Naomi Adams & Mark Chidler1 - Educacion Global Research

Número Siete (Mayo 2015) Página 21 Issue Seven (Mayo 2015) Page 21

Naomi Adams & Mark Chidler1

THE IMPACT OF AN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL PARTNERSHIP UPON THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF

GEOGRAPHY – UGANDA A CASE STUDY

Abstract Teaching primary geography is an intellectual, practical, creative and social endeavour, which seeks to help children to better understand the world in which they live in. This paper explores effective teaching and learning theories within the geography curriculum, central educational issues of International School Partnerships, and recent developments in policy. This paper evaluates how the amalgamation of the above, impacts upon the teaching and learning of geography. Uganda serves as a case study having been the catalyst for this research whilst one of the authors was undertaking an International teaching placement prior to the completion of an undergraduate degree. This paper is the product of academic and student partnership where undergraduate students are considered as academic partners to facilitate in fostering and developing life long learners and enhanced studentship. Key words International School Partnerships, Global Dimension, Interdependence, Citizenship, Geography, Pedagogy, Teaching and Learning.

1 Naomi Adams is currently employed as a Primary School teacher working in London at Rokesly Junior School. Naomi undertook an international placement in Uganda and whilst there was intrigued by the teacher and learners interpretations of how their partner school impacted upon them. Naomi completed her undergraduate studies at Newman University Birmingham. Naomi is currently involved with a teacher development project in Uganda having been inspired by her experiences. In partnership with another colleague she has also initiated a European school partnership with her class. Contact: E‐mail: [email protected]. Mark Chidler is Senior Lecturer in Geography and Citizenship Education, Newman University Birmingham. Mark has a teaching background in Primary Education working in urban and rural environments in the UK. Since 2005 he has been engaged with Initial Teacher Education focusing primarily upon the development of Geography and Citizenship education. As an experienced field‐work educator, he leads a number of student centred international experiences annually in West Africa. Current research interests are concerned with Internationalising the curriculum and exploring International school partnerships in a range of overseas localities. Mark currently leads the Undergraduate Humanities and Post Graduate Geography, History & Citizenship courses at Newman University Birmingham. Contact: Newman University Birmingham, Genners Lane, Bartley Green, Birmingham, England B32 3NT. E‐mail: [email protected] .

The INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL for GLOBAL and DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION RESEARCH REVISTA INTERNACIONAL sobre INVESTIGACIÓN en EDUCACIÓN GLOBAL y para el DESARROLLO

THE IMPACT OF AN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL PARTNERSHIP UPON THE TEACHING AND LEARNING

OF GEOGRAPHY – UGANDA A CASE STUDY El IMPACTO DE LOS “PARTENARIADOS INTERNACIONALES ENTRE COLEGIOS” (PIC) SOBRE LA

ENSEÑANZA Y EL APRENDIZAJE DE LA GEOGRAFÍA. UGANDA, UN ESTUDIO DE CASO.

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Teaching primary geography is an intellectual, practical, creative and social endeavour which seeks to help children to better understand the world in which they live in, thereby satisfying their natural curiosity (Knight, 2012, p.38). Moreover, learning about contrasting localities affords teachers an exceptional opportunity to initiate children’s awareness and understanding of values such as: respect, equity and diversity (Cliffford, et al., 2009; Owen & Ryan, 2001, p.158). Within the framework of these aims, there has been a surge amongst educationalists in the last two decades that emphasises the importance of preparing learners to be responsible global citizens (See figure 1) (Collins, 2008; GLEAN, 2007; Tanner, 2007; Hicks, 2004). The DfES International Strategy (2007) boasts that an International school partnership (ISP) is a powerful mechanism to support the Global Dimension for both partnership schools. Whilst much academic research has been undertaken into the areas of partnership inequality and global citizenship within schools, there is insufficient empirical research into how geographical knowledge is explained, transformed and understood, by teachers and learners, within an ISP context (Taylor & Elias, 2012, p.155; Asbrand, 2008, p.75). This paper explores effective teaching and learning theories within the geography curriculum, central educational issues of ISPs, recent developments in policy and evaluates how the amalgamation of the above, impacts upon the teaching and learning of geography. Uganda serves as a case study for this research.

Figure 1

“Children should be encouraged to think about development issues for themselves and come to their own conclusions. What children learn in school has an enduring influence and shapes their adult lives. So if we want young people to grow up caring about global poverty and be supportive of government efforts to address this, we need schools to provide them with accurate knowledge and understanding of the world and the appropriate skills to be able to engage with global issues.”

(Royal geographical society, 2009, p.1)

The catalyst for such study involved a critical incident, whilst teaching in Uganda. Ugandan children wore donated English school jumpers and spoke of the new kitchen and textbooks that their ISP had funded. However, they possessed little geographical understanding of the country their partner school was situated in (England) or its local community. This shallow understanding of geography caused questions about previous assumptions that an ISP was a tool to enhance a positive learning experience for all participants in preparing them to be global citizens. Consequently, this incident propagated an investigation as to whether ISPs provide a proficient pedagogical approach to the teaching and learning of geography in England. This research focuses





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on a primary school partnership between a less economically developed country (LEDC), namely Uganda, and a more economically developed country, England. This paper sets out to explore and seek answers to a number of key questions. • Is the motive for instigating an ISP to improve the quality of geography or gain credence through an international schools award? • How does an ISP influence effective geography pedagogy? • What is the impact of the activities on skills, knowledge, values and attitudes on teaching and learning? • Do children have a more proficient understanding of their partnered distant locality as a result of an ISP? • To what extent does global citizenship overshadow geographical skills? Uganda is located in Eastern Africa, south of South Sudan, west of Kenya and east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Uganda has a tropical climate close to the equator. Despite this, it has a lower altitude than surrounding nations (Bakama, 2010). There are mountainous regions that encompass Uganda such as the Rwenzori mountain range that is situated on the western boarder. Due to its geographical position, it benefits from two dry and rain seasons each year, which produces two harvests a year making agriculture central to Uganda’s culture and economy; employing over 80% of the work force (World bank, 2013). Though it is a landlocked country it part the of the Great Lakes region, due to the numerous lakes fish is a staple part of the Ugandan diet, the most famous in Uganda is Lake Victoria (Bakama, 2010). Furthermore, it is one of the sources of the Nile River, which reinforces its geographical significance in the primary UK classroom. Uganda is a former British colony gaining independence in 1962, but maintaining its Commonwealth membership (Bakama, 2010). The official language remains English, which is beneficial for UK based ISPs as teachers and learners can communicate, although the linguistic skill of the teacher is dependent on their level of education. Education is not compulsory; however it is highly encouraged and supported through the government’s introduction of Universal Primary Education (1997) where a maximum of four children from each family can receive subsidies to send their children to a government primary school. The average class size in these schools range between 100‐120 students per class consequently many parents rely on international aid to send their children to a private school where classes range between 40‐70 students (Ssewamala et al., 2011). As a result of universal primary education (1997) Uganda now has a literacy rate of 76.8% (International Monetary Fund). Dewey (1916) advocates that the purpose of education is to prepare children to successfully participate within their society by developing their cognitive interests and creating opportunities for them to work collaboratively, preparing them for a social






work place. Arguably within the twenty‐first century, this would be preparing learners to participate in a global society. Developing the Global Dimension in schools in order to support the learning and development of global citizens has been conceptually prioritised amidst policy and educational discourse in the recent years (Collins, 2008; Oxfam, 2007b; GLEAN, 2007; Hicks & Holden, 2007; Hiller, 2006; DfES, 2007, 2005, 2000). Both the British Council (2007, p.1) and Collins (2008, p.2) state that, as Britain is a multicultural society, it is vital children develop an understanding and appreciation of diverse cultures. Moreover, Hiller (2006) emphasises the need for children to utilise that knowledge to participate within a global economy, which is a recurring theme amongst government literature (DEA, 2009, p.3). According to the British Council (2007, p.2), ISPs are an effective way of delivering the Global Dimension in the classroom. Scoffham (2007, p.5) notes that often children find learning about distant places challenging, but a ‘school to school’ approach narrows the focus, enabling learners to begin to form contextual understanding. Oxfam (2006, p.2) states ISPs empower children to respond as global citizens to complex global issues, within the safety of their classroom. Furthermore, Hicks (2007) affirms the potential of ISPs to teach children to appreciate the connections between local and global issues, as two sides of the same coin, although this requires considerable time for children to reflect upon connections. However, Leonard (2008) observes that whilst government policy identifies the advantages of using ISPs to embed global citizenship, it is often without an understanding of the key issues surrounding ISPs and, importantly, that they must be comprehended as one component for developing the Global Dimension and not the answer to global citizenship. Hutchins and Smart (2007) supported by Martin and Griffiths (2012), add to the increasing body of literature which highlights potential problems of an ISP to unintentionally create an environment and activities that are exploitative and attributed to Westernised perceptions. This is evident in the language of DfID (2009) where Government refer to the ‘developed and undeveloped’ world and imply that the developed world, have a responsibility to tackle the problems in the undeveloped world. Burr (2008) emphasises the aim of UK policy and Oxfam initiatives is to actively encourage learners to act on the global issues they have learnt about through an ISP. Andreotti (2006) labels this approach to global learning as soft citizenship, which promotes Western values and focuses on the lack of their counter Southern partners, with a disregard for the history of colonialism. This conclusion is supported by Edge et al., (2012a), who found that 351 of ISP schools in England raised money to meet a need of their partner school. Leonard (2012) deduces that cultural dependency can be created through fundraising that inhibits opportunities for mutual learning in the curriculum. Indeed Martin (2009) articulates there is mounting unease as political and charitable influences through funding and resources on educational agendas are leading to ISPs practices, which are disadvantageous to their educational goals.






Leonard (2008) and Andreotti (2008) question whether ISPs can be effective when combined with the government’s goals for global citizenship. Burr (2008) defines an ISP as an agreed programme of shared action taking place between two different schools with the aim of “creating relationships between diverse cultures, which should be of benefit to both partners.” Conversely Edge (2009, p.5), defines an ISP “as a strategy for enhancing student learning about global issues and knowledge about the partner country.” This second definition could be considered more precise and reciprocal. By emphasising specific outcomes of an ISP in this definition, it ensures that the project progresses beyond ideals and focuses on mutually improved education. Similarly, Alberter (2008, p.1) focuses on “extending learning outcomes” highlighting the importance of an “authentic global dimension within the classroom” to improve learner engagement and achievement. However, to what extent the later definitions are an accurate reflection of practice will be analysed throughout this paper. The dominant paradigm shift towards the term partnerships in the last two decades within educational discourse is in contrast from ‘previous’ West, South asymmetry power (McCloskey, 2013, p.4; Leonard, 2008, p.66). Nevertheless, though the term partnership implies a mutually supportive relationship, Africa Unit (2010, p.9) argue, most educational partnerships permit a unilateral tide of “development knowledge”, which reflects the dominance of Western models of development. Consequently, teacher bias, which has developed throughout their own Western education, can skew the opportunities for partnerships to develop equally (Andreotti & Souza, 2012). Nonetheless, it must be acknowledged that this research is carried out within a postcolonial context and therefore influences educators’ perceptions and what they value and how values are expressed (Andreotti, 2011, p.6). Whilst analysis of the UK government’s enthusiasm may consider ISPs as a universal positive experience (Africa Unit, 2010; UKOWLA, 2005), a substantial body of research indicates the need to measure the success of ISPs. Defining a successful ISP is complex, as it is dependent upon the purpose and motivations underlying the partnership’s establishment (Bourn & Brown, 2011; UKOWLA, 2007; Oxfam, 2007a). Leonard (2012) contends improving the quality of education must be the principal purpose and motivation behind an effective ISP, though appreciates there may be other motives that coexist, significantly, DfID (2007, p.6) states their research reveals this is the primary reason for schools in developing parts of Africa wanting to link. Oxfam (2007a, p.3), identifies the dangers of ISPs when instigated for superficial reasons such as meeting Ofsted criteria or wanting to achieve International School Awards, delineates that these motivations produce dangerous outcomes which are detrimental to learner’s understanding of global issues. Overcoming and avoiding these pitfalls, so that ISPs fulfil their potential to improve learners’ global understanding and geographical skills has become the focus of current






literature (Leonard, 2012; NFER, 2011; Jackman, 2010). UKOWLA (2005, p.1), argue, that in order for be learning to be mutually beneficial, ISPs must provide a forum in which respect for differences can be explicitly modelled. However Edge’s et al., (2010; 2011) seminal research argue ISPs must deliberately go far beyond respecting differences, and coined the phrase High Momentum Partnerships (HMP), to define common characteristics of successful ISPs that ensure positive learning outcomes. Some evidence suggests that schools that achieved HMPs did use geography as a focus for collaborative work and a deeper understanding of the locality was facilitated. Furthermore, the research highlights the dedication of HMPs to address and overcome challenges in order to sustain an ISP, which is mutually beneficial (Edge, et al., 2011, p.7). These findings are significant as they are not only the result of one of the most significant studies of ISPs across the world, but the findings are supported by similar results from Africa Unit (2010) Edge (2009) Burr (2008) Hicks and Hayden (2007). Although there is limited independent research into how effective The British Council International school award is a reflection of HMPs, by comparing the criteria for achieving the award, against characteristics of HMPs judgements can be deduced. Whilst schools may be motivated by the allure of an award, if schools desire to achieve the full award, they will be required to move beyond tokenistic gestures, that could lead to the dangers and limitations and suggests that teachers and learners possess a deep understanding of global issues, which has impacted upon the curriculum substantially. The rigorous requirements also stipulate that a number of characteristics of HMP are embedded within the school and a number of curriculum suggestions focus collaborative work that develops on geographical knowledge and skills. Therefore Edge et al., (2012) do conclude that the full award can lead to a successful ISP. In order to assess the impact of ISPs on teaching and learning, it is important to recognise effective teaching pedagogy within the geography curriculum and how ISPs can enhance how the curriculum is taught not just in content (Bourne, 2011; Leonard, 2008; Hicks, 2004). In recent years, geography teaching and curriculum content has been shaped by the Qualifications Curriculum Authority, (QCA 2009; 2007; 2000) in the form of guidelines and schemes of work. Despite its merit Catling, et al., (2007), accentuate it does not always reflect best practice. According to Gersmehl (2008, p.7), the study of primary geography is concerned with locality and how said locality is affected by conditions of the location; therefore, effective teaching of geography focuses on spatial and temporal analysis and not memorisation of facts. By adopting a social constructivist approach (SCA), learning becomes an active process of construction rather than a passive assimilation of information; subsequently facilitating memorable and deeper learning (Glasersfeld, 2013, p.80; Catling & Willy, 2007, p.63; Martin, 2006; Roberts, 2003). Littledyke, and Huxford, (2012, p.111), highlight that within the process of construction, teachers give greater emphasise to higher order thinking skills and actively model how these are developed, which enables






learners to effectively spatially analyse; moreover, Hicks’ (2004) demonstrates how the global dimension synthesises the four key strands of geography and their interconnected nature. Scoffham (2013, p.9) maintains these transferable skills are essential to all topics within the geography curriculum (Bloom, 1956). Figure 2:

Tanner (2007, p.52) also advocates the necessity of, a‐skills and values based approach in order to equip learners beyond knowledge with the skills required to respond to the challenges of modern living. Hicks and Holden (2007), state ISPs are an effective approach to progress pedagogy beyond didactic teaching about a distant location, to an authentic, meaningful context where learners find a purpose for mechanical details; for example, key vocabulary gains meaning when learners need to use the vocabulary to participate in a group debate about the similarities and differences of their ISP. Subsequently, through engaging linguistic lessons, children independently identify a purpose for facts as a route to continuing their learning (Gersmehl, 2008, p.27). Moreover, ISPs create opportunities for teachers to implement diverse and differentiated learning methods to support learning styles (DEA,2008). Because the social, economic, political and geographical contexts are integrated in taught lessons through ISPs, children are more likely to develop informed and comprehensive schemas, which allow teachers to facilitate internalised learning which can form an effective foundation for future geography lessons (Wegner, 2009, p.201; Piaget, 1929)

Issues dimension = Involving teaching and learning about issues such as inequality/equality; injustice/justice; conflict/peace; damage/care of the environment

Spatial dimension = Local‐global connections, especially interdependence and dependence

Temporal dimension = Connections between past, present and future – especially the exploration of preferred future scenarios

Process dimension = Holistic; participatory pedagogy; value perspectives; political literacy.

Temporal

Process

Issues

Spatial






Leanard (2008), cautions that negative stereotypes can be reinforced through ISPs, conversely, Littledyke, and Huxford (2012, p.112) contend foundational to a SCA is eliciting children’s prior ideas and learning, therefore stereotypes can be examined and teachers acting as a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) can create activities that conflict with the learners preconceived ideas to create conceptual change (Vygotsky, 1978). Therefore Picton (2008), claims that effective pedagogy applied to ISPs does not reinforce negative stereotypes, but facilitates a safe learning environment for children to question, analyse, evaluate and construct meaning (DfE, 2012, p.7). Moreover, Bourn (2012, p.7) considers that by focusing on a single locality, increases knowledge, skills, values and engagement in geography and therefore notable progression has been achieved in his eight UK case study school. Catling and Willy (2009) stress successful geography teaching must be exciting and enjoyable and draw upon a variety of teaching approaches. Whilst the Geographical Association, (GA) (2011) advocate that teachers need to have strong subject knowledge to underpin any teaching approach. Confirmed by Edge et al., (2010), research revealed teachers who confidently and effectually use a variety of approaches had a robust geographical understanding of their ISP. Owens (2013, p.389) concludes that teachers’ subject knowledge is foundational, but, unless effective pedagogy is implemented, learning will be shallow and un‐engaging. Martin (2006) argues that key to effective geographical pedagogy is evidenced based learning where artefacts such as photos, everyday objects and maps are utilised to create engaging lessons, where learners can create their own questions based on their tangible experiences. Moreover, Catling and Willy (2009, p.82), assert evidence based learning stimulates children to gain deeper understanding of what life might be like in a distant locality. GLEAN (2010) note ISP adds purpose and creates genuine excitement when the children create their resource boxes to represent their local geography, again using higher order thinking, dialogic talk and group work to justify their choices causing vital reflection on their individual understanding of their local area (Disney, 2003). Nevertheless, Adichie (2009) alerts educationists to the “danger of a single story” highlighting that if only one perception of an entire country is given through one detailed experience with an ISP this could lead to perilous generalisations. Generalisations can lead children to think that one African country shares exactly the same culture as another or that all of a country is rural, which directly contradicts the critical geography skills that the primary curriculum aims to develop (Martin, 2011). However, Picton (2008) affirms that awareness of this risk and strong teacher subject knowledge means that appropriate learning about city life can be planned for. Moreover Martin (2012, p.120) suggests that by emphasising the differences and similarities between cultures encourages a broader understanding to be conceptualised.






The Crick Report (1998) was the catalyst for a multitude of government led policies and guidance to encourage ISPs (DfES, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2005, Development Education Project, 2007, DfID, 2007, DFID, 2009; GLEAN, 2007, Goldsmith, 2008). Consequently, in 2010, UK education and overseas aid policy was firmly behind development education, global citizenship was referenced in the National Curriculum and there was an increasing demand for ISPs and DFID funding, with over 3700 ISPs being funded (Development Education Research Centre, 2013). Notably, in the past three years there has been a policy reversal following the election of a Coalition government in the UK, with the majority of ISP funding to LEDCs being stopped. A further setback to the support of ISP is found in the new curriculum (DfE, 2013) as the concept of global citizenship is not referred to; however, Hobert (2013, p.50) still regards schools as having a responsibility to prepare children to become globalised citizens. The revised National Curriculum (NC) clearly places a focus on countries of economic importance to UK (DfE, 2013, p.185); whilst other government literature does encourage school linking with European countries through ‘e‐twinning’, it is a mechanism to bolster government agenda to create a sense of belonging to Europe (Velea, 2011). Additionally, whereas the previous NC focused on development geography in Key Stage 2, now the study of Africa is excluded and topics on South America should “concentrate on their environmental regions” (DfE, 2013, p.186). Subsequently the new NC may not afford Disney’s (2003) vision for opportunities for learning about distant locality to explore, reflect and make connections on how learners’ lives impact LEDCs. Moreover, Knight (2012, p.17) stipulates the new NC implies that effective teaching is when children are “exposed to knowledge” and can remember what they have learnt, contrary to effective learning theory. Despite this change, Ofsted’s (2013) descriptors for outstanding teaching outline the central role of skills and values that underpin effective geography teaching, therefore skills and values should remain central to effective teaching. Another significant current development is the revised Ofsted framework (2013) where the emphasis is placed upon Spiritual, Moral, Social and Cultural Development (SMSC) moving away from the former focus of community cohesion (O'Malley, 2011). Previously Doe (2006, p.19) criticised Ofsted (2006) for encouraging ISPs as a means of achieving community cohesion, without judiciously evaluating the impact on learning or the challenges and rewards for teachers. For example, criteria for an outstanding geography lesson had to demonstrate “pupils’ involvement in the school and their interaction in the wider community are substantial and highly valued” (Ofsted, 2011, p.12). Macintosh (2007, p.21) warns ISPs instigated in order to improve or appease Ofsted requirements were likely to breed aid dependency and stereotyping. However, currently, when ISPs do not explicitly meet Ofsted criteria, it may mean that, if schools choose to continue their ISPs, their motives may change to give a greater emphasis to






a deeper geographical understanding. However, Oxfam (2012) state that ISPs can be a vehicle to meet SMSC, but examples of how children have reflected on their social and cultural responsibilities will need to be emphasised. The wealth of current literature suggests that ISPs can be an efficacious curriculum approach to develop key geographical skills and learners’ understanding of distant places. Whilst current UK government policy has shifted, there are still many schools across England participating in ISPs. However, the teacher must begin by assessing their own stereotypes and inclinations about culture and allow students the opportunity to mirror this process so that learning is built upon evidence‐based approaches. Thus, geography education avoids reinforcing misconceptions and prejudices, but also evades the risks of known educational pitfalls. Crucially, the geography curriculum focus must remain enquiry based to promote critical thinking and nurture geographical skills and knowledge, so that active participation in an ISP enhances engagement and progression (Bourn, 2011; Shah and Brown, 2009). By establishing clear schematic models, children learn to build upon their foundational knowledge and apply geography skills across the curriculum. Research indicates that whilst ISPs can create a platform for a creative and engaging geography lessons, schools need to be acutely aware of the pitfalls of ISPs and deliberately plan how to overcome them, by using the HMP framework. Therefore, throughout this research, attention is given to the effectiveness of how ISP’s enhance geography teaching and learning using the HMP model whilst taking into account revisions to the National Curriculum and Ofsted framework. The data collected from field questionnaires indicate some interesting similarities and differences in line with the literature review. As requested, 76% of respondents to the questionnaires were partnership coordinators, however 14% of schools who replied, declared they did not have a partnership coordinator; this evidence implies that the ISP is not a significant part of school life at these 7 schools. Nonetheless, the initial findings were overwhelmingly positive, revealing that across the fifty schools, many are ensuring that a Geography curriculum is developed through an International School Partnership. With 92% stating they strongly agree or agree that geography has improved in their school. Furthermore, 80% of schools agreed it has made their children more open minded, which is a positive aspect of a HMP (Edge et al, 2010). This implies that the schools view the ISP as a positive experience that improves their school, however to what extent this is a perceived or actualised benefit will be explored in the case study school, so that research goes beyond perceptions and is supported by evidence. The results reveal that 82% of respondents answered they had been involved in fundraising initiatives and a further 62% stated that they feel more confident teaching






geography implying that their subject knowledge has increased. However, Martin and Griffiths (2012), argue that fundraising and confidence to teach are not reliable indicators to measure the quality of geographical teaching and learning. For example though teachers perceive learner’s engagement has improved as a result of the ISP (41% strongly agree), this is not reflected in learners’ understanding of the ISP geographical context (20% strongly agree); further compounded by only 24% of teachers strongly agreeing that the standard of geography has improved as a result of the ISP. Therefore in the case study school, evidence for the impact on the geography curriculum and learner achievement will be investigated and not just learner engagement. On closer analysis it emerges that the respondents had varying opinions about the impact the ISP had on their school. It is pertinent to note that the three participants who stated they did not find similarities as well as differences were also the same three schools that stated the ISP did not cause their children to reflect upon their own culture. The data suggests that a shallow understanding of the ISP’s geography is being formed in these three schools and could be fulfilling other pitfalls of ISPs (Oxfam, 2007a, p8). The broad overview created by the questionnaires implies that the majority of participant schools are more concerned with fundraising and learner engagement than perpetuating true curriculum change through an ISP. Consequently, interview questions will probe to see decipher how true this is for the case study school and if false, how they combat above barriers. The analysis of qualitative data from the observations and semi‐structured interviews was coded using a thematic analysis approach to produce themes and sub themes (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007). This analysis resulted in the construction of five major themes and nine sub‐themes that grew out of the in depth analysis of the data (Silverman, 2011). Thematic analysis enabled the researcher to question the qualitative data from the interviews and observations in order to answer the three research questions. It was apparent from the research within the case study school that the personal interpretation of educational philosophy and perceptions of Uganda dramatically characterised how the ISP was interpreted by individuals and the subsequent development of the geography curriculum. However, there was consistency in the central role the ISP played in the identity of the school and its contribution to cross‐curricular learning. Stereotyping was a theme that arose when conducting the research. Stereotyping has been identified as a major barrier to facilitating true understanding of spatial






dimensions within ISPs (Leonard, 2008). The coordinator explicitly highlighted her goal of not “giving children only one view of Uganda” and alluded to the shift in teacher’s perceptions from a more negative stereotype to a better‐informed understanding. This shift in understanding reflects Oxfam’s (2007a) advice for teachers to consider their own perceptions in order to accurately teach about a distant locality. This is supported by teacher two, who highlighted that her own perceptions about Uganda were challenged and changed over time through learning more about the culture, her shifting perceptions and focus was mirrored in lessons, critically implying that teachers teach from their own understanding; thus supporting Knight’s (2013) summation that teachers’ perceptions are central to effective teaching and learning in geography. There were two noticeable approaches to stereotypes; the first was to focus only on the differences and the second involved addressing stereotypes by engaging in lessons that allowed staff and students to change their perceptions, by discovering similarities and differences between the countries, using the phrase “same but different” Focusing on difference was a recurring theme from teacher one’s interviews, as she easily identified multiple differences between the localities, but was slower to highlight similarities. This focus on difference was reflected in her description of her class’ learning, “they have a remarkable understanding of how hard life is for Ugandan children”. Whilst it is important to highlight the hardships of LEDCs, by only emphasising differences, children build a narrow perception of how the geography of Uganda affects people’s lives, resulting in shallow geographical understanding. These limited homogeneous perceptions of an entire country contribute to stereotyping behaviours and corresponding actions (Andettoie, 2012). When teaching children about distant localities Hillier (2006) highlights that it is easy for teachers to perpetuate the differences in cultures, as they are more easily apparent. Unfortunately, this classroom practice reflects directly one of the identified pitfalls of ISP, which results in “closing minds rather than opening them” (Oxfam, 2007a, p.8). The concept of ‘same but different’ recognises the similarities between paired countries but distinguishes differences without discrediting or devaluing in a hierarchical manner (Martin, 2011). Although the coordinator highlighted the difficulty in getting the “balance” right, she regularly emphasised the need and actively encouraged staff to find similarities as well as differences between localities in lessons. This was reflected in the lessons observed and described by teacher two, “the lesson was about helping them make connections to realise that things they thought were differences can also be similarities”. However, Taylor (2011, p.49) cautions that in a teacher’s earnest attempt to make the distant locality accessible and dismantle shallow stereotypes of learners, teachers can oversimplify complex differences, which can create adverse binaries. This was apparent in children’s responses in teacher two’s observed lesson.






Whilst this is a valid similarity for a year three pupil to conclude it does not reflect the different consequences on life in Uganda as, during wet seasons, clay roads become unusable and schools may close (Bakama, 2010). Though it could be argued that this is a suitable level of understanding for the child’s age (7‐8 years) and, as the child’s metacognitive ability improves with age, they will be able to use their prior learning to deduce more acute same but difference response to spatial dimensions, (Hicks, 2004; Flavell, 1976; Lewin, 1943; Piaget, 1929). This is supported by the observation carried out in the coordinator’s classroom where year six children’s responses to open questions reflected the complexity of same but different comparisons between localities. It is clear that stereotypes differ between classrooms, but generally the coordinator’s interviews suggest that although some stereotypes still exist they are not as prevalent as they once may have been. If children develop a stereotypical view of what the West offer the South, cultural dependency is a natural outcome (Andreotti, 2008; Leonard, 2008). Cultural dependency was apparent in observations and interviews. Although the school clearly valued the contribution their partner school made to their school community, displays emphasised what the English school had done for the Ugandan school illuminating the roles the two schools played, giver and receiver. Though the intentions of the fundraising may have initiated from an earnest place Goodhart’s law argues that by making a target measurable, the nature of the target changes, subsequently the focus shifted to demonstrating the good the school had a achieved (Goodhart, 1981). Additionally, it emphasises the prominent Western interpretation of global citizenship as the dominant focus of geography rather than specific knowledge and applied skills development (Androttoie, 2006). Although these aspects of cultural dependency were definitive, three sub‐themes became apparent with the data gathered. It is pertinent that all three teachers remarked the ISP was a route to achieving the school improvement plan to teach creative, cross‐curricular lessons. Whilst the focus for developing the ISP was driven by the School Improvement Plan (SIP), the coordinator was able to integrate specific geography curriculum development through this relationship. Nevertheless, only the coordinator knew what the goals of the partner school were, revealing that the wider Western school is not purposefully contributing to the Southern school’s goals. A further sign of inequality arose in teacher’s one description of how the letters from Uganda benefitted her children, but not the benefits of her class’ letters to Uganda, suggesting that she is focused on what her class can glean from the partnership more than reciprocate benefits (Disney, 2003). Teachers interviewed both mention the advantages of creating and receiving artefact boxes, highlighting the learning benefits of children considering what is representative and important about their local area (Collins, 2008). However, one respondent’s use of






the word “give” possibly promotes her perception of her class’ ability to bestow knowledge on the Southern school. This tone of Western advantage instils notions of a power dynamic that perpetuates entitlement within the children’s understanding of global interdependency and reinforces inequalities both real and perceived. In comparison, a second respondent used the term “exchange” of artefact boxes, which implies that she perceives the Southern school as partners, where both improve the quality of learning and resources. From this positive language, it can be inferred that the artefact boxes where seen by the learners as an equal trade of knowledge and artefacts, thus enabling the English learners to view the partner school as equal (Burr, 2008). Similarly, the coordinator highlighted the importance of both schools achieving their educational goals through the partnership agreement. Which reveals two characteristics of effective ISPs, firstly that they have a partnership agreement and secondly that their motivation for the ISP is education, which Edge, et al., (2010) identifies as improving the quality of ISPs in HMPs. When considering the impact of Charity provision, a great deal of emphasis was placed by all teachers on the school’s fundraising efforts, however, whilst fundraising follows the government and Oxfam models of empowering learners to act upon “needs” of their ISP, it creates cultural dependency as Western schools give to the Southern schools without expecting anything in return. This is reflected in the quantifying of past tense verbs, which within the language reflect a one‐way flow of commodities given rather than a reciprocation of shared information and experience. Furthermore, a respondent remarked that despite the children being, “excited about all the activities they come up with… its very time consuming”, denoting that the focus on fundraising compromises from educational outcomes. Nonetheless, an interviewed teacher explained how she connected learning about water use, to the fundraising initiatives using it to support learning. However, fundraising can undo some of the positive schemas about same but different and notions of equality, as the focus is how they can help children less fortunate than them (Jackman, 2010; Andreotti , 2006). Nonetheless Martin (2012, p.10) enunciates that is a ubiquity of primary schools who are involved in fundraising initiatives irrespective of an ISP, as they believe it is an important part of schools ethos. Corresponding with the coordinator, who clearly pronounced the positive impact fundraising has had on the learners and saw it as the schools responsibility to prepare children to be active citizens, with “social responsibility” pivotal to that aim. The value and merit of an authentic learning experience was asserted unanimously by all teachers interviewed. They accentuated that learners’ engagement and their own was heightened, because there was a personal reason to learn about Uganda this parallels with current literature literature (Taylor & Elias, 2012; Alberta, 2008; DfES,






2007). Moreover, the coordinator underscored the importance of children having a deep understanding of one area opposed to a board understanding of many localities; which appears to be a positive motivator to establishing the ISP that perpetuates authentic learning (Kotler, 2010). An interviewed teacher and coordinator each expressed the children were more inquisitive about the surroundings and lives of the people involved in the ISP. Consequently allowing children to direct their own learning, leads to deeper engagement in lessons and a profounder understanding of the area (Glasersfeld, 2013, p.81). Throughout interviews and observations it became apparent the strong emphasis, all teachers placed on facilitating a deep understand of geography. All fluently articulated how the ISP closely met NC aims and enhanced children’s understanding of geography, through a thorough understanding of one locality. This robust subject knowledge is another example of a HMP and according to the GA (2011) produces better learning outcomes therefore it can be assumed that teaching and learning has been enhanced by the partnership. Moreover, interviews revealed that progression of geographical understanding had been clearly planned for, as demonstrated by a teacher who taught children about the context of the local area, Ignaga, which other teachers then progressed by introducing knowledge of Uganda on a country wide scale. This structure enabled the school to overcome a common pitfall of ISPs, as children find it difficult to contextualise their knowledge of the ISP within the wider country. This constructivist approach to learning provides a strong foundation to children’s knowledge and utilises previous learning; to inform and progress a holistic geographical understanding of Ingaga to enlighten the context of Uganda as they progress through KS2. Therefore, the data displays a rich knowledge of the ISP has been taught through engaging and creative geography lessons. The coordinator confidently expresses that geography pedagogy has improved since the commencement of the ISP, moving away from worksheets to more effective learning strategies. One teacher emphasised that her approach to teaching and the amount of time she plans geography has changed, implying the ISP has had a positive impact on geography pedagogy. Importantly, she notes that not all her attempts were successful and this process was shared with learners; when probed further, she agreed that children are expected to take more risks in their learning. DEA (2008), states that ISPs should employ pedagogy where risk taking is encouraged. Moreover, Catling et al, (2007) emphasise that effective geography teaching should always encourage learners to take risks, as it inspires the flexible approach to learning that allows children to explore their conclusions and change their opinions to deepen geographical understanding. This flexible and progressive approach to learning was witnessed in an observation of the coordinator’s lesson.






Additionally all teachers, without prompting gave an example of a lesson were talk was an important part of the lesson for building children’s understanding and evaluating how their knowledge interacts with wider geographical understanding. In lesson observations teachers where observed effectively acting as MKO and engaging in dialogic talk to progress understanding (Alexandra, 2008; Vygotsky, 1978). Though it could be argued that this is a reflection of effective pedagogy applied to the entire curriculum. As observed, a teacher’s use of the word “now” implies that SCA to learning is a recent change in her classroom, thus supporting that the ISP has promoted effective pedagogical changes. This is supported by the coordinator’s comment that the ISP has enabled her to focus teachers on particular effective teaching strategies, which were previously lacking. Furthermore, the coordinator expressed that the ISP has enabled the school to implement an evidenced‐based learning approach through authentic artefacts. Which enrich children’s understanding (Catling and Willey, 2009, p.82). Some respondents said they regularly used photographs or artefacts to create curiosity and build a vivid picture of the area of study, which also supports visual learners. A further example of effective pedagogy was observed with a teacher wanting to understand how the reasons behind her class’ learning were formed, which is vital to understanding whether appropriate schemas have been produced and if stereotypes have been overcome (UKOWLA, 2007; Oxfam, 2007b). Moreover, when children articulate and justify how they formed their opinions it creates opportunities for vital recapitulation to cement learning, as children use higher order thinking Gersmehl, 2008; Bloom, 1956). From lesson observations and interviews it can be considered that all teachers have made brave pedagogical choices to ensure that an authentic learning has increased the quality teaching and learning through the ISP. A class teacher and the coordinator both note that the profile of geography has increased since the formation of the ISP, with another respondent supporting this by stating its prominence and impressive displays were a contributing factor to her joining the school. An interviewee highlighted that geography is taught “every week” and the use of the word “focus” implies that the purpose of geography is clearly understood by the wider school community. The prominence of geography is again in alignment with the nature of HMP. The importance of geographical skills were emphasised by all participants with opportunities for children to study maps, artefacts, specific technical vocabulary as well as considering how Ingaga had changed over time due to is locality. By consistently teaching lessons that teach and refine geographical skills, the school is ensuring that global citizenship does not over power the geography curriculum (Scoffham, 2009). Moreover, by creating and exchanging artefact boxes the school are






demonstrating, through a shared learning experience focused around geographical skills, that they are a HMP and implementing effective evidence‐based learning that employs Bloom’s taxonomy (Edge, et al, 2010). Pickering (2007, p.1) questions to what extent the profile of geography is increased due to the motivation of an external reward. This is ambiguous in the case study school, as the coordinator is proud that the ISP received recognition from Ofsted and The British Council. Therefore, the coordinator stating that the Head Teacher has supported a flexible curriculum that allows ISP days and afternoons may be a reflection of his desire to achieve the validation of the British council award (Bourn, 2008). However, all the data from observations and interviews clearly reveals that improving geographical skills, understanding and global citizenship are the significant drivers of the ISP. Literature supports the use of a third party to support the ISP and ensure it creates Continuing Professional Development (CPD) opportunities for the coordinator and staff (Kolter, 2010). This was confirmed in findings when the coordinator stated the support from Connecting Classrooms was highly beneficial to ensuring the ISP was successful, by providing a framework to implement and training for professional development. Moreover, another respondent highlighted how beneficial the training days and staff meetings were in successfully implementing the ISP. Just as children’s knowledge and teacher’s pedagogy was carefully planned, so it appears the ethos and teacher’s training and understanding of the ISP, has been carefully planned by the coordinator. The coordinator listed the extra training and reading that had been undertaken to ensure the partnership was a success. Additionally, resulting in staff training and workshops to ensure the purpose and outcomes of the ISP were clearly understood by all staff. Interestingly, all teachers used activities provided by the coordinator from Oxfam and Action Aid's educational ISP resources. This potentially reveals the role that existing educational literature plays in developing a successful and manageable ISP. The coordinator shared lesson ideas to ensure planning was less time‐consuming for teachers. The skill of using appropriate literature to support the aims of the case study school’s ISP is highlighted by Edge et al (2010) as being a vital component to HMPs, as it reveals the coordinator is taking action to support staff and teachers and they are freed to focus on fostering understanding and skills about geography (Leonard, 2012a) In line with HMPs, strong leadership was a defining factor in how the teachers viewed the ISP and change in pedagogy, with the coordinator being described as “extremely passionate”. In conclusion this paper has investigated the impact an International School Partnership has on the teaching and learning of geography. It is apparent from the data, that the case study displays more characteristics of a HMP and has successfully






avoided many of the pitfalls of ISPs, to positively impact and reshape teaching and learning of geography within the school. Teaching of geography has been improved through careful planning, led by the coordinator, but implemented by all teaching staff. Importantly this curriculum revision was supported by the head teacher to create a truly whole school approach to an ISP, again in line with HMPs. Through strong leadership from the coordinator, the focus has remained centred on improving the quality of geography and promoting global citizenship within that main aim; this means that tokenistic lessons that can lead to shallow geographical understanding, but strong stereotypes have generally been avoided. Furthermore, it is evident from the data and literature that HMPs engage in continuing professional development opportunities for its staff members. This was vital to improving the quality of geography teaching. Additionally, the amount of training increased in order to successfully implement the ISP. Although it is clear that some teachers still need to overcome personal stereotypes, they have still effectively implemented effective pedagogy from training. Furthermore, geography teaching has improved and in part due to the appropriate use of effective pedagogy and resources by all participants. The coordinator has used the ISP as a tool to improve the quality of evidenced based learning by providing a clear purpose and focus for evidence. The quality of learning has increased through authentic learning experiences that result in engaging and dynamic lessons where teaching key geographical skills is the central aim. Moreover, many of the lessons observed required children to evaluate and question the knowledge they had learnt and constructed, which will adequately prepare their geographical understanding to be progressed in secondary school. The data also suggests the case study school has overcome common pitfalls to ISPs as learners’ values and attitudes towards the wider world have been challenged and progressed. Importantly, pedagogy has taken a SCA to ensure that learning is reinforced and progression accrues. Though the children’s natural instincts may be to act on their geographical knowledge through fundraising initiatives, this does not over shadow the positive knowledge they possess about Ugandan culture and geography. The fact that this school demonstrates all the characteristics of a HMP, and avoids many issues that surround ISPs. Furthermore it creates a meaningful and stimulating geographical learning experience for children.






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Naomi Adams & Mark Chidler1 - Educacion Global Research

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