also, drawings often prompt active participation in the activity, as everyone is required to draw a picture and then discuss its meaning.

The use of new technologies combined with globalization has also shifted the field of organization development. Roland Sullivan (2005) defined Organization Development with participants at the 1st Organization Development Conference for Asia in Dubai-2005 as"Organization Development is a transformative leap to a desired vision where strategies and systems align, in the light of local culture with an innovative and authentic leadership style using the support of high tech tools.

STEPS IN ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT:-

Diagnosis- Strategy for change Intervening the system Evaluation- Follow-up

Diagnosis -

The first step, it contains two steps: they are collect and analyze data.

The manner of collecting data has many methods such as interviews, questionnaires. Then analyze the collected data

in order to confirm both strengths and weaknesses of organization.

It helps in identifying the problem, the & to know the reason that caused the problem.

Strategy for change:

On the basis of the identification and the diagnosis of the problem an appropriate action plan is chalked out. The aims ofthe plan, order of the action and the time decided for the purpose are laid down.

Intervening the system

The interventions decided upon are finally implemented and gradually the changes in the organizations start showing themselves. The declining effectiveness of the organization starts improving.

Evaluation -

The OD is a long term process. With the help of feedback the information about the performance level is constantly monitored

Follow-up : It is the last stage of the OD process. At this stage the weakness of the action plan is revealed and they aretried to be eliminated.

Techniques of Organization Development:Organizational development is the strategic organization-wide effort to improve effectiveness in a company. Also referred to as a response to change and as organizational effectiveness, organizational development has been studied for more than a century and continues to be studied today. The basic principles of this concept involve teams, competition, communication and confidence.

1. Strategic Planning

o One technique for organizational development that a company may choose is that of strategic planning, also referred to as scenario planning. This technique is dependent upon the type of organization and the leadership, complexity, culture, expertise and size of the organization. Essentially, strategic planning is simply sitting down and mapping out goals for the next several years. The goals mapped out would be in regardsto finances, marketing, employees and mission statement.

Action Research

o The action research technique for organizational development is a five-step process that is perhaps the most popular technique for companies today. The five steps to this technique include the following:

Identify an issue and develop a research question.Learn more about the issue; research.Develop a strategy for the study.Gather and analyze data.Take action and share results.

The action research model is a popular technique to obtaining organizational development because it identifies one specific area or issue and deals with that one issue.

Organization Wide

o If a company intends to undergo organizational development, one technique might be through an organization-wide change. For example, adding or takingaway a product or service offered. In order for a successful organization-wide change to take place, there must also be a cultural change within the company--a change among attitudes and expectations of the people.

Transformational

o Also occasionally referred to as quantum change, transformational change is the act of changing the interior workings of a company such as changing the management structure from a hierarchy to a team-oriented structure. An example of transformational change would be a new computer system. Another example of a transformational change would be to transform the typical hierarchy of president, vice president, CEO, COO, CFO, and other top management, and divide the company into teams instead; each team with a manager and all employees within the teams on the same level.

Remedy

o A technique of organizational development that helps when there has been unwanted change or a crisis is the remedy technique, or remedial change. If employees are performing poorly or the company has recently released a product that is not doing well in the market, the company may consider remedial change as a solution and technique for organizational development. A remedy would equate to a project--something tangible in which results would be clear and obvious and boost employee morale.

Planned Change

o A planned change in reaction to an unplanned change is another technique of organizational structure. If something unplanned and somewhat startling occurs, suchas a death or the CEO quitting, a planned change in response to this event may be necessary to rebuild the company morale and redevelop some aspects of the organization.