o Appendix 1: Statistical tables

o Appendix 1: Statistical tables

Table Al.I Critical values of T in the Wilcoxon signed ranks test

Levels of significance

One-tailed test

0.05 0.025 0.01 0.001

Two-tailed test

Sample SIze 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.002

n=5 T5,O 6 2 0 7 3 2 0 8 5 3 1 9 8 5 3

10 10 8 5 0 11 13 10 7 1 12 17 13 9 2 13 21 17 12 4 14 25 21 15 6 15 30 25 19 8 16 35 29 23 11 17 41 34 27 14 18 47 40 32 18 19 53 46 37 21 20 60 52 43 26 21 67 58 49 30 22 75 65 55 35 23 83 73 62 40 24 91 81 69 45 25 100 89 76 51 26 110 98 84 58 27 119 107 92 64 28 130 116 101 71 29 141 125 III 78 30 151 137 120 86 31 163 147 130 94 32 175 159 140 103 33 187 170 151 112

The calculated T value must be equal to or less than the critical value for signifi-cance at the level indicated.

Source: R. Meddis, Statistical Handbook for Non-Statisticians (London: McGraw-Hill, 1975).

APPENDIX 1 343

Table Al.2 Critical values of t

Level of significance for a one-tailed test

0.05 0.025 0.Q1 0.005

Level of significance for a two-tailed test

Degrees of freedom 0.10 0.05 0.02 0.Q1

1 6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 2 2.920 4.303 6.965 9.925 3 2.353 3.182 4.541 5.841 4 2.132 2.776 3.747 4.604 5 2.015 2.571 3.365 4.032

6 1.943 2.447 3.143 3.707 7 1.895 2.365 2.998 3.499 8 1.860 2.306 2.896 3.355 9 1.833 2.262 2.821 3.250

10 1.812 2.228 2.764 3.169

11 1.796 2.201 2.718 3.106 12 1.782 2.179 2.681 3.055 13 1.771 2.160 2.650 3.012 14 1.761 3.145 2.624 2.977 15 1.753 2.131 2.602 2.947

16 1.746 2.120 2.583 2.921 17 1.740 2.110 2.567 2.898 18 1.734 2.101 2.552 2.878 19 1.729 2.093 2.539 2.861 20 1.725 2.086 2.528 2.845

21 1.721 2.080 2.518 2.831 22 1.717 2.074 2.508 2.819 23 1.714 2.069 2.500 2.807 24 1.711 2.064 2.492 2.797 25 1.708 2.060 2.485 2.787

26 1.706 2.056 2.479 2.779 27 1.703 2.052 2.473 2.771 28 1.701 2.048 2.467 2.763 29 1.699 2.045 2.462 2.756

30 1.697 2.042 2.457 2.750 40 1.684 2.021 2.423 2.704 60 1.671 2.000 2.390 2.660 120 1.658 1.980 2.358 2.617

1.645 1.960 2.326 2.576

The calculated t value must be equal to or greater than the critical value for sig-nificance at the level indicated. Source: Fisher RA. and Yates F., Statistical Tables for Biological, Agricultural and Medical Research (Harlow: Longman, 1974), Table III.

344 MASTERING PSYCHOLOGY

Table AI.3 Critical values ofU in the Mann-Whitney U test (jor a two-tailed test)

(a) Unequal sample sizes

4 6 8

2 - - - - - 0 0 3 - - 0 I I 2 2 4 - - I 2 3 4 4

5 - - - 3 5 6 7

6 - - 0 I 6 8 10 7 - - 0 I 3 10 12

8 - - I 2 4 6 15 9 - 0 I 3 5 7 9

10 - 0 2 4 6 9 11 13 II - 0 2 5 7 10 13 16 12 - I 3 6 9 12 15 18 13 - I 3 7 10 13 17 20

14 - I 4 7 II 15 18 22 15 - 2 5 8 12 16 20 24 16 - 2 5 9 13 18 22 27 17 - 2 6 10 15 19 24 29 18 - 2 6 11 16 21 26 31 19 0 3 7 12 17 22 28 33 20 0 3 8 13 18 24 30 36 21 0 3 8 14 19 25 32 38 22 0 4 9 14 21 27 34 40 23 0 4 9 15 22 29 35 43 24 0 4 10 16 23 30 37 45 25 0 5 10 17 24 32 39 47

n2 4 6

0.01(n1

(b) Equal sample sizes

n= 4

0.05 - 0 13

0.01 - 0 4

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 n2

-0.05 n 1/

0 0 I I I I I 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 17 18 4 8 9 II 12 13 14 15 17 18 19 20 22 23 24 25 27 5

11 13 14 16 17 19 21 22 24 25 27 29 30 32 33 35 6 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 7 17 19 22 24 26 29 31 34 36 38 41 43 45 48 50 53 8 20 23 26 28 31 34 37 39 42 45 48 50 53 56 59 62 9

26 29 33 36 39 42 45 48 52 55 58 61 64 67 71 10

18 33 37 40 44 47 51 55 58 62 65 69 73 76 80 II 21 24 41 45 49 53 57 61 65 69 73 77 81 85 89 12 24 27 31 50 54 59 63 67 72 76 80 85 89 94 98 13

26 30 34 38 59 64 69 74 78 83 88 93 98 102 107 14 29 33 37 42 46 70 75 80 85 90 96 101 106 III 117 15 31 36 41 45 50 55 81 86 92 98 103 109 115 120 126 16 34 39 44 49 54 60 65 93 99 105 III 117 123 129 135 17

37 42 47 53 58 64 70 75 106 112 119 125 132 138 145 18 39 45 51 57 63 69 74 81 87 119 126 133 140 147 154 19 42 48 54 60 67 73 79 86 92 99 134 141 149 156 163 20 44 51 58 64 71 78 84 91 98 105 112 150 157 165 173 21 47 54 61 68 75 82 89 96 104 III 118 125 166 174 182 22 50 57 64 72 79 87 94 102 109 117 125 132 140 183 192 23 52 60 68 75 83 91 99 107 115 123 131 139 147 155 201 24 55 63 71 79 87 96 104 112 121 129 138 146 155 163 172 25

10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

17 23 30 37 45 55 64 75 87 99 113 127 142 158 175 192 211

11 16 21 27 34 42 51 60 70 81 93 105 118 133 148 164 180

The calculated value of U must be equal to or less than the critical value for significance at the level indicated. For a one-tailed test the significance levels should be halved.

Source: H.R. Neave, Statistics Tables (London: Unwin Hyman, 1978).

APPENDIX 1 345

Table AI.4 Critical values of X2 (chi-squared)


0.10 0.05 0.025 0.01 0.005 0.0005


d./. 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.02 om 0.001

1 1.64 2.71 3.84 5.41 6.64 10.83 2 3.22 4.60 5.99 7.82 9.21 13.82 3 4.64 6.25 7.82 9.84 11.34 16.27 4 5.99 7.78 9.49 11.67 13.28 18.46 5 7.29 9.24 11.07 13.39 15.09 20.52

6 8.56 10.64 12.59 15.03 16.81 22.46 7 9.80 12.02 14.07 16.62 18.48 24.32 8 11.03 13.36 15.51 18.17 20.09 26.12 9 12.24 14.68 16.92 19.68 21.67 27.88

10 13.44 15.99 18.31 21.16 23.21 29.59

11 14.63 17.28 19.68 22.62 24.72 31.26 12 15.81 18.55 21.03 24.05 26.22 32.91 13 16.98 19.81 22.36 25.47 27.69 34.53 14 18.15 21.06 23.68 26.87 29.14 36.12 15 19.31 22.31 25.00 28.26 30.58 37.70

16 20.46 23.54 26.30 29.63 32.00 39.29 17 21.62 24.77 27.59 31.00 33.41 40.75 18 22.76 25.99 28.87 32.35 34.80 42.31 19 23.90 27.20 30.14 33.69 36.19 43.82 20 25.04 28.41 31.41 35.02 37.57 45.32

21 26.17 29.62 32.67 36.34 38.93 46.80 22 27.30 30.81 33.92 37.66 40.29 48.27 23 28.43 32.01 35.17 38.97 41.64 49.73 24 29.55 33.20 36.42 40.27 42.98 51.18 25 30.68 34.38 37.65 41.57 44.31 52.62

26 31.80 35.56 38.88 42.86 45.64 54.05 27 32.91 36.74 40.11 44.14 46.96 55.48 28 34.03 37.92 41.34 45.42 48.28 56.89 29 35.14 39.09 42.69 47.96 49.59 58.30 30 36.25 40.26 43.77 49.69 50.89 59.70

32 38.47 42.59 46.19 50.49 53.49 62.49 34 40.68 44.90 48.60 53.00 56.06 65.25 36 42.88 47.21 51.00 55.49 58.62 67.99 38 45.08 49.51 53.58 57.97 61.16 70.70 40 47.27 51.81 55.76 60.44 63.69 73.40

44 51.64 56.37 60.48 65.34 68.71 78.75 48 55.99 60.91 65.17 70.20 73.68 84.04 52 60.33 65.42 69.83 75.02 78.62 89.27 56 64.66 69.92 74.47 79.82 83.51 94.46 60 68.97 74.40 79.08 84.58 88.38 99.61

The calculated value of X2 must be equal to or greater than the critical value for significance at the level indicated. Source: Fisher and Yates, Statistical Tables for Biological, Agricultural and Medical Research (Harlow: Longman, 1974)


Table A1.5 Critical values of Speannan's rho (Ps)


0.10 0.05 0.02 0.01


0.05 0.025 0.01 0.005

n=4 r1.000 5 0.900 1.000 1.000 6 0.829 0.886 0.943 1.000 7 0.714 0.786 0.893 0.929 8 0.643 0.738 0.833 0.881 9 0.600 0.700 0.783 0.833

10 0.564 0.648 0.745 0.794 11 0.536 0.618 0.709 0.755 12 0.503 0.587 0.671 0.727 13 0.484 0.560 0.648 0.703 14 0.464 0.538 0.622 0.675 15 0.443 0.521 0.604 0.654 16 0.429 0.503 0.582 0.635 17 0.414 0.485 0.566 0.615 18 0.401 0.472 0.550 0.600 19 0.391 0.460 0.535 0.584 20 0.380 0.447 0.520 0.570 21 0.370 0.435 0.508 0.556 22 0.361 0.425 0.496 0.544 23 0.353 0.415 0.486 0.532 24 0.344 0.406 0.476 0.521 25 0.337 0.398 0.466 0.511 26 0.331 0.390 0.457 0.501 27 0.324 0.382 0.448 0.491 28 0.317 0.375 0.440 0.483 29 0.312 0.368 0.433 0.475 30 0.306 0.362 0.425 0.467

The calculated value of Ps must be equal to or greater than the critical value for significance at the level indicated. SourceJ.H. Zar, 'Significance Testing of the Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient' ,Journal oftheAmerican Statistical Association, vol. 67, pp. 578-80.

APPENDIX 1 347

Table A1.6 Critical values of Pearson's r


0.05 0.025 0.005 0.0005


df(n-2) 0.10 0.05 0.01 0.001

2 0.900 0.950 0.9900 0.9999 3 0.805 0.878 0.9587 0.9911 4 0.729 0.811 0.9172 0.9741 5 0.669 0.754 0.875 0.9509

6 0.621 0.707 0.834 0.9241 7 0.582 0.666 0.798 0.898 8 0.549 0.632 0.765 0.872 9 0.521 0.602 0.735 0.847

10 0.497 0.576 0.708 0.823

11 0.476 0.553 0.684 0.801 12 0.475 0.532 0.661 0.780 13 0.441 0.514 0.641 0.760 14 0.426 0.497 0.623 0.742 15 0.412 0.482 0.606 0.725

16 0.400 0.468 0.590 0.708 17 0.389 0.456 0.575 0.693 18 0.378 0.444 0.561 0.679 19 0.369 0.433 0.549 0.665 20 0.360 0.423 0.537 0.652

25 0.323 0.381 0.487 0.597 30 0.296 0.349 0.449 0.554 35 0.275 0.325 0.418 0.519 40 0.257 0.304 0.393 0.490 45 0.243 0.288 0.372 0.465

50 0.231 0.273 0.354 0.443 60 0.211 0.250 0.325 0.408 70 0.195 0.232 0.302 0.380 80 0.183 0.217 0.283 0.357 90 0.173 0.205 0.267 0.338

100 0.164 0.195 0.254 0.321

The calculated value of r must be equal to or greater than the critical value for significance at the level indicated. Sou·ree: F.C. Powell, Cambridge Mathematical and Statistical Tables (Cambridge University Press, 1976).


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o Glossary of terms

ACCOMMODATION - In Piaget's theory, the process whereby individuals alter their existing ways of thinking in order to interpret and deal with new information (see also assimilation). ACTION POTENTIAL - The brief change in the state of a nerve cell when a nerve impulse is activated. ALTRUISM - Virtually the opposite of selfishness, the tendency to place others' welfare before that of oneself. In some cases this may even involve endangering one's life in order that others may benefit. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE - A branch of computer science involving the ways in which machines can be constructed that will emulate human thinking and behaviour. ASSIMILATION - In Piaget's theory, the process whereby the individual is able to use existing ways of thinking for interpreting and dealing with new information (see also accommodation). ATTACHMENT - An emotional bond between individuals (usually infant and adult) such that the infant is comforted by the other's remaining close, but is distressed by separation from the other. ATTRIBUTION THEORY - A topic within social psychology that focuses on the processes involved when individuals look for explanations of others' behaviour. AXON - A part of the neuron that conducts information away from the cell towards a synapse. BEHAVIOURISM - An approach to psychology that proposes a true understanding of behaviour can only come from studying that which can be directly observed and measured. BIOFEEDBACK - The feeding back into the system (that is, the body) of information regarding physiological or bodily changes. As a therapeutic technique, for example, patients can be taught to control their pulse rates. CASE STUDY - A method of investigation that is based upon detailed accounts of an individual's (or small group's) life history, using records, files and the subject's own recollection of events. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - Stemming from the work of Pavlov, a type oflearning that arises from two stimuli being paired together so that the automatic


response to the original stimulus is learnt in connection with a second, previously neutral, one. CLINICAL INTERVIEW - A technique for gathering information in which the subject is encouraged to respond freely to situations and questions with which they are presented: that is, the discussion is 'unstructured' (see the work of Pia get) . COGNITION - Generally taken to refer to all mental processes such as thinking, decision making, problem solving, remembering and so on. Studied by cognitive psychologists. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY - A perspective that concerns itself with explaining behaviour in terms of the changes that occur (over time) in processes such as thinking and reasoning (see also Psychoanalytic Theory and Social Learning Theory for a contrast). COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY - A branch of psychology concerned with making comparisons between different animal species. CORRELATION - A method of investigation that looks at the degree to which two variables are related. However, if a relationship is found to exist, it does not allow the conclusion that one thing causes the other (for example depression and rainfall). CRITICAL PERIOD - A label used with reference to certain kinds of behaviours or responses, the implication being that unless the behaviour takes place within a specific time period, then it never will. Some researchers, though, have shown that the acquisition period can be extended, and so the term 'sensitive period' is often preferred. CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY - A method of investigation that involves comparing the practices of different cultural groups with regard to such aspects as child-rearing styles and language acquisition. CULTURE-FAIR - Used in the context of testing and assessment, the view that questions and items should be designed for universal use, and should not penalize people from other cultures or be biased against them in any way (sometimes known as culture-free). DEBRIEFING - A procedure that takes place following an experiment, whereby prior to the participant leaving the (true) purpose of the study is explained to them. It is sometimes known as dehoaxing. DEGREES OF FREEDOM - A concept used in the statistical analysis of data to refer to the number of values or observations that are 'free to vary'. Usually (but not always) determined by the formula n - 1, where n is the number of cases, or subjects. DEPENDENT V ARIABLE-That variable in an experiment which the researcher sets out to measure, such as the time taken to complete a task (see also Independent Variable). ECT - or electro-convulsive therapy, involves the sending of electrical current through electrodes attached to the scalp of mentally disturbed patients. Used most often as a treatment for depression. EGOCENTRISM - The inability to see things from another perspective. According to Piaget, this is one of the features that limits the thinking of preoperational children. EMPIRICISM - The school of thought that maintains that knowledge stems from experience and learning.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 367

ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY - A branch of psychology that studies people in the context of their surroundings (for example how people interact in crowds, factors in the environment that induce stress and so on). ETHOLOGY - The study of animal behaviour in natural settings (as opposed to laboratory studies). EXPERIMENT - A method of investigation in which the researcher studies the effects of one variable upon another, whilst at the same time attempting to exercise control over 'outside' influences that may affect the results. GENERALIZATION - Essentially the principle of going from the particular to the general, and applying specific findings on a broader scale; the intention of researchers is to generalize their findings from a (small) sample of subjects to the wider population. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY - A school of thought that proposes behaviour can only be fully understood in terms of the 'whole' aspect, and that breaking down behaviours into smaller units detracts from their appreciation. Exemplified in the statement, 'the whole is greater than the sum of all the parts' (for example a crowd is more than a collection of individuals). HALO EFFECT - In impression formation, the tendency to use one particular characteristic of a person as the basis for an overall view, such as assuming that an attractive person is also intelligent, humorous, good-natured and so on. It can operate both positively and negatively. HAWTHORNE EFFECT - An effect named after the factory in which it was first observed, whereby people's performances improve merely as a result of their being the subject of study, and therefore the centre of interest or attention. HYPOTHESIS - A dearly defined prediction a researcher makes at the start of an investigation, and then proceeds to test. The results of the investigation enable the researcher either to support or to reject the hypothesis. IDENTIFICATION - The process in which an individual adopts the characteristic behaviours and views of another person (or group) in an effort to be like them (for example a child identifying with the same-sex parent). IMPRINTING-The phenomenon associated with early-maturing animals, whereby shortly after birth they follow the first distinctive object (usually the parent) with which they come into contact. INCIDENTAL LEARNING - Learning that occurs without any specific effort or deliberate intent by the learner at the time. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE - That variable in an experiment which the researcher alters or deliberately changes in an attempt to see how it affects the dependent variable. INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING - A procedure whereby an animal (or person) learns to associate a specific action with a specific outcome: that is, the action is 'instrumental' in bringing about the outcome. IQ - Intelligence quotient: the unit of measurement that reflects an individual's performance score on an intelligence test. LATENT LEARNING - A type of learning that reveals itself some time after it actually took place. It provides evidence for the notion that 'learning' itself can never be directly measured, only performance.


MATURATION - The process by which certain developmental changes occur in an individual's physical make-up as a result of in-built genetic factors, rather than learning. These in tum lead to new patterns of behaviour. MENTAL AGE - A term used in intelligence testing to define an individual's level of intellectual capacity (for example 'a bright' child with an actual, or chronological, age of seven may have the mental age of a nine year old). MNEMONIC - a technique or device used to aid memory. MODEL - As used in social learning theory this refers to an individual whose behaviour sets a standard that is observed and imitated by others. MOTHERESE - A simplified form of language used by adults (and older children) when speaking to young children. Key words tend to be emphasized and sentences are generally much shorter than in adult speech. NATIVISM - The school of thought that stresses the role of inborn, biologically determined influences upon behaviour (see also Empiricism and the NatureNurture Debate). NATURE-NURTURE DEBATE - A term used to describe the opposing viewpoints held on several issues in psychology such as language, intelligence and perception. The 'nature' side supports the influence of inborn factors, while the 'nurture' side argues in favour of learning and experience. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT - A procedure whereby a response is strengthened by removing an unpleasant stimulus immediately after the (desired) response occurs. NEONATE - Newborn. NEURAL NETWORKS - A term referring to the vast system of connections and interconnections within the nervous system, and which provided a model upon which to base ideas of artificial intelligence. NEURON - Nerve cell (the basic unit of the nervous system). NEUROPSYCHOLOGY - A branch of psychology that investigates the important relationship between the nervous system and behaviour. NEUROTRANSMITTER - A substance involved in communicating the signal between adjacent cells in the nervous system. NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS - A group of statistical tests that place less stringent demands upon data for their use than their parametric counterparts (see below). NORMAL DISTRIBUTION - A term referring to the way in which certain characteristics are spread throughout the population, with the greater number of cases falling around the average, and lesser and lesser ones out towards the extremes. Represented graphically as a bell-shaped curve (see Fig 9.2). OBSERVATIONAL STUDY - A method of investigation in which subjects' behaviour is observed and recorded, usually with as little interference as possible by the researcher. PARAMETRIC TESTS - A robust group of statistical tests that require certain conditions to be met before they can be used on data, for example t tests. PEER - A member of the same age-group. PERCEPTION - The 'active' process by which information from the senses (such as vision) is interpreted, using past experience and knowledge. PERCEPTUAL SET - A state of readiness or predisposition to perceive something in a particular way.


POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT - A procedure whereby a response is strengthened by presenting a reward immediately after it occurs. PRIMACY EFFECT - (a) In impression formation, the tendency to be influenced by the early or first information received about a person; (b) in memory research, the tendency to recall the first items of a list better than those in the middle. PROBABILITY - The likelihood of an event occurring. Used in psychology with reference to the influence of chance upon the outcome of experimental investigations. PROSOCIAL BEBA VIOUR - Behaviour that results in a favourable outcome for others (for example helping, sharing and cooperating). PSYCHIATRY - A branch of medicine that specializes in the study and treatment of mental disorders. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY - A perspective, usually linked to the work of Sigmund Freud, that concerns itself with explaining behaviour in terms of the unconscious influences said to cause it. PSYCHOMETRICS - The use of tests and other forms of assessment to measure aspects of behaviour. PUNISHMENT - A procedure whereby a response is weakened or decreased by presenting an unpleasant stimulus immediately after the response occurs. RECENCY EFFECT - (a) In impression formation, the tendency to be influenced by the last information received about a person; (b) in memory research, the tendency to recall the later items of a list better than those in the middle. REHEARSAL - The repetition of previously learnt information in order to aid remembering it on a later occasion. REINFORCEMENT - A procedure that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a response. RISKY SHIFT - A phenomenon observed within group interactions in which it is found that people in a group have a tendency to make decisions that are more risky than the ones they make as individuals. ROLE - That aspect of individuals which leads them to behave in certain ways when interacting with others, and which in tum leads other people to have expectations about their behaviour. SCHEMA - A term used in cognitive psychology to refer to a mental plan or framework that is used when interpreting objects and events, planning and guiding actions. SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY - The tendency for a prediction to come true because of subsequent behaviour that makes it more likely to happen (for example people who presume they will fail an interview may behave in certain ways that in fact bring this about). SENSATION - The receiving and processing of information by the sense organs (as distinct from perception, which is the actual interpretation of this information). SIGNIFICANCE - A term used to refer to the likelihood that the results of a study could not have come about by chance. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY - A perspective that concerns itselfwith explaining behaviour in terms of processes, such as the observation and imitation of models.


SOCIAL NORMS - The acknowledged codes of conduct and standards that govern behaviour in a society. STEREOTYPE - A means of categorizing people on the basis of certain assumptions made about the behaviour of the group to which they belong. SUPERNORMAL STIMULUS - A term used in ethology for a feature that produces an exaggerated response from an animal (that is, one that is stronger than normal). SURVEY METHOD - A method of investigation in which the researcher collects information from a large number of people, either by questionnaire or interview. SYNAPSE - In the nervous system, the gap between two adjacent nerve cells. TRANSDUCTION - The process by which incoming sensory information (such as light or sound) is translated into nerve impulses, thereby allowing analysis and interpretation. TYPE ONE ERROR - An error made when interpreting the results of a study whereby it is claimed that the findings are statistically significant when in actual fact they are not; that is, the null hypothesis is rejected when it ought to be accepted. TYPE TWO ERROR - An error made when interpreting the results of a study in which the researcher fails to detect statistical significance when it is present; that is, the null hypothesis is accepted when it ought to be rejected. UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UCR) - A term used in classical conditioning for the unlearnt response (usually a reflex) given when presented with a certain stimulus. NB: The learnt response is called the CR. UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (UCS) - A term used in classical conditioning for the stimulus that elicits an unlearnt response. VARIANCE - Used in statistical analysis, a term referring to the extent to which a set of scores are spread (or dispersed).


o Index

A

accommodation 164, 366 action potential 244-5, 366 activity theory 15 adolescence 9-13 adulthood 13-15 ageing 14-15, 157-8 aggression

cross-cultural studies of 30-1 definitions of 24 sex differences in 30 television and 27 theories of 24-30

agraphia 252 AIDS 60-1 Ainsworth, M. 6-7 alexia 252 altruism 227, 366 amenorrhoea 11 American Psychological Association

310 American Sign Language (ASL) 193 animism 166 anorexia nervosa 11,223 anti-depressants 235 anti-Semitism 74 aphasia 252 artificial intelligence 143--4, 159-60,

366 assimilation 164, 366


Atkinson, R. C. and Shiffrin, R. M. 129, 132

attachment 3-7, 225, 366 attention

automatic and conscious processing 126-7

cocktail party effect 119 divided 124-6 methods of studying 118 selective 119-24

attenuator model 123--4 attitudes

behaviour and 55-7 changing of 58-63 consistency theory of 63-5 definitions of 51-2 development of 57-8 measurement of 52-5

attraction 78-84 attribution theory 84-6, 366 audience effect 33-5 authoritarian personality 74 autism 209-10, 236 autokinetic effect 35 aversion therapy 207 axon 244-5

B

babbling 184 Bandura, A. 16, 18, 25-6

Bandura, A., Ross, D. and Ross, S. A. 25-6

Bartlett, F. 132-3 behaviour

abnormal 230-1 evolution and 217-20 genetics and 221-3 maturation and 223-4 modification 209-10 rituals 218-19 therapy 209-10

behaviourism 279-80,366 biofeedback 210,366 blind spot 92, 95 Bobo doll 25-6 bottom-up approach 132 Bower, T. 176 Bowlby, J. 4-6 brain

language and 252-3 laterality of function and 251,276 plasticity of function and 254 split-brain studies 252-4 structure of 247-51

British Psychological Society 288 Broca's area 252-3 Bruner, J. 179 bystander effect 34

c

case study 21,267,366 castration complex 21, 266 catatonic schizophrenia 215 central traits 68-9 cerebellum 247, 248 cerebral cortex 97-9,250-1 chi-squared 337-8, 346 Chomsky, N. 191-2 chromosomal abnormalities 17 chromosomes 17 chronological age 148, 369 classical conditioning 57, 196-8,

205-7,366 clinical interview 175, 367 clinical psychology 281-2 clinical studies 113, 240

cocktail party effect 119 cognition 64, 162,367 cognitive developmental theory 16,

22-3,367 cognitive dissonance 64-5 collective unconscious 268-9 comparative psychology 214,367 compensation 256 complementarity 82-3 compliance 42-4, 46-7 computer simulation 303,312-3 concrete operational stage 165,

169-72 concurrent validity 150 conditioned response 196-8,206 conditioned stimulus 197-8, 206 cones 92-6 conformity 35-42 connectionism 143-4 conservation 167-70, 177-9 control 303,316-18 corpus callosum 247,252 correlation 27,303,318,320-1,

331,338-41,367 Cottrell, N. B. 34-5 counter-stereotyping 76-7 counter-balancing 306-7 criminological psychology 283 critical period 17, 188, 224-6, 367 cross-cultural study 20, 30-1, 113,

303,367 culture-fair (tests) 149, 367 cycle of abuse 4

D

Darwin, C. 273, 279 data

continuous 319 discrete 319 interval 330 nominal 329 ordinal 330 ratio 330

debriefing 48,318,323,367 decision making 15, 300 decision time 15

INDEX 373

defence mechanisms 264-6 degrees of freedom 334, 367 dendrite 243-6 dependent variable 303,305,316,

367 depression 234,237-41 developmental theory 16,22-3, 164,

367 deviation 151,326-7 dichotic listening 118 Diploma in Social Work 287 discrimination 71

animalleaming and 197-8 causes of 73-5 prejudice and 71-5 reduction of 75-8

displacement 218, 263 dissonance 64-5 divided attention 124-6 dominant response 34 dopamine 237 drosophila 221-2 drugs 233-5 DSM 231,236 dualism 274-5 dysgraphia 252 dyslexia 252 dysphasia 252

E

Ebbinghaus, H. 278 echoic memory 129 echolalia 184 EeT 238,367 educational psychology 282-3 ego 261-2,264-5 egocentrism 166, 176-8, 367 Electra complex 21, 266-7 electromagnetism 91-2 emergent properties 274 empiricism 88, 113,367 endocrine system 10, 249-50 environmental psychology 34, 368 epistemology 162 Erikson, E. 11-14


error type one 328,371 type two 328,371

ethics 310 ethnocentrism 74 ethogram 216 ethology 24-5,213-17,368 evaluation apprehension 35 evolution (and behaviour) 217-20 expectancy effects 109, 156-7 experiment 303-4, 368 experimental design 306-9,316-18 experimental hypotheses 304-5,

315 expert system 143 extraversion 68, 259, 334 eyewitness testimony 133 Eysenck, H. 259

F

facilitation 32-5 Fantz, R. 2 FAP 216-17 Fiedler, F. 300 filter model 120-1 fixation 265-6 flooding 206-7 formal operational stage 165, 172-3,

179 free association 267 Freud, S.

defence mechanisms 264-5 methods 267 personality theory of 259-67 socialization perspective 16

frontal lobe 250-2 frustration-aggression hypothesis

28-9 F-scale 74

G

Galton, F. 152,278 Gardner, F. A. and Gardner, B. T.

193-4 gender 17-19

gender constancy 22 general intelligence 152-3 generalization 48, 197-8, 368 Genovese, Kitty 34 genital stage 266 Gestalt psychology 89, 114-16,368 Gregory, R. L. 101, 103 group processes 299-301 GSR 270 Guilford, J. P. 154

H

halo effect 70, 368 Harlow, H. 4 Hawthorne

effect 293, 368 studies 292-6

health psychology 285, 287 hebephrenic schizophrenia 236 hemispheres (of brain) 250-1 Herzberg, F. 298 heuristics 144 hierarchy of needs 296-8 holophrase 185 hormones 10, 249-50 Hubel, D. H. and Wiesel, T. N.

97-8 humanism 258-9 hydraulic model 29,218 hypothesis

experimental 304-5 linguistic-relativity 187 one-tailed 304 two-tailed 305

hypothalamus 247,249 hypotheses 304-5, 315, 258, 368

I

lCD 231 iconic memory 128 id 261-2,264 identification 20-1, 368 identity crisis 11-12 idiographic approach 255, 258 imitation 21-2,25-7

implicit personality theory 71 implosion therapy 206 impression formation 67-70 imprinting 3--4, 224-7, 368 incidental learning 134, 368 inclusive fitness 229 independent groups design 307-8,

331 independent t test 336-7 independent variable 303, 316, 368 informed consent 310 innate 2, 229 instinct 24, 261 instrumental conditioning 198,

207-10,368 intelligence

artificial 143--4, 159-60, 366 current research in 160-1 lQ and 146, 148-51,368 reliability and 150 testing, development of 149-51 test performance, determinants

of 156-9 tests, construction of 149-51 theories of 151-5 validity and 150

interviews 175, 303 introspection 267,303 introversion 68, 259 intuitive stage 167 invariant order 164-5 lQ 146, 148-51,368

J

James, W. 124, 256 jigsaw classroom 77 jnd 277 Jung, C. G. 268-71

K

Kahneman, D. 124 kinship 228 Klinefelter's syndrome 17 Kohlberg, L. 16, 174 Kraepelin, E. 231

INDEX 375

L

LAD 191-2 language

and thought 187 animal studies and 193-5 impaired development of 188-9 one-word stage of 185 overregularization in 186 pre-linguistic stage of 183-4 questions, phrasing of 187 structure of 182-3 theories of 189-93 two-word stage of 185-6

LaPiere, R. 56 large-scale research 311-12 latent learning 211-12,368 laterality of brain function 251 law of effect 198-9 leadership 299-300 learned helplessness 238-9 learning

aggression and 25-8 classical conditioning 57, 196-8,

205-7,366 instrumental conditioning 198,

207-10,368 latent 211-12,368 pro-social behaviour and 27 reinforcement 199-204 sex roles and 21-2 theory, applications of 205-9

levels of measurement 329-31 levels of processing 133-7 libido 261 life events 13 linguistic-relativity hypothesis 187 Likert scale 54, 55 Little Albert 206 Little Hans 21 lobes of brain 250-4 localization of brain function 252-4 Loci, method of 138 Loftus, E. 133 Lorenz, K. 24-5,215,217 low-ball effect 44 LTM 129-32


M

Mann-Whitney U test 334-5, 345 MAP 216-17 Maslow, A. 296-8 matched subjects design 307-9,

333 matching hypothesis 80 maternal deprivation 4, 6 maturation

behaviour and 223-4 definition of 369 intelligence and 157 Piaget and 163 rates, effects of 10-11

Mead, G. 257 Mead, M. 20 mean 325 median 324-5 memory

Atkinson-Shiffrin model of 129-32

eyewitness testimony and 133 levels of processing and 133-7 semantic 140-3 sensory 128-9 serial position effect and 130-2 studies, criticisms of 132-3

menarche 10, 223 mental age 147-8,369 mental illness 231-3 Milgram, S. 45-9 MLU 186 mnemonics 137-40,369 modelling 16, 21-2, 25-6, 369 mode 324 moral realism 173 moral relativism 174 morality 173-4 Morgan's canon 279 morpheme 182 motherese 186, 190, 369 monotropic 5 motor cortex 253 motivation,

theories of 289-98 Miiller-Lyer illusion 101

N

Nativism 113,191,369 nature-nurture debate 111, 112,369 Naughty Teddy 178 negative reinforcement 200-1,369 neonate 113,369 nervous system

brain, structure of 247-51 spinal cord 248 synapse 245-6

neuralneDNorks 143-4,369 neuron 243-6 neuropsychology 243, 369 neuroses 231 neurotransmitter 237, 245-6, 369 nomothetic approach 255,270 non-parametric 328, 369 norm

age 149-50 social 75, 371

normal distribution 151,329,369 null hypothesis 305-6, 342

o

obedience 44-50 object permanence 165, 175-6 observational study 303,309-10,

337,369 occipital lobe 250-1 occupational psychology 282 Oedipus complex 21, 266-7 ontogeny 213 operant conditioning 198, 207-10 operational definition 305 oral stage 265 order effects (control of) 306-7 outliers 325 overextensions 185 overgeneralization 186 overlearning 278 overregularization 186

p

paranoid schizophrenia 236 parietal lobe 250-1

Parkinson's disease 234 participant observation 309 Pavlov, I. 120, 196-8 parametric 328, 369 Pearson's product moment 340-1,

348 Penfield, W. 251 penis envy 21 pegword system 139-40 penguin dance 219 perception

definition of 369 features of 109-12 Gestalt theory of 114-16, 368 nature-nurture debate and

112-14 sensation and 99-10 1 visual illusions and 10 1-8 visual system and 92-9

perceptual set 109, 369 personality

Freudian theory of 259-67 Humanism and 258-9 Jungian theory of 268-70 psychoanalytical theory and 255-6 role theory and 256-8 type and trait approaches to 259

persuasive communication 59-63 PGCE 283 pheromone 250 phobia 205-7 phonemes 182 photoreceptors 94-6 phylogeny 213 Piaget, J.

alternatives to 179 criticisms of 175-9 educational implications and 175 moral development and 173-4 stage theory of 164-73

pie chart 321 pituitary gland 247, 249 plasticity (of brain) 254 play 9, 166 populations 304 positive reinforcement 26, 200, 370 pre-conceptual stage 166

INDEX 377

prejudice causes of 73-5 definition of 71 racism 71-2 reduction of 75-8 sexism 72

pre-operational stage 166-9, 176 primacy effect 67-8, 370 primary reinforcement 201-2 prison experiment 49-50 prison psychologist 283 probability 328, 370 programmed learning 207-9 projection 264-5 prosocial behaviour 27, 370 psychiatry 230, 370 psychoanalytical theory

aggression and 29-30 sex roles and 20-1 personality and 255-6

psychology careers in 281-8 historical account of 275-80 nature-nurture debate and 111,

112,369 psychometrics 149,370 psychosexual stages 265-6 psychoses 231 psychosocial stages 11-12 punishment 16,201,370 pygmalion effect 156-7

Q

questionnaire 15,52,371 questions

eyewitness research, leading 133 language, appearance in 187

quotient (of intelligence) 146, 148-51,368

R

racism 71-2 random sampling 304 range 325-6 recall 130


recency effect impression formation and 67-8,

370 memory and 130-1

receptive fields 96-9 reciprocity 2 reductionism 273-4 reflex 2, 163, 196-8 regression 265 rehearsal 130 reinforcement 22

definition of 370 negative 200-1,369 positive 26, 200, 370 primary 201-2 schedules of 202-5 secondary 201-2 social learning theory and 25

related t test 333-4, 344 reliability 150 repeated measures 306, 307, 308,

331 repertory grid test 258-9 report writing 314-23 repression 264, 266 resource allocation 124-6 reticular formation 247, 248-9 retina 92, 93-7 risky shift 300-1,370 rituals 218-19 Robber's Cave study 77-8 rods 94-6 role 18-19,256-8,370 role theory 256-8 Rutter, M. 6

s

sample 304, 316 scapegoating 73 Schachter, S. 79 schema

Bartlett 132-3 definition 370 Piaget 163-4

schizophrenia causes of 236-7

treatment of 234 types of 236

secondary reinforcement 201-2 self-actualization 297 self-fulfilling prophecy 70, 71 semantic differential 54-5 semantic memory 140-3 semantics 183 sensation 88, 370 sensitive period 226-7,367 sensori-motor stage 165, 175 separation anxiety 5-6 serial position effect 130-2 set 109,369 sex reassignment 19-20 sex role typing

acquisition of 18-19 cognitive approach to 22-3 cross-cultural studies and 20 psychoanalytic theory of 20-1,23 social learning theory of 21-2, 23

sexism 72 shadowing 118 shaping 209-10 Sherif, M. 35, 77-8 significance 321, 370 sign stimulus 214-16 simulation

computer 303, 312-13 prison 49-50

Skinner, B. F. language, approach to 189-91 reinforcement and 199-200 schedules and 202-5

Skinner box 199 sleep 248-9 social cognition 84, 179 social facilitation 32-5 social learning theory

aggression and 25-7 attitudes and 58 definition of 370 language and 188-91 sex role typing and 21-2 socialization and 16

social norm 75, 371 social releaser 214-16

socialization 16 sociobiology 227-8 Spearman, C. 152-3 Spearman's rho 338-9,347 split-brain studies 252-4 sport psychology 284-5 spreading activation theory 142-3 stage theory

Erikson 11-14 Freud 259-67 Piaget 164-73

standard deviation 151, 236-7 standardization 149-51 statistics

descriptive 324-7 inferential 327-41

sticklebacks 215 stereotyping 19, 76-7, 371 STM 129-32 strange situation 6-7 Stroop effect III subjects 304, 310, 316 superego 262 supernormal stimulus 216,371 surrogate 4 survey 52, 303, 371 synapse 245-6 syntax 182-3 systematic desensitization 206 systematic observation 309-10

T

Taylor, F. 289-92 Tchambuli 20 telegraphic speech 185-6 television and aggression 27 temporal lobe 250-1 territorial aggression 24, 215, 249 testosterone 249 test-retest method 150 thalamus 97 Thanatos 29,261 Thorndike, E. L. 198-9 Thurstone, L. L. 153-4 Thurstone Scales 54 time sample 309-10

INDEX 379

Tinbergen, N. 24,215-16 token economy system 209-10 Tolman, E. C. 211 top-down approach 132 trait 68-9 tranquillizers 234-5 transduction 94,371 transitivity 171 Treisman, A. 122-4 trial and error learning 149 Triplett, N. 32-3 ttests 333-4,336-7,344 Turner's syndrome 17 twin studies 152 two-process model (of memory)

129, 132 two-word utterances 185-6 type one error 328, 371 type two error 328, 371

U unconditioned response 206, 207,

371 unconditioned stimulus 197, 206,

207,371 unconscious

collective 268-9 personal 268


underextensions 185 unemployment 73,237,282

v

validity 150 variance 329,371 visual system 92-9 Von Frisch, K. 181

w

Washue 193-4 Watson, J. B. 279 Watson, J. B. and Rayner, R. 206 Welford, A. T. 15 Wernicke's area 252-3 Whorf, B. L. 187 Wilcoxon signed ranks test 332-3,

343 work, motivation to 289-99 World Health Organization 231 Wundt, W. 277-8

z

Zajonc, R. B. 33-4 Zimbardo, P. G. et al. 49-50

o Appendix 1: Statistical tables

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